2016 CH 2 Gis RS

Chapter Two: GIS
 Geographic Information Systems(GIS)

 Describe geographic information , spatial data types
 Explain the steps of spatial data handling
 Learn DBMS and spatial referencing
 Understand about data quality and measures of location

errors on maps
 Learn about satellite-based positioning ,spatial data
input, data preparation and management
 Understand analytical GIS capabilities, retrieval and
classification
Describe geographic information , spatial data types
 Geographic information
 is information about places on the Earth's surface
 knowledge about where something is
 knowledge about what is at a given location
 can be very detailed, for example:
 information about the locations of all buildings in a city
 information about individual trees in a forest
 can be very coarse, for example:
 climate of a large region
 population density of an entire country
 in these examples it's the geographic resolution that varies
Describe spatial data types
 Spatial Data Types: Vector and Raster Data
 Non - Spatial Data Types: Attribute Data
 Earth surface features including man-made features can be
represented in GIS and remote sensing processes as spatial data.
 Spatial Data in GIS and remote sensing has two primary data
formats to create information
 Raster
 Vector
 An integrated raster and vector data working environment provides

many more opportunities as one can combine the mathematical
methods and simulations suitable for both the formats in the
analysis.
 Both formats have their advantages and disadvantages.
Spatial Data Types: Vector Data
 Vector Data
 Vector Data Model is an object based approach to the
representation of real world features.
 This data model is best suited to represent discreet objects.
 Vector data is best described as graphical representations of the
real world.
 Vectors are best used to present generalizations of objects or
features on the Earth’s surface.
 Vector Data Representation

 Simple geometric objects of point, line and polygon and their x, y
coordinates are used to represent spatial features.
 All the features have different dimensions and property, which
can distinguish in the below three types.
 Point has 0 dimension and has only the property of location.
 has no properties of length, area and perimeter.
 Point may also be called
 Node
 Vertex
 0-Cell
 Line is 1 dimensional and also has property of length. Begins and

ends with a node.
 Line are also known as
 An edge
 Link
 Chain
 1-Cell
 Polygon is 2 dimensional and has properties of area and
perimeter.
 Polygons are referred as
 Area
 Region
 Zone
 Organization of Vector Data model

 In this method the entire earth surface feature including man-made and natural can
be represented by only three entities in GIS.
 These entities name-
 In this all the features in which only locations is presented than Point entity used for
representation in GIS software,
 However for representation of all linear features, line entity used in GIS tools.
 To represent any enclosed feature of earth and representation of any feature which has area
entity, in that case, polygon entity is used in vector data. This representation also called
spatial data in GIS.
 Point& Line Features

 Basic unit of the vector data model are points and their
coordinates. Line features are made of points. Between two end
points a line is a series of points marking the form of the line.
 Different segments may be created to smooth curve or straight
lines. Line features may intersect or join with many other lines
and together form network.
 Polygon Features
 Polygons are defined by lines and boundary of an polygon
separates the interior area from the exterior area (which may be
unbounded).
 All the area features may be isolated or connected with each other.
 It may form holes within other areas. Area features may overlap
and create overlapped areas.
 Vector Data Advantages

 It represents more maps like in compare to raster data as it is more
accurate and pleasing to eyes.
 Vector data is very high resolution and magnification does not
affect display quality of data.
 Vector data require less storage space compare to raster data.
 Vector data are more users friendly and can be understood by
public better than raster data.
 Vector data can also be represented topologically and allows
analysis using topological data.
 Vector Data Limitations

 Data formats may be more difficult to manage than raster format.
 Spatial data stored as long lists of coordinates, which is easier for
computer to understand but difficult for users to understand and
edit.
 Vector format creation is more expensive.
 Vector data processes of GIS are more difficult to learn
 Topology concept of GIS is difficult to understand.
 Raster data are easily availability compare to vector data.
Spatial Data Types: Raster Data
 Raster Data
 Raster data have become the primary source of spatial data in
geographic databases and are used increasingly in a wide variety
of GIS applications.
 Raster data defined as representing earth surface feature including
man-made and natural in grid/cell forms.
 Its mean all the raster data represented by image, cell and grid
formats.
 The satellite images are recorded in raster format.
 Representation of Raster Data

 Raster data representation can be defined by this explanation-
 study area is divided into regular cells of specific dimensions
and the measurement or attribute of each cell is represented by
a digital code.
 Locations of raster cells are not explicitly recorded but are
inferred from their positions in the image.
 In general raster data can be represented by a matrix (2D array),
where each cell is indexed by row and column numbers.
 Raster data representation of Features
 Points features by single cells
 Line by sequence of neighboring cells
 Polygons by collections of contiguous cells
 Each cell in raster format carries a value as either an integer or

floating point number.
 Integers are used to typically define a category such as 1 for
water, 2 for forest, whereas
 floating point numbers typically represents continuous data such
as ground water quality data, temperature, average annual
precipitation, elevation etc.
 Organization of Raster Data model

 usually organized into layers, which are also known as bands, themes or grid.
 Each layer have a specific characteristic based n theme such as topography, soil
type, drainage, vegetation cover, land use etc.
 is better suited for continuous phenomena and also discreet features as well.
 Raster Coding: There are many ways of raster coding it can be

 1. Presence/Absence: We can use numbers to indicate
presence/absence of any specific entities. In general 0 is used to
indicate absence.
 2. Cell Center: Whatever feature is present at the center point of
each cell may be recorded in the cell.
 3. Dominant Area: For coding polygons, cell that contains more
than one type of feature, then classify the cell based on the feature
occupying maximum space in that cell. Each pixel or cell is
assumed to have only one value.
 4. Percentage Coverage: For each type of feature, the percentage
it occupies in any given cell is used to code the raster data.
 Advantages of Raster Data Model

 Raster data model is capable to represent different types of
continuous surfaces. Such as Topography, land use/land cover, air
quality, ground water pollution level etc. can be stored at raster
layers.
 Raster data model support fast computer processing. Such as fast
display of surface data, ability to handle very large databases,
Tiling, Compression to reduces storage requirement.
 Many spatial and modeling applications work only on data in
raster format. For example, hydrologic modeling such surface
runoff modeling, elevation modeling and pollution modeling
 Remote Sensing Data are the major source for input data in
analysis is based on raster data model.
 Limitations of Raster model

 Rater data model is not suitable for applications that rely on
individual spatial features represented by points, lines and
polygons. For example network analysis.
 Precise locations may not be recorded in raster data as compare to
vector data.
 Features are usually generalized in raster data and do not appear
as cartographically pleasing as vector data.
 Resolution of raster data determines applicability of raster data.
With the increase in resolution it increase data volume and affect
the computer processing speed.
Non - Spatial Data Types: Attribute Data
 Attribute Data
 The earth surface features can be created in both raster and vector
format as per requirement of user.
 For example wetland mapping feature such as pond can be created
in both data formats, in vector as polygon and grid/pixels format
in raster.
 Example: Vector GIS Data
 Point- Hospitals, Wells etc.
 Line- Highway, River, Canal etc.
 Polygon- Forest, Agri Land, Urban Area etc.
 This spatial data also have information, which need to represent in
GIS vector data.
Non - Spatial Data Types: Attribute Data
 Such as in case of point feature Hospital, information such as name,

type, capacity and many more information can be provided by that
spatial entity/point feature.
 Same method can be used for linear and region features.
 This representation of information with spatial data is called non-
spatial data or attributes.
 Example Attributes:
 City: Name, Population, State
 Wells: Village, Depth
 Highway: Type, Number
 River: Name, Length
 N number of attributes can be attached with spatial data as per the
requirement of data and user.
Spatial Data Types: Summary
 Two fundamental ways of representing geography are discrete

objects and fields.
 The discrete object view represents the real world as objects with
well defined boundaries in empty space.
Discrete feature
 The field view represents the real world as a finite number of

variables, each one defined at each possible position.

f ( y)   f ( x , y)dx
x  
Continuous surface
 Vector and Raster Representation of Spatial Fields
Vector=Discrete space view of the world Raster =Continuous space view of the world
 Cellular-based data structure composed of square cells of equal size
arranged in rows and columns.
 The grid cell size and extent (number of rows and columns), as
well as the value at each cell have to be stored as part of the grid
Number of rows
definition. Number of columns
Cell size
 A geographic data model is a structure for organizing geospatial data

so that it can be easily stored and retrieved.
Geographic coordinates Tabular attributes
Themes or Data Layers

 Raster data are described by a cell grid, one value per cell
 Comparison of raster and vector Data models

Steps of spatial data handling
 Geographical data describe an incredibly wide range of objects or

business assets – roads, buildings, property lines, terrain,
infrastructure, hydrology and ecosystems.
 All these objects can be described in terms of points, lines and
polygons – and tables of these objects constitute the tabular portion
of geospatial data.
 GIS accommodates some kinds of unstructured data (usually raster
imagery) that can be tagged and geocoded (given precise positional
characteristics) and integrated by GIS software to the other kinds of
map data.
 All this process achieved by the process called spatial data handling
and supported by GIS SW.
 Spatial data handling with SW can be applied in :

 reading and editing mode
 PostGreSQL/PostGIS
 Oracle Spatial (compiling QGIS Server)
 SQLite/SpatiaLite
 GeoPackage
 ShapeFile
 reading mode
 SQL Server
 Virtual layer
 The suite also allows you to manage the consultation and editing of:
 simple join data with no nesting limits
 1:N relation data
 N:M relation data

 General purpose GISs essentially perform 7 processes or tasks for

spatial data handling .
 Subsystem nature of GIS (structural perspective) essentially

perform 4 processes or tasks for spatial data handling .
 Each of the subsystems has been described in terms of functions that

the respective subsystem performs.
 The data input/capture subsystem provides operational functions
for acquiring data.
 The data management or data storage and retrieval subsystem
stores and retrieves the data elements.
 The manipulation and analysis subsystem handles the
transformation of data from one form to another and derivation of
information from the data.
 The fourth subsystem output/reporting subsystem provides a way
for the user to see the data in the form of diagrams, maps, and/or
tables.
DBMS and Spatial Referencing
 Geodesy - the shape of the earth and definition of earth datums

 Map Projection - the transformation of a curved earth to a flat map
 Coordinate systems - (x,y) coordinate systems for map data
 Spatial Reference = Datum + Projection
+ Coordinate system

Types of Coordinate Systems

 (1) Global Cartesian coordinates Systems(x,y,z) for the whole earth
 (2) Geographic coordinates Systems(f, l, z)
 (3) Projected coordinates Systems(x, y, z) on a local area of the
earth’surface
 The z-coordinate in (1) and (3) is defined geometrically; in (2) the
z-coordinate is defined gravitationally
 Geographic coordinates Systems(f, l, z)
 Latitude (f) and Longitude (l) defined using an ellipsoid, an
ellipse rotated about an axis
 Elevation (z) defined using geoid, a surface of constant
gravitational potential
 Earth datums define standard values of the ellipsoid and geoid
Latitude and Longitude
Longitudes are -ve in the Southern Hemisphere

Latitudes are -ve in the Western Hemisphere
Longitude line (Meridian)
N
W E
S
Range: 180ºW - 0º - 180ºE
Latitude line (Parallel)

N
W E
S
(0ºN, 0ºE)
Range: 90ºS - 0º - 90ºN Equator, Prime Meridian
Length on Meridians and Parallels
(Lat, Long) = (f, l)
Length on a Meridian:
AB = Re Df R
(same for all latitudes) R Dl D
C
Re Df B
Length on a Parallel: Re
A
CD = R Dl  Re Dl Cos f
(varies with latitude)
Example 1: What is the length of a 1º increment along on a meridian
and on a parallel at 30N, 90W?
Radius of the earth = 6370 km.
Solution:
A 1º angle has first to be converted to radians
p radians = 180 º, so 1º = p/180 = 3.1416/180 = 0.0175 radians
For the meridian, DL = Re Df  6370 * 0.0175  111 km
For the parallel, DL = Re Dl Cos f

 6370 * 0.0175 * Cos 30
 96.5 km
Parallels converge as poles are approached
Example 2: What is the size of a 1 arc-second DEM cell when
projected to (x,y) coordinates at 30º N?
Radius of the earth = 6370 km = 6,370,000m = 6.37 x 106 m
Solution:
A 1” angle has first to be converted to radians
p radians = 180 º, so 1” = 1/3600 º = (1/3600)p/180 radians =
4.848 x 10-6 radians
For the left and right sides, DL = Re Df  6.37 x 106 * 4.848 x

10-6 = 30.88m
For the top and bottom sides, DL = Re Dl Cos f = 6.37 x 106 *

4.848 x 10-6 * Cos 30º = 30.88 x 0.8660 = 26.75m
Left and right sides of cell converge as poles are approached
 Coordinate System is the most general term for a system that

includes coordinates.
 Spatial Reference System is a coordinate system used to reference
spatial information, typically to the surface of the earth.
 Spatial Reference Systems or Coordinate Systems, include two
common types:
 1. Geographic Coordinate Systems(GCS): Location on an
ellipsoid is defined by latitude and longitude that specifies the
angle between any point and the equator, and the angle between
any point and the prime meridian.
 2. Projected Coordinate Systems(PCS): Location is defined on a
flat surface using Cartesian coordinates (i.e., x and y) that specify
horizontal and vertical position.
 A GCS consists of:

 Datum (which includes the ellipsoid)
 Prime Meridian (almost always Greenwich England)
 Units (always degrees)
 Latitude and Longitude

 The latitude is the angle formed by a line going from the center of
the earth to the equator at the point on the equator that is closed to
the point of interest and
 another line that goes from the center of the earth to the parallel
that goes through the point of interest.
 The longitude is the angle formed by a line that goes through the
center of the earth and the equator where the longitude=0 and
 another line that goes through the center of the earth and a line
through the equator and the meridian that goes through the
point of interest.
 Versions of Longitude and Latitude: expressing longitude latitude

 Longitude: -180° to 180°
 The system we will work with the most encodes longitude from -
180° in the middle of the Pacific to 0° at the Prime Meridian,
which runs through Greenwich, England and back to 180° in the
middle of the Pacific.
 Longitude: 180° W to 180° E
 Another common and older way of encoding longitude is from
180° West to 180° East.
 Latitude: 90° to -90°
 System we will work with most encodes latitude from 90° to -90°.
 Latitude: 90° N to 90° S

 Another common way of encoding latitude is from 90° N to 90°
 Degree readings for longitudes and latitudes in increments of 30

degrees.
Spatial Referencing
 Between small and large scales, choosing to use a sphere or

spheroid will depend on the map’s purpose and the accuracy of
the data.
 A sphere is based on a circle, while a spheroid (or ellipsoid) is
based on an ellipse.
 The shape of an ellipse is defined by two radii.
 the longer radius is called the semi-major axis(RM)
 the shorter radius is called the semi-minor axis(Rm)
Spatial Referencing
 Rotating the ellipse around the semi-minor axis creates a spheroid.

 A spheroid is also known as an oblate ellipsoid of revolution.
 A spheroid is defined by either the semi-major axis, a, and the semi-
minor axis, b, or by a and the flattening factor.
 The flattening factor is the difference in length between the two axes
expressed as a fraction or a decimal.
 The flattening factor, f, is:
f=(a-b)/a
or
f=(RM-Rm)/RM
Spatial Referencing
 The flattening is a small value, so usually the quantity 1/f is used

instead. The flattening of the earth is approximately 0.0033528 ~ 0.003353
 For example, the new standard spheroid for North America is the Geodetic Reference
System of 1866 (GRS 1866), whose radii are
 a= 6,378,206.4 and b=6,356,583.8 meters.
 f= (6,378,206.4-6,356,583.8)/ 6,378,206.4 = 0.0033900
 1/f= 294.985250737
 For example, the new standard spheroid for North America is the Geodetic Reference
System of 1980 (GRS 1980), whose radii are
 a= 6,378,137.0 and b=6,356,752.31414 meters.
 f= (6,378,137.0-6,356,752.31414)/ 6,378,137.0 =0.0033528
 1/f=298.2581722739
 The flattening ranges from zero to one.

 A flattening value of zero means the two axes are equal, resulting in
a sphere.
 Projected Coordinate System (PCS)

 To properly georeference projected data, any PCS must contain:
 Geographic Coordinate System (GCS)
 Projection Method
 Projection Settings
 Linear Units
 PCS use rectangular or Cartesian Coordinates.

 In GIS, we use X and Y but also "Easting" for X and "Northing" for Y.
 All PCS are based on a GCS
 Projection Methods
 The projection method varies with the projection system and is
selected based on the area the PCS is for.
 Projection Parameters
 The parameters vary with the method and set the location and
other settings for the projection method.
 Examples include:
 Latitude of Origin
 Longitude of Origin
 False Easting(X)
 False Northing(Y)
 Linear Units
 Since projections are rectangular coordinates (rather than spherical),

they must be in linear units.
 The most common are:
 Meters
 Kilometers
 International Feet
 US Feet
 Nautical Miles (for marine data)

 Types of Projections
 Conic (Albers Equal Area, Lambert Conformal Conic) - good for
E-W land areas
 Cylindrical (Transverse Mercator) - good for N-S land areas
 Azimuthal (Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area) -good for global view
 Projections Preserve Some Earth Properties
 Area - correct earth surface area (Albers Equal Area) important
for mass balances
 Shape - local angles are shown correctly (Lambert Conformal
Conic)
 Direction - all directions are shown correctly relative to the center
(Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area)
 Distance - preserved along particular lines
 Reporting GC : in "degrees" but they can also include "minutes"

and "seconds".
 Degrees Minutes Seconds (DMS): is the oldest format for GC and
you will still see this format in use on paper and even in movies
where navigators will give their location in DMS.
 Latitude: 40° 51' 59" N Longitude: 124° 4' 58" W
 Decimal Degrees (DD): Computers do not really work well with
DMS coordinates and we really prefer the coordinates to be DD.
This format allows us to perform standard decimal math
operations on the coordinates.
software will convert the coordinates to DD for calculations.
 Latitude: 40.866389° Longitude: -124.082778°
Converting from DMS to DD Q1. DD=>40.866389° DMS=>?°?'?''

40.866389°= (40)°
 First, recognize that:
(0.866389*60)=51.98334=(51)'
 60 minutes = one degree (0.98334*60)=59=(59)''
 60 seconds = one minute DMS=>40°51'59''
 3600 seconds = one degree Q2. DD=> -124.082778° DMS=>?°?'?''
 DD = Degrees + (Minutes/60) + (Seconds/3600)
 DMS= (Integer)° (deci1*60)'(deci2*60)''
 Where Integer is degrees, deci1 is after decimal point, deci2 is after decimal
 Remember that latitudes in the southern hemisphere are -ve while
longitudes in the western hemisphere (where most of the US is) are -ve .
 Conversion for a DMS coordinate near Arcata, California, in to DD.
 Latitude = 40 + (51/60) + (59/3600) N = 40.866389°
 Longitude = 124 + (4/60) + (58/3600) W = -124.082778°
 Spatial Precision in DMS: varies based on how they are formatted

and regularly see coordinates in DMS with just the degrees without
a decimal or minutes after them. The degrees are only precise to
about 111 km so the coordinates are basically worthless.
 The Earth is about 40,000 km around
 40,000 / 360 degrees ~ 111 km/degree
 111 km/degree / 60 minutes/degree ~ 1.85 km/minute
 1.85 km/degree / 60 seconds/minute ~ 0.03 km/second (30 meters/second)
 To maintain 1 meter accuracy, we need to keep 2 digits after the seconds deci
 If we only keep the whole digits for the seconds (which is the most
common approach), our data will only be precise to 30 meters
 Spatial Precision in DD: can be computed in an easier way.
 The Earth is about 40,000 km around
 40,000 / 360 degrees ~ 111 km/degree or 111,000 m/degree
 To maintain 1 meter accuracy, we need to keep 5 digits after the decimal!
Understand about data quality and measures of location errors on
maps
 Data quality is the degree of data excellency that satisfy the given
objective.
 Spatial Data quality can be categorized into Data completeness,
Data Precision, Data accuracy and Data Consistency.
 Data Completeness: It is basically the measure of totality of
features.
 A data set with minimal amount of missing features
 Data Precision: can be termed as the degree of details that are
displayed on a uniform space.
 Data Accuracy: can be termed as the discrepancy between the
actual attributes value and coded attribute value.
 Data Consistency: can be termed as the absence of conflicts in a
particular database.
Measures of Location Errors on Maps
 Error in location
 refer to the geometric inaccuracies of digitized features.
 can be examined by referring to the data source for digitizing.
 Uncertainty in object location can hinder GIS operations such as
point-in-polygon analysis
 Epsilon bands
 represent widths (є) of uncertainty of whether points fall within or
outside a polygon
 Location errors: noise, bias and blunder

 Noise (random) errors: noise in code and noise in receiver, multi-path.
 Bias (systematic) errors: clock, satellite position, ionosphere, troposphere,
GDOP effects.
 Systematic errors (bias) removal is essential to improve the positional
accuracy!
 Blunder: incorrect geodetic datum, software failures, hardware problems etc.
Satellite-based positioning
 Satellite based location technologies

 GPS
 GALILEO
 GLONAS
 Navigation: How can I go there? DIRECTION from my position to
another location
 «Position: Where am I? Name THIS location»
 «Proximity information: What is nearby? Name a FEATURE’S location near my
position»
 GPS is a space-based radio navigation and time transfer system
capable of providing navigation data to users on or near the surface
of the Earth any-time, any-where and under any-weather conditions
with immunity to intentional/unintentional jammin
 The 3 segments of a satellite-based positioning system

 Space segment: the satellites that orbit the Earth, and the radio
signals that they emit.
 Control segment: the ground stations that monitor and maintain
the space segment components.
 User segment: the users with their hard and software to conduct
positioning
 The space segment of GPS consists of 24 satellites on 6 orbits

(approx. 22,000 km from the center of the Earth):
 Each satellite carries a clock.
 Each satellite completes 2 orbits/day.
 24 hour complete GPS coverage anywhere on the Earth.
 Accuracy: 21 meters 95% of time
 The control segment of consists of master ,monitor and ground

antenna
 The user segment of consists of sw and HW to access and use app

 DGPS
 Primary
 GPS (USA)
 GLONASS (Russia)
 Secondary
 WAAS (USA)
 Partially operational
 EGNOS (Europe)
 Deployed, not operational
 MSAS (Japan)
 Deployed, not operational
Spatial data input, preparation and management
 The conceptual view of data stream in GIS

Analytical GIS capabilities, Retrieval and Classification
 GIS is a general-purpose technology for handling geographic data

in digital form, and satisfying the following specific needs :
 (i) the ability to preprocess data from large stores into a form suitable for
analysis, including operations such as reformatting, change of projection,
resampling, and generalization.
 (ii) direct support for ana1lysis and modeling, so that form of analysis,
calibrations of models, forecasting, and prediction are all handled through
instructions to the GIS.
 (iii) post processing of results including such operations as reformatting,
tabulation, report generation, and mapping.
Simplified information system overview
 4 Ms as key activities which can be enhanced by the using

information systems technologies through GIS
 GIS is based on a mathematical framework of primitive map

analysis operations analogous to those of statistics and algebra.
 It provides a foundation for advanced analytic operations
involving spatial analysis and measurement.
 Any GIS system for the measurement of areas, distances, angles
and so on requires two components, namely, a standard
measurement unit and a measurement procedure.
 Most of GISs contain analytic capabilities for reclassifying and
overlaying maps.
 Reclassification
 is an important variation of the query idea in GIS and is used in
place of a query in raster GIS.
 Performing queries on a GIS database to retrieve data is an
essential part of most GIS projects.
 Queries offer a method of data retrieval which can be performed
on data that are part of the GIS database and on new data
produced as a result of data analysis.
 Queries are useful at all stages of GIS analysis for checking the
quality of data and results obtained.
 For example, a query may be used to obtain the information on the name and
address of the hotel in any city from the hotel database.
 There are two general types of queries that can be performed with GIS, namely,
spatial and aspatial.
 Aspatial queries are those about the attributes of features.

 How many luxury hotels are there in Assosa city is an aspatial
query.
 Boolean operators need to be used with care in creating the
queries in GIS environment.
 In raster GIS, the method of reclassification can be used in place
of query to obtain information under search from GIS database.
 For instance, we wish to extract the information on areas of parks.
 Based on query based GIS, ask what is the area under parks.
 But to answer this query the answer could be obtained by
classifying the image.
 Reclassifications would result in a new image.
 For example, in a raster image, if cells representing parks in the

original image had a value of 20 , a set of rules needed for the
reclassification could be:
 (i) Cells with values 20 (parks) should take the new value of 1
 (ii) Cells with values other than 20 (other features) should take
the new value 0.
 As a result of this reclassification, a new image will be generated
with all park areas coded with value 1 and all areas that are not
parks coded with value O.
 This is called a Boolean image.
 Reclassification of this nature or conversion of raw image into
Boolean image, produces a two-code image which is very much
useful in further analysis since it contains only value 1 and O.
 The resulting reclassified image is very much useful in application

like forestry and agriculture, land use/ land cover and
environmental studies.
 Other reclassification methods, namely,
 neighbourhood functions,
 filtering techniques (rovihg windows),
 polygonal neighbourhoods, and
 extended neighbourhood method can also perform this analysis
method.
 Buffering Techniques
 Buffering is the creation of polygons that surround other points,
lines or polygons.
 The user may wish to create buffers to exclude a certain amount of
area around point, line or polygon, or to include only the buffer area
in a study.
 A buffer is a polygon created as a zone of influence around an
entity or around individual objects or multiple objects.
 The creation of buffer is based on the location, shape,
characteristics of influential parameters, and orientation of an
existing object.
 However, a buffer can be more than just a measured distance from
any other two dimensional object and is controlled to some degree by
the presence of friction surfaces, topography, barriers, and so on.
 The creation of buffer also influences its neighbours or the
character of an entity.
 This leads to the recalculation of cells in raster image based on

characteristic of neighbours.
 A buffer may be termed as point buffer, line buffer, and area
buffer based on the type of the entity; point, line, and
area/polygon and the measure of the influence of an entity and its
corresponding application.
 Point buffer creation is very simple conceptually but poses
complex computational operations.
 Creating buffer zones around point features or entity is a circle
simply drawn around each point as center and the area of
influence under study as the radius of the circle.
 Line buffers can be created by measuring a specified distance in

all directions from the line target object
 the example of line buffer for the alignment of pipeline.
 Area buffer can be created by measuring the distance with an area
measured from its outer perimeter.
 Doughnut buffers sometimes, there may even be a requirement for
a buffer around a second buffer.
 Buffers are useful methods for analyzing the landscapes,
environmental problem solving, water quality studies, road
highways studies, pipeline alignment studies and so on .
 5 Types of Buffer
 Overlay Analysis
 Map overlay is an important technique for integrating data derived
from various sources and perhaps is the basic key function in GIS
data analysis and modeling surfaces.
 Map overlay is a process by which it is possible to take two or
more different thematic map layers of the same area and overlay
them on top of the other to form a composite new layer.
 This technique is used for the overlay of vector data (for example,
pipelines) on a raster background image (often a scanned
topographic map) overlays where new spatial data sets are created
involving the merger of data from two or more input data layers to
create a new output data layer.
 There are some fundamental differences in operations and

analyses in the way map overlays are performed between the
raster and vector worlds.
 In vector-based systems map overlay is time-consuming,
complex and computationally expensive.
 In raster-based systems it is just quick, straightforward and
efficient.
 GIS analysis procedure used for soil conservation studies

 One of the most important benefits of an overlay analysis of GIS

data is the ability to spatially interrelate multiple types of
information stemming from a range of sources.
 This concept is illustrated in Figure where we have assumed
that a hydrologist wishes to use GIS to study soil erosion in a
watershed.
 As shown, the system contains data from a range of source
maps (a) that have been geocoded on a cell-by-cell basis to
form a series of land data files or layers, (b) all in geographic
registration.
 The analyst can then manipulate and overlay the information
contained in, or derived form, the various data files.
 In this example, we assume the potential for soil erosion

throughout the watershed involves the simultaneous cell- by-cell
consideration of three types of data derived from the original data
files: slope soil erodability, and surface runoff potential.
 The slope information can be computed from the elevations in the
topography file.
 The erodability, which is an attribute associated with each soil type, can be
extracted from a relational database management system incorporated in the
GIS.
 The runoff potential is an attribute associated with each land cover type.
 The analyst can use the system to interrelate these three sources of
derived data where combinations of site characteristics indicate
 high soil erosion potential that is steep slopes and highly erodible soil cover
combinations
 3D arrays used for coding map overlays in raster database

structure
 The above example illustrates the GIS analysis function

commonly referred to as overlay analysis.
 The number, form, and complexity of other data analyses possible
with a GIS are virtually limitless.
 Such procedures can operate on the system's spatial data, the
attribute data, or both.
 For example, aggregation is an operation that permits combining

detailed map categories to create new, less detailed categories,
 like combining "dense forest" and "sparse forest" categories
into a single "forest" category.
 Because each cell in a two-dimensional array can hold only one
number, different geographical attributes must be represented by
separated sets of cartesian arrays, known as 'overlays'.
 Supervised Classification
 Better for cases where validity of classification depends on a
priori knowledge of the technician
 Conventional cover classes are recognized in the scene from
prior knowledge or other GIS/ imagery layers
 Therefore selection of classes is pre-determined and supervised
 Training sets are chosen for each of those classes
 There are numerous algorithms the computer uses, including:
 Minimum distance to means classification (Chain Method)
 Gaussian Maximum likelihood classification
 Parallelpiped classification
 Basic steps supervised classification

 UnSupervised Classification
 Better for cases where validity of classification not depends on a
priori knowledge of the technician
 Conventional cover classes will be recognized in the scene from
measures of imagery layers
 Therefore selection of classes is not pre-determined and
unsupervised
 No Training sets are chosen for each of those classes
 There are numerous algorithms the computer uses, including:
 Clustering (k-means Method)
 Maximum likelihood classification
 Classification
 Unsupervised Classes can be hard to identify

 No Traing set
 Supervised Information about a class may

 Traing set not be in image
 Flow Chart showing Image Classification

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Chapter Two: GIS

 Geographic Information Systems(GIS)

 Learn DBMS and spatial referencing

 Understand about data quality and measures of location

 An integrated raster and vector data working environment provides

 Vector Data Representation

 Line is 1 dimensional and also has property of length. Begins and

 Organization of Vector Data model

 Point& Line Features

 Vector Data Advantages

 Vector Data Limitations

 Representation of Raster Data

 Each cell in raster format carries a value as either an integer or

 Organization of Raster Data model

 Raster Coding: There are many ways of raster coding it can be

 Advantages of Raster Data Model

 Limitations of Raster model

 Such as in case of point feature Hospital, information such as name,

 Two fundamental ways of representing geography are discrete

 The field view represents the real world as a finite number of

 Vector and Raster Representation of Spatial Fields

definition. Number of columns

 A geographic data model is a structure for organizing geospatial data

Themes or Data Layers

 Comparison of raster and vector Data models

 Geographical data describe an incredibly wide range of objects or

 Spatial data handling with SW can be applied in :

 1:N relation data

 N:M relation data

 General purpose GISs essentially perform 7 processes or tasks for

 Subsystem nature of GIS (structural perspective) essentially

 Each of the subsystems has been described in terms of functions that

 Geodesy - the shape of the earth and definition of earth datums

Types of Coordinate Systems

Longitudes are -ve in the Southern Hemisphere

Latitude line (Parallel)

(Lat, Long) = (f, l)

For the meridian, DL = Re Df  6370 * 0.0175  111 km

For the parallel, DL = Re Dl Cos f

For the left and right sides, DL = Re Df  6.37 x 106 * 4.848 x

For the top and bottom sides, DL = Re Dl Cos f = 6.37 x 106 *

 Coordinate System is the most general term for a system that

 A GCS consists of:

 Latitude and Longitude

 Versions of Longitude and Latitude: expressing longitude latitude

 Latitude: 90° N to 90° S

 Degree readings for longitudes and latitudes in increments of 30

 Between small and large scales, choosing to use a sphere or

 Rotating the ellipse around the semi-minor axis creates a spheroid.

 The flattening is a small value, so usually the quantity 1/f is used

 The flattening ranges from zero to one.

 Projected Coordinate System (PCS)

 PCS use rectangular or Cartesian Coordinates.

 Since projections are rectangular coordinates (rather than spherical),

 Nautical Miles (for marine data)

 Reporting GC : in "degrees" but they can also include "minutes"

Converting from DMS to DD Q1. DD=>40.866389° DMS=>?°?'?''

 Spatial Precision in DMS: varies based on how they are formatted

 Location errors: noise, bias and blunder

 Satellite based location technologies

 The 3 segments of a satellite-based positioning system

 The space segment of GPS consists of 24 satellites on 6 orbits

 The control segment of consists of master ,monitor and ground