2015 CH 2 Gis RS

Chapter Two:GIS
 Geographic Information Systems(GIS)

 Describe geographic information , spatial data types
 Explain the steps of spatial data handling
 Learn DBMS and spatial referencing
 Understand about data quality and measures of location
errors on maps
 Learn about satellite-based positioning ,spatial data
input, data preparation and management
 Understand analytical GIS capabilities, retrieval and
classification
Describe geographic information , spatial data types
 Geographic information is any type of data that directly or

indirectly references a specific geographical area or location.
 Sometimes called geospatial data or Spatial data , which can also
numerically represent a physical object in a geographic coordinate
system.
 However, it is much more than a spatial component of a map.
 Users can save spatial data in a variety of different formats, as it can

also contain more than location-specific data.
 Analyzing this data provides a better understanding of how each
variable impacts individuals, communities, populations, etc.
 There are several spatial data types, but the two primary kinds of
spatial data are:
 geometric data and geographic data.
 Geographic information
 is information about places on the Earth's surface
 knowledge about where something is
 knowledge about what is at a given location
 can be very detailed, for example:
 information about the locations of all buildings in a city
 information about individual trees in a forest
 can be very coarse, for example:
 climate of a large region
 population density of an entire country
 in these examples it's the geographic resolution that varies
 other characteristics of geographic information are:

 often relatively static
 natural features and many features of human origin don't
change rapidly
 only static information can be portrayed on a static paper map
 can be very voluminous
 a terabyte (1012 bytes) of data is sent from a single satellite in
one day
 gigabytes (gigabyte = 109 bytes) of data are needed to describe
the US street network
 Geometric data is a spatial data type that is mapped on a two-

dimensional flat surface.
 An example is the geometric data in floor plans.
 Google Maps is an application that uses geometric data to provide
accurate direction.
 In fact, it is one of the simplest examples of spatial data in
action.
 Geographic data is information mapped around a sphere.
 Most often, An example is the sphere is planet earth.
 It highlights the latitude and longitude relationships to a specific
object or location.
 A familiar example of geographic data is a global positioning
system.
 Georeferencing and geocoding

 Similar processes, georeferencing and geocoding, are important
aspects of geospatial analysis.
 Both geocoding and georeferencing involve fitting data into the
real world by using appropriate coordinates, but that is where the
similarity ends.
 Georeferencing concentrates on assigning data coordinates
to vectors or rasters.
 This approach helps accurately model the planet's surface.
 Geocoding, on the other hand, provides address and location

descriptors.
 These can include information about cities, states, countries,
and...
 Each exact coordinate references a specific location on the earth's
Describe spatial data types
 GIS data is quite broad, with considerable variation in terms of:

 GIS data types
 File formats and extensions
 Data capture methods
 Use cases for the data
 GIS data types falls under one of two different categories:

 A. Spatial Referenced which is represented by
 1. Vector spatial data files: the geographic features being

represented are built by a collection of vertices and lines.
 2. Raster spatial data : the geographic features across an entire
area are represented by a continuous set of “pixels” or “cells”.
 B. Attribute data which is represented in tabular format.
Describe spatial data types: Vector data
 Vector data is, essentially, a list of coordinates: one that provides

instructions on how an image should be rendered.
 Vector images are high-fidelity graphical representations of an
image or shape.
 This graphical property means that vector images are infinitely
scalable. They can be enlarged or reduced with no quality loss.
 This makes them the preferred file type for web logos and large-
scale prints.
 Vector images can only be created and manipulated with a
computer program like Adobe Illustrator or Sketch.
 You cannot, for example, use a camera to capture a vector image.
 Vector images consist of three basic components: points, lines, and

polygons.
 Vector points are basically x,y coordinates. They don’t have

dimensions and usually represent single data points.
 In GIS mapping, vector points illustrate features too small to be
drawn at scale.
 For example, if you're creating a map of a specific city, you'd use
lines to draw the city's boundaries. However, create a map of the
entire country and that boundary is no longer visible - so a labeled
point is used instead.
 This image of Colorado illustrates this concept perfectly: the state
capital being represented as a labeled point.
 Vector lines are a series of connected vector points.

 They have distinct start and end points and, though they can
intersect with one another, a single line will not intersect with itself.
 Vector lines are used to represent linear features such as rivers,
roads, and trails.
 Color, thickness, and line type (solid or dashed) are used to denote
unique features, or unique attributes of the same feature.
 For example, a heavily trafficked highway might be drawn with a
thick line, whereas the residential roadway would be much thinner.
Moreover, streets could be solid black lines, while the river might
be dotted and blue.
 Stylistic choices like these are at the map makers discretion, but can
add depth and visual interest to the map.
 Vector Polygons are lines in which the first point is also the last:
creating a shape.
 Polygons represent features with distinct boundaries: states,
property lines, lakes, etc.
 Though they're most frequently used to represent perimeter, with
modern GIS, polygons can also be used to measure a feature’s area.
Describe spatial data types: Raster data
 Where vector data (coordinates that create an image) is somewhat

abstract, raster data is quite literal.
 Raster data is grid or pixel based.
 Commonly found as aerial surveys, topographic maps, and satellite
imagery, raster file extensions include TIFF, PNG, and JPEG.
 In GIS mapping, raster data generally represents surfaces.
 Unlike vector data, raster data cannot be scaled infinitely.
 Enlarge it too much and it becomes fuzzy and pixelated. Stretch too
much in one direction and the features distort.
 Despite these limitations, raster data does have advantages; chiefly,

it provides a level of detail not possible with vectors.
 Take digital photographs as an example.
 Photographs provide an immense level of contextual detail and represent the
subleties of light and color quite accurately.
 Consider the images shown here. The first depicts vector images of trees, the other
is a raster photograph.
 Both images depict trees accurately. However, the raster photograph
is not only more detailed, but is more visually nuanced.
 In terms of GIS mapping, raster data comes in two types: discrete

and continuous.
 Discrete data can only take specific values, whereas continuous data
can take any value within a range.
 For example:
 The number of people in a room is a discrete value. You can have any number of
people, but you can’t have half a person. You’re limited to whole numbers: no
decimals or percents.
 Continuous data is more flexible, including values such as height, weight, and
length. A person's height can be any value within the range of human heights. In
fact, most people’s height is not exact to the inch or foot.
 Continuous and discrete data are complementary, but do have
different applications.
 The map on top illustrates discrete raster data.

 Each value is assigned a different color, while each cell has only one data type and
one color: there’s no gradation of either.
 In contrast, the map on the bottom represents continuous data.
 Each grid cell contains some level of gradation.
 Continuous rasters are often used to represent data that experiences
gradual change: temperature, population, elevation, etc.
Describe spatial data types: Vector and Raster data
 Data types
 File formats and extensions
 Data capture methods
 Use cases for the data
 NOTE: Most GIS software applications mainly focus on the usage

and manipulation of vector geodatabases with added components to
work with raster-based geodatabases.
 Vector data is the most common type of GIS data.

 Most data loaded into a GIS software program tends to be in
vector data.
 Vector data represents geographic data symbolized as points,
lines, or polygons.
 Raster data represents geographic data as a matrix of cells that each
contains an attribute value.
 While the area of different polygon shapes in a data set can differ,
each cell in a raster data set is the same cell.
 The size of the area in the real world that each cell represents is
known as the spatial resolution.
 Raster data is most commonly found in remotely sensed data,
shaded relief and topographic data, satellite imagery, and aerial
imagery.
Describe spatial data types: Vector Data
 Vector data is split into three types: point, line (or arc), and polygon
data.
 Examples would be schools, points of interest, bridge and culvert locations.
 Point features are also used to represent abstract points.
 For instance, point locations could represent city locations or place names.
 point data can be used to show the geographic location of cities.
 Line (or arc) data is used to represent linear features.
 Common examples would be rivers, trails, and streets.
 Line features only have one dimension and therefore can only be used to measure
length.
 Line features have a starting and ending point.
 Common examples would be road centerlines and hydrology.
 Symbology most commonly used to distinguish arc features from one another are
line types (solid lines versus dashed lines) and combinations using colors and line
thicknesses.
Describe spatial data types: Vector Data
 In the example below roads are distinguished from the stream network by
designating the roads as a solid black line and the hydrology a dashed blue line.
 Polygons are used to represent areas such as the boundary of a city
(on a large scale map), lake, or forest.
 Polygon features are two dimensional and therefore can be used to measure the area
and perimeter of a geographic feature.
 Polygon features are most commonly distinguished using either a
thematic mapping symbology (color schemes), patterns, or in the
case of numeric gradation, a color gradation scheme could be
used.
 With maps presented at a larger scale, city locations are
represented as a polygon to show the extent of each city.
Describe spatial data types: Raster Data
 Cell-based GIS data

 Raster data (also known as grid data) represents the fourth type of feature: surfaces.
Raster data is cell-based containing coordinate information and values for each
cell.
 Cell values can contain information such as the elevation of that cell, the slope,
rainfall, or any other surface value that is spread across the geographic region.
 Raster cell values can be either integer or floating point.
 The number of cells in a raster data set is dependent upon the geographic extent of
the layer and the resolution of the cells.
 What are raster GIS data sets used for?
 Raster cells are often used to map out surfaces such as topography and can be used
to quantity changes across a landscape.
 Another common use of raster data is as a background layer.
 Aerials, satellite images, and shaded relief rasters are frequently used as the base
layer when making maps.
 This data category also includes aerial photographs and satellite

imagery.
 Imagery raster types can be in geoTIFF, TIFF, JPG, PNG, GIF,
BMP, and other imagery file formats.
 These file formats often have , accompanied by, a second file
called a world file
 The world file has the same name as the raster image file but has
a different extension.
 The world file is a text file that contains the map projection
information needed to properly georeference the raster image.
 Continuous and Discrete Raster Data

 There are two types of raster data: continuous and discrete.
 An example of discrete raster data is population density.
 Continuous data examples are temperature and elevation
measurements.
 There are also three types of raster datasets: thematic data, spectral
data, and pictures (imagery).
 This example of a thematic raster dataset is called a Digital
Elevation Model (DEM).
 Each cell presents a 30m pixel size with an elevation value
assigned to that cell.
 Each cell contains one value representing the dominate value of
that cell.
 Spectral data presents aerial or satellite imagery which is then often

used to derive vegetation geologic information by classifying the
spectral signatures of each type of feature.
 What results from the effect of converting spatial data location
information into a cell based raster format is called stairstepping.
 The name derives from the image of exactly that, the square cells
along the borders of different value types look like a staircase
viewed from the side.
 Unlike vector data, raster data is formed by each cell receiving the
value of the feature that dominates the cell.
 The stairstepping look comes from the transition of the cells from
one value to another.
 What are raster GIS data sets used for?

 Raster cells are often used to map out surfaces such as topography
and can be used to quantity changes across a landscape.
 Another common use of raster data is as a background layer.
 Aerials, satellite images, and shaded relief rasters are frequently
used as the base layer when making maps.
 Raster datasets are intrinsic to most spatial analysis.
 Spatial hydrology modeling such as extracting watersheds and
flow lines also uses a raster-based system.
 Data analysis such as extracting slope and aspect from Digital
Elevation Models occurs with raster datasets.
 Spatial data observations focus on locations.

 Every house, every tree, and every city has its own unique latitude and longitude
coordinates.
 When should we use raster and when should we use vector features?
 Find out more about the spatial data models commonly used.
 Vectors models are points, lines, and polygons
 Vector data is not made up of a grid of pixels. Instead, vector
graphics are comprised of vertices and paths.
 The three basic symbol types for vector data are points, lines, and
polygons (areas).
 Because cartographers use these symbols to represent real-world
features in maps, they often have to decide based on the level of
detail on the map.
 Vector points are simply XY coordinates.

 Generally, they are latitude and longitude with a spatial reference
frame.
 When features are too small to be represented as polygons, points
are used.
 For example, you can’t see city boundary lines on a global scale.
In this case, maps often use points to display cities.
 Vector lines connect each vertex with paths.
 Basically, you’re connecting the dots in a set order and it becomes
a vector line with each dot representing a vertex.
 Lines usually represent features that are linear in nature.
 For example, maps show rivers, roads, and pipelines as vector
lines.
 Often, busier highways have thicker lines than abandoned roads.

 On the other hand, networks are line data sets but they are often
considered to be different.
 This is because linear networks are topologically connected
elements.
 They consist of junctions and turns with connectivity.
 If you were to find an optimal route using a traffic line network,
it would follow set rules.
 For example, it can restrict turns and movement on one-way
streets.
 Vector Polygons connect vertices and close the path

 When you join a set of vertices in a particular order and close it,
this is now a vector polygon feature.
 When you create a polygon, the first and last coordinate pairs are
the same.
 Cartographers use polygons to show boundaries and they all have
an area.
 For example, a building footprint has square footage, and
agricultural fields have acreage.
XY coordinates connect each vertex with paths connect vertices, close the path
 Raster data is made up of pixels (also referred to as grid cells).

 They are usually regularly spaced and square but they don’t have to be.
 Rasters often look pixelated because each pixel has its own value or class.
 For example: Each pixel value in a satellite image has a red, green, and blue value.
 Alternatively, each value in an elevation map represents a specific height.
 It could represent anything from rainfall to land cover.
 Raster models are useful for storing data that varies continuously.
 For example, elevation surfaces, temperature, and lead contamination.
 Discrete Rasters have distinct values

 Discrete rasters have distinct themes or categories. For example,
one grid cell represents a land cover class or a soil type.
 In a discrete raster land cover/use map, you can distinguish each
thematic class. Each class can be discretely defined where it begins
and ends.
 In other words, each land cover cell is definable and it fills the
entire area of the cell.
 Discrete data usually consists of integers to represent classes. For
example, the value 1 might represent urban areas, the value 2
represents forest, and so on.
 Continuous Rasters have a gradual change

 Continuous rasters (non-discrete) are grid cells with gradually
changing data such as elevation, temperature, or an aerial
photograph.A continuous raster surface can be derived from a fixed
registration point. For example, digital elevation models use sea level
as a registration point.
 Each cell represents a value above or below sea level. As another
example, aspect cell values have fixed directions such as north, east,
south, or west.
 Phenomena can gradually vary along a continuous raster from a
specific source. A raster depicting an oil spill can show how the fluid
moves from high concentration to low concentration. At the source of
the oil spill, concentration is higher and diffuses outwards with
diminishing values as a function of distance.
 What are the advantages of using vector data?
 Because vector data have vertices and paths, this means that the graphical
output is generally more aesthetically pleasing.
 Furthermore, it gives higher geographic accuracy because data isn’t dependent
on grid size.
 Topology rules can help data integrity with vector data models.
 Not only that, network analysis and proximity operations use vector data
structures.
 What are the disadvantages of using vector data?
 Continuous data is poorly stored and displayed as vectors.
 If you want to display continuous data as a vector, it would require substantial

generalization.
 Although topology is useful for vector data, it is often processing intensive.
 Any feature edits require updates on topology.
 With a lot of features, vector manipulation algorithms are complex.

 What are the advantages of using raster data?
 A raster grid format is a data model for satellite data and other remote sensing
data. For raster positions, it’s simple to understand cell size.
 Map algebra with raster data is usually quick and easy to perform. Overall,
quantitative analysis is intuitive with discrete or continuous rasters.
 What are the disadvantages of using raster data?
 B/c cell size contributes to graphic quality, it can have a pixelated look and feel
 To illustrate, linear features and paths are difficult to display.

 You cannot create network datasets or perform topology rules on rasters.
 Also, you don’t have the flexibility with raster data attribute tables.
 Raster datasets can become potentially very large because they record values
for each cell in an image.
 As resolution increases, the size of the cell decreases.
 But this comes at a cost for speed of processing and data storage.
 Vector vs Raster: Spatial Data Types
 Do you want to work with pixels or coordinates? Raster data works with
pixels. Vector data consists of coordinates.
 What is your map scale? Vectors can scale objects up to the size of a billboard.
But you don’t get that type of flexibility with raster data
 Do you have restrictions on file size? Raster file size can result in larger in
comparison with vector data sets with the same phenomenon and area.
 There are some of the features you have to think about during the data design and
conceptualization phase.
 Spatial data structures
 Spatial data types provide the information that a computer requires to
reconstruct the spatial data in digital form.
 In the raster world, we have grid cells representing real-world features. In the
vector world, we have points, lines, and polygons that consist of vertices and
paths.
 Vector and raster data both have their advantages and disadvantages.
Explain the steps of spatial data handling
 Geographical data describe an incredibly wide range of objects or

business assets – roads, buildings, property lines, terrain,
infrastructure, hydrology and ecosystems.
 All these objects can be described in terms of points, lines and
polygons – and tables of these objects constitute the tabular portion
of geospatial data.
 accommodates some kinds of unstructured data (usually raster
imagery) that can be tagged and geocoded (given precise positional
characteristics) and integrated by GIS software to the other kinds of
map data.
 Thus the management of GIS data and metadata is somewhat

different.
 Whereas traditional tabular data could be understood by a human
looking at any printed expression of the data (usually in rows and
columns, even on paper), raw GIS data is generally meaningless to
the human eye until converted into a map.
 This is what GIS software does.
 However, because of the complexity of the storage and expression
of GIS data, the software is heavily dependent upon formalized
metadata conforming to rigorous metadata standards.
 Any positional coordinates of geographic objects must be stored in a
reference system (e.g., X and Y coordinates) and a projection
(remember the distorted maps in your geography textbook?).
spatial data handling
 spatial data handling can be applied in:

 reading and editing mode
 PostGreSQL/PostGIS
 Oracle Spatial (compiling QGIS Server)
 SQLite/SpatiaLite
 GeoPackage
 ShapeFile
 reading mode
 SQL Server
 Virtual layer
 The suite also allows you to manage the consultation and editing of:
 simple join data with no nesting limits
 1:N relation data
 N:M relation data
 General purpose GISs essentially perform six processes or tasks for

spatial data handling .
 Input
 Manipulation
 Management
 Query and Analysis
 Visualization
 Input
 Before geographic data can be used in a GIS, the data must be
converted into a suitable digital format.
 The process of converting data from paper maps into computer
files is called digitizing.
 Modern GIS technology can automate this process fully for large
projects using scanning technology; smaller jobs may require
some manual digitizing (using a digitizing table).
 Today many types of geographic data already exist in GIS-
compatible formats.
 These data can be obtained from data suppliers and loaded
directly into a GIS.
 Manipulation
 It is likely that data types required for a particular GIS project
will need to be transformed or manipulated in some way to make
them compatible with your system.
 For example, geographic information is available at different
scales (detailed street centerline files; less detailed census
boundaries; and postal codes at a regional level).
 Before this information can be integrated, it must be transformed
to the same scale (degree of detail or accuracy).
 This could be a temporary transformation for display purposes or
a permanent one required for analysis.
 GIS technology offers many tools for manipulating spatial data
and for weeding out unnecessary data.
 Management
 For small GIS projects it may be sufficient to store geographic
information as simple files.
 However, when data volumes become large and the number of
data users becomes more than a few, there comes a point when it
is best to use a database management system to help store,
organize, and manage data. A DBMS is nothing more than
computer software for managing a database.
 There are many different designs of DBMSs, but in GIS the
relational design has been the most useful.
 In the relational design, data are stored conceptually as a
collection of tables.
 Common fields in different tables are used to link them together.
This surprisingly simple design has been so widely used primarily
 Query and Analysis

 Once you have a functioning GIS containing your geographic
information, you can begin to ask simple questions such as
 Who owns the land parcel on the corner?
 How far is it between two places?
 Where is land zoned for industrial use?
 And analytical questions such as
 Where are all the sites suitable for building new houses?
 What is the dominant soil type for oak forest?
 If I build a new highway here, how will traffic be affected?
 Visualization
 For many types of geographic operation the end result is best
visualized as a map or graph.
 Maps are very efficient at storing and communicating geographic
information.
 While cartographers have created maps for millennia, GIS
provides new and exciting tools to extend the art and science of
cartography.
 Map displays can be integrated with reports, three-dimensional
views, photographic images, and other output such as multimedia.
Learn DBMS and spatial referencing
 A spatial database also known as a “geospatial database” is built to

capture and store the points, lines, and areas of cartographic
information that we refer to as spatial data.
 Often these databases were pretty ordinary but had extensions to
handle binary objects (BLOBs) in one of their fields SQL Server,
Oracle, PostgreSQL, Ingres, SQLite all have spatial addons.
 Spatial Database Management System (SDBMS) provides the
capabilities of a traditional database management system (DBMS)
while allowing special storage and handling of spatial data.
 SDBMS:
 Works with an underlying DBMS
 Allows spatial data models and types
 Supports querying language specific to spatial data types
 Provides handling of spatial data and operations
 Types of Data Stored in Spatial Databases

 Two-dimensional data examples
 Geographical
 Cartesian coordinates (2-D)
 Networks
 Direction
 Three-dimensional data examples
 Weather
 Cartesian coordinates (3-D)
 Topological
 Satellite images
 Spatial Databases Uses and Users

 Three types of uses
 Manage spatial data
 Analyze spatial data
 High level utilization
 A few examples of users
 Transportation agency tracking projects
 Insurance risk manager considering location risk profiles
 Doctor comparing Magnetic Resonance Images (MRIs)
 Emergency response determining quickest route to victim
 Mobile phone companies tracking phone usage
 Mobile phone user determining current relative location of
businesses
 SDBMS works with a spatial application at the front end and a

DBMS at the back end
 SDBMS has three layers:
 Interface to spatial application
 Core spatial functionality
 Interface to DBMS
 Number of specialized adaptations of SQL

 Spatial query language
 Temporal query language (TSQL2)
 Object query language (OQL)
 Object oriented structured query language (O2SQL)
 Spatial query language provides tools and structures specifically for
working with spatial data
 SQL3 provides 2D geospatial types and functions
 Three types of queries:Spatial Query Language Operations
 Basic operations on all data types (e.g. IsEmpty, Envelope, Boundary)
 Topological/set operators (e.g. Disjoint, Touch, Contains)
 Spatial analysis (e.g. Distance, Intersection, SymmDiff)
 Spatial Data Entity Creation
 Form an entity to hold county names, states, populations, and
geographies
CREATE TABLE County(
Name varchar(30),
State varchar(30),
Pop Integer,
Shape Polygon);
 Form an entity to hold river names, sources, lengths, and
geographies
CREATE TABLE River(
Name varchar(30),
Source varchar(30),
Distance Integer,
Shape LineString);
 Example Spatial Query

 Find all the counties that border on Contra Costa county
SELECT C1.Name
FROM County C1, County C2
WHERE Touch(C1.Shape, C2.Shape) = 1 AND C2.Name =
‘Contra Costa’;
 Find all the counties through which the Merced river runs
SELECT C.Name, R.Name
FROM County C, River R
WHERE Intersect(C.Shape, R.Shape) = 1 AND R.Name =
‘Merced’;
 Vector Data File Formats

 Shapefile
 A shapefile is a file-based data format native to ArcView 3.x software (a much
older version of ArcMap). Conceptually, a shapefile is a feature class–it stores a
collection of features that have the same geometry type (point, line, or polygon),
the same attributes, and a common spatial extent.
 Despite what its name may imply, a “single” shapefile is actually composed of at
least three files, and as many as eight. Each file that makes up a “shapefile” has a
common filename but different extension type.
 The list of files that define a “shapefile” are shown in the following table. Note that
each file has a specific role in defining a shapefile.
 File extension Content

 .dbf Attribute information
 .shp Feature geometry
 .shx Feature geometry index
 .aih Attribute index
 .ain Attribute index
 .prj Coordinate system information
 .sbn Spatial index file
 .sbx Spatial index file
 File Geodatabase
 A file geodatabase is a relational database storage format. It’s a far more complex
data structure than the shapefile and consists of a .gdb folder housing dozens of
files. Its complexity renders it more versatile allowing it to store multiple feature
classes and enabling topological definitions (i.e. allowing the user to define rules
that govern the way different feature classes relate to one another). An example of
the contents of a geodatabase is shown in the following figure.
 GeoPackage
 This is a relatively new data format that follows open format standards (i.e. it is
non-proprietary). It’s built on top of SQLite (a self-contained relational database).
Its one big advantage over many other vector formats is its compactness–
coordinate value, metadata, attribute table, projection information, etc…, are all
stored in a single file which facilitates portability. Its filename usually ends
in .gpkg. Applications such as QGIS (2.12 and up), R and ArcGIS will recognize
this format (ArcGIS version 10.2.2 and above will read the file from ArcCatalog
but requires a script to create a GeoPackage).
 Vector Data File Formats

Spatial Referencing
Spatial Referencing
 A geographic coordinate system (GCS)

 uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to define locations on the earth.
 is often incorrectly called a datum, but a datum is only one part of a GCS.
 includes an angular unit of measure, a prime meridian, and a datum (based on a
spheroid).
 a point is referenced by its longitude and latitude values.
 Longitude and latitude are angles measured from the earth’s center to a point
on the earth’s surface.
 The angles often are measured in degrees (or in grads).
 In the spherical system,
 ‘horizontal lines’, or east–west lines, are lines of equal latitude, or parallels.
 ‘Vertical lines’, or north–south lines, are lines of equal longitude, or
meridians.
 These lines encompass the globe and form a gridded network called a
graticule.
Spatial Referencing
 SPHEROIDS AND SPHERES

 The shape and size of a geographic coordinate system’s surface is
defined by a sphere or spheroid.
 Although the earth is best represented by a spheroid, the earth is
sometimes treated as a sphere to make mathematical calculations
easier.
 The assumption that the earth is a sphere is possible for small-
scale maps (smaller than 1:5,000,000).
 At this scale, the difference between a sphere and a spheroid is
not detectable on a map.
 However, to maintain accuracy for larger-scale maps (scales of
1:1,000,000 or larger), a spheroid is necessary to represent the
shape of the earth.
Spatial Referencing
 Between those scales, choosing to use a sphere or spheroid will

depend on the map’s purpose and the accuracy of the data.
 A sphere is based on a circle, while a spheroid (or ellipsoid) is
based on an ellipse.
 The shape of an ellipse is defined by two radii.
 the longer radius is called the semi-major axis(RM)
 the shorter radius is called the semi-minor axis(Rm)
Spatial Referencing
 Rotating the ellipse around the semi-minor axis creates a spheroid.

 A spheroid is also known as an oblate ellipsoid of revolution.
 A spheroid is defined by either the semi-major axis, a, and the semi-
minor axis, b, or by a and the flattening factor.
 The flattening factor is the difference in length between the two
axes expressed as a fraction or a decimal.
 The flattening factor, f, is:
f=(a-b)/a
or
f=(RM-Rm)/RM
Spatial Referencing
 The flattening is a small value, so usually the quantity 1/f is used

instead.  The flattening of the earth is approximately 0.0033528 ~ 0.003353
 For example, the new standard spheroid for North America is the Geodetic Reference
System of 1866 (GRS 1866), whose radii are
 a= 6,378,206.4 and b=6,356,583.8 meters.
 f= (6,378,206.4-6,356,583.8)/ 6,378,206.4 = 0.0033900
 1/f= 294.985250737
 For example, the new standard spheroid for North America is the Geodetic Reference
System of 1980 (GRS 1980), whose radii are
 a= 6,378,137.0 and b=6,356,752.31414 meters.
 f= (6,378,137.0-6,356,752.31414)/ 6,378,137.0 =0.0033528
 1/f=298.2581722739
 The flattening ranges from zero to one.

 A flattening value of zero means the two axes are equal, resulting in
a sphere.
Spatial Referencing
 Another quantity, that, like the flattening, describes the shape of a

spheroid, is the square of the eccentricity, e2.
 It is represented by:
Spatial Referencing
 A projected coordinate system(PCS)

 is defined on a flat, two-dimensional surface.
 Unlike a GCS , a PCS has constant lengths, angles, and areas
across the two dimensions.
 is always based on a GCS that is based on a sphere or spheroid.
 In a PCS , locations are identified by x,y coordinates on a grid,
with the origin at the center of the grid.
 Each position has two values that reference it to that central
location.
 One specifies its horizontal and the other its vertical position.
 The two values are called the x-coordinate and y-coordinate.
 Using this notation, the coordinates at the origin are x = 0 ,y = 0.
Spatial Referencing
 On a gridded network of equally spaced horizontal and vertical

lines, the horizontal line in the center is called the x-axis and the
central vertical line is called the y-axis.
 Units are consistent and equally spaced across the full range of x
and y.
 In four quadrants, horizontal lines above the origin and vertical
lines to the right of the origin have positive values; those below or
to the left have negative values.
 The signs of x,y coordinates in a projected coordinate system.

Spatial Referencing
 Whether you treat the earth as a sphere or a spheroid, you must

transform its three-dimensional surface to create a flat map sheet.
 This mathematical transformation is commonly referred to as a
map projection.
 Different projections cause different types of distortions.
 One projection could maintain area of a feature but alter its shape,
other could maintain shape of a feature but alter its distance.
 Conformal projections preserve local shape.
 To preserve individual angles describing the spatial relationships, a
conformal projection must show the perpendicular graticule lines
intersecting at 90-degree angles on the map.
 A map projection accomplishes this by maintaining all angles.
Spatial Referencing
 Equal area projections preserve the area of displayed features.

 To do this, the other properties—shape, angle, and scale—are
distorted.
 In equal area projections, the meridians and parallels may not
intersect at right angles.
 Equidistant projections preserve the distances between certain points.
 Scale is not maintained correctly by any projection throughout an entire
map; however, there are, in most cases, one or more lines on a map along
which scale is maintained correctly.
 True-direction projections
 The shortest route between two points on a curved surface such as the earth
is along the spherical equivalent of a straight line on a flat surface. That is
the great circle on which the two points lie.
 Truedirection, or azimuthal, projections maintain some of the great circle
arcs, giving the directions or azimuths of all points on the map correctly
Spatial Referencing
 The first step in projecting from one surface to another is creating

one or more points of contact.
 Each contact is called a point (or line) of tangency.
 If the projection surface intersects the globe instead of merely
touching its
 surface, the resulting projection is a secant rather than a tangent
case.
 Whether the contact is tangent or secant, the contact points or
lines are significant because they define locations of zero
distortion.
 Lines of true scale are often referred to as standard lines.
 In general, distortion increases with the distance from the point
of contact.
Spatial Referencing
 Many common map projections are classified according to the

projection surface used: conic, cylindrical, or planar.
 Conic projections
 The most simple conic projection is tangent to the globe along a
line of latitude.
Spatial Referencing
 Cylindrical projections
 Like conic projections, cylindrical projections can also have
tangent or secant cases.
 The Mercator projection is one of the most common cylindrical
projections, and the equator is usually its line of tangency.
Spatial Referencing
 Planar projections
 project map data onto a flat surface touching the globe.
 is also known as an azimuthal projection or a zenithal
projection.
 This type of projection is usually tangent to the globe at one
point but may be secant, also.
 The point of contact may be the North Pole, the South Pole, a
point on the equator, or any point in between.
Spatial Referencing
 Thegraphic below compares three planar projections with polar

aspects but different perspectives.
 The Gnomonic projection views the surface data from the
center of the earth, whereas
 The Stereographic projection views it from pole to pole.
 The Orthographic projection views the earth from an infinite
point, as if from deep space.
Understand about data quality and measures of location errors on
maps
 Data quality is the degree of data excellency that satisfy the given
objective.
 In other words, completeness of attributes in order to achieve the
given task can be termed as Data Quality.
 Production of data by private sector as well as by various mapping
agencies assesses the data quality standards in order to produce
better results.
 Data created from different channels with different techniques can
have discrepancies in terms of resolution, orientation and
displacements.
 Data quality is a pillar in any GIS implementation and application
as reliable data are indispensable to allow the user obtaining
meaningful results.
Understand about data quality and measures of location errors on
maps
 Spatial Data quality can be categorized into Data completeness,

Data Precision, Data accuracy and Data Consistency.
 Data Completeness: It is basically the measure of totality of
features.
 A data set with minimal amount of missing features can be
termed as Complete-Data.
 Data Precision: can be termed as the degree of details that are
displayed on a uniform space.
 Data Accuracy: can be termed as the discrepancy between the
actual attributes value and coded attribute value.
 Data Consistency: can be termed as the absence of conflicts in a
particular database.
Data Quality
 Data quality describes the overall suitability of a dataset for a

specific purpose
 Error
 Accuracy: the extent to which an estimated value approaches its
true value
 Precision: the recorded level of detail in the dataset
 Resolution
 Generalization
 OTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY
 Completeness: data must be spatially and temporally complete
 Compatible: Multiple datasets used in the same project must be of
the same format, scale and extent
 Consistent: Multiple datasets should undergo consistent methods of
Data Quality
 SOURCES OF ERROR
 Data transfer and conversion
 Vectorization
 Rasterization
 Transferring between software
Data Quality
 Rasterization
 Loss of Polygons:
 When polygons are less than half the area of the chosen raster
cell size
 Topological Errors:
 Loss of connectivity or creation of false connectivity where
polygons are smaller than the chosen raster cell size
Data Quality
 GENERALIZATION
 The simplification of real-world features
 Features need to be generalized because data are required a
certain scale
 TYPES OF GENERALIZATION
 Selection: selecting the real-world features to be included in
the map
 Simplification: features are altered in order to enhance
visibility and reduce complexity
 Displacement: Altering the location of overlapping or adjacent
features in order to make them both visible
 Smoothing and Enhancement: altering the jagged or rough
edges of features in order to provide a better representation
Data Quality
 ERRORS FROM GENERALIZATION

 Positional errors:
 Changing the location of features in order that they are visible on
a map or in a dataset
 Representation errors:
 (1) The selection of certain features and negating others can
produce an erroneous representation of reality
 (2) Changing a feature to simplify or enhance its visual
appearance
Measures of Location Errors on Maps
 Location errors: noise, bias and blunde

 Noise (random) errors: noise in code and noise in receiver, multi-path.
 Bias (systematic) errors: clock, satellite position, ionosphere, troposphere, GDOP
effects.
 Systematic errors (bias) removal is essential to improve the positional accuracy!
 Blunder: incorrect geodetic datum, software failures, hardware problems etc.
 ERROR IN LOCATION
 refer to the geometric inaccuracies of digitized features.
 can be examined by referring to the data source for digitizing.
 Uncertainty in object location can hinder GIS operations such as
point-in-polygon analysis
 Epsilon bands represent widths (є) of uncertainty of whether

points fall within or outside a polygon
Learn about satellite-based positioning ,spatial data input, data
preparation and management
satellite-based positioning
 Satellite based location technologies

 GPS
 GALILEO
 GLONAS
 Navigation: How can I go there? DIRECTION from my position to
another location
 «Position: Where am I? Name THIS location»
 «Proximity information: What is nearby? Name a FEATURE’S location near my
position»
 GPS is a space-based radio navigation and time transfer system
capable of providing navigation data to users on or near the surface
of the Earth any-time, any-where and under any-weather conditions
with immunity to intentional/unintentional jammin
 The 3 segments of a satellite-based positioning system

 Space segment: the satellites that orbit the Earth, and the radio
signals that they emit.
 Control segment: the ground stations that monitor and maintain
the space segment components.
 User segment: the users with their hard and software to conduct
positioning
 The space segment of GPS consists of 24 satellites on 6 orbits

(approx. 22,000 km from the center of the Earth):
 Each satellite carries a clock.
 Each satellite completes 2 orbits/day.
 24 hour complete GPS coverage anywhere on the Earth.
 Accuracy: 21 meters 95% of time
 The control segment of consists of master ,monitor and ground

antenna
 The user segment of consists of sw and HW to access and use app

 DGPS
 Primary
 GPS (USA)
 GLONASS (Russia)
t
 Secondary
s en
Pr e
 WAAS (USA)
es -
 Partially operational
ogi
 EGNOS (Europe)
no l
e ch
 Deployed, not operational
 MSAS (Japan) nT
atio
vig
 Deployed, not operational

Na
 Primary
 Modernized GPS (USA)
e
tur
 Modernized GLONASS (Russia)
Fu
 Galileo (Europe+India+China+)
es -
ogi
 QZSS (Japan)
no l
 IRNSS (India)
e ch
 Secondary
nT
atio
 WAAS (USA)
vig
 LAAS (USA)
Na
 EGNOS (Europe)
 MSAS (Japan)
 GAGAN (India
 GPS (USA)
 1969—Defense Navigation Satellite System (DNSS) formed
 1973—NAVSTAR Global Positioning System developed
 1978—first 4 satellites launched
 Delta rocket launch
 GLONASS(Russian)
 Russian equivalent of GPS
 First a launched in 1982
 FDMA technique is used
 Galileo(European)
 European equivalent of GPS
 first experimental satellite is launched in January, 2006

 Types of GNSS
spatial data input, data preparation and management
Data Collection Techniques
Field/Raster Object/Vector
Primary Digital remote GPS

sensing images measurements
including VGI
Digital aerial Survey
photographs measurements
Secondary Scanned maps Topographic
surveys
DEMs from maps Toponymy data
sets from atlases
Stages in Data Collection Projects
Planning
Evaluation Preparation
Editing / Improvement Collection / Transfer

 Spatial relationships between features

 Do they overlap?
 Is one contained by the other?
 Does one cross the other?
 Geometries can be spatially related in different

ways
 Spatial operations use geometry functions to take
spatial data as input, analyze the data, then
produce output data that is the derivative of the
analysis performed on the input data
E.g. Buffer, clip, intersection, union, dissolve,
merge, etc.
Understand analytical GIS capabilities, retrieval and classification
 GIS capabilities
 GIS provides both simple point-and-click query capabilities and

sophisticated analysis tools to provide timely information to
managers and analysts alike.
 GIS technology really comes into its own when used to analyze
geographic data to look for patterns and trends and to undertake
"what if" scenarios.
 Modern GISs have many powerful analytical tools, but two are
especially important.
 Proximity Analysis
 How many houses lie within 100 m of this water main?
 What is the total number of customers within 10 km of this store?
 What proportion of the alfalfa crop is within 500 m of the well?
 To answer such questions, GIS technology uses a process called

buffering to determine the proximity relationship between
features.
 Overlay Analysis
 The integration of different data layers involves a process called
overlay.
 At its simplest, this could be a visual operation, but analytical
operations require one or more data layers to be joined physically.
 This overlay, or spatial join, can integrate data on soils, slope, and
vegetation, or land ownership with tax assessment.

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Chapter Two:GIS

 Geographic Information Systems(GIS)

 Geographic information is any type of data that directly or

 Users can save spatial data in a variety of different formats, as it can

 other characteristics of geographic information are:

 Geometric data is a spatial data type that is mapped on a two-

 Georeferencing and geocoding

 Geocoding, on the other hand, provides address and location

 GIS data is quite broad, with considerable variation in terms of:

 GIS data types falls under one of two different categories:

 1. Vector spatial data files: the geographic features being

 Vector data is, essentially, a list of coordinates: one that provides

 Vector images consist of three basic components: points, lines, and

 Vector points are basically x,y coordinates. They don’t have

 Vector lines are a series of connected vector points.

 Where vector data (coordinates that create an image) is somewhat

 Despite these limitations, raster data does have advantages; chiefly,

 In terms of GIS mapping, raster data comes in two types: discrete

 The map on top illustrates discrete raster data.

 File formats and extensions

 Data capture methods

 Use cases for the data

 NOTE: Most GIS software applications mainly focus on the usage

 Vector data is the most common type of GIS data.

 Cell-based GIS data

 This data category also includes aerial photographs and satellite

 Continuous and Discrete Raster Data

 Spectral data presents aerial or satellite imagery which is then often

 What are raster GIS data sets used for?

 Spatial data observations focus on locations.

 Vector points are simply XY coordinates.

 Often, busier highways have thicker lines than abandoned roads.

 Vector Polygons connect vertices and close the path

 Raster data is made up of pixels (also referred to as grid cells).

 Discrete Rasters have distinct values

 Continuous Rasters have a gradual change

 If you want to display continuous data as a vector, it would require substantial

 Any feature edits require updates on topology.

 With a lot of features, vector manipulation algorithms are complex.

 To illustrate, linear features and paths are difficult to display.

 Geographical data describe an incredibly wide range of objects or

 Thus the management of GIS data and metadata is somewhat

 spatial data handling can be applied in:

 General purpose GISs essentially perform six processes or tasks for

 Query and Analysis

 A spatial database also known as a “geospatial database” is built to

 Types of Data Stored in Spatial Databases

 Spatial Databases Uses and Users

 SDBMS works with a spatial application at the front end and a

 Number of specialized adaptations of SQL

 Example Spatial Query

 Vector Data File Formats

 File extension Content

 Vector Data File Formats

 A geographic coordinate system (GCS)

 SPHEROIDS AND SPHERES

 Between those scales, choosing to use a sphere or spheroid will

 Rotating the ellipse around the semi-minor axis creates a spheroid.

 The flattening is a small value, so usually the quantity 1/f is used

 The flattening ranges from zero to one.

 Another quantity, that, like the flattening, describes the shape of a

 A projected coordinate system(PCS)

 On a gridded network of equally spaced horizontal and vertical