EDUB2714

Teaching and Learning in

Education Context

NQF: Level 7

Credits: 16

Presented by:
Dr ME Dlamini,
Dr N Gcelu,
Dr OO Adebola
Dr P Larey

2024

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 FACULTY OF EDUCATION
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION STUDIES
Discipline: Curriculum studies

B.Ed. (All Phases)

Teaching and Learning in

Education Context

EDUB2714
NQF LEVEL 7

(16 CREDITS)

Presented by:

Dr BO Plaatjies, Dr N Gcelu, Dr ME Dlamini, Dr OO Adebola & Dr L

Larey

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
1. Instructors Information 5
2. Module Description 5
3. Module Aim and Outcomes 6
4. Graduate Attributes 7
5. How will learning take place 9
6. Proposed work schedule 12 -14
7. Assessment Details 14 -15
8. Reading Material 15 -16
9. Module Evaluation 17

10. Learning Unit 1: Approaches to teaching 17

10.1 The Executive, Facilitator and Liberationists approaches to teaching 17
10.2 The STEM approach to teaching 19

11. Learning Unit 2: Perspectives on curriculum 20

11.1 Curriculum Studies as a field of study 21
11.2 The concept curriculum 21
11.3 Various curriculum models 22-23
11.4 Alternative curriculum approaches 22
11.5 Curriculum development 23
11.6 The South African schools curriculum 24
11.7 Assignment 2: Individual Assignment 24
11.8 Plagiarism 25
11.9 The curriculum and knowledge organization 25

12. Learning Unit 3: Different perspectives on learning 27

12.1 Introduction: What is learning? 27
12.2 Perspectives on learning 30
12.3 How do teachers construct powerful learning environments? 35

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13. Learning Unit 4: Learning styles 39
13.1 Learning style models 39

13.2 Integration of learning styles and classroom practices 46

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1. INSTRUCTORS INFORMATION

Module Email Office Telephone

instructor Number
Dr ME Dlamini dlaminime@ufs.ac.za 1027 Kgorong 051 4017727
Building, QwaQwa
Dr OO Adebola adebolaOO@ufs.ac.za Kgorong Buliding TBC
QwaQwa
Dr N Gcelu gcelun@ufs.ac.za Bluemfontein TBC

2. MODULE DESCRIPTION
Have you thought about your expectations of becoming a teacher, and do you know
why teachers are committed in the teaching and learning? There are many students
who find teaching and learning in education context challenging. The aim of this
module, EDUB2714, Teaching and Learning in Education Context is to prepare you
to become a teacher committed to demonstrate comprehensive knowledge on
curriculum theory and practice, to interpret and critically analyse various
perspectives and approaches to teaching and curriculum, as well as different
perspectives of learning, learning styles and the creation of powerful learning
environments. This aim provides the skills to plan and teach within a learner centred,
participatory and activity-based learning environment, while considering and applying
the most effective and recent theories regarding teaching and learning in a learning
centered approach. Within the overarching paradigm of critical investigation, it will
be expected of you to compare and construct your own knowledge (the paradigm of
constructivism), in consideration of and integration with other theories and
paradigms, as dealt with in the various modules of Education studies, Pedagogics,
Subject Educations and practical teaching.

This module is a first semester module teaching you teaching and learning skills in
education context. The module will be offered in 2 hours face-face, two times a week
with 2 hours tutorial for support. Two face to face tests and 2 online assessments will
be used for assessment in the module. This module is offered on the Bloemfontein
and QwaQwa campuses and each campus follows a unique timetable. Students will
be provided a campus specific programme for EDUB 2714, which must be followed
that includes:

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• workshop dates
• the theme of each workshop
• due dates for submissions of assessment items and tutorials
This module, Teaching and Learning in Education Context (EDUB2714) is a
module that is facilitated in the first semester of the second year for the BEd
Foundation, Intermediate and Further Education and Training Phase students. We
can break up die code of the module as follows:
• EDUB: The unique alphabetical code of the module. The EDU part is an
indication that this module forms the theoretical base for some of the other modules
within the discipline of Curriculum Studies, in contrast to other modules that have a
more practical and pedagogical focus, e.g. General Pedagogics (GPED1623).
• 2: This indicates that this is a second year module.
• 7: The NQF level of the module.
• 1: This number indicates that the module is facilitated in the first semester.
• 4: This number, multiplied by four, it gives the total number of credits, namely
16.

3. MODULE AIM AND OUTCOMES:

The aim of this module is to equip students with knowledge and skills in order to plan
and teach within a learner centred, participatory and activity based learning
environment, while considering and applying the most effective and recent theories
regarding teaching and learning.

The following are the outcomes of the module:

 Apply teaching and learning theories in education context.
 Analyse various perspectives and approaches to teaching and learning.
 Create a powerful learning environment for teaching and learning.
 Differentiate between different learning styles.

Students are expected to:

 Acquaint themselves with the contents of the study guide before joining the
collaboration sessions.

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 Complete all the prescribed activities.
 Participate in individual and group discussions.
 Attend classes and tutorials as per timetable.
 Prepare themselves for the assessment activities.

4. GRADUATE ATTRIBUTES
On completion of the Bachelor of Education degree, the graduate will possess a
well-rounded education consisting of integrated subject content knowledge,
knowledge of the learners and the education context, as well as pedagogical content
knowledge that will enable them to demonstrate applied competence, commitment,
and responsibility as academically and professionally qualified teachers for diverse
education contexts. This module will contribute to the achievement of the following
graduate attributes from the nine University of the Free state attributes:

 Critical thinking
 Problem solving
 Oral communication
 Written communication
 Ethical reasoning
 Technology

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UFS GRADUATE ATTRIBUTES:

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5. HOW LEARNING WILL TAKE PLACE

Outcomes:
1. Apply teaching and learning theories in education context.
2. Analyse various perspectives and approaches to teaching and learning.
3. Create a powerful learning environment for teaching and learning.
4. Differentiate between different learning styles.

Assessment plan Activity plan

Short description F2F/ Resources/ Formative/ Alignment Activity type F2F/ Resources/ tools Alignment
online tools Summative with online with
outcome(s assessmen
) t
A. Critical reflection of Online Individual formative 1&2 Case Study. Onlin BB Word A&B
e document.
learning theories Assignment
Read through the
and approaches to extract in THE Link for
READER on teaching submission will
learning.
approaches (pp. 72- be opened
78) and critically reflect
and respond to the
questions related to
the approaches to
learning.

B. perspectives and Online Individual formative 2 1. Describe the Pen and paper, A&B

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 approaches to characteristics of the Fenstermacher
three approaches with pp. 72-73
teaching and
examples. Du Toit (2016)
learning. 2. In comparing the p.69
three approaches to Fenstermacher
teaching, evaluate how pp.73-74
do they differ from Du Toit (2016)
one another? p.69
3. Describe the Fenstermacher
approach that you pp.73-74
think represents you Du Toit (2016)
the best, and motivate p.69
with
at least five (5)
reasons your choice.
4. Point out and
critically analyse the
value of each of these
approaches to ensure
quality teaching and
learning.
5. Explain and reflect
critically on which of
these three
approaches would
best fit
into the typical SA
classroom?
C. Characteristics of
a powerful Group

10 | P a g e
 learning Onlin Assignme formativ 3&4 PowerPoint PowerPoint,
Presentations. Onlin MSWord. C&D
environment e nt e
e
Read the article about Groups will be
creating learning assigned with the
environments. link for
Draw a mind map of submission
powerful learning
environment that bid
the most optimal
means of learning for
the learners.

D. Different learning Group Mind map. PowerPoint Onlin C&D

presentation to name e
styles Assignme
and show the different
nt learning styles.

11 | P a g e
12 | P a g e
6. WORK SCHEDULE
The module is divided into four learning units, namely:

Learning Unit Theme Responsible Lecturer

Learning Unit 1: Approaches to teaching All three lecturers
Learning Unit 2: Perspectives on curriculum All three lecturers
Learning Unit 3: Different perspectives on learning All three lecturers
Learning Unit 4: Learning styles All three lecturers

This module is a 16-credit module. This means that 160 notional hours of study are
expected from you as a student. The proposed learning hours serve as a guide for
your own independent study. However, you are welcome to design your own work
schedule to suit your personal learning style and study programme.

WEEK THEME
One (1)
Module Introduction and Orientation
February

Learning Unit 1: APPROACHES TO TEACHING:

February The Executive approach to teaching.
Completion of activity questions at the end of the unit.

The Facilitator Approach to teaching.

Two (2)
Completion of activity questions at the end of the unit.
February

March The Liberationist Approach to teaching.

Completion of activity questions at the end of the unit.
Three (3)
The elements of the method, awareness, knowledge, and
March
ends, and relationships.
Completion of activity questions at the end of the unit.

The elements of the method, awareness, knowledge, and

March ends, and relationships and how they play out in the
Executive, Facilitator and Liberationist approaches.
Completion of activity questions at the end of the unit.
Four (4) The STEM approach to teaching.
March Completion of activity questions at the end of the unit.

March The STEM approach to teaching.

Completion of activity questions at the end of the unit.
 Assessment One: Online Test.
March Link will open from Thursday @ 08h00 until Friday @
23:59 pm
UNIVERSITY HOLIDAYS: NO LECTURES: END OF
FIRST TERM.

Learning Unit 2: PERSPECTIVES ON THE

Five (5) CURRICULUM:
April Curriculum Studies as a field of study.
Complete activity 3.

The concept curriculum.

Six (6)
Complete activity 4.
April

April Various curriculum models.

Complete activity 5.

Seven (7) Alternative curriculum approaches.

April Complete activity 6.

Curriculum development (design, dissemination,

Eight (8)
implementation, evaluation).
April
Complete activity 7.

Nine (9) The South African school’s curriculum.

May The curriculum and knowledge organization/
Complete activity 8.
SECOND ASSESSMENT: GROUP ASSIGNMENT
May Link available from Wednesday @ 8:00 am until Friday
5 @ 23:59 pm.
NO LATE SUBMISSIONS.
Learning Unit 3: Different perspectives on learning
Ten (10) Introduction: What is learning?
May Passive vs. active learning
The PACT learning cycle

May Perspectives on learning:

Behaviourism, classic conditioning; Operant conditioning;
Constructivism.

Eleven (11) Powerful learning environments:

May Situated learning, co-operative learning, transformative
learning, problem-based learning.

Twelve (12) Learning Unit 4: Learning styles:

May Learning style models:
The VAKT learning model

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 Kolb’s learning style model
Discussion of Sit Down Exam: June.

May
Learning style models:
Honey & Mumford
Robert Gardner’s multiple intelligences
Discussion of Sit Down Exam: June.
Thirteen (13) Integration of learning styles and classroom practices
May Learning styles and teaching
Adapting to different learning styles
Discussion of Sit Down Exam: June.
June Reflection on Module
Discussion of Sit Down Exam: June.
PREDICATE DAY JUNE
EXAMINATION SIT-DOWN ON CAMPUS IN JUNE.

7. ASSESSMENT DETAILS

The assessment in this module will be continuous and summative and will focus on
your knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Fifty (50%) percent of the final module will
comprise of continuous assessment. The other 50% will be a summative
assessment of two hours in the form of an examination. This examination will be
conducted on Campus.

ASSESSMENT PLAN:

WEIGHT OF
TYPE OF Submission LEARNING UNITS AND
SEMESTER
ASSESSMENT Date OBJECTIVES
MARK
Online Test
14 – 15 March 25% LU 1
{50 marks}

Group
Assignment 2 - 3 May 25% LU 1 & 2
{50 marks}

TOTAL: 100 50%

TYPE OF WEIGHT OF
LEARNING UNITS AND
ASSESSMENT DATE EXAM MARK
OBJECTIVES
JUNE
To be
EXAMINATION
announced. 50% LU 1, 2, 3 & 4
{100 marks}
June

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8. LIST OF MATERIALS

All the study materials that you will need in the preparation for this module are
included in the second part of the module. You are encouraged to use other sources
also to read wider than the given sources and enrich your own knowledge. When
referring to the following sources, the name of the first author will be used as a tag to
identify the specific source, e.g. CARL. Extracts from the following sources are
included:

REFERRED TO AS: FULL BIBLIOGRAPHICAL DETAILS

CARL, A E. 2012. Teacher empowerment through
CARL curriculum development. 4th edition, Cape Town: Juta.
ISBN 978 0 19 598721 8
DU TOIT, GF. 2011. Curriculum Types and Models – A
theoretical inquiry. In: BITZER, E & Botha, N (Eds.)
Curriculum Inquiry in South African Higher Education:
DU TOIT (2011)
Some scholarly affirmations and challenges. Stellenbosch:
Sun MeDIA. ISBN 978-1-920338-
67-1
DU TOIT, ER, Louw LP & Jacobs, L. (Eds.) 2016. Help! I'm
DU TOIT (2016) a student teacher. Second Edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik
Publishers.
FENSTERMACHER, G & Soltis, JF. 2004. Approaches to
FENSTERMACHER teaching. New York: Teaching College Press.
ISBN 0-8077-4448-4
GLATTHORN, AA, Boschee, F & Whitehead, BM. 2009.
Curriculum Leadership: Stategies for Development and
GLATTHORN
Implementation. London: SAGE Publications Inc.
ISBN 978-1-4129-6781-5
JANSEN, J & Hoadley U. 2012. Curriculum: Organizing
JANSEN Knowledge for the classroom. Cape Town: Oxford
University Press Southern Africa.
KELLY KELLY, AV. 2004. The Curriculum: Theory and Practice.

16
 London: SAGE Publications Inc.
ISBN 1 4129 00276 3
KILLEN KILLEN, R. 2015. Teaching strategies for quality teaching
and learning. Cape Town: Juta. ISBN 978 1
48510 248 9
KÖNINGS, KD, Brand-Gruwel, S & Van Merriënboer JJG.
Towards more powerful learning environments through
KÖNINGS combining the perspectives of designers, teachers, and
students. British Journal of Educational Psychology (2005),
75, 645–660.
MATODZI, AN. 1998. The role of students in curriculum
development. Unpublished MEd Mini-dissertation, Faculty
MATODZI
of Education and Nursing. Johannesburg: Rand Afrikaans
University (RAU).
PACE MARSHALL, S. Re-Imagining Specialized STEM
Academies: Igniting and Nurturing Decidedly Different
PACE MARSHALL Minds, by Design. Roeper Review, 32:48–60, 2010. The
Roeper Institute. ISSN:
0278-3193
Riverside Elementary School District 2 (STEM Schools).
Phoenix, Arizona, USA. http://resdonline.org/index.cfm?
RIVERSIDE
pID=3250
Accessed on: 7 October 2015
YASSIN, BM & Almasri, MA. How to Accommodate
Different Learning Styles in the Same Classroom: Analysis
YASSIN of Theories and Methods of Learning Styles. Canadian
Social Science (2005), Vol. 11, No. 3, 26-33.
ISSN 1712-8056

9. EVALUATION PROCEDURES

Feedback from students – A link will be created for module evaluation at the end of
the module.

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10. LEARNING UNIT 1: APPROACHES TO TEACHING
Upon completion of this learning unit, students should be able to:
 Demonstrate an understanding of the executive, facilitator and liberationists
approaches to teaching.

10.1 The Executive, Facilitator and Liberationist approaches to

teaching
Fenstermacher & Soltis (2004:1-10) distinguish between three types of teaching
approaches that a teacher can have, each represented by a fictitious teacher,
namely:
 The Executive approach (Jim Barnes).
 The Facilitator approach (Nancy Kwong).
 The Liberationist approach (Roberto Umbras).

Read the sources in the right hand column and then respond to the following
questions/instructions regarding the three different teaching approaches:

IT IS VERY IMPORTANT TO WORK OUT THESE QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES

AS IT PREPARES YOU FOR THE ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES TO FOLLOW:
ACTIVITY 1:

QUESTIONS SOURCE TO READ

USE PAGE NUMBERS
RIGHT HAND SIDE ON
THE BOTTOM
1. Distinguish between the following five core Du Toit (2016) p.69
elements which are, according to Fenstermacher
and Soltis, common to all teaching:
 Method
 Awareness
 Knowledge
 Ends

18
  Relationships
2. What are the characteristics of the Executive Fenstermacher pp. 72-73
approach, as seen in Jim Barnes? Du Toit (2016) p.69
3. What are the characteristics of the Facilitator Fenstermacher pp.73-74
approach, as seen in Nancy Kwong? Du Toit (2016) p.69
4. What are the characteristics of the Liberationist Fenstermacher pp.73-74
approach, as seen in Roberto Umbras? Du Toit (2016) p.69
In comparing the three approaches, how do they Fenstermacher pp.72-74
differ from one another? Du Toit (2016) p.69
Which of these three teachers (and approaches) do Fenstermacher pp.72-81
you think represents you the best? Motivate why? and form your own opinion.
Du Toit (2016) p.69
Which of these three approaches would you ideally Fenstermacher pp.72-81
like to represent? Motivate your answer. and form your own opinion.
Du Toit (2016) p.69
Which of these three approaches would best fit into Fenstermacher pp.72-81
typical South African classrooms? Motivate your and form your own opinion.
answer. Du Toit (2016) p.69
For which of these approaches do you think the
Fenstermacher pp.72-81
South African curriculum (CAPS) is best designed
and form your own opinion.
for? Motivate your answer.
Fenstermacher distinguishes between the elements
of method, awareness, knowledge, ends and
relationships that play out differently in each of the Fenstermacher pp.78-81
three approaches. Discuss how each of these
elements come out differently in each approach.
When you go to a school for teaching practice,
reflect on how these elements were present, or not
present, in the dealing with learners, as well as in Fenstermacher pp.78-81
the teaching and faciltation of one or more of the
classes that you observed or facilitated.

10.2 The STEM approach to teaching

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Stephnie Pace Marshall is the author of various publications on the STEM approach
to teaching and learning. Her unique approach led to the founding of various STEM
Academies all over America. These academies are actually unique teaching and
learning institutions (schools), especially for the teaching of mathematics, science
and technology. During 2015, the University of the Free State has adopted a
resolution to initiate and open a similar type of school for enhancing the teaching of
the mentioned subjects. This unique approach is, however, not just limited to the
teaching of mathematics, science and technology, but the principles can be applied
to all school subjects.

ACTIVITY 2:
ACTIVITIES AND QUESTIONS SOURCE TO READ

Read Pace Marshall (pp. 47-50 (up to before

BOTH/AND MINDS)): What makes this a approach
Pace Marshall pp.181-184
to teaching different from the traditional approaches
that we have had in South Africa in the past?
Read the section on BOTH/AND MINDS (p.50):
Identify and discuss the two “abilities” of the mind Pace Marshall p.184
that teachers should try to develop in learners.
Read p.50-53 on LEARNING LANSCAPES THAT Pace Marshall pp.184-187
FOSTER INNOVATION and IGNITING AND
NURTURING DECIDEDLY DIFFERENT STEM
MINDS, BY DESIGN and answer the following:
 What is innovation, according to Pace
Marshall?
 What is the criticism that Pace Marshall has
against traditional ways of teaching and
learning, especially in the natural sciences?
 What are the ideal learning landscapes or
circumstances that would enhance/foster
innovation in learners?
 What are the characteristics of this new
approach to learning?

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  What should be done to nurture this way of
teaching and learning?
 Is this approach possible in South African
schools?
 Pace Marshall has designed the STEM
approach with especially mathematics and the
natural sciences in mind. To what extent can
the approach also be applicable to other
subject areas?
 To what extent can this approach, or
elements thereof, be used in the school phase
you are being trained in?

11. LEARNING UNIT 2: PERSPECTIVES ON CURRICULUM

Upon completion of this learning unit, learners should be able to:
 Distinguish between and elaborate on different approaches to teaching and
learning.
 Describe Curriculum Studies as a field of study.
 Expand on the concept curriculum.
 Explain and discuss various curriculum models.
 Elaborate on alternative curriculum approaches.
 Distinguish between the various phases of curriculum development.
 Discuss current and past realities of the South African school curriculum.

 Argue the merits of various approaches to knowledge organisation and the

curriculum.
11.1 Curriculum Studies as a field of study:
ACTIVITY 3:
Study Carl (2012:22-33) regarding Curriculum Studies as a field of study and
respond to the following questions/instructions:

ACTIVITIES AND QUESTIONS SOURCE TO READ

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 Can Curriculum Studies be seen a field of study in
its own right? Motivate your answer. Carl pp.23-27

Look at the conceptual classification of Curriculum

Studies and distinguish between its various possible Carl pp.52-54
sub-disciplines.
How does the classification of Ornstein and Hunkins
Carl p.54
differ from the classification above?

11.2 The concept curriculum:

ACTIVITY 4:
Read Kelly (pp.2-11) on “What is the curriculum?” and Du Toit (2016) (The
student teacher and the teaching context) and respond to the
questions/instructions as requested.

What is meant by the educational curriculum? Kelly pp. 122-124

Du Toit (2016) pp.65-66
What is meant by the total curriculum? Kelly pp.124-125
What is meant by the hidden curriculum? Kelly pp.125-126
Distinguish between the planned curriculum and the
Kelly pp.126-127
received curriculum.
Distinguish between the formal curriculum and the
Kelly pp.127-128
informal curriculum.
What should the role of the teacher be regarding
Kelly pp.129-131
curriculum innovation?
How would you place the various types of curricula
YOUR OWN
in relation to the South African Schools curriculum
APPLICATION
(NCS and CAPS)?

11.3 Various curriculum models:

ACTIVITY 5:
Study Du Toit (2011) (in Bitzer & Botha) (pp.65-72) on different kinds of
curriculum models and respond to the following questions/instructions:

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 Explain the essence of each of the curriculum
models of Bobbitt, Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba, John
Dewey, Lawrence Stenhouse and Paulo Freire.

For each model, your exposition should be clear on

the following:
Du Toit (2011) pp.57-63
 Exactly what the person proposes.
 How the model differs from those of the other
curriculum theorists mentioned above.
 How the model resonates with / complements
the current South African schools curriculum
(NCS / CAPS).

11.4 Alternative curriculum approaches:

ACTIVITY 6:
Read Glatthorn et al. (pp.84-90) on alternative curriculum approaches and
respond to the following questions/instructions:

What is meant by curriculum as transmission of

Glatthorn p.85
information?
What is meant by curriculum as end product? Glatthorn pp.85-86
What is meant by curriculum as process? Glatthorn pp.86-87
What is meant by curriculum as praxis/awareness? Glatthorn pp.88-100
Which of these curriculum approaches would best
YOUR OWN
serve a learner centred and activity-based
APPLICATION
curriculum?

11.5 Curriculum development (design, dissemination,

implementation, evaluation)
ACTIVITY 7:

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Read Matodzi (1998) on curriculum development, the document of the Riverside
School District, as well as Du Toit (2016) and respond to the following
questions/instructions:

What is meant by the concept curriculum

Matodzi pp.164-180
development?
Describe curriculum development on the following
levels:
 Macro Level Matodzi pp.164-180
 Meso Level
 Micro Level
Distinguish between the following forces that
influence curriculum development:
 Philosophical forces.
 Psychological forces. Du Toit (2016) pp.66-68
 Knowledge forces.
 Technological forces.
 Social forces.
What are the components and activities of the Matodzi pp.166-171
design phase in curriculum development? Riverside School District
What are the components and activities of the Matodzi pp.171-174
dissemination phase in curriculum development? Riverside School District
What are the components and activities of the Matodzi pp.174-177
implementation phase in curriculum development? Riverside School District
What are the components and activities of the
Matodzi pp.177-180
evaluation phase phase in curriculum
Riverside School District
development?
In which of the four phases would teachers have the CLASS DISCUSSION AND
opportunity to make inputs into the process of YOUR OWN
curriculum development, and how? APPLICATION

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11.6 The South African schools curriculum (historical overview
and current realities)
ACTIVITY 8:
The aim of this section is to give you an historical and current overview of the
education and curriculum landscape in South Africa. For this purpose, you have to
study Killen (2015), chapter 1 and respond to the following questions/instructions as
requested.

Why was the National Curriculum Statement seen as

Killen pp.134-135
die ideal curriculum for South Africa?
Distinguish between the following approaches to
curriculum design:
 A content-based approach. Killen pp.135-136
 An experience-based approach.
 An outcomes-based approach.
Give a brief overview of South Africa’s National
Killen pp.137-140
Curriculum Statement (Grades R-12).
Give an overview of the various sections of any
Killen pp.140-144
CAPS document.
Explain the National Protocol for Assessment
Killen pp.144-145
(Grades R-12)
Argue the reasons why the implementation of
Curriculum 2005 was a success or not a success in Killen pp.145-146
South Africa.

11.7 ASSIGNMENT 2: INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT {50 marks}.

Assignment will be communicated at later stage.

LATE ASSIGNMENTS WILL BE PENALISED WITH 10% A DAY.

11.8 Plagiarism
The word “plagiarism” is derived from the Latin term “plagiaries”, which literally
means “kidnapper” and refers to the theft of someone else’s work.

25
The UFS makes a distinction between plagiarism and academic writing misconduct.
The former term refers to
 acts of plagiarism committed unknowingly/unintentionally; and
 improper or no acknowledgement of a limited section of the work.
The latter term refers to
 repeated incidents of collusion, deliberate dishonesty and more serious forms
of plagiarism committed over an extended period of time.
Against this background, students are requested to refrain from deliberate
dishonesty in the form of
 cribbing in tests and examinations;
 collusion and fabrication or falsification of data;
 purchasing assignments, dissertations and/or theses on the internet and
presenting such documents as your own work; and
 submitting the same work for more than one course or in consecutive years.

Please take note of the UFS Plagiarism Policy.

 See p.4, nr. 4.1 (Plagiarism), 4.2 (Internet plagiarism), 6 (Academic
dishonesty and sanctions), 6.1 (Students), 6.1.1, 6.1.2, 6.1.3 and 6.1.4.1-
6.1.4.4.

11.9 The curriculum and knowledge organisation

ACTIVITY 9:
Study Jansen and Hoadley and respond to the following questions/instructions as
requested.
How has knowledge organisation changed the South
Jansen pp.93-94
African curriculum?
Distinguish between a competence curriculum and a
Jansen pp.95-99
performance curriculum.
What does Bernstein mean when he uses the term
Jansen pp.100-101
classification with respect to a curriculum?

26
What are the characteristics of a collection type,
Jansen pp.101-103
performance curriculum?
What are the characteristics of an integrated,
Jansen pp.103-104
competence-based curriculum?
Apply Bernstein’s concepts of curricula to the old
Jansen pp.104-106
and new South African curricula.
Bernstein distinguishes between “everyday”
knowledge and “school knowledge”.
 Explain his ideas about “everyday”
knowledge.
 Explain his ideas about “school knowledge”.
 What role can each of these types of Jansen pp.107-119
knowledge play in teaching and learning?
 What would typify a lesson that is mostly
based on “everyday” knowledge?
 What would typify a lesson that is mostly
based on “school” knowledge?

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12. LEARNING UNIT 3:

DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES ON LEARNING

Upon completion of this learning unit, learners should be able to:
 Evaluate different perspectives on learning, including behaviourism and
constructivism.
 Create powerful learning environments.
 Consider different types of learning, including situated, co-operative, problem-
based and transformative learning.

12.1 Introduction: What is learning?

Consider for a moment what your understanding of learning is. Conventionally, one
will see learning as the process by which knowledge is acquired through reading,
studying for a test, transferring knowledge, and then proving this knowledge
accumulation through tests and exams. Initially, you may also consider classroom
settings and lecture halls where information is exchanged between learner/teacher
and student/lecturer. The testing of such knowledge would then be based on a
benchmark by which one can gain an understanding of how much information has

28
been acquired and as such one can compare who knows more about a certain
subject area and in turn, who has not reached the desired level to pass.

In essence learning implies the construction of knowledge. From the onset of birth
we learn, and this becomes a lifelong process by which we acquire new knowledge,
adapt and change previous knowledge, and ultimately shape behaviour and how we
interact within our communities. But how much information have you learned which
you find difficult to recall or to remember when asked about a certain subject?
Durable learning entails change, and this change is informed by more than merely
cognitive growth, it implies a change in how one approaches and interacts with the
environment. From learning how to tie one’s shoes, to learning a second language,
learning to use a map, to learning the steps to ride a subway in a foreign country.
Will a traditional test be sufficient to measure whether these skills have been
mastered and lasting change has been instilled? There are also the innate learning
of values and skills that drive our behaviour which are learned through experience
and interaction with real world encounters. Is there a benchmark method to test
these? It becomes clear that learning is a complex term that entails more than mere
‘read and repeat’, and thus calls for a greater sensitivity on part of the educator to
create a learning environment where each learner can engage their prior knowledge
within the creation of new insight.

In a traditional definition of learning as the acquisition of knowledge the above would

be sufficient in understanding learning and by extension the role of the teacher as
the primary agent of transferring needed knowledge to learners. This passive
exchange of knowledge however has become insufficient in an age where learners
need to actively engage with the world and people around them in order to succeed.
Will a uniform set of knowledge and skills apply to each learner’s respective
background? Furthermore, as teachers work with a diverse range of learner
backgrounds, is content the main priority to ensure successful learning, or is the
process of teaching not equally as important? By process we examine how
educators transfer knowledge and interpret content, and further how educators
understand how learning takes place most effectively in order to adapt to the needs
of the learners as well as the content that needs to be taught.

29
Figure 1: Passive versus active learning

The above figure reflects how the passive versus active role of learners impact
learning. By understanding how these roles impact learning, the educator can create
a more conducive environment in which the learners not only retain information, but
in which they can learn through applying the information in a simulated or real world
experience in order to adapt and perform
successfully within a social setting. It is also
here where we question whether the educator
is indeed a ‘teacher’, and as such a master
knower of the knowledge that needs to be
taught. When we examine the role of the
learners as active, as agents of their own
learning and knowers of their own respective
communities, the term ‘teacher’ becomes problematic. Rather, by acknowledging the
process of learning, and as such the need for the teacher to allow for the active
construction of knowledge on part of the learner, then one would refer to the role of
the teacher as a ‘facilitator’ of content.
The educator must thus be aware that learning encompasses much more than
merely transferring knowledge. Teaching further implies more than the mere
transmission of information. For successful learning to take place, the educator
needs allow for knowledge and content to be learned while providing the chance for
this knowledge to be applied to the learners’ real world experiences. Ample
opportunity must further be provided for the learners to reflect and for the new
knowledge to be assessed. It is only then that the prior knowledge of the learner is
optimally transformed and adapts to include the newly acquired content. Figure 2
below, the PACT cycle, reflects this process as an on-going continuation of lifelong
learning in which one Procures new information, this information is Applied,
Considered, and then how prior knowledge is transformed.

30
Figure 2: The PACT learning cycle
Throughout this unit we will explore how learning has transformed from a traditional
construct of transferring knowledge to a more active construct where learners
engage in the learning process in order to acquire the skillsets and knowledge that
will enable them to succeed in their respective communities and vocational
environments. Before we move on, let us reflect on some of the key points of
learning:

Activity 10: Reflect on the following aspects:

 How will the term ‘learning’ contrast in definition within a traditional sense and
a modern sense of teaching?
 Briefly explain what is meant by ‘active learning’ on part of the learner.
 What are the implications for teaching when one considers process as
opposed to merely content?
 Name and briefly explain the four areas of the PACT cycle of learning.
 What are the implications of the PACT cycle on the process of teaching?

12.2 Perspectives on learning

As we gain a deeper understanding of what learning is, we can more clearly identify
the importance of the process of learning. Reflect for a moment on the following
scenarios in two different classroom settings for the subject English as a third
language.

Scenario A:
Miss Juliet is introducing a lesson on how to make a reservation over the phone for a
hotel using English. The students are native Sesotho speakers. She provides the
learners with an example of a telephone conversation and tells the learners clearly
that these are the steps to make a reservation. After this, the learners are given a
page with the needed phrases and are asked to write the phrases down and copy
and repeat this process. Afterwards, she provides them with a short test to examine
how much of the information they can recall.

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Scenario B:
Mr Joel is doing a lesson with his learners on making a hotel reservation in English
with a class of native Sesotho speakers. He asks that the learners pair up into
groups and provides each group with a page of different phases. He also provides
the learners with a dialogue between two people making a reservation over the
phone, as well as a dictionary. The learners are asked to use any resources possible
in order to identify the phrases related to the topic and to place them in the correct
order to formulate a cohesive conversation. Some groups use their phones to access
Youtube, while other groups use translations of their native language to formulate
the task with the help of their peers. At the end of this task, each group selects two
learners to simulate a phone conversation.

 How do these two approached to learning differ in terms of the active and
passive role of the learners?
 How do you think learning is enhanced/restricted by the different processes
used by the educators for the same task?
 What is the role of the teacher regarding the learning process in each of the
above scenarios?
 How do the above scenarios reflect the PACT cycle of learning?

The above scenarios reflect different theoretical ideas of what learning is. A theory
is a set of ideas or assumptions which have been tested against reality and
which can be seen as being true in predicting behaviour or outcomes. There
are however multiple theories that explain one set of phenomenon in many different
ways, and while many of them work well in explaining behaviour, the educator needs
to understand how these theories realise in the classroom in order to work best for
the learning outcomes provided within a given task. The theory adopted will then
further influence the process by which the educator instills or constructs the
information within the learning environment.

32
Two prominent theories of learning will be examined in this Learning Unit, namely
behaviourism and constructivism. While these theories may come across as
contradictory at first, it is important to understand how both influence the modern
classroom environment. These theories are not opposite processes, but rather two
different methods of approaching learning depending on the task at hand. While the
modern process of education is visibly characterised by constructivism, many
aspects of behaviourism are still being used, yet the use thereof is regarded as
traditional and not optimal for exclusive use in the modern context of learning.

Behaviourism
The first theory of learning we will explore is behaviourism. At the core of
behaviourism is learning through conditioning. This theory proposes that all learning
is subject to responses and environmental stimulus. We interact with our
environment on a continuous basis, and this interaction elicits certain outcomes.
These outcomes will in turn determine how we perform the same type of interaction
again in future, or then change behaviour in order to elicit a more favourable
outcome. We are conditioned to behave in a certain manner depending on the
expected outcome, and as such learning is dependent on these previous
experiences with our surroundings and subsequently how we interact with the
environment.

Behaviourism depicts learning as an observable, clearly measurable, and overt

process. This school of thought does not recognise emotions, covert actions, or in

33
some essentialist views, that a subconscious exists. These factors are thus not
recognised because they cannot be directly measured or observed. There are two
prominent types of behavioural conditioning that we will consider:
Classical conditioning
This type of conditioning is based on the principle that individuals learn to associate
a certain stimulus with a specific outcome or response. Take for example a learner
who does well in mathematics. The learner starts a new grade and the clashes with
the new teacher, every time becoming anxious when a task needs to be completed
and the teacher hovers over her desk. After about a month of this happening, she
learns to associate anxiety with mathematics tests, even when the teacher is not
around. This conditioned association causes a significant drop in her results due to
the association of anxiety with testing environments. The stimulus (teacher) is thus
paired with the response of anxiety and not getting the best results. While tests were
easy for her previously, testing environments now become paired with the teacher’s
behaviour, and subsequently she associates mathematics and the testing thereof
(conditioned stimulus) with anxiety and failure (the conditioned response).

Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning focuses on learned behaviours through reward and
punishment. This type of conditioning infers that behaviour is paired with a certain
outcome which will either reinforce the same action again in future, or then for the
action to be discontinued. Should a learner find that they study hard for a test and
gain good marks, they will be more prone to study hard for future tests to repeat this
favourable outcome. Disruptive behaviour in the classroom however will be met with
a form of punishment, and operant conditioning holds that this will pair the behaviour
with the unfavourable outcome in order to be discontinued in future. Through these
outcomes, behaviour is learned through being conditioned to expect a certain result
which will condition subsequent behaviour.

At its core, behaviourism is based on how the environment shapes behaviours

through the aforementioned two types of conditioning. An action is deemed as
successfully learned after the learner can reflect the desired measurable behaviour.
An example of this will be when a task is provided and the learners are asked to
rewrite the information a few times and through this repetition to be conditioned into

34
being able to recall this information when asked during a test. Another example will
be that when a learner is disruptive, they will be sent to the principle. This conditions
behaviour with the unfavourable outcome as a means to discontinue disruption
during class. However, does this change of behaviour also imply a change in
emotion, thinking, or morals? It can be said that the individual is a blank slate until
the environment starts conditioning behaviour and in turn teaches the individual how
to respond to stimulus. This places the individual learner as a passive agent, and
does not account for individual learning at subjective level. Furthermore, values and
personal knowledge of the learners are not of forefront focus, and as this type of
subjective information is difficult to measure objectively, it is needed to consider
another theory that accounts for these factors.

Constructivism
Constructivism is a theory of learning that accounts for the subjective understanding
and mutual creation of knowledge. The learner becomes an active agent in shaping
their understanding of the word around them, and continuously reflects on how their
prior knowledge is influenced by the new incoming information. The role of the
teacher is thus not of an expert knower, but rather adapts to become a facilitator in
creating learning experiences for the learners to actively engage in and construct
new knowledge. The role of the learner is not that of a passive agent awaiting
information to be provided, but becomes an active participant in shaping and
creating knowledge.

In viewing constructivism as a learning theory in the classroom, focus is not placed

primarily on what content is being taught as the measurable outcome. Rather,
learners continuously reflect and integrate new forms of learning and in turn ‘learn
how to learn’. While the teacher may have an expected answer to a problem
statement, it becomes cornerstone for the learners to reflect and assess their
previous knowledge and to integrate various methods to construct their
understanding of reaching this desired answer. The teacher becomes an agent of
facilitation that provides a space for knowledge to emerge and for the class to reflect
thereon and grow in understanding.

35
Constructivism allows for the individual backgrounds of the learners, such as morals,
values, knowledge, etc., to enter the classroom in order to construct new meaning
and understanding. Furthermore, this type of critical learning becomes pivotal for the
learners outside of the schooling environment as many situations will not be followed
with a once off resolution. By ‘learning to learn’, the learner actively finds new ways
to approach the environment in order to construct meaning and reach a desired
outcome. Throughout the remainder of this unit, specific attention will be given to the
components of constructivism, especially related to creating a powerful learning
environment.

Activity 11: Reflect on the following:

 How do the two scenarios at the commencement of this part of unit 3 link to
behaviourism and constructivism?
 Contrast the two theories of learning discussed by referring to the following:
o The role of the teacher
o The role of the learner
o How content is taught
o Objectivity and subjectivity.

Briefly discuss whether the classroom setting can be characterised solely by one of
these theories of learning.

12.3 How do teachers construct powerful learning environments?

For the following part of the unit, we will draw on the attached article ‘Towards more
powerful learning environments through combining the perspectives of
designers, teachers, and students’. As we are focusing on the process of learning
in this unit, the main question is how educators can create learning environments
that bid the most optimal means of learning for the learners. After reading the article,
consider below the main characteristics and principles for the design of a powerful
learning environment.

Characteristics of a powerful learning environment:

36
  The learning environment is problem-based, reflecting real-world problems
that are challenging yet realistic as a means to engage learners.
 In order to build new knowledge, prior knowledge must be activated.
 New skills and knowledge must be demonstrated to the learners.
 These new skills and knowledge must be applied by the learner.
 The new skills and knowledge must be placed alongside real world activities
for the learner.
Three basic principles for the design of a powerful learning environment:
 Integrated sets of learning goals. Knowledge, skills and attitudes are
combined in the learning process for learners to apply this integrated
approach to real world problems.
 Learning styles of the students must be taken into account.
 The instructional design must be aligned with the learners’ cognitive capacity
to construct knowledge.

In concluding this unit, it is also noteworthy to examine different types of learning. As

examined through reading, a prominent type of learning that stimulates a powerful
learning environment is a problem-based approach to teaching. We will briefly
examine this type of learning again as well as three other types: Situated, Co-
operative, and Transformative.

Situated learning

First proposed by Jean Lave and Ettienne Wenger, situated learning is based on
learning through activity within context and culture. The knowledge instilled within the
classroom context is often of abstract nature or not within context. In other words,
learning is often not initiated within the same context (the classroom), as it would be

37
applied. Instead, learning should take place within the context of the social
environment in which the knowledge will be applied. In this regard, the knowledge
becomes contextually relevant and a product of social co-construction. Consider for
instance the process of career education. An activity that directs the learner to
search the internet and locate sources of their prospective career may provide useful
if the aim is to merely enhance the information base of the learner regarding this
vocational environment. However, this information is still abstract and socially
decontextualized as the learning is not situated in the real world environment.
Learning is still located at the ‘periphery of the community’, meaning the outside. If
the aim is to locate learning within the real world and at the centre of the community,
a situated learning approach would call for the learner to engage with someone in
the field of their choice and to subsequently engage with the social context of the
activity as a means to construct knowledge.

Co-operative learning
The co-creation of knowledge within a social space reflects the real world
environment. Interacting with the environment is not an isolated experience,
individuals are socially connected and share experience on a daily basis. As such,
while the fostering of individual independence is important, it is equally important to
provide learners with the chance to learn interdependence and social dependency.
Co-operative learning provides the chance for learners to critically engage in a group
setting in order to construct knowledge to complete a task. It is important for the
educator to purposefully identify how co-operative learning will benefit the task, as
well as how groups will be formed. A benefit of this type of learning is that learners
will be less hesitant to participate when they are located in a smaller group setting
than as an individual in front of the classroom. Learning is also based on co-creation,
as each learner will have a unique contribution and perspective on the task at hand,
fostering critical thinking and collaboration as a means to enhance learning.

Transformative learning
Transformative learning, as the name suggests, is informed by learning that causes
prior knowledge to change and reform. Each individual holds certain beliefs, ideas,
views and perceptions about a given topic. As we interact with the environment

38
these facets drive our thinking and behaviour in certain ways. Reference is made
here to schemata that are cognitively built up as we grow, which forms a type of
blue-print understanding to topics. This can be deeply rooted beliefs instilled since
birth or more simple knowledge structures that the individual at the given time
perceives as being true due to the deficiency of new knowledge. An example of the
former would be that should parents teach a child that girls wear pink and boys wear
blue. Should this socialization cycle strictly be adhered to, the child may build up a
schema of gender dictating the belief that should a boy wear pink they are not
heterosexual, having yet to learn that this is a form of socialization that does not
carry truth in other contexts. An example of the latter may be a learner who views
learning as a terrifying experience because they struggle to study, yet have not been
introduced to a proper study method yet. By utilizing transformative learning, the
educator challenges these perceptions and causes the learner to re-evaluate their
former way of thinking by introducing new knowledge that leads to a reassessment
of the construed belief or knowledge structure. This in turn leads to a transformation
of schemata in which more realistic and higher level of thinking are instilled.

Problem-based learning
Throughout this unit we have examined the importance of aligning learning with real
world situations as a means to create a more applied and contextually relevant
learning experience that will benefit the learner outside of the classroom. Problems
and questions that will arise when interacting with the environment are complex and
most often not one solution can work holistically for each individual. What is more,
often a myriad of solutions are possible for a problem, but the best solution’s
success depends on the person who implements it. For this reason, the teacher’s
solution may not be the most optimal to problem statements that will be of best
relevance to each of the learners. Furthermore, providing an answer does not
actively engage the learner to develop critical thinking or problem solving skills.
Problem-based learning is a learner-centred perspective whereby the learner
actively engages in finding a solution to the task at hand. Learners use their prior
knowledge as well as new resources to construct a solution to the problem. While
the learner evaluates and applies new information to a problem, they will often find
new problems arising that lead to the need for revaluating the initial plan. It also

39
becomes important for the learner to engage with other learners in finding a solution,
as this co-creation of knowledge forms the basis of challenging construed beliefs and
building social interdependence.

Activity 12: Reflect on the following:

 Briefly define each of the four discussed types of learning.
 Are the four types of learning discussed isolated or is there a link that integrates
their applicability in a comparative manner? Explain your answer in a brief
narrative.

13. LEARNING UNIT 4: LEARNING STYLES

Upon completion of this learning unit, learners should be able to:
 Distinguish between different learning style models.
 Integrate learning styles and classroom practices

13.1 Learning style models

When examination time approaches it is noticeable how different students and
learners prefer different styles of studying. This style of studying ranges from
individuals who have extensive reading notes, while others have mind-maps of the
same content. Some may have recorded the lessons and work and will listen thereto
as a means of studying. Highlighting is also a prominent method with different
colours, while pictures being drawn to represent a certain set of information are also

40
seen. Why do we have different styles of studying and learning, and why as an
educator is it important to be able to understand how these styles manifest in the
classroom environment?
At the core of learning is the concept of intelligence. Traditionally, intelligence was
seen as the ability to achieve results in a certain area and should one excel with high
results, it would imply a greater intelligence level. However, reflect for a moment
whether high levels of results in an English as a subject implies that the learner can
utilize the same content in the real world environment to adequately adapt and
socialize. Another example is having a very high achievement level in accounting,
however the same individual’s results in science is of a very low standard. Does this
imply a high or low level of intelligence? In modern times we reflect on intelligence as
the ability to adapt to the real world environment, and subsequently to be able to
apply this information within a real world setting. Throughout this unit we will be
looking at types on intelligences and the influence thereof on learning. Specifically,
the educator’s knowledge of these types of learning influence the learning
environment greatly in that the content taught must be of such a style that each
learner benefits from the lesson. A learner that is of high auditory intelligence will do
well in a lesson where they mainly need to listen, however a learner who functions
better with visual intelligence will not benefit from the lesson in the same manner. A
multidimensional approach is needed where the educator creates a powerful
learning environment (refer back to unit 3) in which different styles are utilized to
ensure a high impact session.

We will now explore some of the models that are influential in the realm of learning
styles. Continuous reflection on part of the educator is needed as to which type of
style applies to them, as it can become problematic to adopt this style during
teaching solely because this is what the educator is comfortable with and in turn not
provide a holistic experience of learning for the learners. In short summary, each
learner has a personal manner in which information is perceived, organized and
retained. This is a cognitive process and subsequently influences how learners will
interact during classroom settings. As we have discussed previously, the notion
beyond problem-based learning and constructivism implies the process by which
learners learn how to learn. In order to achieve this process successfully, a firm

41
grasp of learning styles and the applicability thereof in classroom settings is of great
importance.

13.1.1 The VAKT learning model

The VAKT learning model is the first example we will explore that provides a
framework of how learners learn. The basis of this approach is on the sensory
experience of learners, and thus posits that learning best manifests in a setting
where the senses are used as input for information. A learner that is stronger in one
area of the model will in turn learn better by utilizing strategies that stem from that
sensory experience to learn. It is however important to understand that being better
in one area of the model does not imply that the other areas of the model are not
relevant to a specific learner. Learners benefit from all areas of the model, and as
such calls for a multisensory approach to teaching.

V - Visual
A - Auditory
K - Kinaesthetic
T – Tactile

Visual learning styles imply strengths in seeing and viewing material. We must be
careful to think that reading is solely a visual style, as reading activates parts of the
brain that function in accordance with language and is as such an auditory style. In
turn, the auditory style of learning implies strengths in the areas of listening, talking
and reading. Kinaesthetic learning refers to strengths in the realms of being active,
movement and physical activity. Tactile, as referred to by touch, refers to strengths in
the area of hands on activities. Examples of each style are given below, can you
think of more examples?

Visual Auditory Kinaesthetic Tactile

Graphs Debates Play ball while Make objects
reviewing information
Charts Interviewing Field trips Measure

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 Diagrams Audio DVD’s Physical experiments Art materials
Pictures Lectures

13.1.2 Kolb’s learning style model

David Kolb developed a style of learning based on the notion that learning involves
the acquisition of abstract ideas that can be applied to a variety of new
situations. A four phase learning cycle is introduced that bids as base for the
learning styles that follow.

Phase 1 - Concrete Experience: A type of new experience is introduced.

Phase 2 – Reflective Observation: The learner reflects on the new experience,
furthermore reflecting on incongruence between the new experience and
understanding.
Phase 3 –Abstract Conceptualization: Through the above phase of reflection, a
new idea emerges, or previous ideas or abstract thoughts are adapted.
Phase 4 – Active Experimentation: Application of the new concept in order to see
the results.

Kolb further developed four learning styles from the above cycle.

43
The above diagram reflects the learning styles. This model is represented by two
axis, the Processing Continuum (How we approach situations) and the Perception
Continuum (How we think about situations). Our learning style is thus dependent on
these two continuums, and thus each style reflects a combination of how we
approach a situation and how we think and feel about it. The product will accordingly
be one of the following styles:

Diverging (Feeling and watching)

 Individuals prefer to watch and do
 Emotional-oriented
 Use imagination to solve problem situations
 Critically reflects on different aspects of a problem
 Often prefer to work in groups
 Good at generating new ideas

Assimilation (Watching and thinking)

 Logical approaches to situations
 Places less value on people than Diverging, and focuses more on ideas
 Values explanations and organisation of information in logical formats
 Prefers lectures, being provided information, and having the opportunity to be
analytical and reflective on new concepts

Converging (Doing and thinking)

 Solve problems to practical problems
 Find solutions to questions
 Good at finding practical usefulness for new ideas and concepts
 Enjoys experimentation and simulations, working with application

Accommodation (Doing and feeling)

 Relies on intuition rather than logic

44
  Takes a practical approach to problems, however often uses other already
formed analyses
 Prefers to take on an experiential approach to situations and to be actively
involved

13.1.3 Honey & Mumford

Honey and Mumford proposed four different learning styles namely activist,
reflectors, theorist, and pragmatists.

The activist as dominant style involves the individual fully emerging themselves into
projects and prefers involvement in developing knowledge. Such individuals are
open-minded and open to new experiences and enjoy. Such individuals do not live in
the past, but lives the present out fully and enjoys new experiences on a constant
basis. Planning is not the forefront focus of this style, and as such repetition and
long-term planning can become redundant quickly.

The reflector style focuses on thinking and planning. Such individuals will stand
back when a new situation arises and first reflect on as many different angles of the
problem as possible before reaching a conclusion. During discussion, a reflector
style will manifest when an individual observes closely and holds back an opinion;
however, when a point is raised, it will be of integral value for their own knowledge
as well as the points raised previously by others.

The theorist as style implies individuals who work best with logic and ideas. For
such individuals, it is important to be able to explain the basic principles of a given
situation, and ambiguity and subjective opinions are of little value compared to
factual solutions and explanations. Such individuals further flourish when it comes to
theories, and prefer information to be assimilated according to a theoretically sound
idea.

A pragmatist style refers to individuals who also values ideas and concepts,
however feel a strong need to practically apply these ideas. Should experiments be
done, the pragmatist will show great interest. Pragmatists are problem solvers, and if

45
a practical solution does not work, the individual will move on to find a solution that
does.

13.1.4 Robert Gardner’s multiple intelligences

We examined earlier in the unit how intelligence cannot be defined as merely
academic achievement in a certain realm. Intelligence can furthermore not be seen
as merely having a lot of knowledge and doing well within a schooling environment.
Intelligence is about being able to apply and adapt knowledge within real world
settings, creating a product that manifests within the cultural and social context
within which one is connected.

Robert Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences makes room for the above view by
allowing for different types of intelligences to manifest. This allows for a much more
dynamic view of the human mind, as an individual may have a higher level of
intelligence in the realm of music; however find achievement in the realm of
languages more difficult. This would then not imply an intelligent or unintelligent
individual, but rather that an approach that aligns with their music intelligence will
prove valuable in approaching language education. Should the individual approach
language learning by writing songs and listening to certain music to their studying of
the language, they will be using their high level of adaptability in one area to
enhance learning in another. As such, it is critical to understand the different
intelligences proposed by Robert Gardner as a means to holistically approach
teaching in the classroom to the benefit of each learner present.

Robert Gardner’s Eight Multiple Intelligences

1. Linguistic

A strong ability to understanding meaning and conventions of language. Such

individuals have a levels of generating spoken as well as written language.
Examples of professions are poets and writers.

2. Logical-mathematical

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A high level of using abstract and logical thinking to solving problems. Such
individuals are sensitive to organising information, finding patterns and exhibiting
strong reason skills. Example professions will be astrophysicists and researchers.
3. Musical
Sound is at the core of this type of intelligence, and as such individuals with strong
musical intelligence can create, manipulate and comprehend nuances in music and
sound more easily. They flourish in environments where rhythm, tone and melodies
are of forefront focus. Example professions include composers and musicians.

4. Spatial
Spatially intelligent individuals function best when they are able to create and
transform the world. They are sensitive to spatial phenomenon around them and can
perceive ways to change the world more easily. They are further strong at
transforming visual representations and spatial images. Example professions include
architects and graphic designers.

5. Bodily-kinaesthetic
This type of intelligence is based on movement and the body. Thus, such individuals
will use the body skillfully to approach problems or to adapt to the environment.
Examples of such professions include athletes and dancers.

6. Naturalistic
The ability to examine, organise and apply different aspects of the environment
effectively. Such individuals are good at classifying plants, animals and other natural
phenomenon. Example professions will be botanists and archaeologists.

7. Interpersonal
This intelligence is based on social understanding of other, and as such
interpersonally intelligent individuals have the ability to accurately perceive and
understand relationships and people. Example professions will include teachers and
psychologists.

8. Intrapersonal

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This type of intelligence is the ability of an individual to carefully reflect on their own
emotions, life, and desires as a means to regulate the environment around them.
This type of intelligence is prominent when individuals choose a career path, as
careful self-reflection is initiated in order to make a choice.

13.2 Integration of learning styles and classroom practices

For the concluding part of the unit, please read through the article attached entitled
‘How to accommodate different learning styles in the same classroom:
Analysis of theories and methods of learning styles’

13.2.1 Learning styles and teaching

In engaging students in constructive learning environments, the educator aims to
approach the learner’s individual strengths and understand the individual stumbling
blocks to learning. This however does not imply that the teacher is the expert knower
of the learner. What is needed is the understanding that the educator holds a unique
profile of assumptions and beliefs about learning. Furthermore, this also includes a
unique style of learning that is adopted and often seen as working best for
everybody, and as this manifests in the classroom the individuality of the learner is
disregarded. In order to motivate learners and achieve high levels of learning, the
educator must have a firm understanding of how their own learning style influences
their teaching.

13.2.2 Adapting to different learning styles

A prominent understanding a good teacher holds is that all learners do not prefer to
learn in the manner that the teacher prefers to teach. A dominant style of teaching is
that of ‘lecturing’, thus focusing predominantly on auditory means to convey
information. However, the learner body of which a classroom consists is diverse, and
each learner has culturally been socialized to excel in different methods of learning.
Some learners grew up with a practical approach to solving problems, while others
would perhaps have been taught to reflect and consider different options before
testing a solution. It is especially at this point that it becomes clear how

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constructivism benefits the classroom environment. Should learners be motivated to
construct knowledge by applying their own perspectives and understanding to the
task, they will be allowed to explore their unique learning style in solving the problem
most effectively. The role of the teacher as facilitator becomes even more prominent
at this point, as the creation of a learning environment that is conducive to the styles
of the learners becomes part of the process of teaching as opposed to merely
focusing on content.

The educator’s role thus encompasses a clear understanding of the different styles
of learning that enter the classroom. A firm grasp of these styles allows for the
creation of learning experiences that are diverse, effective, as well as relevant to the
backgrounds of the learners. By introducing a diverse spectrum of teaching methods
and understanding the influence of multiple intelligences, the educator can create a
space wherein learners actively engages their own strengths as a means to reaching
a desired outcome. This in turn reflects the need for learners to be made aware of
their individual learning styles, and once again reflects the importance of ‘learning
how to learn’ as opposed to merely ‘learning for the sake of learning’.

Activity 13:
Reflection on the following:
 Differentiate between the traditional and modern view of intelligence
 Briefly define ‘learning styles’ and explain the implication thereof in the
classroom environment.
 Name the four prominent theories discussed in learning styles as well as the
components that each theory proposes.
 What is the implication of multiple intelligences for classroom practice?
 By reflecting on each of the four theories discussed within this unit, how would
you classify yourself in accordance to each of the styles proposed?
 By referring to question 5, how does this implicate your classroom
practice?

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