Waste Management 30 (2010) 725–728

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

A Glance at the World

Edited by Maria Cristina Lavagnolo

This column comprises notes and info not subjected to peer-review focusing on waste management issues in different corners of the world. Its aim
is to open a window onto the solid waste management situation in any given country, major city or significant geographic area that may be of
interest to the scientific and technical community.

Assessment of municipal solid waste generation In the month of November 2008, a door-to-door waste collec-
and its management in the holy city of tion campaign was carried out for a week to compare four selected
localities within the Haridwar municipality, to evaluate the com-
Haridwar, Uttarakhand State, India
position and quality of solid waste generation and its management
in the city. Four teams were engaged to survey 100 houses in each
Haridwar is regarded as one of the seven holiest Hindu pilgrimage
category of locality, namely a mixed income group colony (Vivek
places. River Ganges enters the North Indian plains at Haridwar.
Vihar), high income group colony (Nand Puri), slum area (Valmiki
Haridwar means ‘‘Gateway (Dwar) to God (Hari)” and is also known
Colony, Jwalapur) and commercial area (Main market, Haridwar),
by the names of Mayapuri, Kapila and Gangadwar. Hindu pilgrims
in Haridwar city. Two trained research volunteers and one sweeper
and devotees gather at Haridwar to offer prayers on auspicious occa-
were included in each team. Prior to the survey an awareness pro-
sions, having a dip in the sacred Ganga River (see Fig. 1).
gram was scheduled in the four selected sites, to provide informa-
Haridwar lies between the latitude and longitude of
tion on the various types of waste materials generated from
29.58° north and 78.13° east, and is situated at an elevation of
residential areas and means of disposal. Each randomly selected
249.7 msl.
home was provided with two plastic dustbins (green and red) for
The city of Haridwar has a population of 175.000 inhabitants
separate source collection of Biodegradable Waste (BW) and
(2001 Census), almost three-fold the number reported for 1961.
Non-Biodegradable Waste (NBW).
Over the last 3–4 decades this holy city has witnessed an
The survey revealed that the average amount of Solid Waste
increase in developmental activities such as industrialization,
(SW) generated from a total of 400 households was 245.25 kg/d.
communication, road construction and educational activities
The study revealed that the relative amount of total BW was about
which has lead to rapid urbanization and created a high demand
214.880 kg (87.62%), while the amount of NBW was 30.370 kg
for basic infrastructures, including electricity, water supply, food
(12.38%). The graphic illustrations of quantity and quality of SW
availability, transport and sanitary management. These activities
generation in selected localities are given in Figs. 2–4.
all contribute towards increasing the influx of visitors and per-
From the results of the survey it was observed that the finan-
manent settlers within Haridwar municipality area. A sharp rise
cially better-off localities generate roughly twice as much
has also been observed in the collection of solid waste in Harid-
garbage as people from slum areas. The residents of elegant,
war city (from 130 t/d to 220 t/d) over a period of 4 years (2004–
high-income group colonies generally buy disposable utilities
2008). The city municipality, established in 1968, could not rely
on modern techniques for the disposal of solid waste until this
year. Wastes are collected manually from various localities using
hand pushed carts, transferred to carrier trucks and dumped at
open disposal sites along the Nazibabad road (about 5 km NE
from the city). The generation of SW increases manifold in occa-
sion of sacred bathing festive days around the River Ganga. Mish-
ra and Joshi (2002) reported the collection of 20,435 kg solid
waste from Haridwar city on six main festive occasions. Gangwar
and Joshi (2008) reported the collection of 4515 kg solid waste
on the Ardh Kumbh festive day, nearly six-fold the amount reg-
istered during normal daily collection, from the sole 12,500 m2
platform area of (Ghat) at Har-Ki-Pauri. During these festive
occasions, the solid waste management and sanitation problems
are worsened considerably, creating an unpleasant scenario of
littered SW attracting stray dogs and pigs. This unsanitary
condition leads to an increased number of cases of various conta-
gious as well as water and air borne diseases, as observed in a
parallel study during Kanwar fair at Haridwar in 2008 (Saini Fig. 1. Hindu pilgrims bathing in the sacred water of the Ganga River at Haridwar,
et al., 2009). India (photo by mckaysavage, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0).

0956-053X/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2010.01.001
726 A Glance at the World / Waste Management 30 (2010) 725–728
Fig. 2. Solid waste generation observed, at four different sites in Haridwar city,
during a survey carried out in November 2008.
Fig. 3. Relative composition of biodegradable waste in the survey areas of Haridwar
city.
and other products. They mainly generate wastes consisting in
packaging materials, food, fruits and vegetables in large quanti-
ties. The present study moreover demonstrated that the system
of waste collection in Nand puri (a relatively well-to-do colony)
is well maintained. The residents of this locality do not throw
any type of waste openly outside their houses and on the roads.
The residents have hired an extra private sweeper for their col-
ony, who collects the solid waste from door to door and delivers
it to the municipal vehicle. However, in other localities, the
residents routinely throw household waste openly on the road-
sides, thereby creating waste piles all around. The municipal
sweepers subsequently collect the waste; however, this service
is not performed regularly and piles often stay on the roads for
long periods, particularly when sweepers are on leave or on
strike. Once the waste piles start to decompose the air becomes
rapidly unbreathable and the city is faced with the problem of
an inadequate SWM. The population tends to take care of keep-
ing their homes clean although hardly anyone pays attention to
the locality and streets. Improper dumping of waste leads to pol-
lution and conveys a bad impression for tourists visiting the holy
city of Haridwar (Shanker and Joshi, 1997).
A well-organised public awareness campaign and appropriate
SWM would undoubtedly substantially reduce the environmental
The state of solid waste management in Nairobi,
Kenya
These notes present an overview of SWM status in a typical
fast-developing city in the developing world, Nairobi the capital
city of Kenya. The motivation for the paper includes the fact
that besides being the capital city of the Republic of Kenya,
Fig. 4. Relative composition of non-biodegradable waste in the survey areas of
Haridwar city.
impacts of solid waste generation including energy consumption,
environmental pollution and loss of amenities. Political support,
technical expertise, community involvement, environmental im-
pacts and marketing of end products all play an important role in
the setting up of an efficient system of SWM. The management
of solid waste constitutes a pressing issue in Haridwar city, partic-
ularly on account of the sanctity attached to the city, thus warrant-
ing the undertaking of positive intervention at government and
public level.
Acknowledgement
Authors are thankful to Indian Academy of Environmental Sci-
ence, Haridwar for providing financial support during the survey.
The thanks also extend to the people of these localities for their
kind co-operation in various ways.
References
Gangwar, K.K., Joshi, B.D., 2008. A preliminary study on solid waste generation at
Har Ki Pauri, Haridwar, around the Ardh – Kumbh period of sacred bathing in
the river Ganga in 2004. Environmentalist 28, 297–300.
Mishra, S., Joshi, N., 2002. Generation of solid waste during festive occasions in
Haridwar city. Him. J. Environ. Zool. 16 (2), 263–266.
Saini, P., Sharma, V., Joshi, B.D., 2009. A Random survey report about rise in water
borne diseases in Haridwar city during Kanwar mela-2008. J. Environ. Bio-Sci.
23 (2), 215–219.
Shanker, V., Joshi, I.P., 1997. Environmental management of Haridwar and adjoining
area. In: Khan, B.N., Kumar, A., Shukla, G. (Eds.), Human Health and
Environment, vol. II. APH Publishing Co-operation, New Delhi, pp. 217–242.
Vijay Sharma, Pankaj Saini, R.S. Gangwar, B.D. Joshi
Department of Zoology and Environmental Sciences,
Faculty of Life Sciences, Gurukula Kangri University,
Haridwar, India
Available online 22 January 2010
Nairobi is the largest administrative, commercial and industrial
centre in the Eastern and Central African region. In addition
the city hosts the headquarters of the United Nations Environ-
mental Programme (UNEP) as well as United Nations HABITAT
and should therefore take the lead in protecting the environ-
ment for other urban authorities in the region and beyond to
emulate.
 A Glance at the World / Waste Management 30 (2010) 725–728
The city of Nairobi is located at 1° 170 000 S, 36° 490 000 E at an alti-
tude of 1676 msl with an average temperature of about 21–22 °C.
The physical area of Nairobi has expanded from 3.84 km2 n 1900 to
the current official size of 684 km2. The current population of the
city is about 3.1 million people with an annual growth rate of al-
most 5.5% per annum, equivalent to approx. five times the world’s
growth rate of 1.92% per annum (Wikipedia estimates of 2007).
Unfortunately, an estimated 50% of the city’s residents live below
the poverty line and are congregated in suburban and informal
areas characterized by limited amenities and unhygienic living
conditions. Moreover, satellite towns are situated in the immediate
outskirts of the city, comprising the industrial Thika and Athi River.
As a result of the rapid expansion, population growth rates, and
other factors, Nairobi City is currently faced with serious waste
management challenges.
The nature and extent of solid waste problem
The rate of solid waste generation in Nairobi has been estimated
to be in the range of 1500–2000 t/d with per capita waste genera-
tion estimates ranging between 0.29 and 0.66 kg/cap/day. Accord-
ing to the national environmental management authority (NEMA),
solid wastes in Nairobi are a by-product of a broad spectrum of
industries, service and manufacturing processes. Primary high vol-
ume generators of industrial solid wastes include chemical, petro-
leum, metals, wood, paper, leather, and textile industries while
smaller secondary generators include auto and equipment shops,
electroplaters, construction firms, dry cleaners and pesticide appli-
cators/manufacturers. Consequently, the main average fractions in
solid wastes generated in Nairobi are represented as percentages in
Fig. 1.
Generally, a mere 40% of solid waste generated daily in Nairobi
is collected and disposed of at designated disposal sites (UNEP,
2009), with the remainder being left to litter the city or being dis-
carded in illegal waste piles scattered all over the city. Both formal
and informal actors are involved in SWM in the city. The formal
sector is represented by the Nairobi City Council (NCC), legally
responsible for waste collection and disposal, whilst private enter-
prises are involved in informal collection of 60% of wastes. The
informal sector comprises household waste management, waste
pickers and several community based organizations. The informal
sector is, however, associated with unregistered, unorganized
and unregulated activities. The latter sector is moreover character-
ized by low capital, and low levels of skills and technology.
Fig. 1. Waste composition in Solid waste generated at Nairobi (Data from JICA (1998)).
727
No uniform solid waste collection practices are currently imple-
mented in Nairobi. Individual household waste containers are only
present at higher and middle class households. Low-income house-
holds make use of communal containers or dumping stations
where waste is hand-loaded onto vehicles. The majority of dump-
ing sites are merely informal piles, which are not engineered for
the purpose.
No controlled sanitary landfills are available in Nairobi. The
main SWM disposal methods (official and unofficial) are consti-
tuted by dumping, burning, and composting. The city has only
one official dumpsite, an open non-engineered landfill, which is al-
ready full and is currently among the world’s most polluted spots.
The dumpsite is a nuisance and hazardous to both the surrounding
communities and the ecosystems. A study sponsored by the Japa-
nese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in 1998 reported
complaints concerning the bad odour smoke and glass particles
at the dumpsites. Respiratory and gastro-intestinal tract infections
were found to be a common problem. The study recommended
that the dumpsite be closed and a sanitary landfill be constructed
elsewhere. Furthermore, the report of a research commissioned by
the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) in 2007
warned that the dumpsite was a threat particularly to children liv-
ing nearby. Almost all the children tested were suffering from
respiratory diseases including chronic bronchitis and asthma.
Moreover, half of the children tested had concentrations of lead
in their bloods exceeding internationally acceptable levels of the
metal (UNEP, 2008).
The official dumpsite is located about 7.5 km east of the central
business district and it is considerably far removed from several
parts of the city. The areas surrounding the site are densely popu-
lated with poor access roads making the site almost inaccessible
during rainy seasons. Moreover, in many parts of the city, NCC
has failed to provide refuse containers. These situations have
encouraged proliferation of illegal dumps, which are increasingly
becoming final dumping sites for unscrupulous private waste han-
dlers. It is estimated that about half of the solid wastes in Nairobi
are dumped in illegal sites throughout the territory. These ‘‘sec-
ondary” uncontrolled dumps are the major sources of pollution
of river basins in Nairobi city especially when rain falls and spreads
wastes along the banks of the rivers (Ngong and Nairobi).
As a consequence of solid waste proliferation, the majority of
solid waste generators resort to burning the waste, thereby pollut-
ing the air. The uncollected informal dumps are also often set ab-
laze as a way of reducing waste heaps. There is at least one
728 A Glance at the World / Waste Management 30 (2010) 725–728
private incinerator located at Kitengela, about 25 km South East of
the City. However, the quality of its emissions has not been inves-
tigated to date. Most of the wastes contain plastics which, when
burnt, generate carcinogenic vinyl chloride monomers and dioxins.
Therefore unchecked burning may prove to be counterproductive.
Composting represents the most cost-efficient and safest means
of disposal for municipal solid wastes in the city of Nairobi. It in-
volves several players in the private sector including individuals,
groups and also CBOs. The popularity of this method in Nairobi
stems from the fact that urban agriculture is present throughout
the city on both private and public land, with solid wastes compris-
ing approximately 60% readily biodegradable matter. Composting
reduces open piles of garbage in narrow streets resulting in re-
duced populations of rats, mice, snakes, cockroaches, mosquitoes
and flies, likewise preventing blockage of drainage systems. It also
enables the players to earn income from the waste and convert the
latter into fertilizer for the urban and suburban farmers, as a cost
effective alternative to mineral fertilizers. Arguably, composting
represents an effective strategy in alleviating the problem of
unmanaged wastes in Nairobi’s informal settlements where it is
hailed for improved public health, improved physical environment
and support to urban agriculture. However, composting has yet to
be adopted by the middle and high income groups who, inciden-
tally, are the main generators of solid wastes by virtue of their
higher consumption rates.
Possible reasons for the poor state of SWM in Nairobi and perspectives
for the near future
Solid waste management strategies in Nairobi are inefficient, as
evidenced by mountains of uncollected or illegally dumped solid
wastes. UNEP (2005) attributed the failure to over-reliance on
‘command and control’ approach and lack of a well-established
economic instrument for solid waste management. The economic
instrument model generally advocates for tax incentives and disin-
centives for environmental protection. Fortunately, most of these
are stipulated in the Environmental Management and Coordination
Act (EMCA) of 1999 (Laws of the Republic of Kenya). The Act placed
responsibility for SWM on all Kenyan citizens by stating that the
entire population is entitled to a clean and healthy environment
and has a duty to safeguard and enhance the same. It also provided
for economic instruments aimed at improving the currently em-
ployed SWM strategies. However, the law has still not been fully
implemented.
Other possible reasons include delayed establishment of a supe-
rior institution responsible for supervision of the waste manage-
ment system having an appropriate budget and investment
programme (the National Environmental Management Agency or
NEMA was established in 2001, when the SWM situation had al-
ready deteriorated), insufficient financial outlays, lack of political
and institutional support of the existing waste management ef-
forts, lack of technical capabilities to cope with the changing types
of wastes (e.g. canned soft drinks, mobile phones, computers, dis-
posable diapers), uncontrolled population growth rates (including
rural-urban migration and influx of political refugees from neigh-
bouring countries) and poor community attitudes towards envi-
ronmental cleanliness.
Conclusion and recommendations
The current SWM strategy implemented in the city of Nairobi
should be further improved. A well-concerted effort is required
to render SWM practices in Nairobi more effective. The informal
sector, being key players in Nairobi’s SWM should be regulated,
motivated, promoted, coordinated and integrated into the formal
SWM planning system. This will ensure both sound disposal of
the wastes and generation of income or employment opportunities
for the urban poor.
The city urgently needs a well-engineered sanitary landfill to
safeguard the environment and public health. Moreover, public
awareness should be increased with regard to the need for sorting,
reduction, re-using and re-cycling of waste at household level. This
would facilitate the work of service providers in processing the
waste before dumping. It would also make it easier for composters
to provide high quality organic fertilizer to boost agricultural
activities.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the National High Technology Re-
search and Development programme of China (863 programme)
(No. 2007AA06Z337).
References
JICA, 1998. The study of solid waste management in Nairobi city in the republic of
Kenya. Final report (Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in
collaboration with CTI Engineering and Environmental Consultants. <http://
ivzopac.jica.go.jp/external.library>.
UNEP, 2005. Overview of solid waste management in Kenya. Report (<http://
www.unep.org/pdf/ kenya_waste_mngnt_sector/chapter3.pdf>).
UNEP, 2008. Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in
Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury. UNEP
Draft Report, Chemicals Branch, DTIE. (<http://www.chem.unep.ch/pb_and_cd/
Documents/Final_report_Jan2009.doc>).
UNEP, 2009. Atlas of our changing environment. (<http://www.unep.org/dewa/
africa/kenya atlas/pdf/kenya_atlas_full_EN_72dpi.pdf>).
Mutisya Titus Wambua, Odhiambo Joshua Owago, Luo Zejiao
School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences,
Wuhan, Hubei, China
Available online 22 January 2010