LECTURE 3: SPATIAL ANALYSIS WITH GIS

Refers to the process of examining and interpreting

patterns and relationships within geographic data. It
involves the manipulation, modeling, and
interpretation of spatial data to uncover insights,
trends, and relationships that may not be
immediately apparent.
Data modelling in GIS Spatial Analysis
Understand that data modeling is simply creation
of abstract representations of real-world
geographic phenomena within a computerized
environment. These models provide a structured
framework for organizing and storing spatial
data, enabling efficient analysis, visualization,
and interpretation.
In order to create this model, one must formulate
rules or constructs to describe and represent
aspects of the real world using computational
devices.
There are two primary data models available to
complete this task; Raster and Vector data
models.

Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources

▪ Raster data models
Raster data model is widely used in
applications ranging far beyond geographic
information systems (GISs).
Most likely, you are already very familiar
with this data model if you have any
experience with digital photographs.
The ubiquitous JPEG, BMP, and TIFF file
formats (among others) are based on the
raster data model. Secondly, all liquid crystal
display (LCD) computer monitors are based
on raster technology as they are composed of
a set number of rows and columns of pixels.
A typical raster model consists of rows and
columns of equally sized pixels
interconnected to form a planar surface.
These pixels are used as building blocks for
creating points, lines, areas, networks, and
surfaces. Although pixels may be triangles,
hexagons, or even octagons, square pixels
represent the simplest geometric form with
which to work. Here below is an example of
a raster graphics.

Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources

Because of the reliance on a uniform series of
square pixels, the raster data model is also
referred to as a grid-based system. Typically,
a single data value will be assigned to each
grid locale. Each cell in a raster carries a
single value, which represents the
characteristic of the spatial phenomenon at a
location denoted by its row and column. The
data type for that cell value can be either
integer or floating-point.
Alternatively, the raster graphic can reference
a database management system wherein
open-ended attribute tables can be used to
Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources
associate multiple data values to each pixel.
The advance of computer technology has
made this second methodology increasingly
feasible as large datasets are no longer
constrained by computer storage issues as
they were previously.
The raster model will average all values
within a given pixel to yield a single value.
Therefore, the more area covered per pixel,
the less accurate the associated data values.
The area covered by each pixel determines
the spatial resolution of the raster model from
which it is derived. Specifically, resolution is
determined by measuring one side of the
square pixel. A raster model with pixels
representing 10 m by 10 m (or 100 square
meters) in the real world would be said to
have a spatial resolution of 10 m; a raster
model with pixels measuring 1 km by 1 km
(1 square kilometer) in the real world would
be said to have a spatial resolution of 1 km;
and so forth.

Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources

Care must be taken when determining the
resolution of a raster because using an overly
coarse pixel resolution will cause a loss of
information, whereas using overly fine pixel
resolution will result in significant increases
in file size and computer processing
requirements during display and/or analysis.
An effective pixel resolution will take both
the map scale and the minimum mapping unit
of the other GIS data into consideration. In
the case of raster graphics with coarse spatial
resolution, the data values associated with
specific locations are not necessarily explicit
in the raster data model. For example, if the
location of telephone poles were mapped on a
coarse raster graphic, it would be clear that
the entire cell would not be filled by the pole.
Rather, the pole would be assumed to be
located somewhere within that cell (typically
at the center).

Imagery employing the raster data model in

GIS must exhibit several properties to ensure

Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources

accurate representation and effective analysis.
They include;
− Spatial Resolution: Is the level of detail
captured in each pixel of the raster image.
Higher spatial resolution images have
smaller pixel sizes and capture more
detailed information about the Earth's
surface.
− Radiometric Resolution: Is the range of
values that can be represented by each
pixel in the raster image. It determines
the sensitivity of the imagery to
variations in the reflected or emitted
energy from the Earth's surface. Higher
radiometric resolution images can
distinguish between subtle differences in
brightness or color, providing more
detailed information.
− Spectral Resolution: the number and
width of spectral bands or channels
captured by the raster image. It
determines the range of wavelengths of
electromagnetic radiation that can be
Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources
 detected and analyzed. Images with
higher spectral resolution can
discriminate between different surface
materials or vegetation types based on
their spectral signatures.
− Temporal Resolution: Refers to the
frequency at which imagery is acquired
over time. It affects the ability to monitor
changes in the Earth's surface over time,
such as seasonal variations, land cover
changes, or natural disasters.
− Geometric Accuracy: Is the positional
accuracy of features in the raster image
relative to their true locations on the
Earth's surface.
Advantages of the raster model
− Simple Representation
− Continuous Data: well-suited for
representing continuous phenomena such
as elevation, temperature, and precipitation,
as they can capture variations across the
entire study area.

Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources

 − Efficient Storage
− Efficient Processing
− Suitable for Remote Sensing: Raster data
models are compatible with remote sensing
data, such as satellite imagery and aerial
photographs, making them essential for
analyzing Earth's surface over large areas.
− Interpolation: Raster data models support
interpolation techniques for estimating
values at unsampled locations, facilitating
the creation of continuous surfaces from
discrete data points.
Disadvantages of raster model
− Loss of Detail
− Pixelation Effects: Raster datasets may
suffer from pixelation effects, especially
at lower spatial resolutions, which can
impact the accuracy and visual quality of
the data, particularly in areas with sharp
boundaries or fine-scale features.

− Limited Representation of Features:

Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources
− Large File Sizes: High-resolution raster
datasets can result in large file sizes, which
may require significant storage space and
computational resources for processing and
analysis.
− Limited Topological Information: Raster data
models lack explicit topological relationships
between features, making certain spatial
analysis tasks, such as network analysis or
adjacency queries, more challenging
compared to vector data models.
− Difficulty in Data Editing: Editing raster
datasets can be challenging and may require
specialized software tools, as changes to
individual cells may not always reflect
desired modifications in the spatial data.

▪ Vector data models

In contrast to the raster data model is the
vector data model. In this model, space is not
quantized into discrete grid cells like the
raster model. Vector data models use points
and their associated X, Y coordinate pairs to
Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources
represent the vertices of spatial features,
much as if they were being drawn on a map
by hand.
The data attributes of these features are then
stored in a separate database management
system. The spatial information and the
attribute information for these models are
linked via a simple identification number that
is given to each feature in a map.
Three fundamental vector types exist in
geographic information systems (GISs),
namely;
− Points: Points represent individual
geographic locations or features with a
single set of coordinates (x, y). They are
typically used to represent discrete
entities such as landmarks, facilities,
sampling locations, or specific
geographic coordinates. Examples
include the location of a city, the position
of a street address, or the coordinates of a
sampling site in a study area.

Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources

− Lines (or Polylines): Lines (also known
as polylines) represent linear features
consisting of one or more connected line
segments. They are used to represent
features with length but negligible width,
such as roads, rivers, pipelines, or
boundaries. Lines can have attributes
associated with them, such as road type,
length, or direction of flow.

− Polygons: Polygons represent closed

geometric shapes composed of three or
more vertices connected by straight lines.
They are used to represent features with
an area, such as land parcels,
administrative boundaries, lakes, or land
cover types. Polygons can have attributes
associated with them, such as area,
perimeter, land use classification, or
population density. This is as shown in
this basic diagram

Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources

 There are two most common vector data
model structures namely, the spaghetti data
model (Simple feature model) and the
Topological data model.

▪ Spaghetti data model: In this model,

geographic features are stored as individual,
disconnected entities without explicit
relationships or connectivity information.
Each feature is represented independently,
and spatial relationships between features are
not explicitly encoded. This model is called
"spaghetti" because it resembles a plate of
tangled spaghetti, with features overlapping
and intersecting without regard for topology.
Basic characteristics.

Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources

 − Lack of topological relationships:
Features are represented as separate
entities, and their spatial relationships are
not explicitly defined.
− Limited support for spatial analysis:
Without topological information, spatial
analysis tasks such as overlay operations
and network analysis may be challenging
or inefficient.
− Simple data structure: Spaghetti data
models are relatively straightforward to
implement and understand, making them
suitable for basic GIS applications with
limited spatial analysis requirements.
− Examples: Early GIS systems and some
basic CAD (Computer-Aided Design)
software may use a spaghetti data model
for spatial data representation.

▪ Topological data model

Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources

In this model, features are represented as
nodes, edges, and polygons, with topological
relationships encoded between them.
Topological relationships describe how
features are connected and interact with each
other geometrically.
Topology is simply a set of rules that model
the relationships between neighboring points,
lines, and polygons and determines how they
share geometry. For example, consider two
adjacent polygons. In the spaghetti model, the
shared boundary of two neighboring
polygons is defined as two separate, identical
lines. The inclusion of topology into the data
model allows for a single line to represent
this shared boundary with an explicit
reference to denote which side of the line
belongs with which polygon. Topology is
also concerned with preserving spatial
properties when the forms are bent, stretched,
or placed under similar geometric
transformations, which allows for more

Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources

efficient projection and reprojection of map
files.
To further understand the topological model,
the following three topological percepts are
necessary. They actually represent and govern
how data are represented and analyzed.
i. Connectivity: Refers to the relationships
between spatial features, such as points,
lines, and polygons, within a GIS dataset.
In a topological GIS model, connectivity
is often defined by explicitly encoding
the spatial relationships between features.
This can include adjacency (two features
share a common boundary or node),
connectivity (two features are directly
connected), and network connectivity
(e.g., roads in a transportation network).
ii. Area Definition: is the delineation and
representation of geographic areas,
typically represented as polygons in GIS
datasets.In a topological GIS model, area
definition involves defining the
boundaries of polygons and encoding

Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources

 their spatial relationships with other
features. Topological data structures,
such as the quadtree or the Region-
Quadtree (R-Tree), are commonly used to
efficiently represent and query spatial
areas in GIS datasets.

iii. Contiguity: Refers to the spatial

relationship between adjacent or
neighboring areas (polygons) in a GIS
dataset. In a topological GIS model,
contiguity is often defined based on the
adjacency of polygon boundaries or
nodes. Contiguity can be of different
types, such as "contiguous neighbors"
(polygons share a common boundary),
"touching neighbors" (polygons share a
boundary or a vertex), or "overlapping
neighbors" (polygons intersect but do not
necessarily share boundaries). Analyzing
contiguity is essential for tasks such as
spatial autocorrelation analysis, where
understanding the spatial arrangement

Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources

 and relationships between neighboring
areas is crucial.

While the Vector data model is fundamental

approach to representing spatial data in Geographic
Information Systems, it does have its own set of
advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages:
i. Accuracy and Precision: Vector data models are
highly accurate and precise, especially for
representing discrete features such as points,
lines, and polygons. This precision is valuable
for applications that require exact spatial
relationships, such as engineering design or
urban planning.
ii. Compact Data Storage: Vector data typically
requires less storage space compared to raster
data for representing the same geographic area.
This is because vector data only stores the
coordinates of vertices and attributes of features,
rather than storing information for every cell in a
grid.

Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources

iii. Topology Preservation: Vector data models
inherently preserve the spatial relationships and
topology of features. This ensures that geometric
integrity is maintained, which is essential for
topological analysis, such as network routing or
polygon overlay operations.
iv. Efficient Editing and Updating: Vector data can
be easily edited and updated, allowing for
efficient data maintenance and management.
Modifications to individual features can be made
without affecting the entire dataset, enabling
precise control over spatial data.
v. Versatility: Vector data models can represent a
wide range of spatial phenomena, from simple
point features to complex polygons. This
versatility makes vector data suitable for various
applications, including environmental analysis,
transportation planning, and demographic
mapping.

Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources

Disadvantages
i. Complexity for Continuous Data: While vector
data excel at representing discrete features, they
can be less efficient for modeling continuous
phenomena, such as elevation or temperature.
Raster data models are often more suitable for
continuous data due to their regular grid
structure.
ii. Data Volume for Dense Features: Vector data
models may result in large datasets when
representing dense features, such as road
networks in urban areas or detailed land cover
classifications. This can lead to performance
issues in terms of storage, processing, and
visualization.
iii. Generalization Challenges: Generalizing vector
data for different scales or purposes can be
challenging. Simplifying complex geometries
while preserving essential spatial relationships
requires careful consideration to avoid loss of
information or distortion.
iv. Limited Analysis Options: Some spatial analysis
techniques, such as raster-based interpolation or
Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources
 surface modeling, may be more straightforward
to perform using raster data. Vector data may
require additional preprocessing or conversion
steps to facilitate certain types of analysis.
v. Complex Topological Operations: While
topology preservation is a key advantage of
vector data models, performing complex
topological operations, such as polygon overlay
or line intersection, can be computationally
intensive and may require specialized
algorithms.
Common types of analyzing spatial data
▪ Querying and data selection
▪ Data joining
▪ Buffering
▪ Overlay analysis
▪ Network analysis
▪ Spatial interpolation
▪ Spatial clustering
▪ Geostatic
▪ Spatial data mining
END

Sichangi Masara Sidney|0724204398|lecture notes adopted from different online sources