INTRODUCTION TO

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Department of Town and Country Planning

By
Dr. G.M.W.L. Gunawardena
Learning Objective
To recognise latest technologies available to visualise
spatial information.

Learning Activities
1. Identify latest technologies available to visualise spatial information
2. Visualise spatial information through computer-based applications

Assessment
Regular exercises
One major assignment
What is a Geographic Information System (GIS)?
• A Geographic information system is commonly regarded as a software
application.

Software

Communic
Hardware
ations

GIS
Procedure Data

People
Components of GIS
1. Software
The software components of the system represent the interface
with which users interact.
The software includes the user interfaces, algorithms and data
management structures that allow capturing, management, output
and presentation of the data.
Components of GIS
2. Hardware
Hardware components of the system are the computers (PCs,
workstations, servers & mainframes) on which the software and
data reside.
Other hardware categories which facilitate GIS include scanners,
Global Positioning System (GPS) devices, Mobile Mapping Devices,
Printers, etc.
Components of GIS
3. Data
Data may include the spatial representations of real world
elements (in point, line or polygon form) and attribute information
(qualitative & quantitative information) that is linked to spatial
feature.
Components of GIS
4. People
Spatial information managers and operators must run the system,
and it will be used by people within the organization or outside the
organization.
Components of GIS
5. Procedures
Geographic information systems are complex, with many
interacting components.
Their effectiveness and utility will be maximized by using leading
practice procedures that allow them to integrate well with
organizational systems.
Components of GIS
6. Communications
Data and information need to flow seamlessly between the
geographic information system and other organizational systems.
Communication networks, and accepted data and transmission
standards, are necessary to facilitate this. With the increasing
uptake of internet technology, spatial data and services can be
readily accessed using the internet.
What is an Information System?
An association of people, machines, data, and procedures
working together to collect, manage, and distribute information
of importance to individuals or organizations
Classification of Information Systems
Information Systems

Non-Spatial Information Systems Spatial Information Systems

Microsoft Office Packages

Visual Basic
SPSS Non-Geographic Information Systems Geographic Information Systems

Auto CAD ArcView

Sketchup ArcGIS
Open Source GIS Software
ERDAS
ENVI
Demers, 2000
What is GIS?
• GIS software visualizes real world situations
with different types of spatial objects located
in overlapping map layers.
• Computerized system for managing, storing,
visualizing & analyzing spatial information.
• Locate information on the basis of
coordinates.
 GIS - What is it?
• Geographic/Geospatial Information
• information about places on the earth’s surface
• knowledge about “what is where when”
• Geographic/geospatial: synonymous

• GIS--what’s in the S?
• Systems: the technology
• Science: the concepts and theory
• Studies: the societal context
 GI Systems, Science and Studies
What will we learn?
• Systems
• technology for the acquisition and management of spatial information

• Science
• comprehending the underlying conceptual issues of representing data and
processes in space-time
• the theory and concepts behind the technology
Introduce enough of the science to apply the systems correctly and
understand their capabilities and limitations

• Studies
• understanding the social, legal and ethical issues associated with the
application of GI Systems and GI Science
Discuss societal implications as they arise
Defining Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

• The common ground between information processing and the many

fields using spatial analysis techniques. (Tomlinson, 1972)
• A powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving,
transforming, and displaying spatial data from the real world.
(Burroughs, 1986)
• A computerized database management system for the capture,
storage, retrieval, analysis and display of spatial (locationally
defined) data. (NCGIA, 1987)
• A decision support system involving the integration of spatially
referenced data in a problem solving environment. (Cowen, 1988)
Geographic Information System:
simple explanation
• A map with a database behind it.
• A virtual representation of the real world and
its infrastructure.
• A consistent “as-built” of the real world,
natural and manmade

Which is
• queried to support on-going operations
• summarized to support strategic decision
making and policy formulation
• analyzed to support scientific inquiry
 How GIS differs from Related Systems
• DBMS--typical MIS data base contains implicit but not explicit locational information
• city, county, zip code, etc. but no geographical coordinates
• automated mapping (AM) --primarily two-dimensional display devices
• thematic mapping (choropleth such as SAS/GRAPH, DIDS, business mapping software)
unable to relate different geographical layers
• automated cartography--graphical design oriented; limited database ability
• facility management (FM) systems--
• lack spatial analysis tools
• CAD/CAM (computer aided design/drafting)--primarily 3-D graphic creation (engineering
design) & display systems
• don’t reference via geographic location
• CAD sees the world as a 3-D cube, GIS as a 3-D sphere
• limited (if any) database ability (especially for non-spatial data)
• scientific visualization systems--sophisticated multi-dimensional graphics, but:
• lack database support
• lack two-dimensional spatial analysis tools
 Why Study GIS?
• 80% of local government activities estimated to be geographically based
• Zoning, public works (streets, water supply, sewers), garbage collection, land ownership and
valuation, public safety (fire and police)
• A significant portion of government tasks has a geographical component
• Natural resource management
• Expressways and transportation
• Businesses use GIS for a very wide array of applications
• Retail site selection & customer analysis
• Logistics: vehicle tracking & routing
• Natural resource exploration (minerals, etc.)
• Precision agriculture
• Civil engineering and construction
• Military and defense
• Battlefield management
• Satellite imagery interpretation
• Scientific research employs GIS
• Geography, geology, botany
• Anthropology, sociology, economics, political science
• Epidemiology, criminology
 What GIS Applications Do:
Manage, Analyze, Communicate
• make possible the automation of activities involving geographic data
• map production
• calculation of areas, distances, route lengths
• measurement of slope, aspect, viewshed
• logistics: route planning, vehicle tracking, traffic management
• allow for the integration of data confined to independent domains (e.g property maps and air
photos).
• by converting data to maps, permits the precise communication of complex spatial patterns (e.g
environmental sensitivity).
• provides answers to spatial queries (how many schools within 1 km distance to main roads?)
• perform complex spatial modelling (what if scenarios for transportation planning, disaster
planning, resource management, utility design)
Knowledge Base for GIS
Application Area:
Computer
public admin.
Science/MIS
planning
graphics
geology
visualization
mineral exploration
database
forestry
system administration
site selection
security
marketing
civil engineering
criminal justice
surveying
Geography and related:
cartography
geodesy
photogrammetry
landforms
spatial statistics.
 What is a GIS Data Model?

• It allows the geographic features in real world locations

to be digitally represented and stored in a database so
that they can be conceptually presented in map
(analog) form, and can also be worked with and
handled to address some problems
The GIS Data Model: Implementation
Geographic Integration of Information

Administrative Boundaries
Utilities

Zoning
Buildings
Parcels
Hydrography
Streets
Digital Orthophoto

• Data is organized by layers, coverages or themes (synonymous concepts), with each layer
representing a common feature.
• Layers are integrated using explicit location on the earth’s surface, thus geographic location is
the organizing principal.
The GIS Model: example
Here we have three layers or themes:
--roads,
roads --hydrology (water),
--topography (land elevation)
longitude They can be related because precise geographic
coordinates are recorded for each theme.

Layers are comprised of two data types

hydrology
•Spatial data which describes location (where)
•Attribute data specifying what, how much, when
longitude
Layers may be represented in two ways:
•in vector format as points and lines
•in raster(or image) format as pixels

topography All geographic data has 4 properties:

projection, scale, accuracy and resolution
longitude
 Projection, Scale, Accuracy and Resolution

• Projection: the method by which the curved 3-D surface of the earth is
represented by X,Y coordinates on a 2-D flat map/screen
• distortion is inevitable
• Scale: the ratio of distance on a map to the equivalent distance on the
ground
• in theory GIS is scale independent but in practice there is an implicit range of scales for
data output in any project
• Accuracy: how well does the database info match the real world
• Positional: how close are features to their real world location?
• Consistency: do feature characteristics in database match those in real world
• is a road in the database a road in the real world?
• Completeness: are all real world instances of features present in the database?
• Are all roads included.
• Resolution: the size of the smallest feature able to be recognized
• for raster data, it is the pixel size
Spatial and Attribute Data
• Spatial data (where)
• specifies location
• stored in a shape file, geodatabase or similar geographic file
• Attribute (descriptive) data (what, how much, when)
• specifies characteristics at that location, natural or human-created
• stored in a data base table

GIS systems traditionally maintain spatial and attribute data

separately, then “join” them for display or analysis
Geospatial Data
• Geospatial data is also known as “Geographic Data” or “Spatial Data”
• These data has a spatial/geographic component.
• The location also called geometry or shape, represents “spatial data”,
whereas the characteristics are “attribute table”.
GIS Data Types
1) Vector Data
2) Raster Data
Vector Data
Point Line Polygon

(x1,y1)
(x1,y1) (x1,y1) (x7,y7)
(x2,y2)
(x2,y2)
(x6,y6)

(x3,y3) (x5,y5)
(x3,y3)

The basic structure is a
point, which is located by X
and Y coordinates on a
coordinate system
(x4,y4)
(x4,y4)
Polygon is a closed line
Lines are formed by a which begins and ends at the
number of points same coordinate point
Examples for Vector Data
Vector View
Real World
Small Scale (Ex: 1:50000) Large Scale (Ex: 1:3000)

Roads
Line Polygon

Buildings

Point Polygon
Land Use

Polygon Polygon
Attribute Data of the Vector Data
Each types of vector objects are stored on different map layers and attribute
tables.

Each vector object on the map window has one row

on the attribute data table.

Ex: Attribute Table for Land Use

FID Shape Name Extent

0 Polygon Commercial 65
1 Polygon Residential 45
Raster Data
Raster divide space into uniform cells or pixels and use a 2-D matrix
The cells of a raster depict a variety of data, such as light reflectance
captured by a satellite, a photograph's color value, a thematic attribute
such as vegetation type, a surface value, or elevation

Columns
A B C D ..........................
1
2
3
4

Rows
.....................
Examples for Raster Data
Real World Raster View

Roads

Line

Buildings

Point
Land Use

Polygon
 Attribute Data of the Raster Data
• For raster data each cell has a value that corresponds to the attribute of
the spatial feature at the location.
• The attribute table of a raster depict a variety of data, such as light
reflectance captured by a satellite, a photograph's color value, a
thematic attribute such as vegetation type, a surface value, or elevation.
Data for GIS Applications
• Primary Data
- Refers to the sorts of information that can be collected first hand by fieldwork
and questionnaire survey

• Secondary Data
- Refers to the data those are found in published sources or are gathered by
some agency.
Ways of collecting GIS data
Primary GIS Data Secondary GIS Data
Surveying Process of converting existing maps or other documents in
to a suitable digital format
Photogrammetry
Remote Sensing
Examples for secondary data

• Digitized & scanned maps

• Satellite Images and Aerial photos

Some Applications of GIS
Climate Change Applications

Mapping Ice shelf break

Global level temperature variation

Urban & Regional Planning Applications

Master land use planning

3D Modeling of townships Mapping urban inequalities

Environmental Applications

Designing wildlife corridors

Monitoring hazardous materials

Deforestation studies
 Marine & Coastal Applications

Bathymetry studies
Ocean database management
Archeological Applications

Exploring the seafloor

Recording large scale archeological excavations

Modeling Archeological Sensitivity

Water Resources Applications

Mapping and managing potable water infrastructure assets

Detail water quality assessment

Catchment area analysis

Transportation & Logistics Application

Optimum route planning Managing airport facilities

Identifying new facility locations through O-D surveys

Some of the Geographic Information Systems Software

Commercial GIS software Open source GIS software

ArcGIS by Esri QGIS

ERDAS IMAGINE by ERDAS INc gvSIG

MapInfo by Pitney Bowes ILWIS

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geographic_inform
ation_systems_software
 Software for GIS: The Main Players
• ESRI, Inc., Redlands, CA
• clear market leader with about a third of the market
• originated commercial GIS with their ArcInfo product in 1981
• privately owned by Jack Dangermond, a legend in the field
• Strong in gov., education, utilities and business logistics
• MapInfo, Troy N.Y.
• Aggressive newcomer in early 1990s, but now well-established.
• Strong presence in business, especially site selection & marketing, and telecom
• Intergraph (Huntsville, AL)
• origins in proprietary CAD hardware/software
• Older UNIX-based MGE (Modular GIS Environment) evolved from CAD
• Current GeoMedia was the first true MS Windows-based GIS
• strong in design, public works, and FM (facilities management), but weakening
• Bentley Systems (Exton, PA)
• MicroStation GeoGraphics, originally developed with Intergraph, is now their exclusive and main product..
• Strong in engineering; advertises itself as “geoengineering”
• Autodesk (San Rafael, CA)
• Began as PC-based CAD, but now the dominant CAD supplier
• First GIS product AutoCAD Map introduced in 1996
• Primarily small business/small city customer base
 Software for GIS: other players
Vector GIS
• Smallworld Systems (Englewood,
CO)
• first to use OO (early ‘90s), but
failed to compete as established
vendors did same
• Purchased by GE in 2000
• emphasis on FM & utilities
• Manifold
(CDA International Corp):
• low cost, but low market share
• Maptitude
(Caliper Corp, Newton, MA):
• another low cost one
Raster GIS
• ERDAS/Imagine
– long established leader
– acquired by Leica Geosystems in 2001
• ER MAPPER
– aggressive newcomer originating in Australia
• Envi,
– relative newcomer, radar specialization
– acquired by Kodak in 2000
• PCI--Geomatica
– long-term Canadian player
• CARIS
– newer Canadian entry
• GRASS (Rutgers Univ.)
– Classic old-timer originally developed by US Army
Construction Engineering Research Lab(CERL) in
Champaign, IL;
– army ended dev. & support in 1996 but assumed by
Baylor University.
• IDRSI (Clark Univ)
– pioneering, university-developed package
Exercise
• Select any GIS application browsing web pages
• Do a small presentation on the selected application (10 – 15 minutes)
• The presentation should includes the following things:
• Brief introduction about the selected application & the case study area
• How they have applied GIS to that application
• How can you apply the same methodology for similar applications in Sri Lanka