This chapter covers the following topics: ] Kinematical quantities and equations Newton's laws of motion Analysis of motion graphs Momentum, impulse and momentum conservation Projectile motion Forces and equilibrium ee ee ane poe 2.1 Kinematics p ° the study of motion using equations (oct vector Kinematics is the study of i equat eto vector and graphs. Refer to Figure 2.1 for key terms. Peston ae O(ergin Figure 2.1 Bm s POSITION VECTOR The vector r from some arbitrary fixed point (called the origin) to the position of a particle - that s, the distance in a given direction. DISPLACEMENT The change Ar in the position vector. Its also a vector. DISTANCE The length of the path travelled. Ths is a scalar quantity ar AVERAGE VELOCITY The ratio [> of the displacement to the time taken. This vector has the seme direction as Ar. d AVERAGE SPEED The ratio 4 he ttl doce vee tothe total ine taken. Thi e Note ht the awage pedi not, genera sted othe mage te rage vey INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY ¥ = nF, heat af change wih ofthe decent Intantaneousveloly savecorttati gent othe INSTANTANEOUS SPEED The rate of change with time of the distance travelled: speed = lim “4. iis equal tothe ‘magnitude of the instantaneous veloty vector. Os AVERAGE ACCELERATION The ratio SY ofthe change of the velocity vector tothe time take. This vector i inthe same direction as Av. INSTANTANEOUS ACcELERTION a = fy 2¥, rae of chang wth ie the ely er2.1 Kinematics EB A paricle moves on a circle with constant speed. The postion vector of the particle is measured from point 0, the pcsition of the particle at t= 0; see Figure 2.2. id EEE ec eee reece ir coer eet eer Drawa graph to show how the magnitude r of the position vector varies with time for cne complete revolution. ee _ [> A particle takes 5.05 to move along a semicircle of radius 5.0m; see Figure 2.3, Calculate the average velocity and average speed. Motion in a straight line: formulas and graphs ‘The basic formulas for motion in a straight line with constant acceleration are: veutat dsaurs tat 2 f+ 2ads - -(2) 2 Here, iis the initial velocity is the velocity after a time 1, Asis the displacement and is the elapsed time. Remember that these formulas apply only to straight-line motion with constant acceleration. If the acceleration is not constant, we must rely on the analysis of graphs Graphs Information that may be extracted from a graph includes: ‘ the slope ofa displacement-time graph, giving the velocity « the slope ofa velocity-time graph, giving the acceleration * the area under a velocity-time graph, giving the displacement ¢ the area under an acceleration-time graph, giving the change in velocity. 13Mechanics Tir TRC) _ E> An object starts from rest and moves off with constant acceleration. It covers a Ren distance of 20m in 5.0, Whats its speed after 5.03? a20ms' b40ms' ¢80ms' — d 10.0ms* mes me EEE Figure 2.4 6 a graph of the varation with time ofthe velocity Sao of a particle, a. 2 Calculate the instantaneous acceleration 06 @ at2.05, a b Draw a sketch graph to show the uu variation with time of the acceleration of oa ere tira the pari. ¢ Estimate the displacement at 6.0s. aims? @ [SB Figure 2.5 shows the variation with time of the acceleration of particle. Se ee? The particle starts from rest. 6 TT Determine its velocity after 5.0s, Projectile motion A projectile launched with speed u at some angle to the horizontal, asin Figure 2.6, will follow a parabolic path in the absence of air resistance. We treat the horizontal and vertical components of tke motion independently; see Figure 2.7. y 2 #0 Ame Figure 2.6 Figure 2.7 Horizontal motion: There is no acceleration in this direction and so: ¥, = ueosO x = utcosO ‘Vertical motion: Here we have acceleration of magnitude g (fee fll in the vertically cownward direction and so: 42.1 Kinematics MGSO =} A ballis kicked horizontally with a speed of 15ms” from a table that is 0.20m above the floor. Calculate: the time it takes the ball to hit the ground the horizontal distance travelled the angle the velocity of the ball makes with the horizontal as the ball lands, ‘on the flocr. Energy considerations ‘Many problems in projectile motion can be solved faster using energy conservation than with the fall kinematic equations, as Worked example 2.1 shows. i Worked Example 2.1 Air resistance ‘As shown in Figure 2.8, the effect of air resistance oon the path of a thrown object (ted circles) is to reduce both the maximum height and the ‘maximum range, making the angle of descent steeper. and distorting the shape away from parabolic (blue circles). 15Mechanics 2.2 Forces and Newton’s first law Damm - REPRESENTATION OF FORCES Forces, being vectors, are represented by arrows whose length shows the magnitude of the force. The direction of the arrow gives the direction of the force. NET (RESULTANT) FORCE The single force whose effect is the same as the combined effect of al the individual forces fon the body. This force is found by vector adition. The magnitude of the resultant of two forces of, say, magnitude SN and 7N is at most 12N iif the forces are in the same direction) and no less than 2N (if they ere in opposite directions); in any ather case itis always between these extremes. NEWTON'S FIRST LAW OF MOTION When the net force on a body is zero, the body moves with constant velocity. Its impossible to do an experiment in a box that is closed (i.e. you cannot look outside) and moving at constant velocity that will determine what that velocity is. EQUILIBRIUM The state when the net (resultant) force on a body or system is zero. Figure 2.9a shows a block of weight 100N that is suspended by two strings of unequal length. Estimate the tension in each string. The downward arrow represents the tension in the vertical string The two tensions must have a resultant that is equal and opposite to the weight of the block, This is shown by the vertical upward arrow in Figure 2.9b. Then, drawing dashed lines parallel to the strings, we find the tensions in each of them. The scale is 1 square 20N. Measuring each with a ruler and een comparing to the lenath of the weight, cee 'we find T, = 80N and T, = SEN. @ ecw Sa - [=D An elevator is moving downward at constant velocity. A person drops a ball from Tu rest. Will the time it takes the ball to hit the elevator floor be less than, equal to or SCOTT larger than the time the ball would have taken in an elevator at est? eee ae a ener Friction rere AA frictional force occurs when a body slides over another body, in which case we speak of dynamic friction. The frictional force is directed opposite to the velocity and its magnitude is given by and f'= 1,.N, where N is the magnitude of the normal force acting on the body isis the coefficient of dynamic friction,2.3 Newton's second law AA frictional force can also occur when a force acts on a body but the body does not move, ir, which case ‘we speak of static friction. There is no formula for the static frictional force, but there is one for the largest possible frictional forc: that can develop between two bodies. This is. = M,N, where ft, is the coefficient of static friction and Nis the magnitude of the normal reaction force between the bodies. Note that this formula gives the maximum possible static frictional force, not the frictional force in general. «4 Worked Example 2.3 2.3 Newton's second law Newton's second law states that the net force on a body of constant mass is equal to the product of the mass and its acceleration: F,.,= md. [Note that F and a are vector quantities and are in the same direction. 17Mechanics In solving mechanics problems, the following steps are helpful: # Draw a diagram of the situation, # Show all the forces acting on each body (fiee-body diagram). « Find the net force acting on each body. # Apply Newton's second law separately to each body, In some cases it may be convenient to treat all the bodies as one, as"Test yourself 2.8 shows. ee [EE A block of mass M is on @ horizontal, frictionless table and is connected by a string to a smaller mass m that hangs from the 7 string; see Figure 2.11. If mis released, find the acceleration and T ‘he tension in the string, Figure 2.11 ow a single one of mass +m. In this ease, whatis the net force on ee ee ae ind the tension, asin Se ee Cera er ee eee ec eee _ [ES Figure 2.12 shows five identical blocks, connected by four strings labelled A, 8, C and D. A force Facts on the right-hand block. Assume that friction is negligible. © £ Ser ad Figure 2.12 In which sting isthe tension the largest? TEST YOURSELF 2.10 - [E> Figure 2.13 shows a force of 6ON applied to a body of. mass 12kg_A string joins this body to another body of reco mass 8.0ko. = -—- Calculate a the acceleration of the masses Figure 2.13 the tension in the string (riction s to be ignored) € How would your answers to a and b change (if at all) if the order of the blocks were reversed? Te ee oe ee eel Se) ‘We now assume that there are frictional forces between both blocks and the ground. c The coetficient of static friction between each block and the ground is 0.30. The pulling force of 6ON is the largest force that can be applied withcut the blocks moving Calculate the tension in the string.2.4 Newton's third law & Annotated Exemplar Answer 2.1 A steel ball of mass m falls vertically from rest in a tube of thick oil. The ball experiences a fluid resistance force whose magnitude is given by F= kv, where k is a constant and v is the speed of the bal. a Deter in terms of fundamental units. [1] nee eet a LED ine formula has been rearrange corestiy, Explain why the ball wil eventually reach a constant gna the units av te correct derived unit, speed. [3] bout the question asleed for fundamental ‘¢ Derive an expression for this constant speed in terms of _— Miits. The next step is to convert newtons e "tn their fundamental unite. whinh gives eau. ne eC theuntt eg 5 and sothe unitis Nim's. 1b theforee of resistance will eventually besome equal___‘The statement is correct but this is am ‘to the weight and the speed will ten be constans. ‘explain’ question, so more detail is weeded. : ‘ mg Tognin the mares, you need to say what © At the terminal velocity, y= mg ard sov= eo causes the resistance forae to change (resistance inorenses as speed increases) sls patnalle way etahe (eseaice and winy the speed becomes constant fi re when the force of resistances equal to the clearly shows the reasoning for writing i the A oCCnU tI Ohteh fc es. weight (the met force is zere, so there is wo rearranged corveetiy to reach the answer. acceleration) SS 2.4 Newton's third law ‘Newton's third law states that ifa body A exerts a force on body B, then B will exert on A ar equal and ‘opposite force. (This is often remembered as for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction’, but ‘you should not use ths in an exam!) Following are some examples of the third law: ‘© Atennis racket comes into contact with a tennis ball and exerts a force on the ball. The ball will exert an equal and opposite force on the racket. ‘The weight of a body isthe force that the Earth exerts on the body.TThe force is directed vertically, downwards. Therefore the body exerts at the centre of the Earth an equal and opposite force ~ that is, upwards. ‘ Arocket exerts a force on the exhaust gases, pushing them backward. The gases exert an equal force on the rocket, pushing it Forward, # Ahelicopter rotor exerts a force on the air, pushing the air downwards. The air exerts an equal upward force on the rotor. Worked Example 2.4 19Mechanics ‘A force Fis applied to the lower block and the rescion force by large re aaieoes ‘two blocks move together. There is no friction _‘blockon smal block 7 between the tabe and the lower block but 4 there is friction between the blocks. Copy een (rare fod Figure 2.15 and label the forces on each block, Friction identifying action-reaction pairs. Draw 7 Pelee action-reaction pairs in the same colour. weight of smal block | eagles Figure 2.15 SCs > A girl stands on a weighing scale inside an elevator that is accelerating vertically upwards. The forces on the girl are her weight W and the reectian force R on her by the scale. What is the reading of the scale? aR+W bW cR dR-W RCT RE BA biockis put on a wedge of angle 6 to the horizontal, as shown in Figure 2.16 Figure 2.16 foe A horizontal force of magnitude F is applied to the wedge, accelerating it eee et forward. The block does not move relative tothe wedge. Show that tan = ene where W is the combined weight of the wedge and the block. (Assume that, ee there is no friction between the block and the wedge or between the wedge and the ground.) aCe RE RTT «=> 4 body of mass mis on the floor of an elevator that is. moving upwards with acceleration a (Figure 2.17) Derive an expression for the reaction force from the floor in terms of mn, y and Sta eee ” Figure 2.17 202.5 Momentum, impulse and momentum conservation 2.5 Momentum, impulse and momentum conservation DE MOMENTUM The product of the mass and the velocity of a body, p = my. This s a vector with the same direction as that of velocity IMPULSE The product Fat of the average force on the body times the time during which the force acts. Impulse is the change in momentum of a body, and isa vector. The magnitude of the impulse is the area under the curve in a graph of F against NEWTON'S SECOND LAW IN TERMS OF MOMENTUM F,, = 22. This form of the second law is useful when the mass varies. In cases where the mass of a body (or system) is constant, this becomes the usual F,.,=ma, because, with a constant mass, Fy; = A2 = mA% ar at CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM When the resultant (net) external force on a system is zero, the total momentum Of the system stays corstant. Proof of momentum conservation Ifa system has total momentum p, then by Newton's second law F., 2 where F,,.is the net external force on the system. If F,,, = 0, it follows that Ap = 0 — that is, the total momentum stays constant. Tees EB} A ball of mass 0:20kg moving at 4.0ms" colides with @ a vertical wall and rebounds with a speed of 2.50ms" Rvs oa meine (igure 2.18) ¢ ) i The ball stays in contact with the wall for 0.145. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the change in momentum ofthe ball b Calculate the magnitude of the average force onthe ball OTe ¢ Discuss whether momentum conservation applies Figure 2.18 i to this situation. d__ The same all now falls vertically on the floor. The impact and rebound speeds are as before. State and explain whether the reaction force from the floor on the balls cifferent from the answer in b. eee E> A rocket of mass 120kg contains an additional 80kg of fuel. Gases fro the burnt fuel leave the rocket Pe ee ee? See es with a speed of u= 3.0 x 10’ms" relative fo the rocket, at a rate of = 2.2 kas", The rocket is intially at rest in outer space. Explain why the magnitude of the force exerted by the rocket on the gases is Calculate the magnitude of this force. eon Explain why the rocket accelerates. Calculate the initial acceleration of the rocket. eeeMechanics Gece ee [ES A projectile moving horizontally FIN @ colds elasialy witha vercl if Tae steel plate, During contact with 1% f Berea ett the plate, the force on the 0- Chdied projectile varies with time ©. : according to the graph in a. t Figure 2.19, es tstimate a the duration of the contact + vm the impulse delivered to the ball and the average force on the projecti. Figure 2.19 d__ Given that the speed of the projectile before and after the colision was 18ms", calculate its mass. 2.6 Work, Energy and Power WORK DONE For 2 constant force, and mation along a straight line, the work done by this force is the product of its magnitude and the distance travelled in the direction of the force, W = Fd cos 6, where @is the angle between the force and the direction of motion. Work is a scalar quantity. (Note that ifthe force is not constant, you cannot use this formula. In this case the work is the area under a graph of force versus distance.) ENERGY The ability to do work, Energy is a scalar quantity. In mechanics we deal with the following forms of mechanical energy: fl . * KINETIC ENERGY &, = mv? (another formula for Kinetic energy in terms of momentum is E; = £-) ‘© GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY E, = mgh, where the height may be measured from any horizontal level + TOTAL MECHANICAL ENERGY Thesum = 2 +& «hmv! + mh» Lie CONSERVATION OF ENERGY Total energy, mechanical and otherwise, cannot be created or destroyed. It only gets tonsonred omen fm tart ho ojtem hero fcbora or oher sae fos the ta Inechaial erry ah se uch foe oa ten mecane ey gt tasenad a te fre cof non-mechanical energy, for example thermal energy. The work done by these forces is the change in the total ‘mechanical energy of the system. ELASTIC COLLISION A collision in which the total kinetic energy before and after the colsion are the same. POWER The rate a: which a force does work (or the rate at which energy is consumed, produced or dissipated) ~ Wy thats, P = 22. power is measured in joules per second or watt (W). (fa constant force Facs on a body moving at speed v along a straight line, then the instantaneous power developed is P = AM — FX 85 _ fy, You should know how to derive this in an exarn) — WORK-KINETIC ENERGY RELATION The work done by the net force on a body is equal to the change in the bodys kinetic energy, Wi = AE;. (Notice that this refers to the net force. Ths is an important relation in mechanics, with many applications)2.6 Work, Energy and Power SA body with an initial kinetic energy of 48) moves along a horizontal Cea aR straight line. it brought to rest by @ constant frictional force of 6.0N. peed and acceleration and Caleuate the dstance travelled until the body stops ee cig. Pee : [> A fore of magnitude 20N pushes a body along a horizantal circle of radius 5.0m at constant speed. The direction of the force is always ere tangent to the circle. Calculate the work done by this force as the body pe eae moves through one full circle. Pte $$ $$$ eee re! Pee MESO [E> The work done in extending a spring from its natural length to an extension is W. The work done in extending the same spring from an extension e to an extension 2eis, aw baw caw daw RCE - (E> Ablock of mass 5.0kg and speed 3.0ms™ collides head-on with a stationary black of mass 7.0kg. The ‘two blocks stick together. a Calculate the common speed of the two blocks after the collision. b Why is thi colision not elastic? MERC E> A car of weight 1.4 x 10°N climbs an incline at a constant speed of 8.0ms”. The incline makes a1 angle of 6.0° with the horizontal. A constant frictional force of 520N opposes the motion of the car. Att a Calculate power dissipated by the frictional force. pated erro b Calculate the rate of increase of the car's potential energy. 0 increase the ¢ The power developed by the engine is 45kW. Estimate the efficiency of the y of car Re tt Model Answer 2.1 23Mechanics The origin of conservation principles Nature of Science. Understanding of what energy is has evolved over time, with Einstein showing that there isa direct relationship between mass and energy in his famous equation E = md. In this section we have seen how the principle of conservation of energy can be applied to different situations to predict and explain ‘what will happen. Scientists have been able t0 use the theory to predict the outcome of previously unknown interactions in particle physics ‘The principle of conservation of energy is perhaps the best known example of a conservation principle. But where does it come from? It turns out that all conservation principles are consequences of symmetry. In the case of energy, the symmetry is that of ‘time translation invariance’. ‘This means that when describing motion (or anything else) it does not matter when you started the stopwatch. So a block of mass 1 kg on a table 1m above the floor will have a potential erergy of 10) according to both an observer who starts his stopwatch ‘now’ and another who started it 10 seconds ago. The principle of conservation of momentum, is also the result of a symmetry. The symmetry this time is space translation invariance’, which means that in measuring the position of events it does not matter where you place the origin of your ruler. @ Checklist After studying this chapter you should be C apply Newton’s laws of motion to various able to: situations CO apply the equations of kinematics O know when to use F,.,= ma and when to use 4p C analyse graphs of motion Foat = Ke C. solve problems of projectile motion C apply the principles of momentum conservation and energy conservation C identify forces acting on bodies and solve rium 1 calculate work done by a force, and the power developed. problems of eq