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LIGHT
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Reflection is the bouncing back of light when it falls on an object.

When light falls on an object like a book, it bounces in all directions because the surface is a bit
rough. This is called Diffuse or Irregular Reflection.

When the surface is very smooth, like polished metal surface, light bounces in a regular manner.
This is called Regular Reflection.

Reflection of light at different surfaces

Laws of Reflection
 The angle of incidence, i and the angle reflection, r are equal.
 The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal all, lie in the same plane.
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Plane Reflecting Surfaces

Properties of images formed by plane mirrors
 The image and the object are equidistant from the mirror.
 The image is the same size as the object.
 The image is virtual,
 The image is laterally inverted
 The image is upright/erect

Experiment to determine the position of the image formed by a plane mirror.

Apparatus:
 Pin board
 8 pins
 A4 plain paper
 Plane mirror

Procedure:

1. Attach the plain paper to the pin board with 4 pins.

2. Draw a line at the centre of the plane mirror and label it MM’.
3. Place a mirror vertically along the line MM’.
4. Stick a pin O in front of the plane mirror. This is the object pin.
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5. With the eye in a suitable position, place two pins in front of the mirror such that they
are in line with image I of the object O seen in the mirror [These pins should be place
as far apart as possible to improve accuracy]. Mark the positions of the pins P and Q
and draw a straight line PQ through their positions.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for pins R and S and line RS.
7. Remove the mirror and pins from the pin board. Extend lines PQ and RS beyond
MM’ until they intersect.
8. The image is formed at the intersection of PQ and RS.

Uses of Plane Mirrors.

1. Cosmetic purposes
2. Periscopes
3. Rear view mirrors in vehicles.
4. Decorations

Curved Reflecting Surfaces

Curved mirrors are of two types: concave mirror and convex mirror.
A concave mirror makes a parallel beam of light to converge at a point called the principal
focus of the mirror. Image formed depends on the position of the object.

A convex mirror makes a parallel beam of light to diverge (spread out) and appear to come
from the principal focus of the mirror. Image formed by convex mirror is smaller and upright.
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Uses of Convex Mirrors

 Convex mirrors can be used to give a wide field of view, such as a car driving side
mirrors or a shop security mirror.
Uses of Concave Mirrors
 Concave mirrors can be used to collect light energy, sound, heat radiation, radar and TV
signals.
 Concave mirrors can produce a magnified image if the object is too close.
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REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction of light is the bending of light as it travels from one medium to another.
[N.B. Even though the light bends it always travels in a straight line.] ,

When a light ray travels from an optically less dense medium to an optically denser medium, the
rays are bent or refracted towards the normal ( i > r ).

i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction.

When a light ray travels from an optically denser medium to an optically less dense medium, the
rays are bent or refracted away from the normal ( i < r ).

i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction.

If the light ray passes through a glass block which has parallel sides, the emerging ray will be
parallel to the ray entering the glass block as seen in diagram below.
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Refractive Index (n).

Light travels at different speeds in different materials. When light moves from one medium to
another its speed changes and this causes it to change direction (refract) at the boundary of the
mediums.
The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the ratio of the speed of light in a given material is
called refractive index (n).

Refractive Index (n) =

Example 1: Speed of light in air is 3.0 x 108 m/s and in glass speed of light is 2.0 x 108 m/s

Thus refractive index of glass =

= 1.5.

Snell’s Law
Refractive index can be calculated using the angle of incidence i and the angle of refraction r.
The refractive index is given by

This relationship is known as Snell’s Law.

Example 2: The refractive index of glass is 1.52. If the light ray is incident at an angle of 35º,
what will be the angle of refraction?

Solution

Sin r = 0.3774

r = Sin-1(0.3774) r = 22.2º

Real and Apparent Depth

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A river or a pond appears to be less deep than it really is.

The bottom of a swimming pool appears to be closer to the surface.
The same thing applies to the fish swimming near the bottom of a pond, they appear to be closer
to the surface.

All this are a result of refraction

The light from the water at the bottom to the person’s eye is refracted away from the normal at
the surface since it is travelling from an optically denser medium to a less dense medium. To an
observer the rays of light appear as if they are coming from the image of the pebble.

Refractive index can be calculated using the equation

Refractive index is a constant for any given material.

Water - 1.33, Diamond - 2.42, Glass, 1.5
Classwork
1. Given that the real depth of a pool of water is 4m and that the refractive index of
the water is 1.33, calculate the apparent depth of the pool.
2. When light moves from air into glass the angle of refraction r is 43º. Calculate the
angle of incidence i.
3. Calculate the refractive index of air. The speed of light in air is 3.0 x 108 m/s.

Critical Angle (c) & Total Internal Reflection

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The incidence angle for which the angle of refraction is 90º is called the critical angle(c). It only
occurs when light travels from a denser medium to a less dense medium. The critical angle is a
constant for any given material, e.g. Water-49 º, Diamond-24 º, Glass-42 º.

If the incidence angle exceeds the critical angle for any material then Total Internal Reflection
takes place.

If i < c then normal refraction takes place. If i < c then r = 90 º.

If i > c then total internal reflection takes place. See diagram below

Critical angle and refractive Index

Critical angle and refractive Index are related through the expression,
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Example 3: Refractive index of glass is 1.5. Calculate its critical angle.

Solution
 1.5 =

Rearranging: sin c = = 0.667

c = Sin-1(0.667)
c = 42º

Consequences & application of total internal reflection

Optical Fibres/Light Pipes

Optical fibres are very thin, flexible rods made from a special glass.

Light can be trapped by total internal reflection inside the optic fibre. The light rays meet the
sides of the rod at an angle greater than the critical angle of the glass. The light rays are then
totally internally reflected inside the glass rod.
Surgeons use a device called an endoscope to examine the inside of patients’ bodies. This is
made of bundles of fibre optics.
Optical fibres can also carry telephone calls. In industry they are used to examine hidden parts.
Security personnel use fibre optics to view inside rooms were hostages are held.

Reflecting Prisms
Glass prisms are used to change the direction of light rays through total internal reflection.
In periscopes, 45o prisms are used instead of plane mirrors.
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In car or bicycle rear reflectors, the direction of the incoming light can be reversed by two total
internal reflections.
Mirages
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Mi
rages are common in hot deserts or even in a hot day in a tarred road. A traveler often sees a pool
of water ahead of him/her which is an optical illusion.
Mirages are caused by the progressive and continuous refraction of light as it passes into warmer
layers of air of changing refractive index.
The rays of light eventually become parallel to the ground, and then proceed to bend upwards as
a result of total internal reflection.
To the observer the rays of light appear to come from the road. This creates an image of the sky
on the road which looks like a pool of water.

LENSES
Lenses refract light and form images. There are two main types of lenses: The Convex
(converging) lens and Concave (diverging) lens.

Action of a thin converging lens on parallel light beams

Definition of Terms

Principal Axis: A path followed by a light ray as it passes through the centre of the lens and is
Perpendicular to the lens.
Principal focus (F): A point on the principal axis at which all the rays seem to converge after
Passing through the lens.
Optical Centre(c): The geometric centre of a lens.
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Focal length (f): Length between the optical centre and the principal focus. This is a constant for
Any given lens.

Characteristics of Images Formed By Convex Lenses

This can be shown with the help of ray diagrams. Ray diagrams are used to locate the image
formed by drawing two of the following standard rays.
1. A ray passing through the centre of the lens is not refracted (it passes as a straight line).

2. A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through F after leaving the lens.

NB: All rays begin from the top of the object and the bending takes place at the line passing
through the middle of the lens.
Object beyond 2F

The image is
 Inverted
 Real
 Smaller than the object
 Formed between F and 2F.

The lens is used in this manner in a camera.

Object between F and 2F

The image is
 Real
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 Bigger than the object (magnified)

 Inverted
 Formed beyond 2F.

When used in a slide projector or a photographic enlarger.

Object at 2F

The image is
 Inverted
 Real
 Same size as the object
 Formed between F and 2F.

The lens is used in this way in various optical instruments to provide an upright image.

Object between F and C

The image is
 Virtual
 Upright
 Bigger than the object (Magnified)
 formed behind the object

A lens can be used in this manner in a magnifying glass.

Object at 2F
The image will be formed at infinity, similarly, when the object is at infinity, the image will be
formed at F.
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Uses of Lenses in Optical Instruments

The camera uses a convex lens to form an image that is real, small, inverted on a piece of film at
the back. The image is formed between F and 2F of the lens. The image is formed on the film.

A slide projector forms a real image on a screen of a slide or a film in a cine-projector. The
image is usually smaller than the real object (slide or frame of film), and is further away from the
lens.

Good illumination of the slide is needed in order for the image to be bright. This is achieved by
focusing the light beam by a concave mirror and two condenser lenses as shown in the diagram
below.

A Photographic Enlarger uses a magnified image of the negative to produce a well magnified
print of a photograph. It works the same way as a slide projector.
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Simple microscope (magnifying glass)

A convex lens forms an enlarged, upright virtual image of an object placed between F and the
lens. It acts as a magnifying glass as shown below.

Finding Focal length of a Lens

Method 1
Place a lens in front of a screen. Adjust the position of the lens until a sharp image of a distant
object is seen on the screen. The distance between the image lens and the screen gives the focal
length.

Method 2
A more accurate method of finding focal length is by using the expression

Which is known as the lens equation. Where v is image distance and u is object distance.
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Place a candle along a metre rule and place a screen at the other end. Place a lens in between
them and adjust its position until the image of the candle is seen on the screen. Measure and
record u and v, then calculate f using the expression above.

Magnification

Or

Or