KSRSJ R20 Unit II PGNSS

Principles of GNSS
K.S.R.S. JYOTHSNA
Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE, CBIT
1
UNIT-II
GPS signals
Legacy GPS signals: Signal structure, Operating frequencies, C/A and P-Code,
Navigation message, Modernized GPS signals: list of signals and their
significance. Range measurements: code and carrier measurements, User
position estimation with PRN codes.
Coordinate systems
Earth Centered Earth Fixed (ECEF) coordinate system, Earth Centered
Inertial (ECI) coordinate system, Geodetic coordinate system, Ellipsoid and
Geoid, Regional and Global Datum, World Geodetic System (WGS-84).
KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 2
GPS SIGNAL STRUCTURE

Why L-band is used in GPS?
Performance UHF L-band C-band

parameter ( 300-1000 MHz ) ( 1-2GHz ) ( 4-6GHz )
Path Loss ~f2 Lowest of the three Acceptable Path loss  10dB larger
than at L-band
Ionospheric group Large group delay, 2-150ns at 1.5GHz  0-15ns

delay ~1 / f2 20-1500ns Moderate Lowest

Legacy GPS Signals
The satellites broadcast two carrier waves constantly in L-Band (used for radio). These waves travel towards Earth with the
speed of light. These carrier waves generated with precise atomic clock are derived from the fundamental frequency.
In the initial phase GPS satellites transmitted using two radio frequencies in the L-band referred to as link L1 and link L2.
Two signals are transmitted on L1. One for civil users, one for the DoD authorized users. Only one signal is transmitted on
L2 signal (for DoD users). Satellites transmit additional RF signals at frequencies referred to as L3 and L4.
L3 is associated with the Nuclear Detonation Detection system and L4 is reserved for other military purposes.
Navigation Signal Modulation:
L1: Link 1: Carrier frequency = 1575.42 MHz
L2: Link 2: Carrier frequency = 1227.6 MHZ
Nuclear Detection System (NDS) and NDS Analysis Package (NDP):

L4: Link 4: Carrier frequency = 1379.913 MHZ
Additional Signal Links:

L2C for improving accuracy of navigation and easy tracking for civil use.
Components of GPS Signal
Each signal consists of three components, Navigation data
1. Navigation data
2. Ranging code
3. Carrier
Ranging code
PRN Code
Carrier
DSSS Modulator
Noise Threshold
Modulated Signal

CDMA
PRN Code 1
SV1
Each PRN code is an unique sequence
of 1’s and 0’s.
PRN Code 2
SV2
All these 24 Satellites can send signals
simulateously on same frequency.
PRN Code 24
SV24

DSSS Spread Spectrum Modulation
Tb is the bit duration.
Tc is the chip duration.
DSSS Modulator
Tc
Tb

BPSK Modulation
DATA ⊕ CODE
For 1: Actual Carrier is

transmitted
For 0: Carrier with

1800 out of phase is
transmitted

Components of GPS Signal
Carrier is RF sinusoidal signal with frequency L1 (1575.42MHz) or L2 (1227.6MHz).
Ranging code: Coarse / Acquisition Code (Civilian) and Precision Code (Military)
• It is a unique sequence of 0’s and 1’s assigned to each satellite, which allows the receiver to determine the
signal transit time instantaneously.
• Each binary sequence called Pseudo-random Noise (PRN) code is generated with special properties, which
allows satellites to transmit at the same frequency without interfering with each other. These sequences
allow precise range measurements.
• There are two types of ranging codes, C/A code and P-code.
• Each C/A code is a unique sequence of 1023 bits, called chips, which is repeated every 1ms. It is used for civil
users. P-code is a unique segment of an extremely long (1014 chips) PRN sequence.
Navigation data is a binary-coded message consisting of data on the satellite health status, ephemeris, clock bias
parameters, and on ephemeris data on all satellites in the constellation. Its bit rate is 50bps.
GPS Signal Structure
The GPS chose to accomplish this required accuracy with a 10.23Mcps P-code. Two other GPS objectives, rapid
acquisition of the P-code and providing a lesser but still revolutionary three dimensional accuracy for the civil user
are achieved by the use of civil coarse/acquisition (C/A ) code, which has a 1.023 Mcps chip rate and a code period
of 1023 chips. Civil users do not have access to the P(Y) code when the P code is in the antispoof (AS) Y-code mode.
The code rates of 1.023Mcps and 10.23Mcps are selected so that the period of the C/A code corresponds exactly to
1ms for time keeping purposes.
The GPS L1 signal has two SS (spread spectrum) signals, civil C/A and precision P, multiplexed on to a single carrier.
In addition, the signals from multiple satellites must share the same frequency channel. The GPS multiplexes the
civil and the precision code on a single carrier in phase quadrature and then employs CDMA so that the different
satellite signals can share the identical frequency band. Each satellite P signal occupies the entire available
bandwidth to maximize timing accuracy.
Frequencies and Code rates
Each of the center frequencies is a coherently selected multiple of 10.23MHz master clock. In particular the link
frequencies are the following:
L1 = 1575.42MHz = 154 * 10.23MHz
L2 = 1227.6MHz = 120 * 10.23 MHz
Civil: coarse/acquisition (C/A ) code has a chip rate of 1.023 Mcps 1 msec 1023 chips
1023 bits, called chips, which is repeated every 1ms 1 Sec 1.023 Mcps
Encryption of P code into Y code is

Military: P(Y) code has a chip rate of 10.23 Mcps called “Anti – Spoofing”
The binary modulating signals are formed by P-code or C/A-code that is modulo-2 added to the 50bps binary
data D to form P ⊕ D and C/A ⊕ D respectively.
GPS Signal Structure (Carrier and Codes)
C/A Code: 1.023Mcps
P Code :10.23 Mcps
L1: 1575.42MHz
L2:1227.6 MHz

The nominal reference frequency, f0, as it appears to an observer on the ground, is 10.23 MHz. To compensate for
relativistic effects, the output of the SV’s frequency standard (as it appears from the SV) is 10.23 MHz offset by a ∆f/f of
4.467 × 10−10. This results in a ∆f of 4.57 × 10-3 Hz and f0 = 10.22999999543 MHz.
The L1 frequency (154f0) is modulated by two PRN codes (plus the navigation message data), the C/A code, and the P
code.
The L2 frequency (120f0) is modulated by only one PRN code (P-Code) at a time. One of the P code modes has no data
modulation.
To the GPS receiver on the ground, the C/A code has a chipping rate of 1.023 × 106 chips/sec (f0/10 = 1.023 MHz) and
the P code has a chipping rate of 10.23 × 106 chips/sec (f0 = 10.23 MHz).
An exclusive-or logic gate is used for this modulation process, denoted by ⊕. Since the C/A code ⊕ data and P(Y) code
⊕ data are both synchronous operations, the bit transition rate cannot exceed the chipping rate of the PRN codes. Also
note that BPSK modulation is used with the carrier signals.
The P(Y) code ⊕ data is modulated in phase quadrature with the C/A code ⊕ data on L1.

L1 Carrier L2 Carrier
C/A code P(Y) Code P(Y) Code
C/A code ⊕ D P(Y) code ⊕ D P(Y) code ⊕ D
Quadrature phase modulation In phase modulation

BPSK Modulation on L1 and L2
BPSK
L1 BPSK Modulator L1 900 Modulator
P(Y) ⊕ D P(Y) ⊕ D C/A ⊕ D
L2 BPSK Modulator C/A ⊕ D
P(Y) ⊕ D

Comparison of Power Levels
Frequency C/A Code (dB W) P Code (dB W)
Transmitted Received Transmitted Received
L1 26.8 - 160 23.8 - 163
L2 - - 19.7 - 166
1575.42 MHz Carrier frequency

1.023 Mcps clock rate C/A Code
50 bps data rate D(t)
C/A Code: 1.023Mcps

P Code :10.23 Mcps
L1: 1575.42MHz
L2: 1227.6 MHz
Data: 50bps
C/A code ⊕ data

P(Y) code ⊕ data
P(Y) code

B.W of C/A code on L1 is 2.046MHz

GPS Signal Characteristics
-166

GPS Signal Characteristics

Desired GPS signal properties
To achieve user position, velocity and time GPS signal should posses the following properties:
• Tolerance to signals from other GPS satellites sharing the same frequency band; i.e., multiple access capability.
• Tolerance to some level of multipath interference. There are many potential sources of multipath reflections;
for example, man-made and natural objects.
• Tolerance to reasonable levels of unintentional or intentional interference, jamming or spoofing by signal
designed to mimic a GPS signal.
• Ability to provide ionosphere delay measurements- dual frequency measurements made at L1, L2 frequency
must permit accurate estimation of the slowly changing ionosphere.
In addition to the requirements stated above for the GPS signals, there are requirements that the GPS signal received
on the earth be sufficiently low in power spectral density so as to avoid interference with terrestrial microwave line-
of-sight communication.

GPS L1 Signal
Time multiplexing of the two signals, civil (C/A) and precision on one carrier would not have permitted continues
phase measurement of the carrier. The alternative selected for GPS is to modulate the civil P signal on the in-phase
component of the L1 carrier and modulate the c/A signal on a quadrature phase (90o rotated) thus providing a constant
envelope modulated carrier even if the two signals have different power levels.
The GPS signals then have the form (neglecting the data modulation):
XPi(t) Cos(ωot) + XGi(t) Sin(ωot)

where XPi represents the P-code and XGi represents the C/A code
The complete signal, including navigation data D(t) transmitted by the satellite ‘i’ is written as,
𝑆𝐿1 (t)= 2𝑃𝑐 XGi(t).Di(t) Sin(ω1t + ϕL1) + 2𝑃𝑝 XPi(t).Di(t) Cos(ω1t + ϕL1)
1 is the L1 frequency as defined above,
represents a small phase noise and oscillator drift component and Pc and Pp are the C/A and P signal powers,
respectively.

Complete Signal from i Satellite th
𝑆𝑖 (t) = 2𝑃𝑐 XGi (t).Di (t) Sin (ω1t + ϕL1) + 2𝑃𝑝(𝑦)𝐿1 XPi (t).Di (t) Cos (ω1t + ϕL1)
+ 2𝑃𝑝(𝑦)𝐿2 XPi (t). Di (t) Cos (ω2t + ϕL2)
Where ω1 and ω2 represents L1 and L2 Frequencies.

ϕL1 and ϕL2 represents small phase noise.
Pc and Pp(y) are the C/A and P(Y) signal powers, respectively.
XGi and XPi are the C/A and P codes of ith Satellite.
Di is the navigation message of ith Satellite.

GPS Code Generators

PN Code Generator
3-Stage PN Code generator with Feedback Connections(3,2)
O/P
PN code generator with N Shift Registers

Maximal length sequence will be of length 2N - 1
Noise Threshold

PN Code Generator
4- Stage PN CODE GENERATOR with Feedback Connections: (4,1)

4-Stage PN Code Generator (4,1)
Iteration Shift Register Shift Register Shift Register Shift Register Output
Feedback Connections: (4,1) 1 2 3 4 (PN Code)
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 0 1 1 1 1
3 1 0 1 1 1
4 0 1 0 1 1
5 1 0 1 0 0
6 1 1 0 1 1
g(X) = 1 + X + X4 7 0 1 1 0 0
8 0 0 1 1 1
Initial State: 1111 N=4 9 1 0 0 1 1
10 0 1 0 0 0
Maximal length
11 0 0 1 0 0
1 sequence will be
12 0 0 0 1 1
of length 2N - 1 =
15 chips 13 1 0 0 0 0
14 1 1 0 0 0
4 O/P
15 1 1 1 0 0
16
KSRS. JYOTHSNA, 1 Dept. of ECE, CBIT 1
Asst. Prof, 1 1 28 1
Output PN CODE: 111101011001000
C/A Code Generator
Two linear feedback shift registers generate two m-
sequences G1 and G2, which are modulo-2, added to
give the C/A code. Since the required C/A code cycle
length is 1023, each shift register has 10 stages.
G1 = 1 + X3 + X10
G2 = 1 + X2 + X3 + X6 + X8 + X9 + X10
In this case, 2nd Code generator is delayed with respect
to first before their outputs are combined by an EX-OR
The C/A code is actually a “Gold code”, which is derived by gate. The amount of delay is variable based on SV
taking the XOR of the output from 2 linear feedback registers. Number.
Output of C/A Code Generator

Simplified G2 Code Generator
MLS: Maximum Length
Sequence Generator.
G2 = 1 + X2 + X3 + X6 + X8 + X9 + X10

Output of C/A Code Generator
Polynomial 2
For Satellite 1:
G2 = 1 + X2 + X3 + X6 + X8 + X9 + X10
G2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 O/P
Step 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
Step 2 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1
Step 3 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Satellite ID – Feedback Connections

P - Code Generator
P-Code generation:
The P code for satellite ‘i’ is the product of 2 PN codes, X1(t) and X2(t + niT), where X1 has a period of 1.5 s or
15,345,000 chips, and X2 has a period of 15,345,037 or 37 chips longer. Both sequences are reset to begin the week at
the same epoch time. Both X1 and X2 are clocked in phase at a chip rate fc =1/Tc =10.23 MHz.
P code is a product code of the following form:
XPi (t )  X 1(t ) X 2(t  ni T ) 0  ni  36

Where X1(t) and X2(t) are binary codes
The X1 and X2 codes are each generated as the products of two different pairs of 12-stage linear feedback shift registers
X1A and X2B and X2A and X2B with polynomials specified in the GPS-ICD-2006 as follows:
X1A: 1+X6+X8+X11+X12 X2A: 1+X+X3+X4+ X5+X 7+X8+X9+X10+X11+X12

X1B: 1+X+X2+X5+X8+X9+X10+X11+X12 X2B: 1+X+X3+X4+X8+X9+ X12

P - Code Generator
These polynomials give the feedback tap positions of the 12-stage shift registers, X1A, X2A, X1B, X2B. The X1A and
X2A have different relatively prime periods, as do the X2A and X2B codes.
A 12-stage maximal length shift register produces a code period of 212-1 = 4095. If two code generators are short
cycled to give relatively prime periods less than or equal to 4095, then the product code can have a period in the
vicinity of 1.6*107, the product of the two periods.
For GPS, the two product codes have been short cycled to relatively prime periods of 15,345,000 and 15,345,037 for
the X1 and X2 respectively. Likewise, the product of X1 and X2 codes generates a new code that has a period that is
the product of the periods, unless it is short cycled.

P - Code Generator
It consists of 4 PN code generators
X1 and X2.
X1 – X1A and X1B

X2 – X2A and X2B
Each PN Code generator is 12-stage

code generator.
P-Code
The P code is called the Precise code. It is a particular series of ones and zeroes
generated at a rate of 10.23 million chips per second. It is carried on both L1 and
L2 and it is very long, 37 weeks (2x1014 chips in code). Each GPS satellite is
assigned a part of the P code all its own and then repeats its portion every 7 days.
This assignment of one particular week of the 37-week-long P code to each
satellite helps a GPS receiver distinguish one satellite’s transmission from
another. For example, if a satellite is broadcasting the fourteenth week of the P
code, it must be Space Vehicle 14 (SV 14). The encrypted P code is called the P(Y)
code.
Code Generator Polynomials



Navigation Message
Navigation data is one of the three components of the GPS signal. This data is different for every GPS satellite. It is supplied
priory to the satellite by master control station as part of the “navigation message”.
It consists of 5 sub-frames of 300 bits each.
37500 bits
1500 bits
300 bits
KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 30 bits in 0.6 Sec 50 bps 40
Navigation Message Frame Structure
One Frame: 1500 bits
Duration: 30 Secs
300 bits 300 bits 300 bits 300 bits 300 bits
(6 Secs) (6 Secs) (6 Secs) (6 Secs) (6 Secs)
Subframe 1 Subframe 2 Subframe 3 Subframe 4 Subframe 5
Satellite data contains Satellite’s health + System data contains SV1 to SV32 (Almanac) +
ephemeris + clock corrections Ionospheric data + UTC
(updated every 30 secs) (updated every 12.5 mins)
Almanac: A set of orbital parameters that allows calculation of approximate GPS satellite positions and velocities. The
almanac is used by a GPS receiver to determine satellite visibility and as an aid during acquisition of GPS satellite
signals.
Sub - frame Structure

TLM and HOW
TLW : Telemetry Word 8 – bits Preamble 16 - bits Data 6 – bits Parity
TLW : It indicates the status of uploading the control segment is under process or completed. This allows the
receiver to know this status.
Preamble in TLW: It is 10001011 (8 – bits). It helps the receiver in identifying the beginning of the sub-frame.
HOW : Handover Word

17 – bits
7 – bits Data 6 – bits Parity
Time of week
HOW: It provides the receiver that the information on the time of GPS week. It helps the receiver in tracking C/A & P
Codes of a particular satellite. It provides the Subframe ID.

The TLM word begins with an 8-bit preamble,
followed by 16 reserved bits and 6 parity bits. The
bit pattern of the preamble will be used to match
the navigation data to detect the beginning of a
subframe.
Data Subframe ID 20,21,22

bits in HOW
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
Flag bits (18 & 19)
The first 17 bits (1–17) are the When bit 18 is 1, it indicates that the satellite user range Three bits (20–22) are the subframe ID and
truncated time of week (TOW) accuracy may be worse than indicated in subframe-1 and the their values are 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 or (001, 010,
count that provides the time of user uses the satellite at the user’s own risk. Bit 19 is 1 011, 100, and 101) to identify one of the five
the week in units of seconds. indicates the antispoof mode is on. subframes.
Navigation Message
Almanac: A set of orbital parameters that allows calculation of approximate

GPS satellite positions and velocities. The almanac is used by a GPS receiver
to determine satellite visibility and as an aid during acquisition
of GPS
satellite signals.
Complete Navigation Message

GPS Services - SPS and PPS
Standard Positioning service (SPS) and Precise Positioning Service (PPS):
In the initial phase of GPS operation, a policy was formulated to offer two-kinds of services: Standard
Positioning Service (SPS) for peaceful civil use and Precise Positioning Service (PPS) for the DoD authorized
users.
Access to the full capability of the PPS system is restricted by cryptographic techniques. The system
transmits, encrypted signals intended for DoD-authorized users equipped with the appropriate encryption
keys. This feature is called Anti-spoofing.
SPS signals were degraded throughout the 1990’s by introducing controlled errors to reduce precision. The
DOD authorized users could remove such errors. This feature called Selective availability (SA) was
deactivated by a presidential order on 2nd May, 2000. The signal degradation was achieved by ‘dithering’ the
satellite clock and the timing marks on the ranging signals affecting the C/A, P (Y) code and carrier phase
measurements equally. Another mechanism was to broadcast erroneous or imprecise values of the
ephemeris parameters. European plans to develop Galileo accelerated the US move to drop SA. The
departure of SA marked an important milestone for civil users of GPS.
Modernized GPS Signals
Recent advances in technology and new demands on the existing system led to the effort to "modernize" the GPS system.
Signals that are planned to modernize GPS are: Modernized GPS civilian signals have two general
1. L2C and L1C for civilian use improvements over their legacy counterparts:
2. L5 for civil aviation a) Dataless acquisition aid and
3. M-code on L1 and L2 for military applications b) Forward Error Correction (FEC) coding of the NAV message.
L1C was developed to serve as the baseline signal format for Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS). Enables greater
civil interoperability with Galileo L1.
Dataless acquisition aid is an additional signal called a pilot carrier in some cases broadcast alongside the data signal.
This dataless signal is designed to be easier to acquire than the data encoded and, upon successful acquisition, can be used
to acquire the data signal. This technique improves acquisition of the GPS signal and boosts power levels at the correlator.
Secondary improvement is use of Forward Error Correction (FEC) coding on the NAV message itself. Due to the relatively
slow transmission rate of NAV data (usually 50 bits per second) small interruptions can have potentially large impacts.
Therefore, FEC on the NAV message is a significant improvement in overall signal robustness.

L2C-Civil signal on L2
One of the first announcements was the addition of a new civilian-use signal, to be transmitted on L2 called as L2C signal.
Because it requires new hardware onboard the satellite, it is only transmitted by the so-called Block IIR-M and later design
satellites. The L2C signal is tasked with improving accuracy of navigation, providing an ease to track signal. The civilian
receivers can now directly measure the ionospheric error in the same way as dual frequency P(Y)-code receivers.
Unlike the C/A code, L2C contains two distinct PRN code sequences to provide ranging information; the Civilian Moderate
(CM) length code, and the Civilian Long (CL) length code.
L5 Signal 
L5-Civilian safety-of-life (SoF) signal
Civilian, safety of life signal planned to be available with first GPS IIF launch (2008). Two PRN ranging codes are
transmitted on L5: the in-phase code (I5-code); and the Quadra-phase code (Q5-code). Both codes are 10,230 bits long
and transmitted at 10.23 Mbit/s (1ms repetition). Broadcast on the L5 frequency (1176.45 MHz, 10.23 MHz × 115), which
is an Aeronautical navigation band. Aviation community can manage interference to L5 more effectively than L2.
Military signal with M-code
A major component of the modernization process is a new military signal, called the Military code, or M-code, it was designed to further
improve the anti-jamming and secure access of the military GPS signals. Very little has been published about this new, restricted code. It
contains a PRN code of unknown length transmitted at 5.115 Mbit/s. Unlike the P(Y)-code, the M-code is designed to be autonomous;
meaning that a user can calculate their position using only the M-code signal. The M-code is transmitted in the same L1 and L2 frequencies
already in use by the previous military code, the P(Y)-code. The new signal is shaped to place most of its energy at the edges (away from the
existing P(Y) and C/A carriers).
CNAV
The Modernized Civil Navigation Message (CNAV) data is an upgraded version of the original NAV (Legacy NAV i.e. LNAV) navigation
message. It contains higher precision representation and nominally more accurate data than the NAV data. The same type of information
(Time, Status, Ephemeris, and Almanac) is still transmitted using the new CNAV format, however instead of using a frame / subframe
architecture, it features a new pseudo-packetized format made up of 12-second 300-bit message packets. It uses Forward Error
Correction (FEC) in a rate 1/2 convolution code. It enables the inclusion of a packet for differential correction.
CM is modulated with the CNAV Navigation Message where-as CL Asst.

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, doesProf,
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CBIT modulated data and is called a dataless sequence.
50
Band (Frequency) Phase Original Usage Modernized Usage
L1 (1575.42 MHz) In-Phase (I) 1. P(Y) code 1. P(Y) code
1. C/A code
Quadra-Phase (Q) 1. C/A code 2. L1 Civilian (L1C) code
3. Military (M) code
L2 (1227.60 MHz) In-Phase (I) 1. P(Y) code 1. P(Y) code
1. L2 Civilian (L2C) code
Quadra-Phase (Q) --
2. Military (M) code
L5 (1176.45 MHz) In-Phase (I) -- 1. Safety-of-Life (SoL) Data signal
Quadra-Phase (Q) -- 1. Safety-of-Life (SoL) Pilot signal

Spectra of Modernized GPS Signals

(Original and Modernized)
Fig a: Original Signal Structure Fig b: Modernized Signal Structure

GPS RANGE MEASUREMENTS

GPS Range Measurements
The range measurements in GPS are classified into two types: GPS SATELLITE
1. Code phase measurement Codes: C/A code and P Code
2. Carrier phase measurement Carriers: L1 and L2

GPS RECEIVER
GPS receiver determines the pseudorange by code tracking and carrier tracking
method. Code tracking method estimates the transit time and carrier phase
tracking method estimates the phase delay between the received carrier and the
locally generated (receiver regenerated) carrier signal.
Both are biased estimates of instantaneous user-satellite range (pseudorange).

Code phase measurement
GPS receiver determines the travel time of a signal from a satellite by comparing the receiver
regenerated "pseudo random code", with an identical code in the signal from the satellite.
GPS SATELLITE
ρ=c.τ
GPS RECEIVER

Auto Correlation Characteristic
The time difference is computed by autocorrelation. The first bit from signal one is multiplied by the first bit of signal two.
For example, if the first bits from the two signals both have values −1, then the result is (−1) × (−1) = +1. Similarly, if both
bits have values +1, then the result is +1. On the other hand, if the two bits disagree, the result is (+1) × (−1) = −1. This
process is repeated for the second pair of bits, and so on. The result can be written as a sequence of +1 (where the bits
agree) and -1 (where the bits disagree).
Signal A
This sequence is then summed, and divided by the total number of bits in each signal.
For example, if Signal A can be written as (+1, −1, −1, +1, −1), NRZ-L Logic:
and Signal B can be written as (+1, +1, −1, −1, +1), 1  +1 Signal B
then : multiplication gives (+1, −1, +1, −1, −1); 0  -1
The sum of which gives −1; then dividing by the number of bits or chips (5) gives −0.2. Note that if the two signals matched
perfectly, the result would be +1. If the two signals were completely random, we should expect a result close to zero.
When the two signals are not properly matched in time, the result of autocorrelation gives an answer close to zero; if the
signals are matched in time, the result is close to +1 (but not exactly, since a real signal also has noise, so some bits are
incorrect). One can see that the larger the number of bits that are compared, the better the resolution. This is because the
random bits will average to zero better, the more bits we compare.
Auto Correlation Characteristic
+1
Transmitted
1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0
Code +1, +1, -1, +1, +1, -1, -1, -1, +1, -1, -1
-1
1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0
+1, +1, -1, +1, +1, -1, -1, -1, +1, -1, -1
+1
Receiver regenerated Code (−1) × (−1) = +1
(+1) × (+1) = +1
-1 If all received chips exactly match with locally

regenerated chip sequence then we will get all +1s
only. Because of the mismatch a +1 will become -1.
After multiplying all the chips in both sequences, add the numbers and divide with total no. of chips, If all are perfectly
matched , we should get +1 as answer. i.e. in this example: 11 / 11 = +1.
Auto Correlation Characteristic:
Once correlation of the two codes is

achieved with a delay lock loop (DLL), it
is maintained by a correlation channel
within the GPS receiver, and the receiver
is sometimes said to have achieved
lock or to be locked on to the satellites.
The receiver can continue to log the
signal from the satellite and stay
correlated unless it is somehow
interrupted by a cycle slip or an
obstruction.

Correlation Characteristic
Tc
To measure the propagation time, i.e., the code
range measurement, the locally generated code
is shifted in time and correlated with the
received signal.
The correlation parameter is used by a
discriminator to adjust the locally generated
code with the received code and obtain the time
delay. This time delay when scaled by the speed
of light gives the range between the satellite and
the receiver.

Range measurement

The measured apparent range called the pseudorange is determined as:
(t) = c[tu(t) - ts(t-)]

Where tu(t) = Arrival time of the signal measured by receiver clock τ
ts(t-) = Emission time stamped on the signal Eg: tu = 9.40 AM, ts = 9.38 AM  τ = 2 mins
The timescales of receiver and satellite clocks can have biases with respect to GPS Time as:
tu(t) = t + tu(t)
ts(t-) = (t-) + ts(t-)

tu and ts are the receiver and satellite clock biases with respect to GPS Time.
The Satellite clock bias ts is estimated by the control segment and specified in terms of coefficients of a quadratic
polynomial in time. The values of these coefficients are broadcast in the navigation message.
Accounting for the clock biases, the measured pseudorange can be written as: Since: (t) = c[tu(t) - ts(t-)]
ρ(t) = c [ t + tu(t) – (t – τ + ts(t-τ)) ] + Ԑρ(t) tu(t) = t + tu(t)
ts(t-) = (t-) + ts(t-)
= cτ + c [tu(t) - ts(t-τ)] + Ԑρ(t)
Where Ԑρ(t) represents unmodeled effects.
The transit time multiplied by the speed of light is modeled as:
cτ = r(t) + Iρ(t) + Tρ(t)
  r  c[tu  t s ]  I p  Tp   p
Where r is the true range between the user and the satellite and Iρ and Tρ represent the ionospheric and tropospheric
delays.
Importance of Carrier phase measurement

Integer Ambiguity

Integer Ambiguity
Fractional-cycle biases (FCBs) are
generated from hardware (PLL)

Carrier phase measurement
Survey receivers start with the pseudo random code and then move on to measurements
based on the carrier frequency for that code.
This carrier frequency is much higher so its pulses are much closer together and
therefore more accurate.
The phase difference between the receiver generated carrier and carrier transmitted by
the satellite is measured as:
 (t )  u (t )  s (t   )  N
∆
u (t ) = Phase of the receiver generated carrier.
s (t   ) = Phase of the carrier transmitted by the satellite.
N = Integer Ambiguity = Whole number of carrier cycles.
Carrier phase measurement
Writing phase (in cycles) in terms of frequency and time:
 (t )  u (t )  s (t   )  N
 (t )  f   N  r (t ) /   N
Accounting for various biases the carrier phase measurement in units of cycles is:
   [r  I  T ]  c (tu  t s )  N   
1 1

Cycle Slip
Coded pseudorange measurements are not as affected by cycle slips as are carrier phase measurements. On the
other hand carrier phase positioning accuracy suffers if cycle slips are not detected and repaired.
A cycle slip is a discontinuity in a receiver’s phase lock on a satellite’s signal. A power loss, a very low signal-to-
noise ratio, a failure of the receiver software, a malfunctioning satellite oscillator can cause a cycle slip. It can also be
caused by severe ionospheric conditions. Most common, however, are obstructions such as buildings, trees, etc., that
are so solid they prevent the satellite signal from being tracked by the receiver. Under such circumstances, when the
satellite reappears, the tracking resumes.

Combining code and Carrier phase measurements
The pseudorange due to code measurement is given by:
 (t )  r (t )  c[t u (t )  tst  )]  I (t )  T (t )   p (t )
Carrier phase measurement in terms of cycles is given by:
  1[r  I  T ]  c1 (tu  t s )  N   
Carrier phase measurement in units of length is given by:
(t )   (t )  r (t )  c[tu (t )  ts (t  )]  I (t )  T (t )  N   (t )
This technique is popularly known as carrier smoothing of the code measurements.

Coordinate Systems

Reference Coordinate Systems
The knowledge of global coordinate systems is necessary to represent the position of a user GPS receiver on the
earth, and the position and velocity of a GPS satellite orbiting the earth. Precise definition of such coordinate
systems is essential for obtaining precise position from a satellite navigation system.
TYPES OF COORDINATE SYSTEMS:
 Global Cartesian Coordinate Systems: Coordinates (x, y, z) for the whole earth.
 Geographic or Geodetic Coordinate Systems: Coordinates (ϕ, λ, z) for the whole earth.
 Projected Coordinate Systems: Coordinates (x, y, z) on a local area of the Earth’s surface.
We want the coordinates of a stationary object to remain fixed. Such a coordinate system, however, is not
suited to the analysis of satellite motion.
The motion of a satellite is governed by the equations of motion, in particular, by Newton's second law
relating force and acceleration, both expressed in an inertial reference system. An inertial coordinate system
is defined as fixed in space, or in uniform motion without any acceleration.
Conventional Terrestrial Reference System
(CTRS)
The Conventional Terrestrial Reference System (CTRS) is a 3-D geocentric coordinate system, i.e., its origin coincides
with the center of the Earth. The CTRS is rigidly tied to the Earth, i.e., it rotates with the earth. It is therefore also known
as the Earth-centered, Earth-fixed (ECEF) coordinate system
The orientation of the axes of CTRS is defined as follows:
 Origin is the center of mass of the earth.
 The x-axis is defined by the intersection of the terrestrial
equatorial plane and the meridional plane that contains the mean
location of the Greenwich observatory (known as the mean Greenwich
meridian).
 The z-axis points toward the conventional terrestrial pole (CTP),
which is defined as the average location of the pole during the period
1900-1905 (i.e. along the direction of geographic North Pole).
 The y-axis is selected to make the coordinate system right-handed
(i.e., 90° east of the x-axis, measured in the equatorial plane).
The three axes intersect at the center of the earth.
CTRS or ECEF
ECEF – Earth Centered Earth Fixed and also known as Conventional Terrestrial Reference System (CTRS).
User position is expressed in ECEF coordinate system.
It is a geocentric coordinate system, i.e., its origin coincides with the center of the earth.
It is rigidly tied to the earth, i.e., it rotates with the earth.
 Orientation of the axes:

 Origin is the center of mass of the earth.
 z-axis points toward the convention terrestrial pole (CTP).
 x-axis points in the direction of intersection of Greenwich meridian with equator.
 y-axis is selected to make coordinate system right handed (i.e east of the axis).

Conventional Inertial Reference System
(CIRS)
In order to formulate the problem of satellite motion around the earth in accordance with Newton's laws, we need an
inertial (also called celestial or space-fixed) coordinate system in which to express the force, acceleration, velocity, and
position vectors.
An inertial reference system is defined to be stationary in space, or moving with a constant velocity (no acceleration).
The terrestrial reference system defined above, which spins with the earth, doesn't meet these requirements. While
defining CTRS, our focus was on tying down three mutually orthogonal axes to the earth precisely. How the earth was
oriented in space didn't matter.
In defining CIRS, we aim to specify the orientation of the earth in space. We do so by defining three mutually orthogonal
directions in inertial space, and relating them to CTRS via a (time-dependent) transformation.

CIRS or ECI
Satellite position is expressed in Earth Centered Inertial (ECI) coordinate system also called celestial or space fixed.
An inertial coordinate system can be defined as follows:

 Origin at the center of mass of the earth,
 z-axis along the axis of rotation,
 x-axis in the equatorial plane pointing toward the vernal equinox
(i.e., the direction of intersection of the equatorial plane of the
earth with the plane of the earth’s orbit around the sun).
 The y-axis is defined to complete a right-handed system.

Geodetic Coordinate System
The Cartesian coordinates, while convenient for calculations, are cumbersome in daily use. Imagine giving your
position coordinates in meters as (1,510,885, -4,463,460, 4,283,906). In mapping the surface of the earth, an
alternative is to limit the information to horizontal position only, and express it as angular coordinates - latitude and
longitude. For a point above or below the surface of the earth, we could include its height, defined appropriately.
Geometry of Ellipsoid:
The surface of the earth is irregular and changeable. What's needed is a model: a
simple, smooth, easy to characterize geometrical surface relative to which we can
represent the actual surface of the earth.
The figure of the earth is approximated as an ellipsoid of revolution generated by
revolving an ellipse about its minor axis. This figure is also referred to as an oblate
ellipsoid. (The egg-like figure generated by revolving an ellipse about the major axis is
called a prolate ellipsoid). The ellipsoid is assigned some geometrical as well as
physical parameters. An appropriately positioned reference ellipsoid is known as
Geodetic Datum.
Since the Earth is flattened at the poles and bulged at the
Equator, geodesy represents the figure of the Earth as Prolate ellipsoid
an oblate Ellipsoid.
Oblate ellipsoid
Latitude and Longitude
Latitude and Longitude of CBIT

17.3920° N, 78.3194° E

Ellipsoidal or Geodetic coordinates
A geodetic datum is uniquely determined by specifying eight parameters: two Origin is the center of mass of the earth.
parameters to define the dimensions of the reference ellipsoid; three
parameters to define the position of the origin; and three parameters to define
the orientation of three axes with respect to the earth.
We can define the geodetic coordinates (also called geographic or

ellipsoidal coordinates) of a point P as follows:
 geodetic latitude (): the angle measured in the meridian plane
through the point P between the equatorial (x-y) plane of the ellipsoid
and the line perpendicular to the surface of the ellipsoid at P
(measured positive north from the equator, negative south).
 geodetic longitude (): the angle measured in the equatorial plane It is more common to characterize the
between the reference meridian and the meridian plane through P ellipsoid by specifying the semi-major
(measured positive east from the zero meridian). axis and flattening, denoted as f and
 geodetic height (h): measured along the normal to the ellipsoid defined as f=(a-b)/a
through P.
Ellipsoid and Geoid
The geoid approximates mean sea level. The shape of the ellipsoid was calculated based on the hypothetical
equipotential gravitational surface. A significant difference exists between this mathematical model and the real
object. However, even the most mathematically sophisticated geoid can only approximate the real shape of the
earth.
Ellipsoid and Geoid
The ellipsoidal coordinates have their own limitations. The geodetic or ellipsoidal height is defined relative to an
abstraction (the reference ellipsoid) and has no physical meaning.
The problem is solved by defining an equipotential surface best fitting the mean sea level globally. This hypothetical closed
and continuous level surface surrounding over the land surface of the earth is known as the geoid.
One way of mapping the geoid relative to the reference
ellipsoid is by defining the geoid-ellipsoid separation at each
point. This separation is measured along the line AB
orthogonal to the ellipsoid, as illustrated in Figure. This is
called the geoidal height denoted as N. Defining the heights
measured from the ellipsoidal and geoidal surfaces as h and
H, respectively; as an approximation, h = H + N. This
approximation is accurate for most practical purposes. The
height measured relative to the geoid is called the
Orthometric height (H), also known as elevation or height
above the mean sea level.
The Orthometric height of a point can be computed from the GPS measurements as follows: (i) determine the ellipsoidal
coordinates (, , h) from the GPS measurements, (ii) determine the geoidal height from a database, and subtract it from
the ellipsoidal height h.
Regional and Global Datum
A datum is classified into two categories:
(a) Global datum
(b) Regional datum
A global datum is geocentric, whereas regional or local datum is non-geocentric.
World Geodetic System, 1984 (WGS-84) and North American Datum, 1983 (NAD-83) are examples of global datum, and are
based on Geodetic Reference System (1980), or GRS80 ellipsoid.
Examples of regional datum include North American Datum, 1927 (NAD-27) based on Clarke ellipsoid (1866), and Indian
Geodetic Datum (IGD) based on Everest ellipsoid.
The geodetic coordinates based on a local datum differ considerably (up to hundreds of meters) as compared to the
coordinates based on a global datum like WGS-84. As geographic information is exchanged both locally and globally,
position information need to be available, both in terms of a local and global datum. Hence there is a need for Datum
Conversion.
GPS measurements are based on WGS-84 reference frame. Before the advent of satellite navigation and development of
global datums, regional datums were used for mapping a country, a region or a continent using terrestrial techniques.
WGS-84
The World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84) is a realization of the CTRS developed by Defense Mapping Agency (DMA), now
the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA), of the U.S Department of Defense (DoD).
WGS-84 is the official geodetic system for all mapping, charting, navigation and geodetic products used through the DoD.
The development of this global datum was essential to the development of GPS.
The WGS-84 coordinate system:
 Z-axis - The direction of the Conventional Terrestrial Pole (CTP)
for polar motion, as defined by Bureau International de l’Heure
(BIH) on the basis of the coordinates adopted for the BIH stations.
 X-axis - Intersection of the WGS-84 reference meridian plane and
the plane of the CTP’s equator, the reference meridian being the
zero meridian defined by the BIH on the basis of the coordinates
adopted for the BIH stations.
 Y-axis - Completes a right-handed, Earth Centered, Earth Fixed
(ECEF) orthogonal coordinate system, measured in the plane of the
CTP equator, 90° East of the x-axis.
WGS-84
Table: Fundamental parameters of WGS-84 (GRS-80 ellipsoid)
Parameter Value
Semi-major axis (a) 6378137 m
Reciprocal flattening (1/f) 298.25722356

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Principles of GNSS

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 3

Performance UHF L-band C-band

Ionospheric group Large group delay, 2-150ns at 1.5GHz  0-15ns

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 4

Nuclear Detection System (NDS) and NDS Analysis Package (NDP):

Additional Signal Links:

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 6

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 7

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 8

For 1: Actual Carrier is

For 0: Carrier with

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 9

Encryption of P code into Y code is

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 13

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 14

C/A code P(Y) Code P(Y) Code

C/A code ⊕ D P(Y) code ⊕ D P(Y) code ⊕ D

Quadrature phase modulation In phase modulation

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 15

P(Y) ⊕ D P(Y) ⊕ D C/A ⊕ D

L2 BPSK Modulator C/A ⊕ D

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 16

Transmitted Received Transmitted Received

L1 26.8 - 160 23.8 - 163

1575.42 MHz Carrier frequency

C/A Code: 1.023Mcps

C/A code ⊕ data

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 18

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 19

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 20

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 21

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 22

XPi(t) Cos(ωot) + XGi(t) Sin(ωot)

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 23

Where ω1 and ω2 represents L1 and L2 Frequencies.

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 24

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 25

PN code generator with N Shift Registers

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 26

4- Stage PN CODE GENERATOR with Feedback Connections: (4,1)

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 27

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 30

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 31

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 32

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 33

P code is a product code of the following form:

XPi (t )  X 1(t ) X 2(t  ni T ) 0  ni  36

X1A: 1+X6+X8+X11+X12 X2A: 1+X+X3+X4+ X5+X 7+X8+X9+X10+X11+X12

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 34

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 35

X1 – X1A and X1B

Each PN Code generator is 12-stage

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 37

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 38

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 39

It consists of 5 sub-frames of 300 bits each.

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 42

HOW : Handover Word

KSRS. JYOTHSNA, Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE, CBIT 43

Data Subframe ID 20,21,22

Flag bits (18 & 19)

Almanac: A set of orbital parameters that allows calculation of approximate