SRI SHANMUGHA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(Approved by AICTE, Accredited by NAAC and Affiliated to Anna University)

Pullipalayam, Morur (P.O), Sankari (T.k), Salem (D.T)

RECORD NOTE

REG NO

Certified that this is a bonafide record of Practical work done by

Mr/Ms…………………………………………. of the ……………………

Semester ……………….. Branch during the Academic year …………….

in the ………………………………………………. Laboratory.

Staff-in-charge Head of the Department

Submitted for the University Practical Examination held

on……………..

Internal Examiner External Examiner

General Instructions to students for EP Lab courses:
➢ Be punctual to the lab class.

➢ Attend the laboratory classes wearing the prescribed uniform and shoes.

➢ Avoid wearing any metallic rings, straps or bangles as they are likely to prove
dangerous at times.

➢ Girls should put their plait inside their overcoat

➢ Boys should tuck in their uniform to avoid the loose cloth getting into contact
with rotating machines.

➢ Acquire a good knowledge of the surrounding of your worktable. Know where

the various live points are situated in your table.

➢ In case of any unwanted things happening, immediately switch off the mains in
the worktable.

➢ This must be done when there is a power break during the experiment being
carried out.

➢ Before entering into the lab class, you must be well prepared for the experiment
that you are going to do on that day

➢ You must bring the related textbook which may deal with the relevant
experiment.

➢ Get the circuit diagram approved.

➢ Prepare the list of apparatus required for the experiment and get the indent
approved.

➢ Plan well the disposition of the various apparatus on the worktable so that the
experiment can be carried out.
➢ Make connections as per the approved circuit diagram and get the same
verified. After getting the approval only supply must be switched on.

➢ For the purpose of speed measurement in rotating machines, keep the

tachometer in the extended shaft. Avoid using the brake drum side.

➢ Get the reading verified. Then inform the technician so that supply to the
worktable can be switched off.

➢ You must get the observation note corrected within two days from the date of
completion of experiment. Write the answer for all the discussion questions in the
observation note. If not, marks for concerned observation will be proportionately
reduced.
➢ Submit the record notebook for the experiment completed in the next class.

➢ If you miss any practical class due to unavoidable reasons, intimate the staff in
charge and do the missed experiment in the repetition class.

➢ Such of those students who fail to put in a minimum of 75% attendance in the
laboratory class will run the risk of not being allowed for the University Practical
Examination. They will have to repeat the lab course in subsequent semester
after paying prescribed fee.
 SYLLABUS

GE3271 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY LTPC

0042
COURSE OBJECTIVES:

The main learning objective of this course is to provide hands on training to the
students in:
1. Drawing pipeline plan; laying and connecting various pipe fittings used in common
household plumbing work; Sawing; planing; making joints in wood materials used in
common household woodwork.
2. Wiring various electrical joints in common household electrical wire work.
3. Welding various joints in steel plates using arc welding work; Machining various
simple processes like turning, drilling, tapping in parts; Assembling simple mechanical
assembly of common household equipments; Making a tray out of metal sheet using
sheet metal work.
4. Soldering and testing simple electronic circuits; Assembling and testing simple
electronic components on PCB.
GROUP-A: PART-I ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PRACTICES
a) Introduction to switches, fuses, indicators and lamps - Basic switch board wiring
with lamp, fan and three pin-socket.
b) Staircase wiring.
c) Fluorescent Lamp wiring with introduction to CFL and LED types.
d) Energy meter wiring and related calculations/ calibration.
e) Study of Iron Box wiring and assembly.
f) Study of Fan Regulator (Resistor type and electronic type using
Diac/Triac/quadrac)
g) Study of emergency lamp wiring/Water heater.
GROUP-B: PART-IV ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
SOLDERING WORK:
a) Soldering simple electronic circuits and checking continuity.

ELECTRONIC ASSEMBLY AND TESTING WORK:

b) Assembling and testing electronic components on a small PCB.

ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT STUDY:

c) Study an element of smart phone.
d) Assembly and dismantle of LED TV.
e) Assembly and dismantle of computer/ laptop.
COs Description Exp No
1 Drawing pipeline plan: laying and connecting various pipe fittings used NA
in common household plumbing work; Sawing; planing; making joints
in wood materials used in common household woodwork.
2 Wiring various electrical joints in common household electrical wire 1,2,3,4
work.
3 Welding various joints in steel plates using arc welding work; Machining NA
various simple processes like turning, drilling, tapping in parts;
Assembling simple mechanical assembly of common household
equipments; Making a tray out of metal sheet using sheet metal work.
4 Soldering and testing simple electronic circuits; Assembling and testing 8,9
simple electronic components on PCB.
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Sl Title of the Experiment Page Mark Faculty

No No Obtained Sign

Introduction to switches, fuses, indicators

1. and lamps - Basic switch board wiring
with lamp, fan and three pin-socket.

2. Staircase wiring.

Fluorescent Lamp wiring with introduction

3. to CFL and LED types.
Energy meter wiring and related
4. calculations/calibration.

5. Study of Iron Box wiring and assembly.

Study of Fan Regulator

6. (Resistor type and electronic type using
Diac/Triac/quadrac)

Study of emergency lamp wiring/Water

7.
heater.

Soldering simple electronic circuits and

8.
checking continuity.

Assembling and testing electronic

9.
components on a small PCB.

10. Study an element of smart phone.

11. Assembly and dismantle of LED TV.

Assembly and dismantle of computer/
12. laptop

13. Study of Logic gate

14. Study of Megger

 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

HOUSE WIRING
Ex. No: 01
Date :
INTRODUCTION AND BASICS OF RESIDENTIAL HOUSE WIRING
AIM:
To connect a lamp a fan with a regulator and a socket. Each load is to
be controlled by a separate single pole switch using conduct PVC wiring.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

SI.No Name Range Quantity

1 5Pin socket 6A/230V 1
2 Single pole one way switch 5A/230V 3
3 Bulb 40W/230V 1
4 Indicator lamp 5W/230V 1
5 Fan Regulator 450W/230V 1
6 Connecting Wires As
required
7 Tester 500V 1
8 Wire Cutter 1

INTRODUCTION TO FUSE
Fuses are the protectors; these are the safety devices which are used to
protect the home appliances. The fuse is made up of thin strip or strand of
metal, whenever the heavy amount of current or an excessive current flow is
there in an electrical circuit, the fuse melts and it opens the circuit and
disconnects it from the power supply. Here is the basic circuit diagram &
symbol of the fuse.

INTRODUCTION TO SWITCH
Switch is an electrical component which can make or break electrical
circuit automatically or manually. Switch is mainly works with ON (open) and
OFF (closed) mechanism.

INTRODUCTION TO INDICATOR
The Indication Lamp or Pilot Lamp connection to indicate ON, OFF, and TRIP.
INTRODUCTION TO LAMP
An electric lamp is a conventional light emitting component used in different
circuits, mainly for lighting and indicating purposes. A lamp emits light energy
as the thin small tungsten filament of lamp glows without being melted, while
current flows through it.

PROCEDURE:

1. Draw the layout of wiring on board.

2. Cut the require length of PVC and wires.
3. Make the holes where screws are to be fixed and fix the PVC wires.
4. Fix the junction box, Tees and bends in proper places.
5. Insert proper wires on the channel of the PVC pipes
6. Fix the necessary switches and holder in the pipe provided.
7. Give the supply and test the wiring connection given through the SPST
switches for bulb, fan and any domestic load.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Keep extra allowance of wire in each junction box.

2. Distance between the clamps should be equal and gap should be
avoided.
3. During the wiring ensure that wire insulation should not be damaged.
4. All the fittings should be made tight

RESULT:
Thus, the house wiring with power socket was done and tested using
SPST switches.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Staircase Wiring
• Straight Connection.

TRUTH TABLE

SW1 SW2 BULB

1 1 ON
2 2 ON
1 2 OFF
2 2 OFF

• Cross Connection.

TRUTH TABLE

SW1 SW2 BULB

1 1 OFF
2 2 ON
1 2 ON
2 2 OFF
Exp. No. : 02
Date :
STAIRCASE WIRING
AIM:
To control the ON, OFF condition of a lamp using two switches.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Sl.No Name Range Quantity
1 Single pole, Two-way switch 5A/250 V 2
2 Lamp 60W/230V 1
3 Connecting wires As required
4 Tester 500V 1
5 Wire Stripper 1

Staircase Wiring can be connected to two possible types.

• Straight Connection.
• Cross Connection.

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the layout diagram on the board.

2. Cut the PVC pipe into measured lengths.
3. Make the holes where screws are to be fitted.
4. Fix the junction box, tees and bends in proper places.
5. Insert the wires on the channel of the PVC pipes and connect the same
in the junction box.
6. Fix the necessary switches and holders in the channel box.
7. Energize the circuit by closing the supply mains and test the set up by
verifying the truth table.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Keep extra allowance of wire in each junction box.

2. Distance between the clamps must be equal.
3. Ensure the proper insulation of the wires.
4. All the fittings should be made tight.
5. Check the short points 1, 2 and 2, 3 in both switches.

RESULT:
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fluorescent Lamp
Exp. No. : 03
Date :
FLUORESCENT LAMP WIRING
AIM:
To assemble and test a fluorescent lamp.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Name Range Quantity

1 Choke 40W/230V 1
2 Starter 1
3 Starter holder 1
4 Side holder 2
5 Tube light 40W/230V 1
6 Connecting Wires As
required
7 Slew Cutter 1
8 Tester 500V 1

THEORY:
The tube light consists of a glass tube of length varying from 2 to 4 feet and
is filled with low pressure argon gas and a drop of mercury Initially, Starter is in
closed position. When supply is switched on, the current heats the filaments
initiating emission of electrons. After 1 or 2 seconds the starter gets opened,
making the choke to induce a momentary high voltage surge across the two
filaments. Due to this ionization takes place through argon gas. Mercury vapour
arc provides a conducting path between the electrodes. The starter used may
be of thermal or glow type whose function is to complete the circuit initially for
preheating the filaments and then to open type circuit for inducing high
voltage across choke for initiating ionization.

CHOKE:
A Choke is connected in series with fluorescent tube to provide a
voltage impulse for a starting and setting the tube to ON condition.

STARTER:
Two types are in use, they are,
1. Gas discharge tube starter
2. Thermal type starter.
When Starters are isolated from the circuit it induces high voltage across
the choke coil, which stimulates the ionization process and makes the light to
glow.
PROCEDURE:

1. Assemble the fluorescent tube accessories viz, starter holder, holder for
tube and choke in the fitting base with the help of screws.
2. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
3. The phase wire should be connected through choke, and the other end
of the choke is directly connected to one end of the filament. Starter
terminals are connected across the filament. The other end of the
filament is directly connected to the neutral of the supply mains.
4. Fix the tube light in the holder.
5. Switch on the supply and observe whether the tube light glows or not.

Introduction to Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)

A Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL), also known as a compact fluorescent

light or energy saving light, is a type of fluorescent lamp which combines the
energy efficiency of fluorescent lighting with the convenience and popularity
of incandescent fixtures. CFLs can replace incandescent that are roughly 3-4
times their wattage, saving up to 75% of the initial light energy. Although CFLs
costs 3-10 times more than comparable incandescent lamps, they last about
10 times as long (10,000 hours).
CFLs are most cost effective in areas where lights are ON for long periods of
time.

Introduction to Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

The light-emitting diode (LED) is today's most energy-efficient and rapidly

developing lighting technology. it gives off no heat, contains no mercury,
Quality LED light bulbs last longer, are more durable, and offer comparable or
better light quality than other types of lighting. They are long lasting (up to
50,000 hours) and are great for hard-to-reach places. LED lighting products
typically last much longer than other lighting types. A good quality LED bulb
can last 3 to 5 times longer than a CFL and 30 times longer than an
incandescent bulb.

LED light bulbs, including smart light bulbs, are a great option for everyday use.
These types of light bulbs fit a variety of fixtures. They also use less electricity to
produce the same amount of light as incandescent varieties. Made without
hazardous ingredients, they are environmentally friendly and have an
exceptional lifespan.

RESULT:
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Energy Meter

TABULATION:

Time Actual
Indicated
Sl. Voltage Current Wattmeter taken Energy % of
Energy
No (Volts) (Amps) (watts) for n rev consumed Error
(Wh)
(Sec) (Wh)
Ex. No. : 04
Date :

MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY USING SINGLE-PHASE ENERGY METER

AIM:
To measure the electrical energy and power consumed in a single –phase
supply using an Energy meter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Name Range Quantity

Single- phase
1 1KVA,230V/(0-270)V 1
autotransformer
2 Single -phase Energy meter 230V,5A,1200Rev/KWhr 1
3 Voltmeter (0-300) V, MI 1
4 Ammeter (0-5) A, MI 1
5 Wattmeter 300V,10A/UPF 1
5 Lamp loading 1Ф,5A 1
6 Stopwatch Digital 1
As
6 Connecting wires
required

FORMULA USED:
Actual power, Pr=VI cos Φ watts (Assume the power factor cos Φ =1)
Were V-voltmeter reading in volts,
I-ammeter reading in amps
In an energy meter, K revolutions are equal to 1KWhr. for example, m
seconds for n revolutions. The energy consumed is calculated as follows,
Given that
k revolutions = 1KWhr
i.e, k=1000×3600-watt seconds. ----------------(1)
n
Therefore , = P watts
m
i.e. n=P ×m ----------------(2)
from equations (1) ÷ (2)
k 1000  3600
= Watts
n Pm
n 1000  3600 Where n-Number of revolutions,
Power consumed P = Watts
mk say 10
m-Time taken for n revolutions
k-energy meter constant.
i.e. Actual Energy consumed =P × m Watt seconds
Indicated energy = P × MF × T Watt seconds
IndicatedEnergy − ActualEnergy
%ofError = 100
IndicatedEnergy
Model Calculation
THEORY:
Energy meter is a device used to measure the energy consumed in AC
circuits. It has two electromagnetic coils made of silicon steel. The two coils are
called current coil and pressure coil. An aluminum disc revolves in it due to the
torque produced because of the flux that is proportional to the current and
supply voltage. The number of revolutions of the disc per KWhr is shown on the
energy meter and is called energy meter constant (k).

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Initially no load is applied.
3. Autotransformer is set to minimum voltage position before switching on
the power supply.
4. Set the rated voltage (230V) by using the autotransformer. Record the
values in Voltmeter and ammeter. Also take time taken for n revolutions,
say 10, on the energy meter disc.
5. Apply the load by switching on the lamp.
6. Measure and recorded values of voltmeter and ammeter. Also note
down the time taken for n revolutions of the energy meter disc.
7. Repeat the steps 5 and 6 by switching on more lamps one by one until
the ammeter reaches 5A.
8. After noting all the readings, reduce the load slowly to the minimum
position. Also reduce the voltage to minimum in the autotransformer.
Switch off the power supply.
9. Calculate power and energy consumed for various loading conditions;
also calculate the % of error.
10. Draw the graph by taking current in X-axis and % of error in Y – axis.

RESULT:
(a) when the iron is at normal temperature (b) When the iron becomes too
hot
Ex. No: 05
Date:
STUDY OF AN ELECTRIC CLOTHES IRON

AIM:
To study the performance of electrical iron box.

An electric iron is a household appliance used to remove creases or

wrinkles of the clothes by the combination of heat and pressure.
An electric iron is an application of heating effect of current. Current is taken
from the power supply which heats up the coil inside the iron, and this heat is
then transferred to the soleplate due to the conduction, and when it’s rubbed
on clothes, small strings of clothes stretch to go flat.
An electric iron might not remove creases when it’s too cold, and cloth
might burn when it’s too hot, so there is a range of temperature in which an
electric iron operates effectively. Domestic irons generally range in operating
temperature from between 250 °F (121 °C) to 360 °F (182 °C).

Components of an electric iron:

An electric clothes irons have following common parts:
1. Handle
The handle of an electric iron is made with plastic or wood. The reason is
that these materials are insulators, current doesn’t pass through them, avoid
electric shocking.

2. Sole plate
Soleplate, also called the hot plate, is the thick and flat triangular shaped
surface made of aluminum that forms the base over which the electric iron is
built up. It is polished noncorrosive, non-stick material.

3. Cover Plate
The cover plate is made of thin sheet of iron. It is placed on top of the
base plate and it covers all the internal parts of the iron. The handle and
connector are only attached to the cover plate.

4. Pressure Plate
This plate is generally called the top plate as it follows the shape of sole
plate. The pressure plate has some holes through which the studs form the base
plate passes through. We should tighten the nuts on the studs in such a way that
the pressure plate and sole plate are pressed tight against each other. In some
iron, the pressure plate is heavy and made of cast iron while in some other
cases, it is a thin sheet of steel, about ¼ cm thick.

5. Pilot Lamp
The pilot lamp is housed on the cover plate of the electric iron. It indicates
the power supply.
6. Heating Element
Most heating elements are made with a nickel-chromium wire, having
both tensile strength and high resistance to current flow. The resistance and
voltage can be measured with a multi meter to verify if the element is
functioning properly. Heating elements are available in many sizes and shapes.

In an electric iron, the heating element is present between the sole plate
and pressure plate. It is pressed hard between the two plates. The heating
element consists of nichrome wire wound around a sheet of mica. The two ends
of the nichrome wire are connected to the contact strips. The contact strips are
connected to the terminals of the iron. There are two reasons for which mica is
chosen in the heating material. Mica is a very good insulating material. Besides
that mica can also withstand very high temperatures. The entire assembly of
mica sheet, nichrome wire and contact strips are riveted together resulting in a
mechanically sound and robust construction. There is an asbestos sheet, which
separates and thermally insulates the top plate from the heating element.

7. Thermostat
Thermostat is an important component of an electric iron that regulates
its temperature. The main function of thermostat is to keep heat constant in
each setting.
The mechanism work as follows.
When electric current is passed through a coil in an electric iron, the coil
becomes very hot. Through conduction the heat is transferred to the flat base
plate of the electric iron which is used to iron our clothes.

8. Bimetallic Strip
The thermostat in iron makes use of bimetallic strip. This bimetallic strip is
made up of two different types of metals (Brass and iron) with different
coefficient of expansion bonded together. Therefore, in the presence of heat,
the bimetallic strip expands differently. The metallic strip is connected to a
contact spring through small pins.
The bimetallic strip remains in physical contact with the contact point at
moderate temperature. However, at a temperature of the iron above a certain
limit, the strip tends to bend towards the metal with lower coefficient of
expansion. At this point, the strip stops to be physically connected to the
contact point and current stops flowing because of opening of the circuit.

Working
When a current is passed through the heating element which is placed
between the sole plate and pressure plate, the element gets heated up and
transfers its heat to the sole plate through conduction and in-turn the sole plate
also gets heated up. Now to remove the wrinkles in clothing, we should apply
heat and pressure. Heat is formed due to the coil and when we press the
clothes with iron, the wrinkles are removed. For maintaining the optimum
temperature, a thermostat is used along with pilot lamp which serves as an
indicator.
Types of Electric clothes irons
There are basically two types of an electric iron which are given below.

Automatic:
1) It’s thermostat switch to regulate the heat to a predetermined value.
When the predetermined value of the temperature is reached, the
thermostat switch automatically disconnects the electricity supply and
reconnects the same when iron starts cooling down.
2) It has pilot lamp to indicate. It will glow if the temperature is under
predetermined value, otherwise not glow.
3) Cost is high.
4) As the temperature is controlled automatically through thermostatic
switch, the risk of burning the cloth is minimized.

Non-Automatic:
1) It does not contain thermostat switch. Thus temperature is not regulated.
2) User has to switch ON or OFF the supply to iron according to the heat
requirement.
3) There is no pilot lamp to point out the temperature condition whether it is
within the limit or not.
4) Cost is low.
5) Overheat might burn the cloth. Thus more care is needed.
6) Automatic electric irons are more common as compared to non-
automatic due to their safety benefits.

RESULT:
Conventional Regulator

Electronic Regulator

RMS Voltage Waveform

Ex. No: 06
Date :
STUDY OF FAN REGULATORS

AIM:
To study the performance of fan regulators.

A fan is probably one of the most used household electrical appliances

in the world, but they are also used extensively for thermal management.
A fan is usually a single-phase Induction motor. A single-phase induction
motor has a capacitor starter without which it cannot provide sufficient torque
to start. In an induction motor, the electromagnetic torque is directly
proportional to the square of the applied voltage in an induction motor.
Te a V2
In a fan type load, it is experimentally determined that the load torque
is proportional to the square of the speed.
TL a N2
Under steady state conditions, the electromagnetic torque is equal to
the load torque and hence,
V2 a N2
Va N
Therefore, by changing the applied voltage, the speed of the fan can
be changed and this is for speeds below the rated speed.

Regulators are devices that are used to control the speed of the fan. It
is classified in Conventional Regulator and Electronic Regulator.

Conventional Regulator

The conventional type, also called the resistor type regulator is a basic
potential divider circuit as shown below.

As we go on changing the position of the knob from 1 to 5, the series

resistance keeps on decreasing and hence the voltage applied to the fan
increases and so does the speed. But in this type of regulator, the energy we
save in running the fan at slower speeds is lost in heating up the resistors. This
damages the regulator over a period of time and hence they aren’t reliable.
Also, they are bulky.

Electronic Regulator
Today, we use smaller electronic regulators which consist of power
semiconductor devices – mainly the TRIAC and the DIAC.
A TRIAC is a three terminal semi-controlled power semiconductor device
which conducts current in both the directions when triggered. The trigger pulse
is given to the gate terminal (G) of the device.
 TRIAC DIAC

A DIAC is a two terminal uncontrolled power semiconductor device

which conducts current in both the directions when the voltage across the
device crosses a certain threshold level called the breakdown voltage (VBR).
The circuit of the electronic fan regulator is as shown below.

Consider the positive half cycle of the supply. As the TRIAC is not yet
triggered, it remains off condition and the voltage across the fan is zero. And
hence the current flows through the resistor capacitor branch and charges the
capacitor. Once the capacitor is sufficiently charged enough such that the
voltage across the DIAC crosses its breakdown voltage level (VBR), it conducts
triggering the TRIAC and turning it on and now, the supply voltage appears
across the fan. The same thing happens even in the negative half cycle. As the
voltage doesn’t appear across the fan for the complete cycle, the RMS value
of the voltage across the fan decreases and hence its speed reduces.

The RMS voltage across the fan depends on ∝, which is the time taken
by the capacitor to charge up to the voltage VBR. This depends on the time
constant (R*C) of the resistor capacitor branch. As we decrease the value of
the resistance R, the time constant decreases which results in the decrease in
∝ which in turn increases the RMS value of the voltage across the fan and
hence increasing the speed and vice versa. Therefore, by varying the
resistance R, we can control the speed of the fan using the electronic
regulator.
In the case of electronic regulators, the loss of energy as heat through
resistors is much less as only a very small current flow through them. Also, they
are small and compact and have a quicker response time, making them more
widely used.

RESULT:
Emergency Lamp

Water Heater
Ex. No: 07
Date :

STUDY OF EMERGENCY LAMP WIRING/WATER HEATER

AIM:
To study the construction and working of Emergency lamp and Water
Heater.

What is an Emergency Light & How it Works?

Definition: An emergency light is used to automatically turn ON a
lamp which is operated by a battery. This circuit uses light-emitting diodes in its
place of the incandescent lamps; therefore making the circuit is very power
efficient as well as brighter with its light output.
Emergency lights are connected to the electrical supply of the building.
Each light has its own circuit. These lights include a battery so that it works like
a backup power supply once the building loses its power supply. Here, the
lifespan of a battery is short when we compare it with other kinds of lighting
systems. So all the emergency lights must be checked to make sure the battery
can give emergency light for a minimum of 90 minutes. These tests are
necessary to check the performance of the battery every six months with
professionals.

Emergency Light
The emergency light can be designed in a step-by-step process:
The required components of the 12v emergency light circuit
diagram mainly include LDR, 50K VR, 10K Resistor, BD139 & BD140 transistor,
33ohm resistor, and white LED and 12V battery.
In this circuit, the LDR based light will activate a high watt white LED once
there is dark in the room. It can be used as a simple lamp in the children’s room
to keep away from the panic condition once the power gets fail. This circuit
gives sufficient light in the room.

EMERGENCY LIGHT CIRCUIT USING 12V BATTERY

The design of this circuit is very easy so that it can be arranged in a little
box. As a power source, a 12 V small battery is used to provide the supply to
the circuit. The transistors like T1 & T2 are used as electronic switches for
switching ON/OFF the white LEDs.
When there is enough light within the room, then LDR activates so that
the base terminal of the T1 transistor will become high. The remaining transistor-
like T2 also Turns off as its base terminal is grounded. In this condition, the white
LED will turn off. Once the light dropping over the LDR decreases, then the T1
transistor in forwarding bias will provide base current to transistor ‘T2’. This ‘T2’
transistor will turn on to make the white LED ON. Here, the LED is 1-watt high
bright Luxeon diode. It uses approximately 300 mA current. So, it is better to
turn off the lamp to save the power in a battery after a few minutes.
Emergency Light Circuit Diagram
An emergency light system is used to turn ON a lamp automatically where a
regular AC supply stops working and turns OFF once the main power supply
gets back.
This light is essential where the power cut occurs frequently, so it can avoid the
user from a difficult situation while going through when unexpectedly mains
power supply turns off. It permits the user to access an alternative like turn ON
an inverter or a generator until the main supply is restored.

Circuit Explanation & Working

Here there are two circuits that work on using a 6V battery and 12v battery.
The construction of these circuits is shown below. These circuits can be built
with LEDs in place of incandescent lamp; therefore, this is extremely power
efficient & clear with its output.

Applications of Emergency Light

The applications of these lights include the following.
• Emergency lights are used where the light turns on automatically
when the power supply gets off.
• These are used as emergency lamps in buildings, homes, workplaces,
study rooms in order to keep away from unexpected power failures.
• These lights are used in several industries

WATER HEATER

Construction and Working

The conversion of electrical energy into heat using heating element to
raise the temperature of water to a certain degree.

As you can see from the image, there are two pipelines, one for inlet of
cold water and the other for outlet of the hot water. The water tank is fitted
with heating element/s which is/are controlled by thermostats. The function of
the thermostat is to set the temperature to a certain value so that water is not
heated above that value.

The tank is normally covered with some insulating material such as glass
wool and entire assembly is enclosed inside a metal casing which can be
hanged on the wall or wherever required.

RESULT:
 1. Soldering Iron
2. Soldering Iron Stand
3. Desoldering Wick
4. Soldering Paste (Quickfix)
5. Soldering lead
6. Cutter

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Soldering
Ex. No: 08
Date:
SOLDERING OF SMALL ELECTRICAL&ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
AIM:
To practice soldering of small electrical and electronic circuits by
assembling and dissembling.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME RANGE QTY

1. Empty dotted PCB Board 1
2. Soldering Iron 10W (or) 35W, 60/40 Grade 1
3. Solder 1
4. Flux 1
5. Electrician’s knife 1
6. Nose plier 1
7. Resistors As req.
8. Capacitor As req.
9. Other Accessories As req.

PROCEDURE:
SOLDERING
1. Study the given electrical & electronic circuit.
2. Clean the given PCB board
3. Clean the tip of the soldering iron before heating and also clean
the resistors, capacitors which are to be soldered.
4. Heat the Soldering iron and apply solder to the tip as soon as it is
hot to melt on it.
5. Bend the resistor, capacitor, etc leads to fit into the holes on the
board.
6. Insert the resistor R1 as per the circuit diagram
7. Apply the hot tip to the joints and apply solder.
8. Remove the soldering tip and hold the resistor tightly until the
solder has cooled and set.
9. Trim excess component lead with side getter.
10. Repeat the above steps to the entire given model circuits.
DE SOLERING:
1. Hold the resistor, capacitor, etc to be unsoldered by a nose plier.
2. Place the tip of the soldering iron on the joint until the solder
melts.
3. When the solder is melted, remove the resistor, capacitor, etc
with a tweezer and brush away the molten solder.
4. Clean the resistors and capacitors so that they can be reused.

RESULT:
Assembling components circuit diagram
Ex. No: 09
Date:
ASSEMBLING AND TESTING ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS ON A SMALL PCB.
AIM:
To assembling and testing electronic components on a small PCB.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME RANGE QTY

1. Empty dotted PCB Board 1
2. Soldering Iron 10W (or) 35W, 60/40 Grade 1
3. Solder 1
4. Flux 1
5. Electrician’s knife 1
6. Nose plier 1
7. Resistors As req.
8. Capacitor As req.
9. Other Accessories As req.

PROCEDURE:
SOLDERING
1. Study the given electrical & electronic circuit.
2. Clean the given PCB board
3. Clean the tip of the soldering iron before heating and also clean the
resistors, capacitors which are to be soldered.
4. Heat the Soldering iron and apply solder to the tip as soon as it is hot
to melt on it.
5. Bend the resistor, capacitor, etc leads to fit into the holes on the
board.
6. Insert the resistor R1 as per the circuit diagram
7. Apply the hot tip to the joints and apply solder.
8. Remove the soldering tip and hold the resistor tightly until the solder
has cooled and set.
9. Trim excess component lead with side getter.
10. Repeat the above steps to the entire given model circuits.

In Electronics & Electrical systems, electrical wiring installations,

maintenance, troubleshooting and repairing works. a continuity test is
checking of a circuit to see if the current can flow through it or not. It basically
determines if a circuit is open or closed.
In a continuity test, a small voltage is applied to the two points of the circuit
that need to be checked. The current flow between these two points
determines if it’s an open or closed circuit. Usually, there is a buzzer or led in
series (inside continuity meter) to identify if the current flows through it or not.
A close circuit provides a closed path for the current flow & an open
circuit does not allow the current flow. These circuits can be distinguished using
the continuity test.

Why Do We Use Continuity Test?

Continuity test very important test in troubleshooting of any circuit. Various uses
of continuity tests are:
• To check the wire connection inside the circuit. These wires may be
broken.
• It is used for Identifying damaged component.
• It is also used for checking the quality of soldering.
• It is used for identifying a specific wire or electrical connection.

Procedure Of Continuity Test

• There are mainly two methods for checking the continuity of a circuit
using a multimeter.
• The first method is to use the continuity mode in the multimeter, which is
specially made for this purpose.
• The second method is to use the Ohmmeter.

Using Continuity Mode

• The steps for continuity test using continuity mode is given below: De-
energize the circuit, if it has any power input.
• Set the dial of the multimeter in continuity mode (continuity mode is
shown by the symbol of sound)
• Insert the black probe into the COM port.
• Insert the red probe into the V, Ω port.
• Now touch the probes with each other. If the meter beeps or gives
reading 0 that means the meter works fine.
• Now connect the probes to both ends of the component or wire that
you want to test.
• If the meter shows 0 and beeps, it means the path is complete (close) or
the component allows the flow of current.
• If the meter does not beep & show 1 or OL, it means the path is broken
(open) or the component does not allow the flow of current.
The continuity in non-directional, it does not matter which probe should be
connected to which side. The result is always the same except some cases like
diodes which allow the flow in only one direction.
Using Ohm-Meter
An Ohmmeter can also be used to determine the circuit whether it is a closed
or open circuit, which is the main purpose of a continuity test.
Steps for continuity test using an ohmmeter
• First de-energize the circuit if it has any power source.
• Set the dial of the multimeter to resistance mode Ω. If it has many ranges,
set the dial to the minimum range.
• Insert the black probe into the COM socket of multi-meter.
• Put the red probe into the V, Ω socket.
• Connect the probes to both ends of the wire or component you want to
test.
• If the meter reads 0 Ohm or near to 0 Ohm, the path
is complete and close.
• If the meter reads 1 or OL, the wire connection is broken (open).

Continuity Test for Capacitor

You can test a capacitor using the continuity test.
• Remove the capacitor if it is in a circuit.
• Discharge it carefully if charged.

Using Continuity Mode

• Set the Multi-meter in continuity mode & insert the black & red probe as
described above.
• Place the red and black probes of multi-meter across positive & negative
terminals of the capacitor respectively.
• If the capacitor is good, the reading should start from ‘0’ as the
capacitor is charging from the multi-meter. The reading will increase &
eventually become infinity or OL, which means that the capacitor
became fully charged & open.
• If a capacitor is damaged, multi-meter will either show very low
value (short) or infinity OL (open).

Using Resistance Mode

• Set the dial of the multimeter in resistance mode.
• Place the red probe on the positive terminal and black probe on the
negative terminal of the capacitor
• If the resistance starts increasing from 0 Ohm to infinity, the capacitor
is good. Because it was charging at the beginning.
• If the meter reads very high resistance initially even when it was
discharged, the capacitor is damaged (open).
• If the readings show very low resistance, the capacitor is short.
Continuity Test for Inductor:
You can also test an inductor using the continuity test.
An inductor is a coil & both terminals of the coil are electrically short.
• First, you need to remove the inductor from its circuit. It can be tested
while connected in a circuit but it depends on the circuit itself. Best
way to test it is to remove it.
Using Continuity Mode
• Turn the knob of multi-meter in continuity mode.
• Insert the black & red probe in COM & V-ohm jack respectively.
• Place the probes of multi-meter across both terminals of the Inductor
respectively.
• If the Inductor is good, the multimeter will beep and the reading will
show very low values. But it will not Identify any damaged or short
turns.
• If the inductor is damaged, multi-meter will not beep and the reading
will be 1 or OL (open).

Using Resistance Mode

• Set the dial of the multimeter in resistance mode & set it to the lowest
possible settings.
• Place the probes on both terminals of the inductor.
• If the ohmmeter shows a resistance of few Ohm, the inductor is good
• If the resistance is very low (close to 0), then the inductor has
probably short turns.
• If the meter reads very high resistance, the inductor is damaged
(open).

RESULT:
Resistance Color Code Chart
Exp No: 10
Date:

STUDY OF ELECTRONICS COMPONENTS - RESISTOR COLOR CODES

AIM:
To find the unknown value of resistance of various ranges using the color
code coated on the outer surface of the carbon resistor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No Name Range Quantity

1. Resistor Unknown 4

Resistor color code is used to indicate the value of resistance. The

standards for color coding registers are defined in international standards IEC
60062. This standard describes color coding for axially leaded resistors and
numeric code for SMD resistors. There are several bands to specify the value
of resistance.

THEORY:

Resistor manufactures implement the standard EIA color-code using

three, four and five color bands to identify nominal resistor values. It is
imperative that engineers and technicians know how to interpret the color
markings on resistors in order to perform analysis and repairs on electronic
products.

Employers will test your knowledge of the EIA standard color-code and
its use to interpret resistor color-codes during job interviews and skills tests, be
prepared. Knowing how to read a resistor color-code and interpret its
resistance value in ohms () is a mandatory skill required by all electronic
professionals.

When you look at a resistor you should notice that some of the color
bands are grouped together and are close to one end of the part compared
to a band that has more space separation from other bands and is not as close
to an end of the component.

The resistor color bands can be classified as follows,

1. Three Band resistors

2. Four Band resistors and
3. Five Band resistors
 TABULATION:

Four Band Resistors

Colors from left to right Equivalent Values

S. Resistanc Tolera
N 1st 2nd 1st 2nd e Value nce
Multiplier Tolerance Multiplier
Band Band Band Band
o color Color value (Ohms) (%)
Color Color Value Value

Five Band Resistors

Colors from left to right Equivalent Values

Resistanc Toler
S. 1st 2nd 3rd Multipl Toler 1st 2nd 3rd Multi e Value ance
No Band Band Band ier ance Band Band Band plier (Ohms) (%)
Color Color Color color Color Value Value Value value
 Three Band Resistors:

Today, you will probably not see too many three color-band resistors in
any current technology products. Manufacturing advances have made these
resistor types obsolete. Three color-band resistors have a tolerance of 20% and
cost the same as 10% resistors, therefore most engineers are now specifying
10% tolerance resistors for new designs

Brown, Black, Red

Brown = 1, Black = 0, Red =2 (two zeros must be added to complete the

resistance value).
1000 ohms or 1k ±20%
Brown, Green, Red
Brown = 1, Green = 5, Red =2 1 followed by 5 followed by 2 zeros.
1, 5, 2 = 1500Ω = 1.5x103Ω = 1.5kΩ
Orange, Orange, Yellow
3, 3, 4 = 330000Ω = 330x103Ω = 330kΩ

Four Band Resistors:

This it the type of resistor you will more than likely encounter in today's
modern electronic products. Read the colors from left to right just like for three
color-band resistors. The first band is the first significant digit (1st number), the
second band is the second significant digit (2nd number), the third band is the
multiplier band (number of zeros to add to the two-digit number), and the
fourth band is the tolerance band. Tolerance values for four band resistors can
only be 2%, 5%, or 10% (red, gold, or silver respectively).

Four-band resistors can have values less than 10 by using Silver and
Gold as multiplier colors. Remember the "God Said" in the saying, Gold = x10-
1 and Silver = x10-2. The negative sign means move the decimal point to the
left. If the multiplier is gold move the decimal point 1 place or if it is silver move,
it 2 places. You will probably see multiplier bands that are Gold on some rare
occasions but will probably not see multiplier band that are Silver using 4-
banded resistors.
PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the colors from left to right.

2. The first band is the first significant digit from 1 to 9 (1st number), the
second band is the second significant digit (2nd number), the third band
is the third significant digit (3rd number), the fourth band is the multiplier
band (number of zeros to add to the two digit number, again this band
can also be Gold or Silver to move the decimal point to the left), and
the fifth band is the tolerance band.
3. In case of three band resistor the third band is the multiplier band
(number of zeros to add to the two digit number) and cannot be gold
(10-1) or silver (10-2). Note the lack of a tolerance band - no fourth band
- this indicates a tolerance of ±20%. This means that the measured value
of the resistor must not be 20% higher or lower than the color-coded
value.
4. In case of four band resistor the fourth band is the tolerance
band. Tolerance values for four band resistors can only be 2%, 5%, or
10% (red, gold, or silver respectively).
5. In case of four band resistor the fifth band is the tolerance
band. Tolerance values for five band resistors can only be 0.05%, 0.1%,
0.25%, 0.5% or 1% (gray, violet, blue, green, brown).
6. Now the equivalent values of colors are observed from the table and
the unknown value of resistance can be found.

RESULT:
Exp No: 11
Date:
STUDY AN ELEMENT OF SMART PHONE

AIM:
To study elements of smart phone.
Smartphone

1. Display

Perhaps the most obvious component of a modern smartphone is its display.

While every detail you see is on the outside, it is actually an internal device
component. Display technologies in smartphones of today come in two main
types:
• Those based on LCDs (IPS technology and its variations)
• Those based on LEDs (AMOLED or Super AMOLED and its
variations)

Difference Between LCD vs LED

The difference is that, on an LCD-based display, there is a backlight shining
through some polarizers and filters. By manipulating the crystal display, you can
see a boatload of different colors on the other side. In layman’s terms is that
the light is not being generated by the display itself; it is being caused by the
light behind the display, and only some of it is coming from the other side.
Now, on an LED-based display, the light-emitting-diodes are doing all the
magic. All the pixels that you can or cannot see are being emitted by these
minuscule light-emitting-diodes (also known as LEDs, producing red, green,
and blue colors).
Over here, the display itself generates different and vibrant colors. The
advantage of AMOLED or Super AMOLED displays over its IPS LCD counterparts
is that the individual pixels can turn themselves off. By doing that, they’re not
using up any battery, which is why most people recommend using dark mode
and dark wallpapers on phones with AMOLED panels.
However, with an LCD, if you’re seeing black, the crystal display is manipulated
so that none of the light gets through. However, the light behind the display is
still being generated, meaning that the smartphone will be using small bits of
the battery.
However, one drawback that we feel the need to mention is that AMOLED
panels are more expensive than IPS, so if you see a phone with such a display
and it carries a slightly higher price tag, you will know that the display is one of
the many contributing factors for that price.

2. Battery

Batteries of phones typically use lithium-ion technology that is either removable

or non-removable in mobile devices. With these batteries, which are an
essential component of a smartphone, you will not have to worry about
‘calibration’ or ‘testing’ issues that were plagued with nickel-based cells. Still,
this does not mean that current-generation batteries are not filled with their
issues, and users have to be very careful when handling and using volatile
components like these.
Types of Batteries used in Smartphones:
• NiCd
• NiMH
• Li-Ion
• Li-Polymer

NiCd and NiMH Battery

These Batteries are used in old version mobile phones. Nowadays we can’t see
these batteries in latest mobile phones, but these batteries are used for
Laptop or CDMA phones or some electronic machines. However, before few
years these batteries were the most popular and cheapest Rechargeable
battery in the mobile phone industry.

Li-Ion or Li-Polymer
These Batteries are used in latest phones and electronics machines and also
it has long lifetime and efficiency. When we think about mobile phone faults,
some faults are coming with battery. Then we want to identify what are the
faults comes with battery and how can we solve it. Battery pins out and types
of pin out.
 • GND : Ground or negative Terminal
• BAT : Battery Positive Terminal
• BSI : Battery Site Indicator
• BTemp : Battery Temperature.

3. ‘System-on-a-chip’ or SoC

The SoC is perhaps the most essential component present in a smartphone,

and some users might confuse it as the device’s processor. However, it is far
more than that; the SoC not only comprises the smartphone’s CPU, but GPU,
LTE modem, display processor, video processor, and other bits of silicon that
turn it into a functional ‘system’ in a phone.
While you might see phones touting different SoCs from Qualcomm, MediaTek,
Samsung, Huawei’s own Kirin, and Apple’s own developed chipsets, they are
using the same system architecture from ARM. ARM functions by producing
their own processors and GPUs and licensing their design and system
architecture to other companies so they can use their technology to make
powerful and efficient SoCs.
Some companies also use architectural licenses to make their proprietary
processors for use in smartphones as long as they are compatible with ARM’s
system architecture. Examples of these will be Apple’s custom-made chipsets
running custom-developed Cyclone processing cores or Qualcomm’s Kryo
processors.
 4. Memory and storage

No smartphone can function without RAM and memory (system storage). First,
let’s talk about RAM. Most mobile devices of today ship with LPDDR4X RAM,
while some high-end smartphones ship with LPDDR5 RAM. ‘LP’ stands for ‘Low-
Power,’ reducing the total voltage of these chips, making them highly efficient,
and giving mobile phones extended battery life.
LPDDR4X is more efficient and powerful than LPDDR4, while LPDDR5 is the holy
grail of RAM, resulting in unprecedented speeds and efficiency. LPDDR5 is
more expensive to produce, though, which is why you only see them in flagship
smartphones. When newer generations of RAM such as LPDDR6 are
introduced, you will see the flourishing of LPDDR5 memory in mid-ranged
devices.
As for internal storage, it exists as flash memory, ranging from 32GB, and can
go all the way up to 256GB on some phones. Naturally, as users’ requirements
rapidly increase based on the amount of storage that they use, phone
manufacturers will exponentially increase the amount of RAM present in
smartphones. When you fire up your device for the very first time, one thing
that you’ll notice is that the advertised storage is not the same value as running
on the phone.
For example, a phone featuring 64GB of storage will probably have between
53-55GB available for your personal use. Well, that’s because the smartphone’s
operating system and pre-installed applications require that initial internal
memory.
The flash memory used in smartphones comes in two types—eMMC and UFS.
We have explained UFS and eMMC storage in one of our articles, so make sure
to check it out.
However, if you run out of internal storage, you can check our step-by-step
guide on how to use SD card as Internal storage here!
 5. Modems

Since smartphones are just phones at the end of the day, they need
communication components to receive and send text messages and calls.
That’s where modems come in, and every SoC manufacturer has their own
brand of modems, including Qualcomm, Samsung, Huawei, and several
others.
These manufacturers are also battling it out to release the fastest and most
efficient category of LTE chips, so if you have come across the term Cat. 9 LTE
modem, that is the fastest one out there. However, if your cellular network does
not support those levels of speeds, then there’s absolutely no point in having
such powerful chips present in smartphones.
Still, companies will do their best to make sure they produce the latest and
greatest chips of their desired category.

6. Camera

All smartphones come with a rear-facing and front-shooting camera. A

smartphone comprises of three main parts:
• The sensor (which detects light)
• The lens (the component in which light comes through)
• The image processor
While the megapixels on the smartphone are still an essential part of the
camera, it carries less importance than they did a while back. Instead, the
primary limiting factor is the phone’s camera sensor and how sensitive it is when
light passes through the lens.
Remember, each sensor behaves very differently in different smartphones, so
every image or video you capture will vary in contrast, color accuracy,
saturation, and several others compared to a different handset. Most camera
apps have manual settings to capture an image or video based on your
settings, but most devices don’t have such an extended list of controls.
Since smartphones have small sensor sizes, they tend to perform poorly in low-
light areas. This is an area where camera sensor manufacturers have worked
incessantly to improve considerably, but they have a long road ahead of
them, it appears.
 7. Sensors
There are five primary sensors in a smartphone that allow it to give you the
functionality of a ‘touch-enabled smart device.’ The names of all these sensors
and their importance have been detailed below:
1. Accelerometer: Used by apps to detect the orientation of the
device and its movements, as well as allow features like shaking
the phone to change music.
2. Gyroscope: Works with the Accelerometer to detect the rotation
of your phone, for features like tilting phone to play racing games
or to watch a movie.
3. Digital Compass: Helps the phone to find the North direction, for
map/navigation purposes.
4. Ambient Light Sensor: This sensor is automatically able to set the
screen brightness based on the surrounding light, and helps
conserve battery life. This would also explain why your
smartphone’s brightness is reduced in low-light environments, so it
helps to reduce the strain on your eyes.
5. Proximity Sensor: During a call, if the device is brought near your
ears, it automatically locks the screen to prevent unwanted touch
commands.

RESULT:
Exp No: 12
Date:
STUDY AN LED/LCD TV

AIM:
To study elements of smart phone.

Power supply section: - power supply gives 12volt or 5-volt DC output.

This 12/5 volt is given to 3.3-volt regulator IC which gives 3.3-volt DC. this 3.3 volt
is given to mother board main ic, bios IC, reset button and IR sensor. This 3.3-
volt supply is known as 3.3 v SB (stand by). Power supply also gives 24-volt DC
for inverter board in LCD TV.

Mother board: - It consist of main microcontroller IC, bios ROM, flash IC

RAM. A crystal of 24 MHz is used to generate clock pulses. Main IC receives
audio video signals from A/V input, HDMI input, RF Signal from tuner and MPEG
files from USB. Input signal is selected by mother board thought signal switching
circuit. This signal is processed and sound signal is separated, amplified and
sent to speaker. Video signal is sent to analog to digital converter. It gives out
red, blue, green, sync and clock signals in the form of LVDS (low voltage
differential signal) signal. LVDS signal is sent to timing controller IC (Tcon IC) on
Tcon board through LVDS cable. Mother board sents Back light on/off control
signal is to back light inverter/ driver board.

Tcon board: - It has normally four sections:

1- DC to DC IC:- Tcon board receives Vcc supply generally 12 volts from LVDS
connector is given to this Ic . It produces 3.3-volt supply which is given to Tcon
IC. A 1.2-volt regulator is also used to supply core voltage to Tcon IC. One more
regulator IC is used to supply 3.5/1.8/1.5/1.2 volt to RAM depending on version
of RAM (DDR1 3.5 volt, DDR2 1.8 volt, DDR3 1.5volt, DDR4 1.2 volt). When Tcon
IC receives all input voltages and signals, it starts working and gives an enable
signal to DC to DC IC. After receiving enable signal DC to DC IC start producing
AVDD, HVDD, VGH and VGL voltages. In some cases, enable signal is directly
given to DC-to-DC ic. HVDD and VDD voltages are also given to gama IC.

2- Tcon IC :- It receives working voltage VDD 3.3 volt, 1.2 volt for core and 1.8
volt for RAM. It receives Signal 0-, 0+ (red color signal data), 1-,1+ (green color
signal data), 2-,2+(blue color signal and horizontal and vertical sync signal
data), 3-,3+(clk+, clk-), 4-,4+(RGB signal data) from LVDS connector. This IC
process all signals and gives output as mini LVDS 0-, 0+, 1-,1+, 2-,2+, clk-,clk+, 3-
,3+, to panel through COF flex strip and EN, CPV1 CPV2, STV signal to scan
driver ic.

3- Scan driver or level shifter: - It receives 3.3 volt, VGH, VGL from DC to DC IC
and CPV1, CPV2, STV, and EN (enable signals) from Tcon IC. It gives CKV1,
CKV2 for scan clk odd and CKVB1, CKVB2 for scan clk even to panel source
COF.

4- Gama IC:- HVDD voltage are given to this IC. With the help of voltage divider
circuit Vref and Vcom voltage is produced. And all gama voltages are
produced with the help of voltages divider circuit. Some programmed IC are
also uses in which voltage divider circuit is not used. Gama voltage start from
1.5 volt to AVDD voltage with increasing gradually in steps. Gama voltages are
given through source COF for gama correction.

Chip on flex IC (COF):- This IC receives all voltage through flex strip and
produces driving signal voltage to drive all TFT in the panel. Main voltages
received by COF IC are VDD 3.3 volt, AVDD (16 volt), HVDD (8volt), VGH (27
volt), VGL (-8 to -10volt), CKV1, CKV2, CKVB1, CKVB2, VCOM and Gama
voltages and all signal voltages from Tcon through mini LVDS.
Panel or screen: - All working voltage to panel is received through COF
connector flexible strip cable. The light for screen working is given by back light
ccfl/led. Main part of panel are:
1. 1light source
2. 2horizontal poloizor
3. 3 TFT screen.
Thin film transistor screen:- complete screen is filled with matrix of TFT. each
pixel needs three TFT. Each transistor three points are connected to source,
common and gate circuit of panel and controlled separately by multiplexing
method.
4. vertical polorizor
Back light: - cold cathode florescent light (CCFL) are used in LCD panel for
back light. LED Strips are used in Led TV panel. In LCD TV back light is given
supply with a inverter board, where as in led TV led drivers are used to give
supply to led strips. Back light on/off signal is received from mother board.
Control button panel: - all control button is placed in this panel to control TV
locally. Otherwise, remote control is used in which all control signals are
received by IR senser and sent to mother board.
In this article I have sum up my information regarding LCD/led TV. If any person
like to give more information pls share in comment so I can add more
information. Thanks for reading.

RESULT:
LOGIC GATES
Exp No: 13
Date:
:
STUDY OF LOGIC GATES
AIM:
To study and construct the basic gates such as AND, OR, NAND, NOR, XOR,
NOT.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No Name Specification Quantity

1. IC 7408, 7432, 7400, 7402, 7486, 7404 1
2. Digital IC Trainer Kit 1
3. Patch chords -

THEORY:
A gate is an electric circuit, which operate on one or more input signals to
produce an output signal.
Binary logic is used in gates, which are the blocks of hardware. Each input
and output to and from a gate is called a bit.
NOT GATE
It has a single input and a single output. It is otherwise called inverter.
AND GATE
It has two or more logic input and single output. Switches in series represents
an AND gate. AND gate performs logic manipulation. If anyone of the inputs is zero,
then the output is zero. If all the inputs are one then the output is one.
OR GATE
It has two or more logic inputs and single output switches in parallel represents
an OR gate. OR gate performs logical addition. If anyone of the inputs is one, then
the output is one.
XOR GATE
It has two or more logic inputs and single output. If the inputs are opposite in
level, then the output is high. If the inputs are of same level, then the output is low.
NAND GATE
It has two or more logic inputs and single output. NAND is equivalent to AND –
NOT combination. When all the inputs are high, the output is low. If anyone of the
input is low, then the output is high.
NOR GATE
It has two or more logic inputs and single output. NOR is equivalent to OR –
NOT combination. When all inputs are low, output is high,, if anyone of the input is
high, then the output is low.
PROCEDURE:
➢ Connections are given as per the logic diagram.
➢ The given truth table is verified by varying the inputs.
➢ Checking the outputs.

RESULT:
 Megger
A high voltage source is required to pass a measurable current through such resistances. Thus, the
megger is essentially an ohmmeter with a sensitive deflection instrument and a high voltage source.
As illustrated in figure (1), the voltage is usually produced by a hand-cranked generator. The
generated voltage may range from 100 V to 2.5 kV.

Functional Diagram of Megger

Exp No: 14
Date:

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE TO EARTH

AIM:
To measure the earth resistance by an earth tester.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Sl.No Name Range Quantity
1 Ball-pen Hammer ¼ Kg 1

2 Galvanised Iron Rods - 3

3 Earth Tester - 1
4 Connecting wires - As required

What is Megger?
An instrument that is used to measure insulation resistance is a Megger. It is also known
as meg-ohmmeter. It is used in several areas like multi-meters, transformers, electrical
wiring, etc. Megger device is used for testing various electrical devices which can
measure greater than 1000meg-ohms.
A high voltage source is required to pass a measurable current through such
resistances. Thus, the megger is essentially an ohmmeter with a sensitive deflection
instrument and a high voltage source range from 100 V to 2.5 kV. The voltage is usually
produced by a hand-cranked generator.

Insulation Resistance
Insulation resistance is resistance in ohms of wires, cables, and electrical equipment,
which is used to safeguard the electrical systems like electrical motors from any
accidental damages like electrical shocks or sudden discharges of current leakages
in wires.

The standard used as a reference for fall-of-potential testing is IEEE Standard 81: Guide
for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground Impedance, and Earth Surface Potentials of a
Grounding System.

CONSTRUCTION OF MEGGER
With a four-terminal tester, P1 and C1 terminals on the instrument are jumpered
and connected to the earth electrode under test while the C2 reference rod is driven
into the earth straight out as far from the electrode under test as possible. Potential
reference P2 is then driven into the earth, at a set number of points, roughly on a
straight line between C1 and C2. Resistance readings are logged for each P2 point.

Measurements are plotted on a curve of resistance vs. distance. Correct earth

resistance is read from the curve for the distance that is roughly 62% of the total
distance between C1 and C2. There are three basic types of the fall-of-potential
method:

Full fall-of-potential: Several tests are made a different space of P and a full
resistance curve is plotted.
Simplified fall-of-potential: Three measurements are made at defined distances of P
and mathematical calculations are used to determine the resistance.
61.8 Rule: A single measurement is made with P at a distance 61.8% (62%) of the
distance between C1 and C2.

PRECAUTION:
Adjust the resistance so that the earth tester meter reaches null position.

PROCEDURE:
1. Link the Current and pressure coil terminals C1, P1, C2 and P2 externally to the
earth electrode.
2. Manually rotate the hand driven generator at the normal speed.
3. Select a suitable resistance (10 or 100 or 1000 ohms).
4. Observe the meter readings from the earth tester and find the earth
resistance.
RESULT: