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Fischer-Tropsch Fuels Refinery Design
Fischer-Tropsch Fuels Refinery Design
Arno de Klerk*
Received 19th November 2010, Accepted 21st December 2010
DOI: 10.1039/c0ee00692k
Carbon sources, such as coal, natural gas, biomass and waste, can be converted into transportation
fuels by combining appropriate gasification, Fischer–Tropsch and refining technologies. Efficient
refining of the Fischer–Tropsch synthesis derived syncrude requires a different approach to refinery
design than commonly applied to crude oil refinery design. The design of refineries to optimise the
production of on-specification motor-gasoline, jet fuel and diesel fuel respectively from both high
temperature Fischer–Tropsch (HTFT) syncrude and low temperature Fischer–Tropsch (LTFT) are
considered. Refinery designs are presented for the production of motor-gasoline and jet fuel with better
than 50% yield (better than 70% selectivity on transportation fuel), without resorting to very complex
designs. Only diesel fuel refining presented a problem, since the production of on-specification
EN590:2004 diesel fuel is limited by a Fischer–Tropsch specific cetane-density-yield trade-off. The
compound classes that are required to produce diesel fuel in high yield that meet both minimum cetane
number and minimum density requirements are not abundant in Fischer–Tropsch syncrude. Refinery
designs for diesel fuel production was limited to a yield of less than 25% EN 590 : 2004 compliant diesel
fuel. This yield restriction does not apply when diesel fuel specifications do not have a minimum density
requirement.
The refinery designs associated with the industrial application of Literature on the topic of Fischer–Tropsch refinery design is
Fischer–Tropsch synthesis to produce transportation fuels and rather limited and the studies over the past three decades can be
chemicals are quite varied.1 This is hardly surprising considering grouped as follows:
the changes that took place over time in terms of product types, (a) The United States Department of Energy sponsored
fuel specifications, refining technology and in the field of a research programme to evaluate the use of low temperature
Fischer–Tropsch synthesis. One may learn from the historic Fischer–Tropsch (LTFT) technology for the production of
Fischer–Tropsch refinery designs, but it does not tell one how to transportation fuels. This study was conducted with industry
go about designing a present day refinery to convert Fischer– collaboration and, amongst others, evaluated different strategies
Tropsch syncrude into on-specification transportation fuels. for refining LTFT syncrude to fuel.2
(b) The Shell Middle Distillate Synthesis (SMDS) process was
commercialised in the 1990’s with the gas-to-liquids facility in
Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Bintulu, Malaysia. The reasoning behind the development and
Edmonton, AB, T6G 2V4, Canada. E-mail: deklerk@ualberta.ca; Tel: +1 refinery design has been documented.3 It explains why the
780-248-1903
Broader context
Fischer–Tropsch syncrude, like conventional crude oil, is not a useful product unless it is refined to consumer products, such as
transportation fuels, lubricants and petrochemicals. There is a significant body of literature on indirect liquefaction of alternative
carbon sources to synthesis gas (H2 + CO), as well as on the Fischer–Tropsch conversion of synthesis gas into syncrude. However,
despite industrial implementation, there is no comprehensive work on Fischer–Tropsch refinery design. The present work deals with
transportation fuel refinery design exclusively. It discusses the refining of Fischer–Tropsch oil and aqueous product phases, the
impact of different types of Fischer–Tropsch syncrude on refining, the refining of oxygenate-rich materials (also relevant to biomass
refining), environmental aspects and key elements pertinent to on-specification motor-gasoline, jet fuel and diesel fuel production
from syncrude. The design examples demonstrate that Fischer–Tropsch refineries do not have to be overly complex in order to
produce on-specification fuels. A perspective is provided on efficient syncrude refining. The paper is not a literature review and as
such, it presents a new body of information on a topic that is crucial to the commercial success of Fischer–Tropsch based facilities.
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facilities were not described and in general there has been little
Fischer–Tropsch synthesis and product cooling/separation.
systematic study to guide Fischer–Tropsch refinery design. Yet, it
has been made equally clear that Fischer–Tropsch syncrude Solid carbon sources (coal, biomass and waste) must be
should be refined differently to crude oil6,7 and that refining gasified in order to produce synthesis gas. The selection of
catalysis should be approached differently.8 gasification technology depends on the nature of the feed, with
The aim of this work is to provide guidelines for Fischer– properties such as ash behaviour, moisture content and fuel
Tropsch fuels refinery design. This will be illustrated by devel- reactivity limiting the choice.10 Gaseous carbon sources can be
oping refinery designs for motor-gasoline, jet fuel and diesel fuel. gasified or reformed to produce synthesis gas.
High temperature Fischer–Tropsch (HTFT) and low tempera- Since the feed material usually contains heteroatoms such as
ture Fischer–Tropsch (LTFT) syncrudes will be considered sulfur, the gas must be cleaned before it can be used as feed for
separately, and in all instances the objective will be to produce Fischer–Tropsch synthesis. In the case of a gaseous feed, it may
final on-specification transportation fuels. be preferable to clean the gas before reforming. The gas cleaning
In order to develop the logic underlying Fischer–Tropsch technology determines the quality of the synthesis gas and not
refinery design, it is important to demonstrate the feed-conver- the raw material used as carbon source.
sion-product relationship. In this way it can be shown how the The H2:CO ratio in the synthesis gas is largely determined by
properties of Fischer–Tropsch syncrude as refinery feed must be the gasifier or reformer technology employed. The H2:CO ratio
transformed on molecular level to obtain the product properties must typically be adjusted to the usage ratio of the Fischer–
being required by fuel specifications. Tropsch technology. The combination of gas recycle loops and
gas conversion technologies to achieve this is called the gas loop
and gas loop design is a topic in its own right.11
Fischer–Tropsch technology After Fischer–Tropsch synthesis the product is cooled and
Before delving into the topic of Fischer–Tropsch refining, it is separated. The way and the extent to which separation is ach-
useful to have a quick look at Fischer–Tropsch based technology ieved is of paramount importance for the refinery design. It
for indirect liquefaction (Fig. 1). forms part of the gas loop design and influences the overall
The feed material for synthesis gas (H2 and CO) production carbon efficiency of the process. Yet, due to its relevance to the
can in principle be any carbon source. Coal and natural gas are refinery, this aspect will be touched on as part of the refinery
presently the only raw materials that are industrially employed design.
for synthesis gas generation associated with Fischer–Tropsch Different carbon sources may produce different pyrolysis
synthesis. Gasification of other carbon sources, such as biomass products during gasification, which can create co-refining
and waste, is less well developed.9 opportunities.† In an analogous way associated liquids may be
recovered from natural gas before reforming. Such associated
products increase the carbon efficiency of the overall process.
Arno de Klerk is the Nexen The nature of the carbon source selected as raw material for
Professor of Catalytic Reaction synthesis gas production also affects the carbon efficiency
Engineering at the University of (and CO2 footprint) of the indirect liquefaction technology. In
Alberta in Canada. Born and this respect hydrogen-rich and heteroatom-poor materials are
educated in South Africa, he is preferred. This is a natural consequence of the atom balance over
a registered professional engi- indirect liquefaction. Heteroatoms are rejected with hydrogen
neer since 1999 and holds a PhD and in order to increase the H : C ratio from that of the feed to
in Chemical Engineering and that of the product, carbon is rejected as CO2. The conversion of
MSc in Chemistry. Before waste plastic (H : C z 2) and natural gas (H : C z 4) will
moving to academia in 2009, he
worked in both industry and
forensic science. Pertinent to † The selection of feed-to-syngas conversion type may result in the
this paper is 14 years industrial co-production of non-syngas products. For example, in coal-to-syngas
conversion by low temperature gasification technology, some coal
Arno de Klerk experience with Sasol, since liquids are co-produced. Likewise, natural gas condensates may be
2001 leading the group in associated with the natural gas employed as feed for gas-to-syngas
Fischer–Tropsch Refinery conversion. When these materials are co-refined with the
Fischer–Tropsch syncrude, the refinery design is very different to that
Catalysis. In 2007 he received the South African Institution of
of a design based on Fischer–Tropsch syncrude only. Co-refining of
Chemical Engineers’ Innovation Award for contributions in Fischer–Tropsch materials is a topic in its own right, and it is not
Fischer–Tropsch refinery design. covered by the present review.
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therefore result in less CO2 production than biomass or coal Table 1 Generic Fischer–Tropsch syncrude compositions on a mass
(H : C < 1 after heteroatom rejection). basis
Indirect liquefaction is inherently energy intensive, which Syncrude composition (mass %)a
reduces the conversion efficiency of Fischer–Tropsch based
technology. Carbon efficiencies of coal-based indirect liquefac- Compound Fe-HTFT Fe-LTFT Co-LTFT
tion processes reported in literature are in the range 28–34%.12
Gaseous product (C1-C4)
The overall efficiency depends on the refinery design too. Syn- methane 12.7 4.3 5.6
crude that are not refined to final products, but are used as fuel ethylene 5.6 1.0 0.1
ethane 4.5 1.0 1.0
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gas, have a very high associated CO2 cost. In fact, any Fischer–
C3–C4 olefins 21.2 6.0 3.4
Tropsch syncrude that is employed as fuel for an energy appli-
C3–C4 paraffins 3.0 1.8 1.8
cation that could make direct use of the raw material itself, has 3 Naphtha (C5-C10)
times the CO2 footprint of the raw material! The efficient refining olefins 25.8 7.7 7.8
of syncrude is associated with a significant environmental paraffins 4.3 3.3 12.0
aromatics 1.7 0 0
responsibility. oxygenates 1.6 1.3 0.2
Distillate (C11-C22)
olefins 4.8 5.7 1.1
Fischer–Tropsch syncrude paraffins 0.9 13.5 20.8
aromatics 0.8 0 0
For the purpose of this review, the generic properties of Fischer–
oxygenates 0.5 0.3 0
Tropsch syncrude (Table 1)13 will be discussed. In this way the Residue/wax (C22+)
refinery designs are not intrinsically linked to a specific type of olefins 1.6 0.7 0
feed-to-synthesis gas conversion, Fischer–Tropsch technology or paraffins 0.4 49.2 44.6
aromatics 0.7 0 0
gas loop design.† oxygenates 0.2 0 0
The products have an Anderson-Schulz-Flory carbon number Aqueous product
distribution.‡ The exact composition of an actual syncrude is alcohols 4.5 3.9 1.4
affected by the choice of Fischer–Tropsch technology, state of carbonyls 3.9 0 0
carboxylic acids 1.3 0.3 0.2
Fischer–Tropsch catalyst deactivation and operating conditions.
a
These variations in composition do not invalidate the present The syncrude compositions are based on the total syncrude, excluding
inert gases and water-gas-shift products (H2O, CO, CO2 and H2); zero
study. A similar principle is applied in the description of crude oil
values indicate low concentration and not necessarily complete absence.
for crude oil refinery design. Crude oil, just like Fischer–Tropsch
syncrude, is affected by its exact origin. Yet, for the purpose of
refinery design a generic crude oil composition is selected that
represents the crude oil slate for which the refinery must be is around 2 : 1–4 : 1. The C4-material is even more linear, with
designed. The refinery design must be inherently robust enough a linear to branched ratio of around 10 : 1. Some cyclo-paraffins
to deal with the variations in crude oil composition that will be (naphthenes) are present, mostly in the naphtha fraction. The
found in practice. In this respect a Fischer–Tropsch refiner is olefin composition over the whole carbon number range is
more fortunate, because the composition of the syncrude can be dominated by linear a-olefins. HTFT syncrude contains some
controlled within a narrow range of variation once the Fischer– aromatics, with the aromatics content increasing with increasing
Tropsch technology has been selected. carbon number. The oxygenates display the opposite trend, with
the oxygenate content decreasing with increasing carbon
High temperature Fischer–Tropsch (HTFT) syncrude number. The main oxygenate classes present in HTFT syncrude
are alcohols, aldehydes, carboxylic acids and ketones. Other
HTFT syncrude (Table 1) is characterised by a carbon number oxygenate classes, such as esters, furans and phenols are also
distribution that is very light and it is rich in olefins and present, but in much lower concentration.
oxygenates. It contains no sulfur or nitrogen, but has a large
associated aqueous product fraction that contains dissolved
short chain oxygenates. Some metals are present in the syncrude Low temperature Fischer–Tropsch (LTFT) syncrude
(mainly Fe and Na)14 in the form of metal carboxylates. The About 50% of the hydrocarbon mass of LTFT syncrude is in the
residue fraction (boiling >360 C) is small and very aromatic C22 and heavier wax fraction (Table 1). The syncrude becomes
(>30%).15 more paraffinic with increasing carbon number and contains
The aliphatic hydrocarbons are predominantly linear. The very little aromatics and cyclo-paraffins.
ratio between linear and branched material in the naphtha range The olefin to paraffin ratio of the naphtha and distillate frac-
tions depends on the Fischer–Tropsch technology, with the
‡ The Anderson-Schulz-Flory (ASF) distribution provides an olefins increasing in the order: Co-LTFT fixed bed < Co-LTFT
approximation of the carbon number distribution from
a Fischer–Tropsch process. In this work it is employed to give an slurry bed < Fe-LTFT fixed bed < Fe-LTFT slurry bed. The
indication of the straight run content as a function of a-value. This is LTFT syncrude composition employed for this study resembles
a qualitative indication and does not take deviations from the ideal that of Fe-LTFT.
ASF distribution into account. For example, the ASF model poorly
The olefin to paraffin ratio, as well as the carbon number
predicts the C1–C2 content and for LTFT synthesis, the lighter and
heavier syncrude fractions seemingly have two different two different distribution changes over time as the Fischer–Tropsch catalyst
a-values. deactivates. In this respect Fe-LTFT has a meaningful benefit for
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fuels refining, because it is the only Fischer–Tropsch catalyst type a combination of catalyst compatibility, technology compati-
that deactivates in such a way that the refining efficiency is bility and environmental footprint.7,8
improved.16 (d) Carbon number based refinery design.5 Most refining
The LTFT syncrude contains no sulfur or nitrogen and has an technologies are designed with a specific feed range in mind. This
associated aqueous product fraction that contains dissolved limitation relates to the catalysis and the purpose of the
short chain oxygenates. The oxygenates are mainly alcohols and conversion process. By ordering refining choices in terms of their
carboxylic acids. feed range requirements, it is possible to have a logical selection
The nature and composition of metal containing organic based on carbon number. In crude oil refining this is what
Published on 03 February 2011. Purchased by ben.powers@insitetechnical.com on 25 February 2024.
compounds depend on the Fischer–Tropsch technology and happens when the crude oil is fractionated to produce cuts with
Fischer–Tropsch catalyst employed. As in the case of HTFT different boiling ranges. Each distillation cut (carbon number
syncrude, metals may be present due to corrosion, attrition and range) is prepared with a specific refining technology in mind.
catalyst dissolution.
The heavy hydrocarbons in LTFT syncrude usually have Design approach followed
a very high linear to branched ratio, typically higher than 20 : 1.
The wax fraction contains little branched paraffins. The olefins The conceptual refinery designs that are presented in this review
are mainly linear a-olefins. employed technology pre-selection to guide the design process.
The approach that was followed for each type of transportation
Refinery design fuel was to create robust refinery designs that maximised the
yield of the fuel that would meet international fuel specifications.
Refineries are complex systems and a purely mathematical Unfortunately motor-gasoline and diesel fuel specification are
approach to refinery design may yield optimal theoretical country dependent. In this review European EN228:2004
designs, but not necessarily operable practical designs. Real- (motor-gasoline) and EN590:2004 (diesel fuel) specifications are
world refinery designs, as opposed to conceptual studies, have used, since these are widely accepted standards. The DEFSTAN
the aim of producing a practical refinery design for a specific 91-91/Issue 6 specifications22 for aviation turbine fuel is the
purpose. There are many factors influencing real-world refinery internationally accepted standard for Jet A-1 and it includes
designs and when this added layer of detail is considered in the provision for semi-synthetic and fully synthetic jet fuels.
design process, the design becomes unique. It should be Synthetic jet fuel specifications are exceptionally restrictive in
emphasised that beyond the conceptual stage, there is no such terms of the refinery design, a requirement that makes little sense
thing as a generic or even general refinery design, despite many from a fundamental point of view. The jet fuel refinery designs
real refinery designs being close to each other. As a consequence are based on the synthetic Jet A-1 specifications, but ignores the
all designs that will be developed in this review should be seen as restrictions that limit the design to mimic the older Sasol
conceptual designs. operations.
For each fuel type two key aspects were considered in devel-
Conceptual refinery design oping the refinery design, namely:
Refinery design is essentially a creative process, but there are (a) How can the carbon number distribution of the syncrude
different tools and methodologies that can be followed to guide be manipulated in an efficient way to maximise the production of
conceptual refinery design. Some of the methodologies that can that specific fuel type?
be followed are: (b) How can be molecular composition be manipulated in an
(a) Linear programming.17 Design constraints such as fuel efficient way to ensure that the fuel type meets the relevant fuel
specifications and objective functions like minimum capital cost specifications?
or highest distillate yield, can be incorporated in a linear
programming model. This enables the mathematical solution of Motor-gasoline refining
a complex optimising problem. It nevertheless presupposes the
Fuel specifications
development of multiple refinery configurations.
(b) Hierarchical design.18 The design hierarchy that has been The motor-gasoline properties in Table 2 are only a subset of the
proposed for refinery debottlenecking, can also be used to guide full EN228:2004 specifications. These properties have been
refinery design. It is akin to the Michael Jackson programming highlighted, because they limit the composition of the fuel and set
approach,19 where the data flow of ‘‘in’’ being transformed to performance criteria that translates into requirements that can be
‘‘out’’ determines the structure of the design. In the hierarchical related to the molecular properties of the fuel.
design approach, the feed flow is used to determine design Directive 2009/30/EC23 of the European specifications revised
bottlenecks and it can also be used for analysing sub-systems of the limitations placed on oxygenated motor-gasoline. The
the refinery. For example, hydrogen availability can be used to maximum oxygenate content has been increased to 3.7 mass % O
drive refinery design.20 and the limits on various oxygenates have been increased
(c) Technology pre-selection. An interesting approach to accordingly. For example, the limit on C4 derived ethers is 15%
refinery design has been followed by Nai Y. Chen, one of the and that on C5 and heavier ethers is 22%. The 2009/30/EC
ZSM-5 pioneers at Mobil research.21 Refining technology was directive also included distillation restrictions on motor-gasoline,
pre-selected based on its environmental footprint and the refinery namely, minimum E46 at 100 C (46 vol% evaporated at 100 C)
was then designed based on a logical ordering of the more limited and minimum E75 at 150 C. The maximum sulfur content of
set of technologies. Pre-selection can also be performed based on motor-gasoline has been set at 10 mg g1 by the directive.
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EN228:2004 specification
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Research octane number Carbon number based refining is a useful concept for designing
a motor-gasoline refinery, especially when it is combined with
Carbon number linear 2-methyl 2,3-dimethyl 2,2,3-trimethyl
technology pre-selection.
3 112 — — — (a) C2 hydrocarbons. Olefin oligomerisation, olefin hydration
4 93.8 101.3 — — and aromatic alkylation are technologies that can be considered
5 61.7 92.3 — — for motor-gasoline production from ethylene. There are no clear
6 24.8 73.4 103.5 —
7 0 42.4 91.1 112 fuels refining pathway for ethane and it is unlikely that typical
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8 <0 20.6 71.3 109.6 ethane technologies, such as steam cracking, will be considered to
produce fuels. Ethane will therefore be used as fuel gas, or be
recycled to the gas loop.
it difficult in practice to achieve a high-octane value for all the (b) C3 hydrocarbons. The HTFT derived C3 hydrocarbons
paraffins in a refinery. have a propylene to propane ratio of 87 : 13 and constitutes
about 15% of the syncrude. This makes it the most abundant
carbon number in HTFT syncrude. Propylene can typically be
HTFT motor-gasoline refining
converted into olefinic motor-gasoline by an appropriate olefin
Let us now consider the development of an HTFT refinery for oligomerisation technology (solid phosphoric acid), or by
the production of maximum EN228:2004 compliant motor- aromatic alkylation into high-octane motor-gasoline and jet fuel.
gasoline. Both processes indirectly facilitate the separation of propylene
It has already been shown that the a-value of HTFT synthesis and propane and can be combined in a single unit.25 Propane is
(Fig. 2) is close to the optimum for the highest yield of straight a product in its own right and can be sold as such. It may also be
run naphtha material. In order to increase the overall production converted into motor-gasoline by processes such as aromatisa-
of naphtha range material, three strategies can be followed: tion.
(a) Convert the C2–C4 gaseous syncrude fraction into naphtha (c) C4 hydrocarbons. The C4 hydrocarbon fraction of HTFT
range material. This not only transforms normally gaseous syncrude contains about 85% olefins. Olefin oligomerisation by
products into liquid products, but targets 30–35% of the total a motor-gasoline selective technology, such as solid phosphoric
syncrude production. Some conversion technologies immediately acid based oligomerisation, is a natural choice. The motor-
come to mind, namely olefin oligomerisation, aliphatic alkyl- gasoline thus produced can be hydrogenated to produce an
ation, aromatic alkylation and aromatisation. Olefin oligomer- alkylate-equivalent product.26 The remaining butanes can be
isation and aromatic alkylation can only be used to refine the directly blended into the motor-gasoline and their inclusion is
C2–C4 olefins, not paraffins. Aliphatic alkylation can convert only limited by the vapour pressure constraints placed on the
C3–C4 olefins and C4 paraffins. Aromatisation can employ C3–C4 final fuel. Other upgrading pathways that can be considered are
olefins and paraffins as feed. aliphatic alkylation and etherification. However, these pathways
(b) Convert the C11 and heavier syncrude into naphtha range are less attractive for HTFT syncrude due to the olefin to paraffin
material. It does not make sense to convert HTFT distillate that (85 : 15) imbalance, high degree of linearity (n-C4:iso-C4 z 9 : 1)
can easily be refined to jet fuel and diesel fuel into naphtha. The and large volume (13% of HTFT syncrude).
C22 and heavier (residue) fraction may be considered though, but (d) C5 naphtha. The straight run C5 HTFT naphtha has an
it represents only 3% of the total syncrude production. octane number of around 90–95 on account of its high olefin
(c) Recover and incorporate the oxygenates present in the content (85%) and can be blended directly into motor-gasoline.
aqueous product into the motor-gasoline. Only the alcohols can The pentenes can also be skeletally isomerised and used as feed
be used as direct blending components (Table 2). This suggests for etherification, as is the case at the Sasol Synfuels refineries
strategies such as selective partial hydrogenation and acid cata- where it is used for tertiary amyl methyl ether (TAME)
lysed conversion. production. More importantly, there is little octane penalty when
Producing maximum naphtha is not all that is required. The the C5 naphtha is hydroisomerised before it is blended into
naphtha must also meet the motor-gasoline specifications before motor-gasoline, which has the advantage of not limiting the
it can be sold as motor-gasoline. For the material that is not inclusion of other olefins into the fuel. The C5 naphtha would
already in the naphtha range, quality can be addressed while normally be hydrotreated first, but it is possible to feed the
manipulating the carbon number distribution. For the straight olefinic naphtha directly to beneficially employ the heat of
run naphtha material, the quality must be adjusted preferably hydrogenation during hydroisomerisation.27
without affecting the carbon number distribution. (e) C6 naphtha. Although this cut has a low straight run octane
Environmentally responsible refinery design extends beyond number, there are many ways to refine it to good quality motor-
technology selection. It requires that the least amount of work gasoline. The most obvious refining pathway is hydro-
necessary be performed on a molecule to achieve the required isomerisation, but alumina-based isomerisation of the olefinic
product properties. This implies that a molecule should pass product has in the past been employed with success.1 Another
through the least number of units. It also implies that one would option is to refine it to aromatics over a non-acidic Pt/L-zeolite
ideally want the products from any primary conversion to have based reforming technology. This is especially well-suited to
acceptable properties to be included in the final product, namely, HTFT C6 naphtha and in combination with aromatic alkylation
on-specification transportation fuel. it produces a high quality reformate.
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Table 4 Product distribution from the HTFT motor-gasoline refinery Table 5 Selected transportation fuel properties from the HTFT refinery
shown in Fig. 4 that incorporates cryogenic separation to recover the C2 design shown in Fig. 4
hydrocarbons. The transportation fuel yield is 74.0%
Fuel property Refinery product Specification
Total producta Transportation
Product description (mass %) fuels (vol %) Motor-gasoline EN228
research octane number 97 95 min
hydrogen 0.0 — motor octane number 89 85 min
methane 12.7 — density at 15 C (kg m3) 741 720–775
fuel gas 5.9 — Reid vapour pressure 55 60 maxa
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typically accompanied by an increase in methane yield34 and it production, cracking is preferred. However, if hydrocracking is
inherently has a low selectivity to ethylene (0.05%).35 The situa- employed, it may be difficult to recycle this fraction to extinction.
tion with Fe-LTFT is different. When Fe-LTFT catalysts deac- (c) C11–C14 kerosene. Although kerosene and distillate can be
tivate, the yield of methane levels out around 4%.36 In parallel the treated in the same way, there is one important difference. LTFT
yield of C2–C4 and oil increases significantly at the expense wax kerosene can more easily be refined to jet fuel than LTFT
yield. In order to employ the C1–C2 tail gas for SNG, reactive distillate can be refined to diesel fuel. The cold flow properties
recovery or hydrogenation of the ethylene may be necessary. can be corrected by hydroisomerisation. Producing jet fuel is
(b) Convert the gaseous C3–C4 hydrocarbons, which can be more efficient than forcing this material into the naphtha boiling
Published on 03 February 2011. Purchased by ben.powers@insitetechnical.com on 25 February 2024.
recovered from the LTFT tail gas, to naphtha range material. range.
The same conversion technologies suggested for HTFT are (d) C9–C10 naphtha. The discussion on technology selection
applicable, but the actual technology selection may be different for refining HTFT syncrude to motor-gasoline is applicable.
on account of the olefin to paraffin ratio and the possibility to Depending on the refining approach for the C11–C14 cut, jet fuel
co-refine the C3–C4 material with the naphtha. In the case of production may be more efficient, although this comes at the
Fe-LTFT, this fraction almost doubles due to deactivation of the expense of motor-gasoline yield. In order to maximise motor-
Fischer–Tropsch catalyst. The yield of C3–C4 syncrude may gasoline, catalytic reforming to produce aromatics may be the
therefore in practice be far more than is suggested by the LTFT preferred refining pathway. The lack of aromatics in LTFT
syncrude composition in Table 1. syncrude is a serious deficiency for fuel production.
(c) Convert the C11 and heavier syncrude into naphtha range (e) C7–C8 naphtha. This cut is ideally refined to aromatics by
material. The bulk of LTFT syncrude is in this fraction. In order catalytic reforming. The preferred technology for catalytic
to maximise motor-gasoline production, the C11 and heavier reforming is non-acidic Pt/L-zeolite based.
material must be converted to naphtha range products. Unlike (f) C6 naphtha. If non-acidic Pt/L-zeolite based reforming is
HTFT syncrude, the distillate is not easily refined to diesel employed, the C6 material is best refined to aromatics. It can also
fuel.13,33 The application of some form of cracking technology is be hydroisomerised to produce a good paraffinic motor-gasoline
indicated. blending component. The olefin conversion technologies, as
(d) Aqueous product oxygenates (mainly alcohols) can be suggested for HTFT, may be less applicable to LTFT. Straight
recovered and incorporated into the motor-gasoline. The alco- run Fe-LTFT material is very olefinic, but Co-LTFT is less
hols may also be employed in conversion processes such as olefinic. Furthermore, if hydrocracking is employed for
etherification. upgrading of the heavier fractions, the naphtha produced will be
A high yield of naphtha does not necessarily imply a high yield paraffinic. Etherification has been suggested in conjunction with
of on-specification motor-gasoline. The quality of the naphtha FCC of LTFT wax to produce methyl ethers from the branched
must still be adjusted to meet motor-gasoline specifications. Here C4–C6 olefins.39 However, it has been reported that not all methyl
the technology selection becomes critical. hexyl ethers have high blending octane numbers in a Fischer–
Tropsch matrix.40
(g) C5 naphtha. The two most promising refining pathways are
Technology selection
etherification and hydroisomerisation. Etherification with alco-
As in the case of HTFT motor-gasoline refining, carbon number hols that may be obtained from the aqueous product, will supply
based refining is a useful concept. Considering that the heavier a high-octane motor-gasoline blending component. It may be
(wax) material is dominant, it makes more sense to start the desirable to increase the branched olefin content by skeletal
discussion from the heavier side. isomerisation of the n-pentenes. The C5 olefins from FCC of wax
(a) Residue/wax (C23 and heavier). There are three types of already contain 65–70% branched material, but straight run
cracking technology that can be considered to adjust the carbon LTFT C5 olefins are mainly linear. Part or all of the C5 naphtha
number distribution. Historically, thermal cracking has been can be hydroisomerised to a good paraffinic motor-gasoline
considered for upgrading LTFT waxes to motor-gasoline.37 blending component. Hydrogenation is not a required feed
Thermal cracking produces a product with high linearity that is pretreatment step.27 The amount of isopentane that can be
rich in a-olefins. It has been pointed out that in comparison to blended into the motor-gasoline is limited by the vapour pressure
hydrocracking, the high linear a-olefin content from thermal specification. One would therefore prefer to rather include the
cracking makes it better suited for chemicals production, while C5 olefins as fuel ethers.
hydrocracking is better for fuels production.38 However, when (h) C3–C4 hydrocarbons. The best refining pathway for this
hydrocracking is compared to fluid catalytic cracking (FCC), the fraction is dependent on the technology selection employed for
latter seems to be better suited, especially for motor-gasoline the heavier material. If non-acidic Pt/L-zeolite based reforming is
production.2 The selection of the cracking technology directly used for C6 upgrading, the resultant benzene must be alkylated
influences the selection of the other refining units. Hydrocracking before it can be included in the motor-gasoline. For this purpose,
yields a paraffinic product, while FCC yields a mixture of the C3 olefins are ideal. One can also consider SPA based
paraffins, olefins and aromatics. oligomerisation with combined benzene alkylation for the whole
(b) C15–C22 distillate. Straight run LTFT distillate has a high C3–C4 cut.25 This does not address the upgrading of the paraffins.
cetane number, low density and poor cold flow properties. The Depending on the cracking technology used to convert the
main design decision that has to be made, is whether this material heavier LTFT material, a significant amount of C3–C4 paraffins
should be retained as distillate, or if it should be cracked with the may be produced. This material can be sold as LPG and some of
C23 and heavier fraction. In order to maximise motor-gasoline the butanes can be blended into the motor-gasoline. However, it
1186 | Energy Environ. Sci., 2011, 4, 1177–1205 This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2011
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is also possible to consider Ga- or Zn/H-ZSM-5 aromatisation, is transformed into a product that bears resemblance to HTFT
which can be employed instead of catalytic reforming for syncrude. On a philosophical level one has to question the
aromatics production. The use of H-ZSM-5 has been studied rationale of selecting an LTFT technology if motor-gasoline
extensively as method for the upgrading of the total LTFT refining benefits from HTFT syncrude. However, the trans-
syncrude, excluding wax, in order to improve the quality of the portation fuel yield (Table 10) and quality (Table 11) is high,
resulting naphtha for motor-gasoline production.41 despite the simplicity of the refinery design.
(i) Aqueous product. The alcohols in the LTFT aqueous This design (Fig. 6) again emphasises the robustness of the
product can be recovered and used in conjunction with an basic configuration that was employed for motor-gasoline
Published on 03 February 2011. Purchased by ben.powers@insitetechnical.com on 25 February 2024.
etherification technology. The alcohols may also be included production. As anticipated, the inclusion of an FCC improved
directly as a blending component in the motor-gasoline, but on the motor-gasoline yield (Table 10). The motor-gasoline is
account of the high methanol fraction, etherification is vapour pressure constrained, but meets all other specifications
a preferred strategy. (Table 11).
The kerosene (Table 11) is very aromatic and it is rich in
LTFT motor-gasoline refinery design cumene specifically, on account of the cumene unit. In order to
produce jet fuel from the kerosene, about half the aromatics must
The basic refining steps needed to ensure appropriate fuel be exported as chemicals. The significant aromatic production
quality, are not intrinsically linked to the steps required to also resulted in a large hydrogen excess in the refinery. These are
maximise quantity. The HTFT motor-gasoline refinery design in not drawbacks per se, but it points to an imbalance in the refinery
Fig. 5 can be employed without change for refining of LTFT design.
syncrude. The yield of motor-gasoline is much less (Table 8), A balanced refinery design must avoid the high vapour pres-
since residue/wax upgrading has not been included in the design. sure of the motor-gasoline, avoid the excessive aromatics
Nevertheless, the motor-gasoline and jet fuel are on-specification production and make use of the aqueous product. All of these
products (Table 9). actions would improve the volumetric motor-gasoline yield by
A direct comparison of Table 7 and Table 9 shows that HTFT allowing more butane to be blended into the motor-gasoline,
syncrude yields a better quality motor-gasoline than LTFT reducing the density and exploiting the alcohols in the aqueous
syncrude for the same refining effort. A salient point that needs
product.
to be highlighted, is the importance of olefins in the naphtha, The LTFT motor-gasoline refinery design presented in Fig. 7 is
without which it would not have been possible to meet the fuel more balanced and it exploits the syncrude and FCC product
specifications. This implies that Fe-LTFT will have a benefit over properties. Etherification of the branched C5 olefins in the FCC
Co-LTFT for motor-gasoline refining and that the deactivation naphtha reduced the vapour pressure of the motor-gasoline and
of the Fe-LTFT catalyst36 is actually beneficial from a syncrude made beneficial use of the alcohols from the aqueous product. In
quality perspective in this regard. Considering that half the this design only tertiary amyl methyl ether (TAME) was
LTFT syncrude has been excluded from this example, it is clear produced, but in principle a mixed ether product would take
that the selection of the residue (wax) conversion technology will better advantage of the LTFT alcohols. The more branched C6
significantly influence the syncrude composition that has to be naphtha from the FCC was hydroisomerised to reduce the feed
refined. Following on the previous observation, an olefin to the non-acidic Pt/L-zeolite based reformer. With less C6
producing conversion technology, such as FCC, would be better
reformer feed, benzene production was reduced, thereby making
for motor-gasoline production, corroborating the conclusions of more propylene available for oligomerisation. The FCC material
Choi and co-workers.2 increased the isobutene content of the C4 fraction and thereby
The LTFT refinery design shown in Fig. 6 is essentially the
same design as shown in Fig. 5, but includes FCC of the wax as
residue upgrading technology. By doing so, the LTFT syncrude Table 9 Selected transportation fuel properties of the products from
LTFT syncrude refining in the HTFT refinery design shown in Fig. 5
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Table 10 Product distribution from the LTFT motor-gasoline refinery In neither of the LTFT designs (Fig. 6 and 7) was any diesel
shown in Fig. 6. The transportation fuel yield is 81.4% fuel produced. This has been deliberate, since LTFT syncrude is
on a molecular level unsuited for EN590:2004 diesel fuel
Total producta Transportation
Product description (mass %) fuels (vol %) production.13 This is a consequence of the Fischer–Tropsch
density-cetane-yield triangle that makes it difficult to produce
hydrogen 0.9 — on-specification diesel fuel in high yield. This topic will be dis-
methane 0 — cussed in more detail in the section dealing with diesel fuel
fuel gas 8.5 —
liquid petroleum gas 4.4 — refining.
motor-gasoline (EN228) 49.6 62.7
jet fuel (Jet A-1) 31.8 37.3 Jet fuel refining
diesel fuel (EN590) 0 0
unrecovered organics 4.6 — Fuel specifications
water 0.2 —
a
Excludes H2, CO, CO2 and H2O from LTFT synthesis.
The jet fuel properties listed (Table 14) are only a subset of the
full DEFSTAN 91-91/Issue 6 specifications.22 With minor
differences, a similar set of Jet A-1 specifications can be found in
ASTM D1655.42 The properties that have been highlighted are
Table 11 Selected transportation fuel properties from the LTFT refinery those that affect refinery design the most. These properties can be
design shown in Fig. 6 related to the molecular properties of the fuel that must be
produced by the refinery.
Fuel property Refinery product Specification
Two types of Fischer–Tropsch derived jet fuel were qualified
Motor-gasoline EN228 for use as Jet A-1. Semi-synthetic jet fuel is a mixture of refined
research octane number 100 95 min Fischer–Tropsch derived and refined crude oil derived
motor octane number 93 85 min components. Fully synthetic jet fuel consists of only refined
density at 15 C (kg m3) 742 720–775
Reid vapour pressure 61 60 maxa
olefin content (vol %) 1.0 18 max
aromatic content (vol %) 34.9 35 max Table 12 Product distribution from the balanced LTFT motor-gasoline
oxygenate content (vol %) 0 15 max refinery shown in Fig. 7 that incorporates aqueous product work-up. The
benzene content (vol %) 0.5 1 max transportation fuel yield is 86.8%
Jet fuel Jet A-1
density at 15 C (kg m3) 801 775–840 Total producta Transportation
aromatic content (vol %) 44.1 8–25 Product description (mass %) fuels (vol %)
a
Dependent on the climate of the region where the fuel will be used.
hydrogen 0.4 —
methane 0 —
fuel gas 8.2 —
liquid petroleum gas 2.9 —
improved the quality of the hydrogenated motor-gasoline from motor-gasoline (EN228) 61.2 71.8
SPA oligomerisation.26 jet fuel (Jet A-1) 25.6 28.2
diesel fuel (EN590) 0 0
The motor-gasoline yield (Table 12) from the refinery design unrecovered organics 3.2 —
shown in Fig. 7 is higher than that of the design shown in Fig. 6 water 0.2 —
(Table 10). This was achieved with only a small increase in refinery methanol (imported) -1.7 —
complexity. The fuel quality issues were also resolved and the a
Excludes H2, CO, CO2 and H2O from LTFT synthesis.
motor-gasoline and jet fuel meet specifications (Table 13).
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Table 13 Selected transportation fuel properties from the balanced Carbon number distribution
LTFT motor-gasoline refinery design shown in Fig. 7
The carbon number range of jet fuel is directly and indirectly
Fuel property Refinery product Specification regulated. The upper limit is set by the final boiling point spec-
ification (300 C; about n-C17), while the lower limit is set indi-
Motor-gasoline EN228
research octane number 99 95 min rectly by the density and viscosity specifications. In refining
motor octane number 91 85 min practice the kerosene boiling range is typically 160–260 C, which
density at 15 C (kg m3) 728 720–775 covers the carbon number range C10–C15 and overlaps with both
Reid vapour pressure 57 60 maxa
naphtha and distillate. The specifications allow a wider cut to be
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material in HTFT syncrude, but LTFT syncrude contains very (a) Adjust the carbon number distribution to maximise
little cyclic material. kerosene.
Selected properties of some kerosene range hydrocarbons are (b) Synthesise appropriate kerosene range aromatics and/or
given in Table 15.24,43 From this data it is clear that cyclic cyclo-paraffins to meet aromatics and density specifications.
hydrocarbons are essential to meet the lower density limit (775 kg (c) Skeletally isomerise the linear hydrocarbons to lower their
m3) of the jet fuel specification. It is also quite apparent that freezing point.
aliphatic hydrocarbons in the kerosene boiling range requires (d) Hydrogenate the kerosene to reduce the olefin and
some branching to meet the maximum freezing point (47 C) oxygenate content.
Published on 03 February 2011. Purchased by ben.powers@insitetechnical.com on 25 February 2024.
specification. Mono-methyl branching is usually sufficient to These steps are common to all Fischer–Tropsch derived feed
lower the freezing point of the mixture sufficiently for jet fuel use. materials. In principle it should be possible to design a refinery
Carboxylic acids must be removed from the kerosene, as well for maximum jet fuel production with only four conversion
as oxygenate classes that may result in gum formation, such as steps.44 This disregards aqueous product work-up and the quality
carbonyl compounds. The jet fuel specifications discuss requirements of other fuel types.
contamination of jet fuel with fatty acid methyl esters (FAME)
and make provision for maximum 5 mg g1 FAME. Unless Technology selection
pre-qualified, like phenolic antioxidants, the jet fuel specifica-
tions disallow oxygenates. The key conversion technologies that have been identified for jet
Olefins are detrimental to fuel stability and although jet fuel fuel refining from Fischer–Tropsch syncrude are aromatic
may contain olefins, olefins are not deliberately included. alkylation, oligomerisation, hydrotreating, aromatisation (cata-
lytic reforming) and hydrocracking (and by implication associ-
ated hydroisomerisation).44 Many of the comments made when
HTFT jet fuel refinery design technology selection was discussed for motor-gasoline refining
The production of jet fuel is the least demanding of the three are valid for jet fuel refining too.
main transportation fuels and does not require much refining (a) C2 hydrocarbons. Aromatic alkylation with ethylene can be
effort to achieve specification. The basic refining steps that are employed to shift the boiling range of naphtha range aromatics
needed to produce maximum jet fuel from syncrude are: to the kerosene range. Such a conversion would typically operate
at higher olefin to aromatic feed ratio than is normally found in
aromatic alkylation processes. There is no convenient refining
pathway to convert ethane to jet fuel.
Table 15 Physical properties relevant to jet fuel production of selected
kerosene range hydrocarbon compounds.24,43 (b) C3 hydrocarbons. Oligomerisation of propylene over SPA
and in combination with aromatics, is ideal for jet fuel produc-
Boiling Density, Freezing Flash tion.25 An added advantage of this technology is that it increases
Compound point ( C) 15 C (kg m3) point ( C) point ( C) refinery flexibility. The light kerosene range material can also be
Linear paraffins used as a high-octane motor-gasoline blending component.
n-nonane 150.8 721.9 53.5 31.1 Other oligomerisation technologies may be considered too.
n-decane 174.2 734.2 29.6 46.1 Propane can be sold directly, or converted to aromatics with an
n-undecane 195.9 744.5 25.6 65.0 appropriate aromatisation technology.
n-dodecane 216.3 752.7 9.6 73.9
n-tridecane 235.2 761.7 5.4 — (c) C4 hydrocarbons. Butene oligomerisation over SPA is
n-tetradecane 253.8 763.3 5.9 100.0 useful for the production of high-octane hydrogenated motor-
n-pentadecane 270.7 772.2 9.9 — gasoline. Some kerosene is co-produced during this process, but
Branched paraffins
2-methyloctane 143.3 717.7 80.4 —
it is not a preferred technology to maximise kerosene. For
2-methylnonane 167.0 730.6 74.7 — maximum kerosene production, the butenes should rather be
2-methyldecane 189.9 736.9a 49.5 — oligomerised over other types of acid catalysts, such as amor-
2-methylundecane 210.2 745.6a 46 — phous silica-alumina (ASA) or H-ZSM-5 to boost the kerosene
2-methyldodecane 229.4 753.3a 26 —
2-methyltridecane 247.4 760.4a 26.5 — production. The motor-gasoline quality from ASA is better than
2-methyltetradecane 264 766a 8.9 — that of H-ZSM-5 and may therefore be preferred. The tech-
Cyclo-paraffins nology selection for C4 olefins is very important, since it consti-
propylcyclohexane 156.7 793.6a 94.9 —
tutes around 10% of HTFT syncrude. Aromatic alkylation is
butylcyclohexane 177 799a 79 —
pentylcyclohexane 203 804a 57.5 — a less preferred refining pathway.
hexylcyclohexane 224 808a 43 — (d) C5 naphtha. The C5 hydrocarbons are primarily motor-
Aromatics gasoline components, with hydroisomerisation yielding high-
n-propylbenzene 159.2 868.3 99.5 30.0
n-butylbenzene 183.3 866.0 88.0 71.1 octane C5 isomerate. However, in order to increase kerosene
n-pentylbenzene 205.4 862.9 75.0 — production it may be preferable to oligomerise the pentenes, or to
n-hexylbenzene 226.1 862.1 61.0 82.9 employ them for aromatic alkylation.
cumene 152.4 868.5 96.0 43.9 (e) C6 naphtha. The two obvious upgrading pathways for the
p-cymene 177.1 860.7 67.9 47.2
sec-butylbenzene 173.3 866.2 75.5 52.2 C6 naphtha are hydroisomerisation and aromatisation. The
p-diethylbenzene 183.8 866.3 42.8 56.7 former results in a product destined exclusively for motor-
a gasoline, while the latter results in the production of aromatics
Density at 20 C.
that can be refined to jet fuel. Since the aim is to produce
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Furthermore, the aromatic rich nature of the motor-gasoline and Table 17 Selected transportation fuel properties from the HTFT jet fuel
jet fuel causes these fuels to have a high density and thereby it refinery design shown in Fig. 9
reduces the volumetric yield of the refinery. The density is further Fuel property Refinery product Specification
increased by the product from ASA oligomerisation, which
contains some cyclo-paraffins. This affects the economics of the Motor-gasoline EN228
refinery, since fuels are sold on a volumetric basis and not research octane number 97 95 min
motor octane number 89 85 min
a gravimetric basis. The carbon efficiency benefit derived from density at 15 C (kg m3) 767 720–775
cryogenic separation and aqueous product refining is therefore Reid vapour pressure 56 60 maxa
Published on 03 February 2011. Purchased by ben.powers@insitetechnical.com on 25 February 2024.
only partially translated into an economic benefit. olefin content (vol %) 6.5 18 max
When cryogenic separation and aqueous product work-up are aromatic content (vol %) 35.0 35 max
oxygenate content (vol %) 10.9 15 max
omitted to simplify the refinery at the expense of carbon effi- benzene content (vol %) 1.0 1 max
ciency, a less constrained design is possible (Fig. 10). Combined Jet fuel Jet A-1
SPA alkylation and oligomerisation favours jet fuel production density at 15 C (kg m3) 791 775–840
aromatic content (vol %) 24.0 8–25
and it improves the quality of the C8 and lighter motor-gasoline
a
fraction. Dependent on the climate of the region where the fuel will be used.
The product yield (Table 18) indicates that jet fuel is the main
product, with both the motor-gasoline and jet fuel meeting fuel
specifications (Table 19).
No diesel fuel is produced in either jet fuel refinery designs
(Fig. 9 and 10). It is possible to produce some diesel fuel if
required, by lowering the hydrocracking severity and not recy-
cling material in the C15–C22 range to the hydrocracker. As
a natural consequence of the carbon number distribution of the
HTFT syncrude, the diesel fuel yield will be low, but it can meet
EN590:2004 diesel fuel specifications.
Table 16 Product distribution from the HTFT jet fuel refinery shown Table 18 Product distribution from the HTFT jet fuel refinery shown in
in Fig. 9, which includes cryogenic separation and aqueous product Fig. 10, which does not include cryogenic separation or aqueous product
work-up. The transportation fuel yield is 69.4% work-up. The transportation fuel yield is 61.2%
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Table 19 Selected transportation fuel properties from the HTFT jet fuel and H-ZSM-5 catalysts are able to convert this feed material to
refinery design shown in Fig. 10 mainly distillate range products. However, the straight run
Fuel property Refinery product Specification
LTFT syncrude contains little C6–C8 olefins. The additional
C6–C8 material form hydrocracking of the heavier syncrude
Motor-gasoline EN228 fractions is paraffinic. It is therefore better to consider aromati-
research octane number 98 95 min sation that can convert olefins and paraffins. Although catalytic
motor octane number 89 85 min
density at 15 C (kg m3) 746 720–775 reforming employing a non-acidic Pt/L-zeolite based catalyst is
Reid vapour pressure 59 60 maxa a good technology fit, the overall aromatics requirements of the
Published on 03 February 2011. Purchased by ben.powers@insitetechnical.com on 25 February 2024.
olefin content (vol %) 17.0 18 max refinery may suggest the use of an aromatisation technology that
aromatic content (vol %) 31.0 35 max can also convert lighter paraffins. Selecting a technology based
oxygenate content (vol %) 0.0 15 max
benzene content (vol %) 0.7 1 max on metal promoted H-ZSM-5 may not be the most efficient for
Jet fuel Jet A-1 C6–C8 conversion, but it allows a single conversion unit to
density at 15 C (kg m3) 778 775–840 upgrade the lighter paraffinic products from both hydrocracking
aromatic content (vol %) 24.7 8–25
and straight run syncrude.
a
Dependent on the climate of the region where the fuel will be used. (f) C5 naphtha. When motor-gasoline is co-produced with jet
fuel, the conversion of the C5 naphtha may be dictated by motor-
gasoline quality rather than jet fuel production. There is not
focus. It has also been pointed out that the same conversion a single conversion technology that can be singled out as the best.
technologies that are important for HTFT syncrude refining to Hydroisomerisation, etherification, aromatic alkylation, oligo-
jet fuel are important for LTFT syncrude, namely aromatic merisation, aromatisation and direct inclusion of the straight run
alkylation, oligomerisation, hydrotreating, aromatisation and material should all be evaluated within the context of a specific
hydrocracking/hydroisomerisation.44 refinery design.
(a) Residue/wax (C23 and heavier). Hydrocracking is a tech- (g) C3–C4 hydrocarbons. Aromatic alkylation with C3–C4
nology that is ideally suited for jet fuel production. It adjusts the olefins is important to reduce refinery benzene and to shift
carbon number distribution by cracking and it hydoisomerises aromatics into the kerosene boiling range. The process for
(hydrogenates and isomerises) the linear hydrocarbons to combined aromatic alkylation and olefin oligomerisation
introduce branching and reduce the olefin and oxygenate emerged as an useful technology for this purpose.25 The amount
content. The level of hydroisomerisation activity is determined of C3–C4 paraffins in the refinery is typically more than suggested
by the hydrocracking catalyst, which should be judiciously by the composition of the LTFT syncrude. During hydro-
selected. It has been shown that a branched to linear paraffin cracking C3–C4 paraffins are inevitably produced. Aromatisation
ratio in the kerosene range of around 1 : 1 to 2 : 1 is sufficient to of this material is a convenient way of converting the liquid
meet the freezing point specification of jet fuel, but that a more petroleum gas fraction into aromatics-rich liquid products.
isomerised kerosene allows more and heavier material to be (h) Aqueous product. The alcohols in the LTFT aqueous
included.45 product can be recovered and co-refined if an appropriate oli-
(b) C15–C22 distillate. In order to maximise the production of gomerisation technology has been selected.
kerosene, this fraction can be hydrocracked with the wax. A high
hydroisomerisation activity of the hydrocracking catalyst is
Jet fuel refinery design
critical to the refining of this fraction, which can easily be over-
cracked to naphtha. With a very isomerising catalyst, material up It does not require a complicated refinery design (Fig. 11) to
to C17/C18 can be included in the jet fuel, as illustrated by the produce jet fuel in high yield (Table 20) from LTFT syncrude.
Syntroleum S-5, whereas a low level of isomerisation limits The two main jet fuel components, namely branched paraffins
inclusion to C13/C14, as in the case of Sasol Slurry Phase Distil- and alkyl aromatics, are easily produced. However, in the
late derived kerosene.45 absence of a high-octane paraffinic base stock for motor-gasoline
(c) C11–C14 kerosene. The same comments as for C15–C22 production, the design in Fig. 11 yields an aromatic rich naphtha
distillate applies. This material should only be isomerised and not (Table 21) that is better suited for chemicals production than for
cracked. Although hydroisomerisation can be performed in fuels refining.
a hydrocracking unit, it is important that the feed be introduced A different refining approach is called for if both the jet fuel
closer to the bottom of the hydrocracking catalyst bed in order to and the motor-gasoline are to be on-specification products. This
reduce cracking losses. is a motor-gasoline refining challenge and changes in the refinery
(d) C9–C10 naphtha. Mild hydroisomerisation is beneficial for design should focus on the production of high-octane paraffins.
this fraction, but not essential for the C9 naphtha. The same Analysis of the design in Fig. 11 shows that 68% of the jet fuel is
comments as for C11–C14 kerosene applies and when the produced by hydrocracking. The kerosene yield from this unit
hydroisomerisation is performed in a hydrocracker, the feed dictates the aromatics requirement in order to meet the jet fuel
must be introduced close to the bottom of the catalyst bed. density and aromatics specifications. The other units that
(e) C6–C8 naphtha. The two main technologies that can be produce aliphatic components for jet fuel are minor contributors.
considered are oligomerisation and aromatisation. In both Selecting different technologies for naphtha upgrading is there-
instances, the specific technology selection is important. The fore unlikely to cause a significant change in kerosene yield.
choice depends on the olefin content and aromatics deficiency of The same refinery design as shown in Fig. 10, but with
the refinery design. Oligomerisation technologies based on ASA a slightly different separation configuration, was employed with
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Table 22 Product distribution from the LTFT jet fuel refinery shown in
Fig. 12, which is very similar to the HTFT design in Fig. 10. The trans-
portation fuel yield is 76.6%
hydrogen 0.0 —
methane 0.0 —
fuel gas 7.4 —
Published on 03 February 2011. Purchased by ben.powers@insitetechnical.com on 25 February 2024.
Table 23 Selected transportation fuel properties from the LTFT jet fuel
Table 21 Selected transportation fuel properties from the uncompli- refinery design shown in Fig. 12
cated LTFT jet fuel refinery design shown in Fig. 11
Fuel property Refinery product Specification
Fuel property Refinery product Specification
Motor-gasoline EN228
Motor-gasoline EN228 research octane number 95 95 min
research octane number 92 95 min motor octane number 88 85 min
motor octane number 84 85 min density at 15 C (kg m3) 744 720–775
density at 15 C (kg m3) 807 720–775 Reid vapour pressure 62 60 maxa
Reid vapour pressure 16 60 maxa olefin content (vol %) 2.9 18 max
olefin content (vol %) 9.1 18 max aromatic content (vol %) 34.2 35 max
aromatic content (vol %) 62.7 35 max oxygenate content (vol %) 0.0 15 max
oxygenate content (vol %) 0.0 15 max benzene content (vol %) 0.7 1 max
benzene content (vol %) 0.2 1 max Jet fuel Jet A-1
Jet fuel Jet A-1 density at 15 C (kg m3) 777 775–840
density at 15 C (kg m3) 784 775–840 aromatic content (vol %) 18.3 8–25
aromatic content (vol %) 24.0 8–25
a
a
Dependent on the climate of the region where the fuel will be used.
Dependent on the climate of the region where the fuel will be used.
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Table 25 Combined hydroisomerisation-hydrotreating of straight run HTFT vacuum gas oil (VGO), which contains both distillate and residue (C10–
C36) and heavy vacuum gas oil (HVGO), which is the heavier VGO fraction, but still contains 64% distillate. The operating conditions were 5 MPa and
liquid hourly space velocity of 0.5 h1, with the different operating temperatures being indicated. The different hydroisomerisation catalysts are indicated
Operating conditions
hydroisomerisation catalyst M/ZSM-5a M/ZSM-5a M/ZSM-5a NiMo/ASA NiW/zeo1a NiW/zeo2a PtMo/ASA PtMo/ASA PtMo/ASA
HTFT feed VGO VGO VGO HVGO HVGO HVGO HVGO HVGO HVGO
pre-hydrotreating T/ C — — — 250 250 250 — 200b 200b
hydroisomerisation T/ C
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branching, which may have the added benefit of increasing the A detailed discussion on the molecular requirements for
density somewhat. Introducing branching, rather than obtaining diesel fuel and strategies to produce diesel fuel from Fischer–
a specific degree of branching, is usually sufficient to improve the Tropsch syncrude has been presented in literature.13 The
cold flow properties of distillate. compound classes that are desirable from this point of view are
Straight run syncrude inherently has good lubricity, which is alkyl cyclo-paraffins and oxygenates. Diesel fuel quality is also
lost on severe hydrotreating. This may be corrected by reducing improved by co-producing jet fuel, but clearly at the expense of
the severity of hydroprocessing, or by making use of lubricity diesel yield, as indicated by the density-cetane-yield triangle.
additives. The strategies involving alkyl aromatics that were suggested for
jet fuel refining are not necessarily as applicable to diesel fuel
refining, since the accompanying decrease in the cetane number
HTFT diesel fuel refinery design
is difficult to offset.‡‡
The refinery designs presented for maximum motor-gasoline and
maximum jet fuel production, co-produced little if any diesel Technology selection
fuel. Only the HTFT motor-gasoline refinery shown in Fig. 4 was
able to co-produce on-specification diesel fuel. There are no commercially available refining technologies with
Distillate can be produced in high yield from HTFT syncrude the specific aim of increasing distillate density while retaining an
by oligomerisation of the olefin-rich gaseous (C3–C4) and acceptable cetane number. This is less of a problem for refining of
naphtha (C5–C10) fractions. The overall distillate yield may be HTFT syncrude, since the straight run distillate and residue
further improved by converting the aqueous product to olefins fractions possess sufficient density on account of their high
and cracking the HTFT residue. However, this only addresses aromatic content.
yield, not quality. (a) Distillate (C11–C22) and residue (C23 and heavier). Some of
The Fischer–Tropsch density-cetane-yield triangle suggests the hydroisomerisation-hydrotreating configurations that were
that diesel fuel yield and quality are intrinsically linked. Here the reported (Table 25)15 are able to produce on-specification diesel
challenge emerges. In crude oil refining the aim is to decrease fuel from HTFT syncrude. This is the only report in literature
distillate density and increase cetane number, which can be that shows how HTFT syncrude can be refined to EN590:2004
achieved by a combination of hydrodearomatisation (HDA) and
selective ring opening.46 These two effects are synergistic. In ‡‡ Most alkyl benzenes have densities around 860–870 kg m3 and
a paraffinic distillate typically has a density around 770–780 kg m3. In
Fischer–Tropsch refining the aim is to increase the density, but order to meet the EN590:2004 minimum density specification of 820 kg
not at the expense of cetane number. These effects are opposing. m3, an equal volume blend is required. Unless the cetane number
When diesel yield is not maximised, it is possible to produce deficiency of the alkyl benzenes are less than the cetane number surplus
of the paraffinic distillate, the blend will not meet the EN590:2004
diesel fuel meeting EN590:2004 specifications by hydro-
minimum cetane number specification of 51. This is applicable to
isomerisation-hydrotreating of the HTFT distillate and residue distillates from olefin oligomerisation of HTFT and LTFT syncrude, as
fractions (Table 25).15 well as straight run and hydrocracking derived LTFT distillate.
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diesel fuel without resorting to blending or co-refining with Table 27 Selected fuel properties of some alkyl aromatics produced by
non-HTFT feed material. alkylation with C2–C4 olefins
(b) C9–C10 naphtha. The most efficient refining pathway for Density Cetane
this cut is to convert it into jet fuel. The C9 fraction only needs to Compound (kg m3)a number RON MON
by hydrotreated, while the C10 fraction can benefit from some
hydroisomerisation. This can be achieved by co-processing this ethylbenzene 874.4 8 107.4 97.9
m-diethylbenzene 868.3 9 >115 97.0
material with the heavier fraction. cumene 868.5 15 113 99.3
(c) C2–C4 hydrocarbons and C5–C8 naphtha. Technology p-cymene 860.7 2 110.5 97.7
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selection for these fractions are determined by balancing two sec-butylbenzene 866.2 6 106.8 95.7
different objectives. The first objective is to produce additional tert-butylbenzene 870.7 1 >115 107.4
distillate range material that can be blended with the base stock a
Density at 15 C.
diesel fuel (Table 25) to increase diesel fuel yield while still
meeting diesel fuel specifications. For this purpose refining
technologies can be selected based on either the cetane number or
Diesel fuel refinery design
the density benefit. The second objective is to ensure that the
other fuel types are of sufficient quality to meet motor-gasoline The refining of diesel fuel from HTFT syncrude has the advan-
and jet fuel specifications. Judicious selection of technologies tage that the diesel fuel derived from hydroprocessing of the
that are also important for motor-gasoline and jet fuel produc- straight run distillate and residue fractions meets EN590:2004
tion from C2–C8 material are therefore key to maximising diesel density and cetane number specifications. This attribute was
fuel yield without undermining the quality of the other trans- exploited to produce on-specification diesel fuel in the design
portation fuel types. These technologies are olefin oligomerisa- shown in Fig. 4.
tion and aromatic alkylation. The properties of the products Unless new refining technology is developed specifically for
from olefin oligomerisation depend on the catalyst and in some Fischer–Tropsch syncrude to overcome the restrictions of the
instances on the feed (Table 26).14,47 The trade-offs are complex, density-cetane-yield triangle, or an external source of distillate is
since motor-gasoline and jet fuel quality do not necessarily go blended in, the Fischer–Tropsch derived diesel yield can only be
hand-in-hand with diesel fuel quality. Furthermore, no oligo- increased by adding distillate that is deficient in either density or
merisation technology has a clear cetane number or density cetane number until the specification limit is reached. The
benefit. Aromatic alkylation products generally have good volume of distillate that can be blended increases as the deficient
motor-octane and jet fuel properties and have a consistently high property of the distillate is closer to the specification limit. The
density, but low cetane numbers (Table 27). Technology selection design of an HTFT diesel fuel refinery therefore relies heavily on
is consequently driven by the selection of the alkylating olefin. the application of the lever-rule for density and cetane number.
Alkylation with longer chain olefins are possible and should in For example, when cumene (Table 27) is employed to increase
principle improve the cetane number of the alkyl aromatics, but the density of H-ZSM-5 distillate (Table 26), it is not possible to
it is doubtful whether it would ever make economic sense to produce a blend that is not deficient in either density or cetane
synthesise linear alkyl benzenes (LABs) for use as diesel fuel number. Unless this deficiency can be offset against the diesel fuel
extenders. At best one may consider adapting standard aromatic base stock, this combination of technologies cannot be used to
alkylation technology for use with C5–C6 olefins, which are the increase diesel fuel yield.
longest chain olefins with a low cracking propensity. There is consequently limited scope to increase diesel yield
(d) Aqueous product. The refining of the aqueous product is with the refining technologies that would typically be considered
mainly linked to the refining requirements for meeting motor- for HTFT refining (Fig. 14). Nevertheless, the base stock that can
gasoline and jet fuel specifications. be produced by different hydroprocessing configurations (Table
25) can be selected in such a way that a combination of H-ZSM-5
Table 26 Olefin oligomerisation technologies evaluated with HTFT
oligomers and alkyl benzenes can be blended in (Fig. 15). Co-
feed. Depending on the unit configuration, a distillate yield of around production of jet fuel is critical to the success of such a refinery
70% is possible design, since it reduces the density and cetane number deficiency.
Ethylene is beneficially employed for aromatic alkylation
Property ASA SPAa H-ZSM-5
(Fig. 15), which makes the propylene available for oligomerisa-
Technology attributes tion. In order to make use of the ethylene the gas loop includes
sensitivity to feed Moderate High Moderate cryogenic separation. Refining the aqueous product further
suitability for distillate Good Poor Good increases the availability of material for H-ZSM-5 oligomerisa-
feed range in C2–C8 cut C3–C8 C3–C5 C3–C8
Distillate properties tion and further improves the carbon efficiency of the design. The
density at 20 C (kg m3) 809-816 765 780–801 C3 and heavier alcohols can either be used directly, or may be
cetane number 28–37 34 51–56 dried/dehydrated before use. The amount of heavy distillate from
viscosity at 40 C (cSt) 2.8–3.6 1.2 2.4–2.5 H-ZSM-5 oligomerisation contributes to the overall diesel yield
a
SPA oligomerisation with heavier feed materials have been evaluated, that can be obtained (Table 28).
but SPA is mechanistically poorly suited for the conversion of such The upgrading of the C5 naphtha is central to meeting the
feed and is very sensitive to the oxygenate content of the feed. The
motor-gasoline specifications, since the H-ZSM-5 derived
distillate properties are those reported for commercial operation with
C3–C5 feed. naphtha has poor motor-gasoline properties compared to SPA
derived naphtha.47 The naphtha from hydroisomerisation and
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Table 28 Product distribution from the HTFT diesel fuel refinery shown
in Fig. 15. The transportation fuel yield is 68.7%
hydrogen 0.1 —
methane 12.7 —
fuel gas 6.3 —
liquid petroleum gas 6.1 —
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illustrates this limitation, although it also demonstrates that hydroisomerisation-hydrotreating of LTFT syncrude produces
some on-specification diesel fuel can be obtained from HTFT a distillate with low density (<780 kg m3) and high cetane
syncrude. This restriction on diesel fuel yield does not apply number (>70). The distillate base stock is consequently available
when the diesel fuel specification does not include a minimum in good yield, but requires ‘‘densification’’ to meet the
density specification. It has been shown that a distillate yield of EN590:2004 specifications.
40–50% on total syncrude is possible with only oligomerisation Of the refining technologies that are commercially available,
and hydrocracking.13,50 only alkyl benzene synthesis in combination with jet fuel
production can potentially yield on-specification EN590:2004
LTFT diesel fuel refinery design
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LTFT diesel fuel (refer to Fig. 14, applying the lever-rule). This
requires the synthesis of sufficient aromatics and olefins for
Not a single LTFT refinery presented thus far (Fig. 6, 7, 11 and
aromatic alkylation. The final diesel blend would have to contain
12) was designed produced diesel fuel as a product. These were
around 40–50% alkyl aromatics. The LTFT syncrude does not
deliberate design decisions that were motivated by the constraint
have sufficient naphtha range material for this and the technology
imposed by the Fischer–Tropsch density-cetane-yield triangle.
selection must therefore take this deficiency into consideration.
This may seem surprising considering the commonly held
(a) Residue/wax (C23 and heavier). In all modern LTFT-based
perception that LTFT technology is ideally suited for diesel fuel
gas-to-liquids facilities, hydrocracking is employed for wax
production. This is unfortunately a consequence of the inter-
refining.1 The resulting distillate is a blending material for diesel
changeable colloquial use of the terms ‘‘distillate’’ (boiling range)
fuel. In order to produce on-specification EN590:2004 diesel fuel,
and ‘‘diesel fuel’’ (distillate meeting legislated fuel specifications).
the volume of LTFT distillate must be balanced with the volume
Producing a high yield of distillate from LTFT syncrude is not
of alkyl aromatics that is required to meet both diesel fuel and jet
difficult. It has been shown that a distillate yield of 60–70% on
fuel specifications. Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) of the wax is
a total syncrude basis is achievable with only two conversion
consequently preferred over hydrocracking, because it generates
units, oligomerisation and hydrocracking.13 In order to produce
olefins for alkylation and sufficient naphtha for aromatisation.
EN590:2004 compliant diesel fuel in high yield, the challenge is to
When the minimum density specifications for diesel fuel is less
meet the quality requirements of the distillate. In this respect it is
demanding, the FCC can be operated at lower severity, or
necessary to increase the density of the distillate without
hydrocracking can be considered for some or all of the C23 and
decreasing the cetane number too much.
heavier material.
On a molecular level the compound classes that will result in
(b) C11–C22 distillate. The straight run distillate has to be
improved density are cyclo-paraffins, oxygenates and alkyl
hydroisomerised to improve its cold flow properties and
aromatics. Of these, the alkyl aromatics are the least preferred,
stability. The isomerised C15–C22 fraction then forms the
due to its negative impact on the cetane number of the resulting
distillate base stock for diesel fuel production, while the C11–
diesel fuel blend. The refining strategies that were suggested to
C14 fraction forms the base stock for jet fuel production. Mild
meet EN590:2004 diesel fuel specifications in many instances
hydrocracking can also be considered, with some of the lighter
require technology development or blending with non-Fischer–
waxy material being co-fed. Mild hydrocracking is especially
Tropsch feed materials:13
attractive when the refinery design targets diesel fuel specifica-
(a) Cyclo-paraffin synthesis. Not a commercial technology
tions that is less restrictive in terms of minimum density
from LTFT syncrude.
requirements.
(b) Alkyl benzene synthesis. Requires aromatics that have to
(c) C9–C10 naphtha. This cut can be hydroisomerised with the
be produced in the refinery. Alkylation with longer chain olefins
straight run distillate to form part of the base stock for jet fuel
is preferred to reduce the cetane number penalty. Yet, it is
production. Depending on the choice of aromatisation tech-
unlikely that linear alkyl benzene synthesis can be justified for
nology, this cut may also be employed as feed for the catalytic
fuels use.
reformer.
(c) Alcohol recovery and conversion. Alcohols and ethers can
(d) C6–C8 naphtha. The preferred aromatisation technology is
be used as diesel fuel extenders,51 but have insufficient density to
non-acidic Pt/L-zeolite based catalytic reforming and this is an
meet EN590:2004 specifications.xx
ideal feed for conversion into aromatics. The high benzene
(d) Jet fuel production. This comes at the expense of diesel fuel
selectivity from C6 naphtha is beneficial, since it facilitates alkyl
yield, but helps to improve the density and cetane number of the
benzene production. The volume of straight run naphtha is
distillate base stock.
augmented by the C6–C8 products from wax cracking.
(e) Oligomerisation. This has little value for LTFT diesel fuel
(e) C5 naphtha. The refining pathway will be dictated mainly
production, since it exacerbates the quality problem.
by motor-gasoline refining needs. Etherification of the branched
(f) Co-refining of pyrolysis liquids. Only an option in a coal-to-
pentenes from fluid catalytic cracking of wax is a preferred
liquids facility with low temperature coal gasification.
technology. It not only produces a high-octane motor-gasoline
(g) Biofuel addition. Beneficial, but like all blending solutions,
blending component, but also a C5 raffinate rich in n-pentenes,
it requires access to a non-Fischer–Tropsch feed.xx
which may be beneficially employed as alkylating olefin for alkyl
benzene production. The remainder of the C5 fraction can be
Technology selection
hydroisomerised to produce a high-octane motor-gasoline
Much of the discussion on technology selection for diesel fuel component.
refining from HTFT syncrude also applies to LTFT syncrude. (f) C3–C4 hydrocarbons. The C3–C4 olefins are useful for the
The main difference is that the combined hydrocracking- production of alkyl benzenes. Although cumene and butyl
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Motor-gasoline EN228
research octane number 95 95 min
motor octane number 87 85 min
density at 15 C (kg m3) 739 720–775
Reid vapour pressure 60 60 maxa
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Table 32 Benefit-cost analysis of investments in Fischer–Tropsch and crude oil refining. The refinery cost is expressed as a fraction (x) of the total cost
of feed-to-syncrude conversion (C). The feed (z) and product (y) prices are expressed in terms of the crude oil price (B)
Nothing 0 — 0 — — —
No refinery C 0 (1 z)$B 0 (1 z)$B/C —
Refinery (1 + x)$C x$C (y z)$B (y 1)$B (y 1)$B/x$C (y 1)$B/x$C
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a
For the overall Fischer–Tropsch facility relative to no investment the incremental D(Benefit)/D(Cost) ¼ (y z)$B/(1 + x)$C.
consequently misguided. To put this another way, 85–90% of the reformer. Depending on the tail gas composition it may be
capital cost in a Fischer–Tropsch facility is required to transform employed either as reformer feed, or as fuel gas.
the carbon source (natural gas, coal, biomass, waste) into Since the gas loop determines the extent of H2 and methane re-
synthetic crude oil. Saving capital cost in the refinery design at use, refining efficiency cannot be completely decoupled from gas
the expense of carbon efficiency has to be offset against the loop design. In order to establish at least some reasonable basis
capital cost that was required to produce that carbon in the for comparison, the yield of transportation fuels from the
syncrude. This is a very different situation to crude oil refinery different refinery designs have been expressed on a hydrogen-
design, where the total capital cost of the facility is that of the and methane-free basis when the gas loop includes cryogenic
refinery. Engineering decisions in Fischer–Tropsch refining must separation (Table 33). Irrespective of whether cryogenic sepa-
take cognisance of this difference. ration forms part of the gas loop or not, all designs generated
To illustrate the point, it is useful to refer to benefit-cost some fuel gas and its potential beneficial effect has not been taken
analysis theory.52 Benefit-cost analysis (Table 32) of Fischer– into account in the same way.
Tropsch and crude oil refining indicates that the same incre- From Table 33 it is clear that HTFT syncrude refineries require
mental benefit-cost relationship applies to both refinery types if both cryogenic separation and aqueous product workup to ach-
the investment in syncrude production is disregarded, but not ieve good carbon efficiency. In this respect refining of LTFT
when the total project is considered. syncrude has an inherent benefit. Purely on a transportation fuel
The same principle can be employed to express the refinery yield basis, it seems that LTFT syncrude has better refinery carbon
capital cost that can be justified as fraction of the capital cost of efficiency than HTFT syncrude. However, this does not take the
Fischer–Tropsch based feed-to-syncrude conversion. It is the energy efficiency of the conversion units into account. Conversion
ratio of the benefit obtained during refining (price difference units that are energy demanding may reduce the overall carbon
between transportation fuel and crude oil) and the benefit efficiency. Likewise, the separation complexity implied by each
obtained during syncrude production (price difference between refinery design may have an impact on the overall carbon effi-
crude oil and raw material, e.g. coal). ciency. Furthermore, the yield of transportation fuels should not
be confused with the overall product yield, since products such as
Carbon efficiency liquid petroleum gas have not been reported in Table 33.
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Table 33 Summary of fuels refinery designs and yields, taking the impact of Fischer–Tropsch gas loop on recycling of hydrogen and methane into account. The influence of imported fuel chemicals,
such as methanol, ethanol and FAME have also been reported
Motor-gasoline
HTFT, Fig. 4 10 8 Yes Yes 84.7 1.12 0.79 0.24 0.10 0.0 0.0
HTFT, Fig. 5d 6 5 No No 60.0 0.80 0.61 0.17 0.02 0.2 0.0
LTFT, Fig. 5d 6 5 No No 36.5 0.48 0.13 0.18 0.17 0.0 0.0
LTFT, Fig. 6d 7 6 No No 81.4 1.07 0.67 0.40 0.00 0.9 0.0
LTFT, Fig. 7 8 7 No Yes 85.7 1.13 0.83 0.33 0.00 0.4 1.7
Jet fuel
HTFT, Fig. 9 8 8 Yes Yes 79.5 1.01 0.26 0.76 0.00 0.1 0.0
HTFT, Fig. 10 6 5 No No 61.2 0.80 0.24 0.55 0.00 0.1 0.0
LTFT, Fig. 11d 4 4 No No 84.5 1.07 0.27 0.80 0.00 0.5 0.0
LTFT, Fig. 12 6 5 No No 76.6 1.00 0.26 0.73 0.00 0.0 0.0
Diesel fuel
HTFT, Fig. 15 8 7 Yes Yes 77.9 1.02 0.53 0.22 0.25 0.1 0.9
LTFT, Fig. 16 8 7 No No 84.8 1.11 0.44 0.36 0.30 0.8 1.5
a
When two units perform the same task and can theoretically be combined into a single unit, it is considered a single unit type, for example hydrogenation of naphtha and olefins. Partial hydrogenation
and complete hydrogenation are seen as different unit types, since it cannot be combined in the same unit. b Transportation fuel yield is calculated on methane- and hydrogen-free basis when cryogenic
separation is employed, since it allows complete recycle in the Fischer–Tropsch gas loop. The use of fuel gas for reforming is possible in all designs. c Import into the refinery is negative and export is
positive. d Non all transportation fuels were on-specification.
Chemicals, co-refining and blending treated as a wastewater, the CO2 footprint is large, because every
carbon atom that is not refined to a final product is equivalent to
Chemicals production, co-refining and blending of other fuel
three times its carbon content in CO2 emissions (due to the
types (apart from FAME), have not been explored, although
carbon efficiency of indirect liquefaction).12 Refining pathways
some benefits have been pointed out. In many instances there
for dealing with the aqueous product have been suggested.30 The
are synergistic effects. Some literature on this subject can be
unrecovered oxygenates (mainly carboxylic acids) can be con-
found4,5 and exploring these possibilities is a topic in its own
verted by aerobic biological degradation, or in anaerobic
right. It will suffice to mention that in many instances it is
digesters to produce methane, as is applied at the PetroSA HTFT
possible to improve the efficiency of refinery designs when
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