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INDEX
S. No Topic Page No
Week 1
1 Introduction to Structural System 1
2 Force System 19
3 Moment, Couple & Static Equilibrium 31
4 Supports and Reactions 48
5 Structural Loading and Support Reactions 65
6 Theory of Elasticity-1 82
7 Theory of Elasticity-2 100
8 Shear Force Diagram 121
9 Bending Moment Diagram 147
Week 2
10 SFD & BMD: Special Cases 165
11 Bending Stress in Beam -I 181
12 Bending Stress in Beam -II 198
13 Bending Stress in Beam -III 214
14 Shear Stress in Beam 230
Week 3
15 Theory of Column 246
16 Deflection of Beams 263
17 Indeterminate Beams 282
18 Analysis of Fixed Beam, BMD and Deflected Shape, Portal Frame 297
Week 4
19 Structural Grid and Framing 310
20 Structural Design 325
21 Introduction to Truss 342
22 Analysis of Truss-1 355
23 Analysis of Truss-2 373
Week 5
24 Application of Truss in Architecture 391
25 Space Frame Structures 406
26 Introduction to Arch 424
27 Structural Principle and Application of Arch 436
28 Shell Structures 448
Week 6
29 Application of Arch and Shell in Architecture 458
30 Structural Concept and Application of Dome in Architecture 471
31 Cable Supported Structures 483
32 Membrane Structures 498
Week 7
33 Application of Tensile Structures in Architecture 513
34 Flat Plate and Flate Slab Structures 528
35 Waffle Slab and Folded Plate Structures 538
36 Temporary Structures 554
Week 8
37 Building Foundation 567
38 Structural System for High-rise Buildings-I 580
39 Structural System for High-rise Buildings-II 591
40 Structural Detailing 602

Structural Systems in Architecture
Prof. Shankha Pratim Bhattacharya
Department of Architecture and Regional Planning
Indian Institute of Technology – Kharagpur
Module 1
Lecture – 1
Introduction to Structural System
Good Morning. Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on structural systems in
Architecture. So, this course is an 8-week course and it is floated basically for the students of
Architecture. As you all know the NPTEL platform, and this course will be covering the various
systems and the applications of the structure in the field of Architecture.
Let me introduce myself. I am Dr. S. P. Bhattacharya, Shankha Pratim Bhattacharya. I am a
faculty in the Department of Architecture and Regional Planning, IIT Kharagpur. This is my
second online NPTEL course. The first course was floated in the last two years. That was on
Building Acoustics, with another professor of our department.
So today, we will go with the first module and the lecture number 1, ‘the introduction to
structures’ which is the lecture title. In module-1 we will cover the Statics and Structural
Systems which will take 5 lectures of half an hour duration.
The intention is to cover following concepts:
➢ Course Outline
➢ Course Key Features and Learning Objective
➢ Definition of Structure and Structural System
➢ Types of Structural System
➢ Objectives of Structural Engineering
So, I am going to cover these five concepts. We will start with the outline of the course, then
the key features and the learning objective of the course, then we will define the structures and
the structural system, then we will move into the types of structural systems and finally the
objective of the structural engineering.
In learning objective, we will try to cover:
➢ Course Overview
➢ Basic Understanding of Structural System
➢ Requirement of Structure in Building
So, the learning objective of this particular half in our lecture today is, we will initiate the
course overview. So, you will have an understanding on how the course will run and what are
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the things to be done in the course. Then we will go to the basic understanding of the structural
systems and then we will discuss some of the requirement of the structures in the building, or
why a structure is required.
We will also try to understand that what are the considerations or special considerations for the
structure needs to be taken, while an Architect decide upon the building design or the
Architectural design of a building.
The tentative course outline is as follows:

Module 1:
Statics and Structural Systems
Structure and its Classification; Force System; Supports; Reaction; and Loading.
Module 2:
Strength of Materials
Theory of Elasticity; Material Properties; Shear and Bending Moments.
Module 3:
Structural Mechanics
Stress due to Bending and Shear; Theory of Column.
Module 4:
Frame Structure Analysis and Design
Analysis of Structural elements and Frame; The Application of different types of Structural
Frames in Architecture; Design Principles of RCC and Steel Structures.
Module 5:
Truss and Space Frame
Structural Concept; Types of Truss; Analysis of Truss; and Application and Advantages of
Truss and Space Frames.
Module 6:
Arch, Shell and Dome
Structural Concept; Types; Application and Advantages; and Case Study.
Module 7:
Tensile and Plate Structures
Structural Development and Concept; Types of tensile and plate; and Application and
Advantages of Tensile and Plate Structures.
Module 8:
Special Structures
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Pneumatic Structures; Tensegrity; Temporary Structures and Structures for Cost Effective
Technology; Building Foundation; and High-rise Structural Systems.
So, in the course outline as I discussed, this lecture is going to cover the first concept. So, we
have 8 modules, each module will run for one week. In the first module, we will discuss the
statics and the structural systems, which is the first lecture today. We will also discuss the
structures and its classification. We will discuss the force system, then the supports and then
the reactions, and loading.
{In module 2 and the module 3, again two of this consecutive week we will discuss the
structural mechanics, the part 1 and the part 2 where the theory of elasticity, the material
properties, the bending and the shear, the stresses, different type of stresses due to the bending
and the shear, the deflection of the members, structural members and some of the theory of the
columns will be discussed.
So, as you all know the structures if you try to look into you have to know about some of the
basics of the mechanics and some kind of the solid mechanics also. So, we will cover these
modules 1 and the module 2 and also the module 3 in the whole.} [RE-RECORDING
NEEDED]
The module 4, the fourth week, we will do the frame structure analysis and the design. So
mostly the buildings are kind of frame structure.
So, what are the methods of analysis? We will discuss the structural element in the frames and
the application of different type of frames in architecture, as well as the design principles for
the RCC and the steel structure.
Then in the 5th, 6th and 7th module, we will cover the whole lot of the structural concept, its
application, advantage, disadvantage, and some of the case studies for various type of structural
systems. In the module 5, we will include truss and space frame. They are the two very common
and important types of structural systems what we see in today's world. We will also discuss
the arch, shell and dome, another category of the structural systems in the module 6.
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In module 7, we will discuss the tensile structures and the plate structures. So, in both the
concept we will discuss for every component of the structural systems and the various
applications in Architecture through some case studies.
The last module, the module number 8 will deal with special structures that includes the
pneumatic structures, the tensegrity which are the typical type of structure which sometimes is
employed in the buildings in a temporary kind of a shelter accommodating people in various
forms.
We will also discuss some of the cost-effective technology used for the buildings and what are
the structural impact of that, how to reduce the cost of the structures, particularly in the domain
of the low cost building technology and we will also discuss the building foundation, because
without the discussion of the foundation, the discussion of the structure or the knowledge of
the structure cannot be completed.
At the end, we will discuss some of the high-rise structural systems also; but in a very brief
form. So; these are the course outline for all the 8 modules.
Now, what are the key features of this course? Let us discuss the key feature, which will help
you to understand how this course will move. As you all know or as I have already discussed
that, this NPTEL lecture course on Structural Systems in Architecture is focused or designed
especially for the students of Architecture, the B. Arch students in various universities and
institutions in our country.
So, I have taken care of the syllabus of almost all the Institutes and as per the guidelines of
Council of Architecture. We will discuss the concepts through the lectures, and we will also
try to discuss few of the real-life examples, through some illustrations, figures, and notations.
Further, the discussions will lead to the theories of structures or the theory behind the structural
systems to be adapted. On the other hand, without the knowledge of theories, it will be very
difficult to understand when and where we will use those kinds of structures.
The basic theory is very much important. So, we will demonstrate that one in a very conceptual
state. It will have minimum mathematical computation, because we are not going to deal like
the structural engineering, as well as, not as a civil engineering faculty do for the civil
engineering students.
So, we must keep it in mind, or I must remember that; this course is only for the students of
Architecture. Therefore, I will have to bypass those critical mathematical competitions, but we
will cover some simple mathematical examples, formulas, and some of the small algorithms in
very conceptual level. The prime focus of this course will be understanding the structural
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systems, its advantages, and applications in Architectural design.
As you all know that, the focus of students of Architecture is on design or the Architectural
design of building. So, when you will go for designing based on your design principles,
philosophies, and design concepts, the building must stand by the structural system. As I have
just now told that, there are various types of structural systems what you may use for your
designs, but you must understand that which one will be advantageous, which one will be very
much the appropriate for that particular design. Hence, you be able to understand and make
decisions for your designs through this course.
The intended learning objectives of this course are:
➢ To clarify the fundamentals of structural engineering.
➢ To correlate the structural theories with structural behavior.
➢ To analyze and design basic structural elements.
➢ To compare and evaluate the various structural systems.
➢ To apply the appropriate structural system in various Design Studio exercises.
➢ To perform well and better in the competitive examinations and job interviews.
If you go through all the 8 weeks thoroughly, participate in assignments, and participate in our
forum, it will clarify your fundamentals of structural engineering, and he various salient points
of the fundamentals in structural engineering. It will correlate the theories of structure with its
behavior. Therefore, we are also going to understand about, how the structural theories are
developed based on the behavioral pattern of the structure.
You can analyze and design basic structural element. The third point will be very simple, and
you can design simple structural elements; and I assume that you probably are not going to
design the complicated one. You can compare and evaluate the various structural systems. This
is very much important for students of architecture, because it will help you to design and apply
or you can provide the various type of systems in your design.
In such cases, you will be able to provide specific and appropriate structures for respective
designs, only if you have compared and evaluated the structure types. You can also apply and
appreciate the structural systems in designs of the studio exercises.
I have already told that in your studio exercise, it will definitely improve your knowledge on
applications of structural systems; as well as, last but not the least, you will be able to perform
well in the competitive examinations and job interviews. When I say competitive examinations,
I am focusing on the examinations like GATE or maybe some other examinations which are
going to ask some of the basic questions on the structures.
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Now let us come to the prime objective of the lecture number 1. What is a structure and how
can you define a particular structure? The structure of a building or an object is responsible for
maintaining its shape, and by virtue of some of the loads, the external loads. So external loads
are always going to be applied in a structure or may be in any kind of a building. It is also to
be remembered that, there are differences between structures and buildings.
You all know a building. On the other hand, when I say ‘structure’, it may be a bridge, a
transmission tower, a dam etc. Therefore, we can say that, all the structures are having some
kind of load, the external load which will be applied on the particular object. The loads actions
are gravitational load by virtue of its weight; or sometimes it may be environmental loads like
wind, earthquake or maybe some kind of tidal wave. So, it is understood that a structure has to
take care of those.
It is important for a structure that, it should stand as a whole, and partially or may be at the
individual level it should not break down or deform when any kind of load or forces are applied.
Another important point is that it should not deflect or break. It must be able to safely transmit
all the loads that has come or applied on the building or on that particular structural system.
Those resulting force must be grounded properly through some supportive system which is
called the foundation. Finally, it should maintain integrity and the serviceability of the built
form. What is the integrity and what is the serviceability? We will be able to discuss it today
itself, a little bit later.
Figure 1: the structural system
I may say now that you are aware of the definition of the structure, which I have completed
just now. So now, what is structural system? How can you define structural systems? There is
a fine difference between a structure and the structural systems. Any structure is composed of
the structural elements and non-structural elements. As I have shown in the figure above
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(Figure 1), there are some structure elements, for example the beams, columns, slabs, trusses
etc. So, when these elements are put together, you will get the structural system. Whereas the
partition wall, false ceiling, door, window, parapet, wall and floor decor etc. are considered
under the non-structural element.
So, if you put together the columns, beams, and the slab, you will get a structural system.
Hence, we can say that the structural elements and the structural systems also do have
differences.
Now, let us discuss about some types of the structures, which are applicable to different types
of systems or different types of the objects. First of all, let us consider a building. Building is
Figure 2: the buildings
Source: https://www.arch2o.com/the-beauty-of-architectural-structures/
https://pixabay.com/photos/tower-building-structure-tall/
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one of the key factors in Architecture. In Figure 2, you can see that there are three different
images. In the image number 1, at the bottom left, it is a tall building, so it has different
elements, and different structural systems.
The image number 2, at the top, is an arena, where there are long spans. The long span structural
system requires are very light weighted structural systems, which is definitely very different
from the tall building or the high-rise buildings. The third one, image number 3, at bottom left,
is a curvilinear structural system, which is kind of an arch. When you see all the three different
images, they are with different structural systems, but they are taking care of some of the
building or the habitant.
While looking at structures, there are towers and the bridges too. The Eiffel Tower or maybe
the Leaning Tower of the Pisa are the wonderful examples of structural systems, which are still
standing tall since long period of the time. The central image in Figure 3, is the Vidyasagar
Setu, Kolkata; which is located over the river on Ganga and connects Howrah and Kolkata.
This is also a fabulous structural system which has been used for connectivity.
Figure 3: towers and bridges

Source: https://www.financialexpress.com/vidyasagar-setu/
https://www.123rf.com/photo
https://www.britannica.com/technology/
Hence, the structural systems can be applied for any kind of the buildings, towers, bridges etc.
There are also different types of systems which are adapted for different kind of execution.
Now let us see and understand what the elements of structures are? They are beam, column,
link, plate, membrane, cable etc.; and they are individual items. A beam is an individual item,
as you know, it is horizontal in nature and takes the load in the gravitational direction or the
downward direction. Whereas, column is a vertical member which takes the load in a different
way, that is through its own axis. Again, the plates are also a 2-dimensional flat structure. So,
these are the elements of structure; and now depending upon the geometry and orientation of
those elements, you can have different type of vocabulary of the structure. For example: thin
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and thick. What is thin and thick? Suppose a plate or a wall may vary in its thickness, it may
be thin or thick. Like the grid and the dimensions. This is again a geometric property. What is
a grid? In buildings or structures, it is the center to center distance between the footprint of the
column. Then, what is dimension? What is linear and the curvilinear? As I just I told you, there
are curves in arches and all which is the curvilinear. Linear is may be a straight beam, or a
straight column. Inclined, is something what is not 90 degree or not straight. Yes, a wall may
be inclined, a plate, a column, or a cable can also be inclined.
Figure 4: structural configuration
Then, there are some kinds of shapes triangular, square, parabolic etc. An arch, a cable etc.;
may be parabolic in nature. Then the span; it is about how much is the center to center distance
between the supports and free forms. Those are the geometry and the orientations. Now if you
club those together, you will get different type of element and different type of geometrical
orientations. So, there may be some permutation and combination amongst them, and then you
can get some structural systems or the structural configurations.
Now, if you take the structural configuration, then you also have to take care of the nature of
loading. You have to identify what kind of load is it. The load can be a concentrated load,
heavy moment, wind, or seismic load; and every load has its own type of the impact. When
you are going to select some structural systems or the configuration, then the loading factor
also must be considered. As well as, you must take care of the material, which type of material
you will use for your structure.
Let us suppose, you are going for a truss, it may be steel truss, RCC truss or of any such
material. So, when you use any material, you need to know about the material properties; like
ductility or the brittleness etc.
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You should also know about the support systems; that how finally that particular structure has
to be supported for stability. We have to see if it is of simply support, a cantilever out, a
continuous support or a flexible support; because these are the typical type of support systems.
So, if I go back to that again, it is the elements and the geometry that gives me the configuration.
From the configuration, I know that this is the loading type, it is the material I am selecting and
then this is the type of support system.
Figure 5: structural configuration and behaviour
After all these comes together, I can now analyze a structure and I will try to assess the behavior
of the structure and what is its behavior? The behavior expresses if it is stable or unstable, it is
a shear predominant, or it is a bending? The bending will come in totality with the material,
loading and the support system. Then we will see; what will be the buckling character? How
to bring to buckle? Is it going to buckle or not? How much will it deflect? Is it going to deflect
much or it will be under control? Is it going to develop some cracks? Sometimes we may allow
some unnoticeable kind of very micro cracks or sometimes we may not allow at all. So, as a
result of all these behavior, configuration, and material, I will get some output, and based on
that, I will now see some of the functions of Architecture.
When I see the Architectural function, I will see the economy, serviceability, durability,
construction technology etc. It may be possible that some of the materials, some of the systems
are not available at my place, in my country or maybe some part of the country. Hence, it is
unnecessary to think of those kinds of materials or structural systems. Finally, you must not
forget to look into the aesthetics of the building.
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Figure 6: behaviour and selection of structural system
Once again, all these will lead to a situation of permutation combination, to select the typical
or suitable structural system. So, for that we are going to have some selection criteria.
Figure 7: frames and trusses

Source: https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/roofing-steel-truss-structure/
https://gharpedia.com/blog/what-is-a-reinforced-concrete-framed-structure/
Now what are the types of structural systems? If I go one by one, then I may have frames,
trusses, space frames, arches, vaults, shell structures, dome, tensile structures, and plate
structures. In Figure 7, you can see the image on left hand side, is a normal type of a building
which is having frames. Frames mean the columns, beams, foundation and the slabs. On the
other hand, we may have trusses also; in Figure 7, right hand side image. The trusses can be
used for very long span applications.
We have sometimes the space frames which is again in the lower left corner given in the
photograph where there are some kind of the 3-dimensional stresses can be used and the upper
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right corner you see there a arch form of space frames can be also going to be used.
Figure 8: space frames

Source: https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Concrete_frame
http://www.polarkon.com.tr/en/space-frame-structures/
Figure 9: arch and vault

Source: https://fabricarchitect.com
https://www.calcuttahighcourt.gov.in/
In structural systems we can also have arches and vaults. Arch is a linear kind of character;
whereas vault is of 3-dimensional. When two such walls or two such barrels are meets together
perpendicularly, a vault will be created. In Figure 9, the image of vault is the corridor of the
Calcutta High Court. You can see how interestingly the pillars, the columns are taking care of
different flying arches in the different directions, creating a fabulous interior aesthetics with
vaults.
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Figure 10: shell structure
Source: http://www.civilprojectsonline.com/building-construction/
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/
Figure 11: domes

Source: https://worldarchitecture.org/articles/
https://steemit.com/esteem/
The dome is another kind of prominent structure. When we see history of Architecture, it is
observed that, domes were used as roof coverings since the time of Islamic or pre-Islamic
periods. There were various types of illustration, decorations, as well as various type of forms
that had been develop along the timeline of history of Architecture.
In Figure 11, the left-hand side image is an Islamic dome, which is very much predominant
form in India as well as in many countries. The other image is the Matrimandir, which is in
Auroville, Pondicherry.
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Figure 12: tensile structure
Source: https://theconstructor.org/
http://www.globaltensilestructure.com/
The tensile structures are of another type. They are useful for stadiums, or arenas. It is a very
lightweight, membrane kind of structure.
Figure 13: plate structure

Source: https://in.pinterest.com/
These structures are generated through plates. There are the different types of folded plate
arrangements. They are also a solution for long span structural demands.
Now we can say that, we have gained a brief understanding on different types of structural
systems.
Now, let us go to the last point that is, what are the objectives of structural engineering? The
first objective definitely is safety. The safety is always first. In Figure 14, you can see that a
child is sitting on a bench, so that bench must be able to take care of the given load. The four
supporting legs of that bench has to be thick and, the thickness and the strength has to be such
that it can tackle the load of the child.
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Figure 14: safety
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229318
There should not be any kind of a cracking which is shown in the right-hand side image of
Figure 14. These type huge cracks will of course create bad impact on a structure and definitely
structure is going to fail. After failure, such cracks will appear and safety will remain
questionable.
Figure 15: stability

Source: https://apps.peer.berkeley.edu/publications
Next is the stability. In Figure 15, in the left-hand side image you can see that one girl is pushing
a small table. Similarly, when you push an object from the other direction it should not topple
or buckle or maybe slide off. That means, a structure must have stability. The strength comes
from the downward or the gravity load point of view; and the stability comes from that
transverse or the lateral load point of view. In the right-hand side image of Figure 15, you can
see a building, which is tilted because of the earthquake. But a structure should not fail like
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this. It must have strength, bearing capacity, and gripping through the foundations. At any cost,
it should not be unstable.
Figure 16: serviceability

Source: http://oregoncidc.blogspot.com
Another objective is serviceability. It may be stable, it may possess sufficient amount of safety,
but sometimes the serviceability is not met. For example: the beam and the floor are deflected.
If it is deflected, you cannot have any activity on that, you won’t be able to put a chair, a table,
or any load on it. It will also create a lot of problem while walking around.
Sometimes it may also give you psychological problems, and you may feel that the building is
unsafe. So, all the serviceability criteria must be fulfilled.
Figure 17: durability

Source: https://www.deccanchronicle.com
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Then definitely there is durability criteria for a structural system. You will design a structure
for 80-100 years, so you need to see its resistance to corrosion, creep and shrinkage; as well as
the edge phenomena which comes from the structure when the material gets old and gradually
loses its strength.
Then another objective is the economy. You always have to see that how efficiently you can
use the structural systems. It must be done in such a way that it meets all the objectives; and
you design it within your budget. The other objectives are like ease of maintenance and fire
resistivity of the structure. The ease of maintenance is another issue, because you always have
to maintain the built structure, you can never say that the structure once built is forever. Also,
the fire resistance is most important for safety and security.
Figure 18: the aesthetics

Source: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/
https://www.planetware.com/
Finally, the important issue in our case is the aesthetics. The structural system should also
import sensible and appealing aesthetic to the structure on the building. Otherwise, if it goes
other way around, it will be problematic. Therefore, I have written once that an engineer plays
a major role to translate the imagination of an architect to ground it the reality through the
structural systems.
So, you can see some wonderful compositions like the Taj Mahal or maybe like the Pyramid
of Giza, they are very simple structures, which are very systematic. If you have such systematic
compositions, and proceed following the objectives then, definitely your way of handling the
structural systems for the design will also be eased. Here I am not saying that you should always
go with the symmetrical building designs. It may be of asymmetry, but you have to look into
that how those asymmetries can be taken care of and composed in a unique way, also the
structural system of it. So, I have written in the last that, it is indeed a challenge and the
responsibility of a structural engineer to design a structure appropriately for all architectural
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purposes; and also, should maintain a right balance between the safety and economy.
Figure 19: about the course
As we already told you, this is an 8-week course. Therefore, total 40 lectures with 40 PPTs;
and for all these the handouts will be delivered. I will also give some home work sheets along
with few of the lectures. The tentative solutions or some hints will also be provided for the
homework, and it will be available on the forum. As a part of the course, we do have some
assignments too. We have 8 assignments for all the 8 weeks, about these we will communicate
through our forum. Two of our TAs, the teaching assistants will help you for this particular
discussion. Finally, we will have end semester examination at end of this 8 weeks program.
For this lecture, I have referred the following two books:
➢ Reinforced Concrete Design by Pillai & Menon, Tata McGraw Hill Publisher
➢ Basic Structures for Engineers and Architects by Philip Garrison, Blackwell
Publisher
The concluding remarks for this lecture are:
➢ NPTEL 8-Week course for “Structural Systems in Architecture” is introduced.
➢ An overview of structure and Structural System is discussed.
➢ Objectives of Structural Engineering are also stated.
In my next lecture, I will be discussing on the force system, covered under the same module.
Thank you very much.
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Module 1
Lecture – 2
Force System
So welcome to this NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture.

This is module 1, the second lecture on force system.
The concepts to be covered today is:
➢ Mechanics
➢ Force
➢ System of Force
➢ Forces and its Impact
So, as we have already discussed about various principles and objectives of the structures and
the structural systems in the first lecture, now today we will try to discuss the above mentioned
four concepts in this second lecture. We will start with the mechanics, and go with the sequence
with force, system of forces and then the forces and its impact.
The learning objective of this lecture is to understand what is the mechanics and what are its
by-parts. How structural engineering relates with mechanics? We will also try to discuss the
concept of force or how a force can be conceptualized; and what are the different type of forces.
We will also try to identify the types of forces and how do they impact on any kind of object.
So, the intended learning objectives are:
➢ Understanding the Mechanics and it’s by-parts.
➢ To Develop the Concept of Force.
➢ To Identify the types of force and its impact.
Now, let us start with the mechanics. Mechanics is a science or a field of engineering. It deals
with the forces and in its effect on any object; and that object may be in rest, or may be in
motion. So, both can be taken care of in a nutshell. If you see the mechanics, it has clear-cut
three boundaries or three types. They are:
➢ Rigid Bodies: Engineering Mechanics
➢ Deformed Bodies: Solid Mechanics
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➢ Fluids: Fluid Mechanics
The first is engineering mechanics, which about the rigid bodies, of course in the nature you
cannot find even a single object which is purely rigid. The rigid bodies mechanics is called
engineering mechanics where a force will be applied to the rigid objects and it will import some
motion, or sometimes it may remain static. Even though, there will be no changes in the internal
stress or the internal parameters.
The second one is the solid mechanics, which talks about the deformed or elastic bodies. More
or less, what we see in day to day life are bodies with elastic material. So, even if it is in motion
or static, it will gain some deformation.
The third one is the fluid mechanics. It is the domain of, air, water and other kind of fluids.
When a force is applied on it, then what are the changes obtained? What happens to that
particular fluid and how will it get compressed? What are the different parameters or parametric
changes that comes under the fluid mechanics?
So now we go into the engineering mechanics which we will be into as I told you which is
going to apply in a rigid body and the external force on a rigid body and what will be the effect
of that particular rigid body depending upon the forces. In the engineering mechanics, it has
further classification or the divisions. The first one is called statics which deals with the rigid
body of course but the rigid body is under rest, it is not under any kind of a motion.
∑FX=0; ∑FY=0
So those are the typical formulas or the equations we use for the statics, the summation of
forces in x direction is equal to 0 or maybe in the y direction is also equal to 0. This is the
widely used equation for statics. We will discuss these equations in the next lecture. There is
another part of the engineering mechanics or another sub part is the dynamics. Dynamics deals
with the motion of forces on a body which is under the motion.
The dynamics has two further classifications. One is called kinematics and other is kinetics.
The kinematics is a study on the dynamics or the bodies which are under the motion. It will
study the forces, displacement, and geometry of the motions without addressing any cause of
the movement. The typical equation for this is:
1
𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑓𝑡 2
2
This is for a linear kind of motion with initial velocity, time and the acceleration is that comes
under the kinematics.
20
The second equation is:
𝑢2 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑅=
𝑔
This equation is widely used finding the range of a parabolic trajectory. These are the equations
for geometry of motions.
The second part of the dynamics is called kinetics. Kinetics is a study of the mass and the
motion of the body. So of course, in a particular motion a mass is also involved. The first
equation given below is the conservation of the momentum.
𝑀𝑉 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
This equation includes the mass and also the motion or the velocity.
The second is the energy equation is:
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑔 (ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
2
Let us assume that, here some object is falling from h1 to h2; through which the potential energy
is converted to the kinetic energy and velocity. So those are involving of the particular mass
and also the motion, so those are the kinetics. Kinematics you see there is no mass involving
that.
Then next is solid mechanics. I have already mentioned that, it deals with forces. This is the
science or engineering of deformed bodies under the action of the external force. Suppose, if
you take a piece of rubber, or a spring and you press it, it will get deformed, or it will shrink;
and if you again pull it, it will again get elongated, that means it will get elongate and then
compressed.
So, here some kind of stress is going to involve. There will be Young’s Modulus of elasticity,
which are expressed in the formulae below.
𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴
𝜎
𝐸=
𝜖
Finally, the last one is the fluid mechanics. It deals with mechanics of compressive forces on
the fluid & fluid particles.
So, you can see from the above figure that, mechanics has three typical classifications;
engineering mechanics, solid mechanics and the fluid mechanics. Engineering mechanics
have statics and dynamics and further the dynamics is again sub-classified to kinematics and
kinetics. The statics deals with equilibrium, and free body etc. The kinematics deals with the
21
velocity, displacement and accelerations etc.
Figure 1: classification of mechanics
The kinetics deals with the energy, and momentum. Solid mechanics deal with the stress, strain,
deflection, bending which is actually the some of the parameters for the deformed bodies.
Figure 2: relation of mechanics with structural engineering
Now, in our structural engineering, as shown in Figure 2, I have to take these two parts, I mean
I do not have to deal with the dynamics at present. Dynamics is also applicable in the structures,
but those are not in the scope of this particular NPTEL course or this lecture course. So, first
we will see some of the statics. Where we will try to understand about the free body diagrams,
then the equilibrium conditions, the resultant forces, and how can it be evaluated.
After that, the reaction forces based on any kind of beam system. Then there will be discussions
on force, couple, moments etc.; which are a basically a part of statics. The dynamics will
definitely go into that and after that we will switch over to the solid mechanical systems or the
22
solid mechanics; where we will discuss on stress, strain, deflection, deformation, buckling,
torsion etc.; and all these comes into the typical domain of the structural engineering.
Next let us discuss, what is force? We all know that; force is part and parcel of any kind of
engineering. It may be the civil engineers, who deals with forces in a different form, the
mechanical engineers, deals with in a different way for their machine designs. We deal with
forces in a way that, we can design a building or any kind of structure. The force is defined as
the action that tends to change the state of inertia. So, if something is in rest, and I want to
change the state of inertia or from rest in to motion; that motion may be linear, or circular
motion; by any such way it tries to change the inertia. On the other hand, the action that changes
the shape of an elastic body, sometimes it may not go for motion that means it may remain as
a static or the as a non-movable object; but it will change the volume, length etc., due to the
application of force.
Now what are the characteristics of force? Force has mainly the four notable characteristics.
They are:
i) Magnitude
ii) Direction
iii) Point of application
iv) Line of action
You all know that force is a vector quantity and it has magnitude and direction. So, if I say this
is a force of X and if this is the positive X, so from the other or opposite side, this will be the
negative side of the force, it will be a negative X. So, the magnitude, and the direction is there.
The magnitude of the force is measured in the Newton.
The SI unit of force is Newton. In 1 Newton, it is 1 kg mass which is under an acceleration of
1 meter per second square. Then it has a point of application, that means the force is applied at
a specific point. So, let me discuss with Figure 3.
Figure 3: application of force
23
Let us assume that, there is a piece of metal rod; and I am applying a force of 20 kilo Newton
at point A. Here, the 20 kilo Newton is the magnitude and A is the point of application.
The direction of the force is 30 degree with horizontal axis, and the line of action of the force
is the central longitudinal axis.
So, those are the four typical characteristics of force that we have to understand.
What we have discussed till now is about single force. Now, let us move to force system. When
a body is not under the action of a single force, maybe more than one forces; or a group bodies
under the forces, it is called as a system of forces or force system. It is also classified into two
broad types. One is called coplanar forces, when the action of the all the forces lies in the same
plane, suppose I have five fingers, all are in the same plane. So, if I put the forces, the five
forces from the five fingers acts on a same plane, but sometimes it can be non-coplanar forces
too. So, system of force is more than one force, similar to five fingers, but instead of putting it
to one plane, if I put in such a way that there are five forces in five different planes, they are
non-coplanar forces; and this is another type. So, these are the two very broad classifications.
Now, I have some figures. In Figure 4, the left-hand side image is a crane, which is pulling
some loads. So, you can see that, all the cable, and all the arms are under coplanar force.
Whereas, if you consider the right-hand side image, that is a table, beneath the four legs there
are some reactions and those four reactions are non-coplanar forces; because those four are not
at all acting in a same plane. They are acting on four different planes.
Figure 4: force systems
The force system is broadly of two types, coplanar and the non-coplanar forces. In coplanar
forces, we have further four classifications. Collinear forces, concurrent forces, non-concurrent
forces and parallel forces (see Figure 5); and non-coplanar forces also have three sub-
classifications. It does not have the collinear, but it has a concurrent, non-concurrent and the
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parallel forces.
Figure 5: classification of force system
The classification and the further classification of forces are based on characteristics of the
forces. The line of action of the entire force system is in same direction; for example, a tug of
war, (see Figure 6) when two groups of people are pulling a particular rope, the line of action
is in same direction. So, two forces are created which are in same plane and in same direction
or maybe in opposite direction, but in the same line of action.
Figure 6: forces and line of action
Now, next is the concurrent force. When the line of action of the forces passes through a single
point, it is concurrent force. In this case the forces may not be collinear, or in the same line of
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action, or line of action may change; but it must pass through the same point. Here, let us take
a truss as an example, assume that its a bridge truss. In Figure 7, you can see the three members
of a truss, central member, and these three forces are not collinear; because their line of action
is not same, it is in three different directions, but they are passing through a single point. So,
they are called as the collinear forces.
Figure 7: concurrent forces
The next one is the coplanar forces. It is non-concurrent kind of force. Here the line of action
is not passing through the same single point (see Figure 8). If we again consider the same
example of a truss and take three different members as shown in Figure 8, here the line of
action for each member is different, and they are not going to meet anywhere.
Figure 8: coplanar forces
They are called as coplanar forces, coplanar forces of non-concurrent type.

The last one is parallel force. Parallel forces are definite, it is non-concurrent, but it goes
parallel to each other. Suppose, you take a railway coach engine and there are wheels; and all
the load of that particular engine or may be of any other coach passes through the wheels. So,
those wheels are grounding some force or some weight and those are the parallel force.
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Figure 9: parallel force
In Figure 9 you can see that the forces are parallel, the wheels are circular and they are touching
with the rail with a particular point, so it transmits the load through the radious of the wheels.
Let us see the flow chart in Figure 5 again, the coplanar and non-coplanar. Under coplanar we
have collinear, concurrent, non-concurrent, and parallel force. Then in non-coplanar, we have
concurrent, non-concurrent and parallel force.
Now we will discuss the sub-classification non-coplanar forces. They are not in the same plane,
but they are concurrent, their line of action passes through the single point. Suppose a table or
may be a tripod having three legs meeting in a single point, but these three forces are definitely
not in a same plane. Therefore, it is concurrent but non-coplanar kind of force.
Figure 10: concurrent but non-coplanar force
The next is the non-concurrent force. Let us consider a particular tree, the branches of the tree
are non-coplanar. From all the braches there are various types of forces in different locations
depending upon the branches. Those are definitely not in the same plane as well as they are not
passing through a same line of action.
As shown in figure 11, we can see that there are different lines of action. They are not at all
passing through the same point of line of action. So, this is a non-coplanar non-concurrent kind
of a force system.
27
Figure 11: non-coplanar non-concurrent force
Finally, the parallel force system. It is parallel but non-coplanar. Let us see the previous
example of four-legged table again; where the forces are parallel but not in same plane.
Figure 12: non-coplanar parallel force
Now, next is to see what is the impact of force? The force, as you understand is the most active
element a structure has to react to. So, if any structural system has to encounter a force, it is the
most active and elementary phenomena.
So, from our discussions till now, we understood that force has some acting plane and the line
of impact, but depending upon small action of a force and how it is actually applying on a
particular structural member, we can have some products. What are the products? The first
product is moment. Suppose, a force is applied at a particular point of action and there is a
hinge or there is a pin support. So definitely by virtue of the force, the member will rotate; and
moment will be generated. It will depend upon force and the distance from the hinge.
So, if you see in Figure 13, there are three different conditions of application of force and its
impact.
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Figure 13: force and its impact
In each case there is a hinge, applied forces ‘F’ and a distance ‘d’ between force ‘F’ and the
hinge. These three creates a moment. Here, I have not used anything other than a force, but
there are some distance or separation, some support conditions, those are of course there.
In fist case, the hinge at the end of the object. When force ‘F’ is applied on the other end, it
will rotate. Secondly, there may be a couple. Let us assume that, this is again the same object,
but having the hinge at the center. Now if we provide two loads of equal magnitude ‘F’, then
it is going to translate. In third case, again we will have the hinge at the same point and distance
‘d’, but the forces are of equal magnitude but in opposite direction as +F, and –F. So, in such
case it is going to rotate.
So, depending upon the action of the force, we can have different types of changes, rotation,
translation, and again rotation (see figure 13). This is called couple. So, these moments and the
couple will come into the picture of force system. So, based on that, due to impact of force you
can have a compression, tension, bending, shear, torsion etc.
So that means if there is a post and we apply forces from top and bottom, merging towards the
centre, then it will give you compression, it will shorten. Whereas on the other hand, if we
apply forces at both ends, moving outwards, then it will elongate. Then at both the ends, there
may be moment, which may result into bending. Then the shear, torsion will also come.
Here, the discussion on the force and its impact will end this particular lecture today or the
second lecture of this module.
In this lecture I have taken the reference of these 3 books, specially some of the initial chapters
of these 3 books.
29
Publisher
➢ Understanding Structures: An Introduction to Structural Analysis by Meta A. Sozen
& T. Ichinose, CRC Press
Now in the conclusion, I can say that the mechanics is a subject and its relation with the
structural engineering is discussed thoroughly. If you remember, we have the statics, and
dynamics, that we have discussed. We also discussed and stated that the force is playing a
major role in the structural system. It is an elementary phenomenon in a particular structural
system. When it is applied, you can get the modified version of it as moment or couple or as
bending, compression, tension, shear, and torsion.
The system of forces is also discussed along with its impact in the structural system. So, this is
the end of the lecture number 2. In the next lecture, we will discuss the moment, couples, and
static equilibrium. Thank you very much.
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Module 1
Lecture – 3
Moment, Couple and Static Equilibrium
Good morning students. Welcome to NPTEL online course on Structural Systems in

Architecture. Today we will discuss the lecture 3 of module 1. This lecture will be on moment,
couple, and static equilibrium.
The concepts to be covered here are:
➢ Moments and Couple
➢ Resultant of Force System
➢ Resolving of Force System
➢ Equilibrium of Force System
In the first lecture we have discussed about force system. Towards the end of last lecture, we
have also discussed about the two important parameters in the structural loading; they are
moment and the couple.
So today initially we will discuss about moment and couple a bit; and then we will again go to
the force system and we will see how a resultant of the forces can be obtained. How in the force
system, resolving of the force system can be done; and also, what are the equilibrium conditions
for the force system. These three, the resultant, resolving and the equilibrium of the force
system are very important for the statics point of view and most of the times in our building, in
our architecture, in our structural engineering, we will go with this system of forces. So, based
on requirements, sometimes we will find out the resultant, sometimes we will find out what is
the equilibrium conditions etc.
The learning objectives of this lecture is:
➢ To conceptualization of Moment and Couple.
➢ To outline the Resultant and Resolving Force System.
➢ To deduce the Equilibrium Condition of Force System.
So, the learning objectives for this lecture will be; we will first try to conceptualize the moment
and the couple; and then we will outline the resultant and the resolving of the force system.
Here we will do some of the small computational or the mathematical problems and I hope
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that, you all are aware of them by virtue of your class 12th Physics. Finally, we will go to the
equilibrium conditions of force system, which is actually applicable for the static equilibrium
conditions.
Now, what is moment? Moment and couple are described as effect and the cause; the cause is
the moment and the effect are couple of a force system of any kind of rigid body. So, it is a
rigid body mechanics. When a force is applied to a particular point and then from another point
when the other point is separated by a certain distance, we can find out how much is the turning
effect of that particular force. How much is it going to turn? Turned means how much will be
the rotational effect of the force because of that separating distance. So, the amount is directly
proportional to the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance to the force from the
point. The unit of the moment is Newton meter. Because Newton is the unit of force and the
meter is the distance, so it is just multiplication of the Newton meter and both are directly
proportional. In physical sense the moment is described as torque.
Figure 1: force, distance, and moment
Now in Figure 1, you can see that there is a point P and there is a force, line of action of the
force is F, and the perpendicular distance is d, if this is the scenario, then I can say that moment
is the force multiplied by the distance.
So, the force on the line of action of the force I have to identify and I have to see that what is
the perpendicular distance. We always have to take only the perpendicular distance between
the line of action force and the point of application, not any other possible arbitrary distances.
Next, we will talk about couple. Couple is a system of two forces, which are equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction, and have parallel lines of action. In Figure 3, you can see that there
are two equal forces F applied on a rigid body, where the left-hand side force direction is
downward and right-hand side force is upward, both are moving in anti-clockwise direction,
and they are having some separation distance d1 + d2 respectively from the point P. Now, I am
going to find out what is the couple at point P.
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Figure 2: force, moment and couple
Here I have the point P and I have two perpendicular distances, so, I will get two moment
generated, M1 for the first or the left hand side force, it is F x d1 and M2 is the generated moment
due to the second force the right hand side, and that is F x d2. So now both the moments are in
the same direction anti-clockwise directions. Therefore, we can add them arithmetically, and
the total moment M will be M1 + M2.
Now if I finally do all the addition, that is sum of F1 x d1 plus F2 x d2, finally it gives me the F
x D. So that gives me the formula to find out the couple.
Now we will see what are the difference between the couple, and moment. Moment is the force
that measures the turning effect or the rotational effect by a force about a given point whereas
couple are the two equal and opposite forces acting in a particular rigid body with parallel lines
to each other. Nonparallel forces may not result into couple.
Now let us take an example. So, I have a bar and this bar is hinged or pinned at its bottom point,
so that it can rotate, see in Figure 4. The bar can rotate under any kind of force. The length of
the bar is 3 meters and it is having an inclination of 30⁰ with the horizontal. Now, I put a force,
straight horizontal force F=20 Newton. After putting a force of 20 Newton, I have to find out
the distance from the force to the point of hinge or pin; and this distance is 3 meters. But now
I have to find out, what are the components of this particular force? So, if the angle of the bar
is 30⁰ with the horizontal line, then the angle between the force and its cos component, which
lies along the same line with central axis of the bar, will also be 30⁰ . The sin component of the
force is perpendicular to the central axis of the bar, and downward. So, I have to find out what
is the sin component and what is the cos component. So, this force, the cos component is
17.32N and the sin component is 10N.
Now if you see then you can see that the force 17.32 this is acting along with the axis, so this
will not create any kind of moment because the perpendicular distance from this point to the
force is 0. So, F x d that 17.32 x 0 = 0, so the moment is equal to 0; but the force 10N is having
a distance of 3 meter. The final moment will be 10 x 3=30 Newton per meter.
33
Figure 3: force couple and moment
Even though the applied force is 20N and it is acting on it, it is not going to be 20 x 3, it will
be 10 x 3 because the perpendicular component of the force is 10; and the other component is
going to be through the axis, so it will not be considered.
Figure 4: resultant of force system in coplanar force
Now let us go to the next agenda of today’s lecture, that is the resultant of the force. Now let
us see how the resultant of the force can be computed? At first, we will take the coplanar forces.
So, suppose a body is under a force of P and Q which is 3 and 2 Newton respectively and both
are acting in the same direction (see Figure 4). As it is acting in the same direction, this will
just be added arithmetically, so the resultant will be 5. On the other hand, in second condition,
the force P and Q are opposite in direction. On right-hand side it is 3 Newton and in the left-
hand side it is 2N, this 2 will be now negative 2 and the resultant force will be in the right-hand
side direction, 3-2=1 Newton. Similarly, if I have the forces in the vertical directions, as shown
in 3rd case, I have downward resultant force as 3 because 5-2=3. So, these are the resultant
force computation for the coplanar forces.
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Figure 5: coplanar non-concurrent
Now the coplanar forces when it is concurrent. The concurrent forces that means that when the
forces meet at a certain point and they may be of different directions. Then how to calculate
the forces or the resultant forces of that? You can see in the Figure 5, that there is a common
point, lets ay it is a yellow color ball; and at this point force P and force Q are now suppose
inclined at θ⁰. Now I want to find out what is the resultant forces?
Here, suppose there are two pulling forces which are trying to pull the same yellow ball, where
force P is higher than the force Q. The force Q is in θ direction with respect to P. So, we can
imagine that the influence of P will be much higher as compared to influence of Q, because the
amount or the magnitude of P is much higher.
So, the resultant will actually go like the red dotted line, as shown in the top right image of
Figure 5. It will remain near to P because the influence of P will be higher than Q; and finally,
we can have a parallelogram created by the 2 parallel lines of P and Q. Now we can say that
the resultant forces will be along the green line R, which is the cord or the diagonal of that
particular parallelogram.
Figure 6:the forces and the resultant
35
So now to calculate this R we have a very general formula:
R = √P2 + Q2 + 2 PQ cos θ
Now, if I put some values like P=12, Q=20 and θ is 60⁰, as shown in Figure 6, then using this
formula I can find out the resultant value of R.
Figure 7: forces perpendicular to each other and its resultant
Now see the Figure 7. Now in this case, if the force P and Q are perpendicular to each other,
that means the θ, the angle between P and Q will be 90⁰. So here I will put the cos θ to be 90⁰,
and Cos 90 = 0. So, it will be:
So, from the geometry you know that, it is the hypotenuse of a triangle, whose base and the
heights are P and Q.
Similarly, we can compute for forces like 8 and 6 Newton which are in the perpendicular
direction, the resultant will be 10 Newton, see Figure 8. So, this is for the coplanar concurrent
forces.
Figure 8: resultant of two perpendicular forces
36
Figure 9: resultant force: law of triangle
These coplanar concurrent forces can also be cutoff of through the law of triangle. Suppose
like the earlier example, if I take P and Q with an angle of θ, and Q is along horizontal direction
and P is upward direction, making angle of θ with Q. Now, the P can be shifted to another point
as shown in Figure 9, maintaining same inclination and angle of θ. Then, we can close this
triangle, (the green line, as shown in Figure 9) and we can find out the resultant. When we close
the triangle, we must remember that the direction of closing line that is the resultant should be
in opposite direction.
Similarly, for the perpendicular forces also, we can find out the resultant. But we should always
keep it in mind that, the resultant force is the reverse direction of closing triangle side.
Now we will discuss about the resultant force for coplanar-parallel forces. The parallel forces
are those two P and Q, as shown in Figure 10. They are the parallel force on a rigid body. When
there are forces, there must be the resultant too. The resultant will be at opposite direction, here
I am showing this as opposite force showing an equilibrium kind of condition. So, the R will
be located in such a position that it will satisfy valid the equation below:
P x D1 = Q x D2
And, R=P+Q
Figure 10: resultant force: coplanar parallel forces
So, if I know the distance between them and the values of P and Q; I can find out the position
of the resultant force and what will be the magnitude. I can also find the magnitude of the
37
resultant by simple arithmetic addition of P and Q, because they are in same direction.
Now, let us suppose P = 4N and Q = 10N, both are acting in downward direction; and distance
between them is 140 cm, as shown in Figure 10. So, the resultant force can be simply P + Q
=14 N. We can also calculate the position of the resultant force by applying the formula P x
D1 = Q x D2. This will be:
4 x D1 = 10 x (140 – D1)
14 D1 = 1400
D1 = 100, So, D2= 140 – 100 = 40
Now, next let us go to the resolving of the force system. Suppose there is a body, let’s say a
yellow color ball, and force P is acting on it, at an angle of θ, as shown in Figure 11. Now, I
have to resolve this force in the X and Y direction. It is very easy, we just have to drop the
perpendiculars from the end point, in both X and Y direction; and I can find out the cos
component and the sin component of the P. Your cos component will be towards the θ, and the
sin component will be on other side.
Figure 11: resultant of force: cos and sin component
Now, consider force P = 20N and the angle θ = 60°, see Figure 12.
Figure 12: resolving cos and sin components of force
Resolving this, we get:

P Cosθ = 20 x Cos 60° = 20 X 0.5 = 10N
38
P Sinθ = 20 x Sin 60° = 20 X 0.866 = 17.32N
So again, if I have these 2 forces, then I can cross check the resultant force, using the formula:
=√P2 + Q2
= √102 + 17.322
= √100 + 300
= √400
= 20
So, it proves that the if we have the resultant force, we can find the resolved forces and from
resolved forces we can find the resultant force.
So now, let us suppose I have three forces having 15°, 45° and 60° inclination with the
horizontal axis and 10, 12 and 8 kilo Newton magnitude respectively. The forces and the angles
with the X axis, P cos θ, and the P sin θ are shown in top image of Figure 13.
Now if I consider the force 10 Newton and angle 15⁰ alone, then the cos component is 9.7 and
the sin component is 2.6 which is close to 2.7, actually consider it is 2.7. Secondly, for the force
12 Newton and angle 45⁰, the cos component is 8.5 and sin component is also 8.5. Finally, for
the force 8 Newton which is the downward, and angle 60⁰ with the X axis gives 4 as cos
component and 6.9 is sin component.
Now the three forces are resolved into six; as shown in Figure 14; as red and green forces
respectively, in directions of, X and Y. Now I can say that three red color forces are equal to
six green color forces.
Figure 13: resultant of more than two forces with different angles
39
Figure 14: the three forces resolved into six forces
After this I can calculate forces along X and Y direction. Now, for forces in X or horizontal
direction, it is:
9.7 - (8.5+4) = - 2.8
And for Y or vertical direction; it is:
8.5 + 2.7 – 6.9 = + 4.3
From this, I can find out the resultant force virtue of the R = √P2 + Q2.
R = √ (-2.8)2 + (4.3)2 = 5.13
Finally, I can also find out the angle θ; by virtue of this trigonometry and it will be:
Tan α = 4.3/2.8 = 1.53
α = tan−1 1.53 = 57⁰.
Figure 15: angle of inclination
So, if α is 57⁰, the other angle is 180⁰-57⁰ = 123⁰. Therefore, I can say that this force system is
nothing but a resultant force as shown in Figure 15, which your 5.13 and angle of inclination
is 123⁰. Hence, through the resultant, again I can again come back to the final resolving and
vice versa.
Now, let us discuss about the equilibrium of forces. Suppose there is a green ball, and this ball
is at equilibrium condition under the five forces; as shown in Figure 16, left-hand side image.
So, what I do? Can I break all the forces in to X and Y direction? Yes; I can break those five
40
forces in X and Y direction, similarly as we did in the previous example, with the help of angle
of inclination and amount of force.
Figure 16: equilibrium of an object under five forces
Here, to maintain the equilibrium condition of the body, the sum of the forces in X direction
must be equal to zero; as well as the sum of the forces in Y direction also must be equal to zero;
as shown in Figure 17. Otherwise the body will move with respect to higher force or in any
positive or negative axis. So, I can say that:
∑ FX = 0; and
∑ FY = 0
So, these 2 are the very basic consideration for the equilibrium.
Figure 17: equilibrium state of a body
Now we will see the next example. Here a 200 Newton load is applied on a particular body
through a rope, so I want to find out this tension in the wire or the rope T1 and T2 (see Figure
18).
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Figure 18: equilibrium of a load through a rope
Here, I know the inclination. So, I will resolve this T1 sin θ and T1 cos θ, as well as for the
other rope, that is the right-hand side rope T2 as shown in Figure 19. Now, what I have is that,
I have only the horizontal and the vertical component of the rope.
Figure 19: resolving forces
So, if I equate the X axis, then some of its forces must be equal, otherwise it will move in X
direction. The 1st relation we get as:
0.707 T1=0.866T2
T1=1.225 T2
Similarly equating equilibrium on Y axis:
0.707 T1 + 0.5 T2 = 200N
Solving them we get:
T1 = 179.3N, and T2 = 146.4N
So, from those two equations I have found out the two unknowns T1 and T2, by virtue of the
linear equation, I can find out what are the tension in the T1 and T2.
So, equilibrium of the forces also has a third component, that is the moment, which also should
be in equilibrium. So, as shown in Figure 20, I have rigid body which is experiencing force P1
and P2 at a distance D1and D2 from a particular pin. Now the moment as this particular point
of pin will be:
ML = P1 x D1 (Moments towards left)
MR = P2 x D2 (Moments towards left)
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Figure 20: equilibrium of moment
Similarly, if I have two forces, 2 kg and 2 kg, with distance of 3 meter and 5meter from its
hinge, as shown in Figure 21.
Figure 21: equilibrium of moment due to equal load and un equal distance
Computing this, we find

ML = 2 x 3 = 6 kg-m
MR = 2 x 5 = 10 kg-m
Here the ML ≠ MR; that means it is not under equilibrium. Therefore, this bar will definitely
rotate in clock-wise direction.
Similarly, in another case, if I have 2 kg and 1 kg load at distances 5 meter and 5 meter
respectively as shown in Figure 22.
Figure 22: equilibrium of moment due to unequal load and equal distance
Computing this, we find:
ML = 2 x 5 = 10 kg-m
MR = 1 x 5 = 5 kg-m
Here also the ML ≠ MR; that means it is not under equilibrium condition. So, the bar will
rotate in anti-clock wise direction.
Now, let us see the sum of total moment generated by the applied forces.
43
Figure 23: clock wise and anti-clock wise moment
So in case one, if I have 2 Newton and 5 Newton, and separating distance is 5 meter from the
central pin, I may say now, ML= 10 N-m and MR = 25 N-m. So, it will move towards heavier
side that is 25 N-m, so, it will result to clock-wise moment. But, if I put 9 and 1 kilo Newton
load at distance 2 meter and 3 meter respectively, then I will get the green color anti-clockwise
moment and the clockwise moment as shown in Figure 23. Here, it will move in anti-clock
wise direction.
Now if I add up all the anti-clockwise moment that is: 10 + 18 = 28 and the clockwise moment
as the 25 + 3 = 28, both are equal, so it will be under equilibrium. So, in such cases the bar will
not move; it will be in state of equilibrium. Hence, in the equilibrium conditions also, I may
say that the sum of all the moments must be equal to 0, if so, then it will not rotate under any
kind of motions.
Finally, what we found is that, there are 3 equations of the equilibrium.
∑FX = 0
∑FY = 0
∑M = 0
Now, let us see another example, as shown in Figure 24.
44
Figure 24: equilibrium with different forces
There are 2 such points and now I can find out what are the forces. Here, FY = 0, so the R = P1
+ P2. If I take the moment about A, MA= 0, I have this force R at a distance of d1, so Rd1=P2 x
D, so these two has to be equal to 0. If I take the moment about B, the equation changes like
R x d2 = P1 x D.
So, if I take a moment about C, also then, P1 x d1 must be equal to P2 x d2, so that way also I
can find out the forces and all the moments.
Figure 25: resultant of forces in different orientations
Suppose in a body the forces are acting different orientation or with different angles, as shown
in Figure 25. Now, I can resolve the forces, I can resolve force P as PX and PY and similarly I
can resolve the force as QX and QY. Now, all the forces are either in X direction or in Y
45
direction. Here, Y direction forces are PY, QY and S and that gives me some R value the
resultant value in Ry direction. On the other hand, the X axis direction forces are Px, and QX
there is no S here. So, Rx will be calculated from here.
Figure 26: resultant of forces in different orientations
Then finally, I can find out what is the reaction or the resultant direction between them and
with this formula I can also find out what will be the angle θ for that.
So, for this particular lecture, I have taken the difference as these 3 references like earlier one.
They are:
Publisher
In conclusion we can say that, the moment and the couple are the two products of the force
system, associated with the distance and condition of the support. Why condition of the
supports? Because, if you want to figure out the moment, you need a pin support in between.
The resultant of the force, and the resolving of the two forces into two specific orthogonal
directions is essentially required, because lot of forces are in different angle or different way
to act upon, so to resolve in two orthogonal direction.
The three equations of static equilibrium hold the key for the analysis of structure, because
otherwise we cannot have any kind of equation what is required, boundary equation is required
to find out what will be the total nature of the forces. So, based on that, my next lecture, lecture,
the lecture number 4 will be structural supports and the reaction. Here, before we end today, I
46
have some homework for you.
Today, I have three homework for you. All are very easy. In 1st problem you have to find out
the resultant force for the force system. The second one is that, a particular inclined body is
under a force 5 kilo Newton, red color force, and angle is 60⁰, so definite it will move; and if it
is going to move then what should be the value of force Q at B which is 30 centimeter from O;
which will give you equilibrium.
And the last one is that, a mass of 100 Newton is hanged by 2 ropes of AC and AB; and AB
rope is 45⁰ inclined but AC rope has these 5 inclinations, they are: 0⁰, 30⁰, 45⁰, 60⁰ or 90⁰. So,
what will be the change in tension in AB and AC, due to the change of orientation in AC only.
Because AB is not going to change, AB will remain as 45⁰. So, what will be the nature of force?
Also try to draw a graph for the changing force A to C by the virtue of the angles. Suppose you
may take a graph and by virtue of various angles you can plot what is the changing pattern of
the forces because of this changing angles. Thank you very much.
47
Module 1
Lecture – 4
Structural Supports and Reactions
Welcome to this NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture. So

today we are in module 1; and this is the fourth lecture. The topic of today’s lecture is Structural
Supports and Reactions.
We will try to cover the following concepts:
➢ Types of Structural supports
➢ Type of Beam and Support Reactions
The intended learning objectives are:
➢ Understanding various types of structural support.
➢ To interrelate the types of support and its nature of reactions related to loading.
➢ To Establish the procedure to calculate the support reaction.
So, we will and try to understand the various structural supports, how it behaves and what is
the mechanism? Then we will try to interrelate the types of support and the nature of the
reaction, which is related to the loading, different types of loading; and the finally we will try
to establish the procedure to calculate the support reaction; and how to find out the support
reactions.
Supports are the external systems. They are associated with a structural member to ground the
loading, which is actually applied as external loading. Suppose, I am now sitting on a chair, so
the external load on the chair is my load, my weight, 50 kg or 60 kg, and finally the total load
is getting distributed to the ground by 4 legs of the chair; and at the vertical legs are supported
by the ground. The junction between the legs and the ground, the system is called the support
system. Now, there are typically many types of support system; but out of that the following
four types are very common in our buildings or may be in various structures.
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Figure 1: types of structural support
The first one is called pinned or hinged support. The second one is the roller support. Of course,
the roller support may be the most general one then the pinned or the hinged support. Then
there is a support called fixed support and then internal hinge or link support.
The roller supports are like a support, or may be the member is on a roller or a wheel. So, it is
analogous to something like somebody is on a skating ring. Therefore, it can move. The support
will allow the member to move in particular direction. So, in Figure 2, you can see that in left-
hand side image is the skating and the right-hand side image is a roller support which is taken
from a bridge.
Figure 2: the roller supports
The roller supports will allow some kind of thermal expansion and dynamic loading and
because of that it may allow the movement.
Figure 3: typical roller support
If I see a roller support, it will have 3 reactions. Out of the 3 reactions, it cannot move in the
49
vertical direction because there is no possibility. So, as it cannot move in the vertical direction,
it gives me a kind of a reaction in vertical direction, RV is the reaction which unknown to me,
but this particular support it can move in horizontal direction, both left and right. The reaction
at horizontal direction will be 0. It cannot take any kind of horizontal moment, so moment in
horizontal direction is always going to be 0. Again, the roller is is a hinged or a pinned, so it
can actually move in horizontal way, so it cannot take any kind of a moment. Even if there is a
certain amount or smallest amount of moment, it will move. No question of any horizontal
rection can observe, only it can observe or give some kind of the vertical rection. So, out of 3;
it has two degrees of freedom (DOF), this is the degree of freedom and one unknown reaction,
this is the unknown reaction. So, the roller support enjoys two degree of freedom and it has one
unknown direction.
Figure 4:pinned or hinged support
Now next is the pinned or the hinged support. Here it is very similar but it does not have any
kind of roller, it is fixed on the base. So, if I say a door hinge is a very common example, it has
a hinge only, it does not have any kind of a roller. It is quite similar to our elbow joint. The
right-hand side image of Figure 3, is the So this particular hinge support is very common in
trusses and bridges and also sometimes in buildings.
Now, in the hinged support, let us see what is the degrees of freedom.
Figure 5: typical hinged support
So here you see it cannot take any moment because it is a hinge. So, it will again in a with
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certain amount of load it will move, or we can say that it will rotate, but it will not translate.
So, this is a degree of freedom; but it cannot move like a roller or it cannot move in the upward
or downward directions, so it has 2 unknown reactions. So, we will see that the degree of
freedom is 1 and the number of unknown reactions are 2 in this case.
Figure 6: fixed supports
In case of a fixed support, it is like somebody is holding some stick in his/her hand. It is like
something is very much grouted in a vertical or horizontal plane, see Figure 6. So, those are
the fixed supports.
Figure 7: typical fixed support
The fixed supports are not under hinged or pinned condition; it cannot move. So, it will have
some kind of a moment which I do not know, it cannot allow any vertical or horizontal
movements as well. It will impart some kind of vertical and horizontal reaction. So, based on
that, it has no degree of freedom and number of unknowns are 3. So, the degree of freedom
plus unknown are almost about 3; if you add these two.
Figure 8: internal hinges
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Now the internal hinge; they are sometimes also used for some parts of the machines as well
as it is used in the trusses. It prevents relative displacement of the member and allows rotation.
So, if you see the Figure 8; it is a truss, with internal hinge members, so they are widely used
in the trusses too.
Figure 9: links
A connecting structural member is introduced as Link to connect two different members. It

prevents the displacement in the direction of link. It allows rotation, displacement in specified
direction. It is normally used in machines. Link are also something like, as shown in Figure 9.
In buildings it does not have much use.
Figure 10: internal hinge
Sometimes a pin or hinge is introduced in the member to connect the two parts of it, called
Internal Hinge. It prevents relative displacement of the member. It allows rotation, horizontal
and vertical displacement. But in internal hinge or in this link, the moment is equal to 0, degree
of freedom is equal to 1 over here. In this particular link on any hinge, it cannot take any kind
of moment. So, degree of freedom equal to 0 and number of unknown equal to here 2, because
of both the horizontal and vertical directions it has to take care of.
Figure 11: simple support
Now there is a support system called simple support. In this simple support, it will not allow
any kind of a vertical movement and also sometimes the horizontal movement. Sometimes,
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may be in one direction but not in the other direction, so that the particular plank or particular
beam is does not move from one point to the other. A plank of wood resting on two concrete
blocks is the perfect example of the simple support.
In Figure 11, you can see the image of Stone Henge; where you can see the two-capital or pillar
kind of fitting which is supporting a stone on top of it. It is a very nice example of simply
support systems.
Table 1: types of structural supports and their degrees of freedom and unknown reactions
Now if I come back to this 4 type of supports, so what I have is that, in the roller I have vertical
reaction yes, I have to find out that, but there is no horizontal reaction or moment, degree of
freedom is equal to 2 and the unknown reaction is 1. Similarly, for other support systems please
refer Table 1. So, you can see that, only fixed support has vertical reaction, horizontal reaction,
and moment; that means 3 unknown reactions.
Figure 12: type of beam and support reactions
Now we will go to types of beam and their support reactions. Now this is a simply supported
beam. In Figure 12, conceptually we can see that, a plank is hinged at one end and there is a
roller support at the other end. Here, for the hinge it has 2 unknowns and 1 degree of freedom
but for the roller it has 1 unknown and 2 degrees of freedom. So, what I see is that it has total
3 unknowns and we have 3 equation of statics, what we have discussed in the last week. They
53
are: ∑FX = 0, ∑FY = 0; and ∑M = 0.
Now, I have 3 unknowns and I have 3 equations available. So, I can solve these 3 unknowns
by virtue of the 3 equations. Therefore, this beam is a very stable beam and it is determinate
beam. Determinate beam means with these 3 equations, I can find out the unknowns.
Figure 13: cantilever beam
Next let us consider a cantilever beam. Cantilever beams are those which is having one end
fixed and the other end is free. So, it has M, RH, and RV are 3 unknowns, and the other end is
free, so there is no question of any unknowns. Therefore, 3+0 = 3 unknowns are there; and you
have same 3 equations, so it is also stable and determinate beam.
Figure 14: propped cantilever
Propped cantilever beam. Now, what I did is that in the cantilever one end is free and the other
end I make a kind of a roller. Suppose it is going to bend, so I put some kind of a prop. So, 3
unknowns over here, but here due to the prop this end is not free now, this is having one
unknown. So now the total number of unknowns are 3+1 = 4, but I only have 3 equations, so
how can I find out the 4th one? It is not possible. Therefore, it is stable but indeterminate beam.
So, I cannot solve this beam very easily, I have to look for some alternatives; and we will
discuss that afterwards.
54
Figure 15: hinged support at both the ends
The Figure 15, is a beam with hinged support at both the ends. In this case there are 2+2=4
unknowns and we again have only 3 equations. Therefore, it will also be a stable but
indeterminate kind of a structure.
Figure 16: hinged support at both the ends with gravitational loads
But if that same beam as shown in Figure 15, is now under only two downward load that is
only gravity load, then we can say that both the reactions RV = 0; because if there is a downward
load, there is no question of reaction from the other sides. So, in that case, this 2+2 will be now
1+1=2, because both the unknown RH will be omitted by the downward gravidity forces. Now,
the number of static equations is 3-1=2. Why did we subtract 1, because we cannot take ∑FX=0,
because there is no question of the ∑FX = 0. So, the number of unknowns is equal to number
of equations. Therefore, this will be a stable and the determinate beam.
55
Figure 17: beam with roller and hinged support
So, suppose this is a beam with a hinged support at one end and a roller support on the other
end, as shown in Figure 17. I have a force of 42.5 N at point C with an inclination angle of
45⁰. We have three unknowns, RVA, RVB, and RHA. So, as you know you can resolve this
force. I have 3 equations, unknowns are 3 and the equations are also 3, so this structure can be
easily solved by 3 equations of the static. Now let us solve it.
Figure 18: beam with a hinged and a roller support
Here the force 42.2 is now resolved into 45 degree, and I will get the sin component and the
cos component. I have got 30N for both the components. Now, I may say that in FX Direction,
the ∑RHA + 30N in horizontal direction at C, must be equal to 0. So that gives me ∑ RHA = 30
Newton.
56
Now, in vertical direction, I have and I have ∑ RHA, ∑ RHB, and 30 N downward at C; and
these 3 must be equal to 30, this is second equation. I need third equation because I have 3
unknowns, one unknown I have already got. The third equation is the ∑ M, moment = 0 at
point A, you can also take B but let us take at A.
The reaction RVB this having a perpendicular distance of 4 meter, so this gives you an anti-
clock wise moment at B, and downward force at C must be equal to 30 x 2 meter, which is in
clock-wise diction. So, the sum of these reactions should be equal, to make the beam balance.
So, I made it equal and I found out what is the RVB = 15 and the RVA is also 15. So, from that
I can find out that these two reactions.
In this case the beam or the structure is supported with hinged supports at both the ends, see
top image of Figure 19. Here also, the unknowns are 2+2=4; but the number of equations
remains same to be 3. So; this structure cannot be solved by the 3 equations of the static.
Figure 19: structure with hinged support at both the ends
57
Because, in the same way if you see that I can find out this RVB and RVA equal to 15, 15 just
like other way around, as shown in lower image of Figure 19, but I cannot find out RHA, RHB
because this is not 1 now, they are now 2 unknowns, and I have only one equations left with
me, so how to find this RHA, RHB? So, this is a statically indeterminate kind of a case.
Now if we see a cantilever beam, here also I have the same representation, see Figure 20. Here
also I have 3 unknowns, RHA, RVA, MA; and number of equations are also 3. So, it can be
solved by the equation of the static. Again, the RHA, must be equal to the sin component of
force 42.5, acting at C with an angle of 45⁰, and similarly the RVA also must be equal to the
cos component of the same. The moment is also fine, because the force downward is 30 and
the distance between them is equal to 2, so 30 x 2=60.
Figure 20: cantilever beam with one end fixed and the other end free
Therefore, these 3 equations can used to find out the 3 unknown values.
Figure 21: propped cantilever with one end fixed and other with roller support
58
Propped cantilever, again I have a problem because I have 3 unknowns at the fixed end, they
are RHA, RVA, MA; and the 1 unknown at roller support that is RVA. I have 3 equations only,
so it cannot be solved by the static equations. So here if you see these two, that is RVA and
RVA is 30. Then the moment equation, by virtue of only one reaction in the horizontal direction,
I can find out the RHA that is horizontal at A = 30, but how to found the other 3, the RVA, RVB,
and MA; I have no idea; because I have only 3 equations but I have 4 unknowns.
Figure 22: beam with two roller hinges
The simply supported beam with the roller hinges, see Figure 22. So, here it is 2 equations and
3 unknowns. So, if there are 2 roller hinges, then I have 2 unknowns; RV and RV; and total
equation is 3. In this case I have 2 unknowns, but I have 3 equations available. The number of
unknown reactions is less than the number of static equilibrium equations. Therefore, it will
give me a very unstable kind of situation. As you all know, if I put a load at the centre, with
some inclination, then what is going to happen? This roller will move, so that gives me the
unstable condition.
Figure 23: structures and its stability conditions
59
From the figure above, Figure 23; we can say that the structures can have stable or unstable
kind of a nature. It can have statically determinate or statically indeterminate in nature. What
is statically determinate or indeterminate, again let us discuss. Statically determinate structures
are the one, where the support reactions can be obtained by the equation of statics, the 3
equations of statics. Statically indeterminate structures are those the support relation cannot be
obtained by equation of statics. So, there we need some more equations because as you have
seen that there are 4 unknowns and there are 3 equations, so you need one more equation. How
to get that one more equation? For that you have to do lot of other things also, some of the
compatibility conditions and etc.; that I will discuss afterwards, but those structures are
statically indeterminate. So, from the unknown reactions and the number of equation point, if
I see then, if the number of equations is equal to the number of unknowns, suppose 3 and 3,
then it is statically determinate. Suppose the support reactions are 4 and number of equations
are 3, so you cannot actually find out what are all the reactions, so it is statically indeterminate.
On the other hand, when the number of unknowns are 2, and equations available is 3, then you
have more equations you do not have that many of unknowns, so that will give you an unstable
case.
Now, I have some figures for you. In Figure 24, at number 1, the structure has 3 hinges, one is
roller other two are the hinges, and vertical loads as shown. So total number of unknowns are
3 why 3; because I have taken only the vertical forces, so no role of horizontal comes, so the
equation is also 2, and therefore this is a statically indeterminate structure. So next is number
2, a cantilever beam with two loads and two props, one is roller and another is hinge. So, there
Figure 24: conditions of stability of a structure
60
are 4 unknowns. Again, the equations are 2 because ∑FX, I am not taking, because I am not
considering any inclined force or any force in horizontal direction. It is also an indeterminate
beam. Now suppose in case 3, the beam has an internal hinge, shown as the yellow dot. The
one end of the beam is fixed and another end has a roller, and beam has 2 loads as shown. Here,
this is having 2 unknowns, 2 is at fixed end and 1 is at the roller, so total unknowns are 2+1=3.
The equations are also 2+1, where 2 are general equations of static, ∑FX=0; ∑M=0; and the
other 1 is at hinge, it will be ∑M at hinge=0. This is the additional equation I am getting here;
and that is why this is statically determinate because 3 = 3. In the next one, that is 4 th, if it is
only with the fixed end and no any other support, then at fixed end the unknown is 2, so the
unknowns are 2 and equations are 2, and the equations are 2+1=3. Again, the number of
unknowns are less compared to the number of equations, so it is unstable case. As you can see,
if you put a kind of a load towards the end, it will become unstable.
So now if I have a beam as shown in Figure 25, and there are loads at different locations, I can
find out the RA and RB, the reactions at A and B. So, I know the first equation is that the ∑FY
= 0, so RA + RB must be equal to 4+6 = 10, this is my equation number 1. I cannot take the
equation number 2 as ∑FX = 0, because there is no inclined load, so forget about that. Now I
have to take the third equation as sigma moment equal to 0 at A. So, if I take the moment equal
to 0 at A, this will not give any kind of a moment because it passes through that point. The
distance between this force and the point is 0, but I have RB, which is having a distance of 4
meters, so this gives me the moment at B, in anti-clockwise direction. It must be equal to sum
of moment at A and moment at B. The load of 4 N is having a distance of 2 meter plus the 6 N
is having a distance of 3 meter, so this is equation 2. Solving this I can directly find out the RB
= 6.5, and form first equation I can find out that RA = 3.5.
Figure 25: reactions of a hinged beam
61
Similarly, in Figure 26, if I say that this is how much will MA and RA, there is no question of
horizontal direction. So, ∑FY will give me the RA, where RA = 12 because RA must be equal to
5+7.
Figure 26: reactions of a fixed beam
And this will be the upward 12 because otherwise this total beam will fall down. Now, how to
find out the MA? The RA is passing through this point A, so, there is no question of the moment
generated by the RA. The first moment of M which is 5 x 3, and the second moment due to the
7 is 7 x 5. So those if you add it will be 50 Newton-meter.
The references for this lecture was taken from the folllowing books.
Publisher
➢ Understanding Structures: An Introduction to Structural Analysis by Meta A.
Sozen & T. Ichinose, CRC Press
So, based on these fundamentals I am concluding this particular lecture on the support and its
reaction.
In conclusion, I may say that the different type of support provides different character of the
reactions as I know. The hinge support gives different character, this fixed support gives
different character of the reactions, but the reactions are always 3. It has one reaction upward
in direction, one is horizontal direction and another is moment. Some of the support may have
moment 0, some of the support may have the horizontal reaction 0 etc.
So, based on this the release of the supports, of the reaction of the supports, we can find out
what is the degree of freedom and what are the number of unknowns for the particular support.
62
The structure may fall under statically determinate or statically indeterminate due to the nature
of its support system, yes because if there are a lot of support system and there are lot of
unknowns are there and you have only 3 equations of statics. So, based on that if the equations
or number of unknowns are equal to the number of equations then it is determinate, if it is not
if it is a greater number of unknowns are there, then it is indeterminate. If the number of
equations is much higher with respect to the unknown, it is an unstable kind of a structure.
So, my next lecture or the last lecture on this particular module, we will discuss on structural
loading and in that we will discuss some of the loading principles of the structure.
Now in this particular lecture also I have 2 home works for you. In 1st question, the beam is a
statically determinate beam, you can easily find out the reactions at A and reactions and B,
both are the upward or the vertical reactions. Here, there are 2 loads of 10 Newton each at point
C and point D and what you have to do is, you have to find the reactions at A and B due to
those load, if load is only at C and there is no load at D. In second case, if the both C and D is
having load, and in third case if the D is only loaded with that.
Figure 27: the homework
The next homework is that a beam is not a straight beam, it is a kind of a beam and there is a
step like thing having 2 meter, 1 meter is two horizontal portion and 0.5 meter of the vertical
portion, is under a two equal and opposite kind of load as 12 Newton, 12 Newton, then what
should be the reaction at A and B? Now you see the A will have both reactions that mean it
will have the reactions in the horizontal and the vertical direction, this is having both reactions
and this is a roller, so it will not have any reaction in the horizontal direction, it will have the
reaction in the vertical direction only. So, you have 3 unknowns are over here and you have 3
equations also, the ∑FX = 0, ∑FY = 0 and ∑ M = 0.
63
So, by virtue of the 3 equations, you have to find out the 3 reactions at A and B that is the
second home work for you.
That is all for today.
64
Module 1
Lecture – 5
Structural Loading and Support Reaction
Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture. So

today we will go to the lecture number 5 of first week that is the Module-1. The topic of the
lecture 5 is Structural Loading and Reactions.
The concepts covered will be:
➢ Understanding the unit of force
➢ Concept of concentrated load
➢ Concept of Uniform Distributed Load (UDL)
So, let us first discuss some of the concepts that we will be covering in this lecture. Initially,
we will try to understand the unit of force and then two of the typical load components. They
are very popular or very important in our structural engineering, so, the concepts of those will
be discussed. One is concentrated load and another one is uniform distributed load or UDL.
➢ Understanding the Structural Loading.
➢ Evaluating support reactions due to concentrated and uniform distributed load.
So, our learning objective of today's discussion on this lecture will be, we will try to understand
what is the structural loading and try to translate the physical parameters of any particular
building or any building element to structural loading. The second one is that, we will try to
evaluate the support reactions due to concentrated and the uniform distributed load.
In our previous lecture, that is the lecture number 4, what we have covered is the different type
of the structural supports and their redundancy and their unknown equations, unknown
reactions etc. In this particular lecture also, we will try to evaluate the support reaction. So,
first let us go to the concept ‘understanding the unit of force’.
Now, what is force? It is well known to all that, force is the product of mass and acceleration.
Suppose 1 kg of mass is under 1 meter per second acceleration, then I may say that, it is
equivalent to 1 Newton force; and 1 Newton is the unit of force in SI, the international standard
unit. Now let us see how much is this1 Newton means? The 1 kg in 1 meter per second may
not give us the real picture of 1 Newton. Then 1 Newton is how much in kg, if it is having an
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acceleration due to gravity, that is g? That means how much is the weight component of the 1
Newton? I am going to find out that. So, as I know that the acceleration due to gravity is more
or less 9.8 meter per second, then I multiply it by 10, instead of the acceleration due to gravity
as 9.8, because 9.8 is very close to 10.
Force = Mass x Acceleration
1 Newton = 1 kg x 1m/s
1 Newton = (?) kg x acceleration due to gravity (g)
1 Newton = (?) kg x 9.8 m/s
1 Newton = (?) kg x 10 m/s
Weight of 0.1 kg (=100 gram) =1 Newton
Weight of 100 gram =1 Newton
Density of Water = 1000 Kg /m3
Density of Water = 1 Kg /Lit = 1 gm/ml
100 ml of water = 100 gm = 1 Newton
So, the 0.1 kg if I put over there instead of the kg and the question mark, then that 0.1 x10 will
be give you almost 1 Newton, which is equivalent to 100 grams. So, that means a weight of 0.1
kg, remember that, weight means it is the due to the gravity, is equivalent to 1 Newton. Now
what is 0.1 kg, 0.1 kg is nothing but 100 grams. The 100 gram of weight is equivalent to your
almost of your 1 Newton.
Now, if you take 100 milliliters of water, say one Bisleri water bottle of 100 milliliters, that
means the smaller version of the Bisleri. Here, as 100 milliliter of the water is equivalent to
100 grams, because the density of water is 1000 kg /m3 or 1 kg/liter or 1 gram /milliliter. So, it
means that 100 grams of that particular one small Bisleri, the weight is equivalent to 1 Newton.
So, please remember that, one small Bisleri water bottle with 100 grams of water is equivalent
1 Newton. So, from here we can understand how much is 1 Newton.
Now, let us discuss how much is 1 kilo-Newton, 1 kilo-Newton is 1000 Newton and from that
point of view again I do the recalculation and finally I find it is almost about the 100 kg. Here,
again I am taking the g, and the 9.8 is converted to 10 m/s. So, I am finding out how much is
the kg?
1 kilo-Newton = 1000 Newton = 1000 Kg x 1 m/s
1 KN = 1000 Newton = (?)Kg X Acceleration due to Gravity (g)
1 KN = 1000 Newton = (?)Kg X 9.8 m/s
1 KN = 1000 Newton = (?)Kg X 10 m/s
Weight of 100 Kg = = 1000 Newton =1 KN
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Weight of 100 Kg = 1 kilo Newton
Here, if I put 100 kg, then this will be 1000 Newton, which is equal to 1 kilo Newton
So, I may say that it is a weight of 100 kg, 100 kg is 1 kilo-Newton because kilo-Newton is
very much used in our structural engineering for converting loads. Now, 100 kg is how much?
100 kg is almost the weight of two person, assuming a person to be of 40 to 60 kg. Hence, total
of two persons is almost 100 kg and that will be equivalent to 1 kilo-Newton. So, that way
initially we covered the unit of force.
Figure 1: concept of concentrated load
Now, let us discuss about concentrated load. How a concentrated load can be conceived in
practice. In Figure 1, you can see that, this is a stand, where the cloth can be hanged with some
hangers. So, in top beam or the top most metallic rod, it is under some concentrated pointed
load. due to the hangers with hooks, which are hanged on the metallic rod, it gives you exactly
pointed load on that particular point.
Suppose, this is a small truck, small very mini truck which is loaded, as shown in Figure 2.
Now, what I have written here is, suppose the self-weight of the truck is 1200 kg and this truck
is carrying some LPG cylinder which is having almost about total weight of almost 3.4 tones,
where 1 tone is almost equal to 1000 kg that is the British ton, not the American ton.
So, I may say that the total weight of this vehicle including its self-weight and the LPG or
cylinder weight is 4600 kg. Then the load on the 4 wheels is almost about 46 kilo-Newton.
Why 46 kilo-Newton? Because as you know that 100 kg is equivalent to 1 kilo-Newton.
So, if I just remove two zeros from the 4600 kg, it will be equivalent to 46 kilo Newton. Now,
that is the total load on the 4 wheels. Then, assuming that everything is uniform, then 1 wheel
must take almost, 11.5 kilo-Newton. So, each tire or each wheel will take care of 11.5
kilonewton load and this is also a pointed load.
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Figure 2: pointed load and its calculation
Why this is a pointed load? Because see, finally the load transmits to the road by virtue of the
point on the tire touching the road, which is tangential to the wheel or the tire. So, this way we
can find out what is the total amount of load in kilo-Newton by virtue of some real-life
examples. So, we will translate these things to our building exercises also.
Figure 3: reaction of beams
You can see in the Figure 3 that it is a 3-dimensional image of beams. Here the two red color
beams are called as secondary beam, and the yellow color one is the primary beam. The
dimensions of the secondary beam are little less as compared to the other, the big one or the
yellow color beam. So, those secondary beams will transfer the load to the primary beam that
is from red color beam to the yellow color beam. Therefore, the reaction of the secondary beam
will act as a pointed load or a concentrated load to the primary beam. Then, reaction will be
generated at the primary beam, as shown in the top image of Figure 3. There are other loads as
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well in the primary beam, so, after the transferring of load from secondary to the primary beam,
the total reaction of the primary beam will act as a pointed load to the supporting column, which
is shown in blue color, in bottom image of Figure 3. Hence, in this way the load will be
transferred from the secondary beam to the primary beam and from the primary beam to the
supporting columns.
We will bring the discussion into much more detail, when we will go to the fourth week of our
lecture, where we will discuss about the loading and the grid pattern for the building and how
the loading is going to be analyzed in that.
Now, we will try to see an example.
Figure 4: reactions due to applied load on a simply supported beam
So, this is a simply supported beam as shown in Figure 4, and I have put two pointed loads,
one is 10 kilo-Newton and another is 4 kilo-Newton, and they are at a distance of 1m and 3m
from point A. Your 10 kilo-newton is almost about 1000 kg. Now, my question is, how can I
find out the reaction at A and reaction at B.
Here, all the applied forces are downward in nature that is towards the negative Y axis; and the
reactions are in positive Y axis. So, I my first write down the equation:
∑FY = 0
where
RA + RB = 10 + 4 = 14 k N.
Otherwise, the beam will be unstable, beam will translate in other, the upward or downward
direction. Now, the second criteria is to find out the exact amount of the RB.
If I take the moment about RA and put it equal to 0, because as it is a hinged support, as you
know this is a hinge support and we have discussed in the fourth lecture in this particular week
that the hinged support cannot take any kind of moments. So, I will put this MA at A = 0 and
that gives me so MA = 0, so this force RB is having a distance of 6 meters from A. So, it will
be
∑MA = 0
6 RB = (10 x 1) + (4 x 3) = 10 + 12 = 22
RB = 22/6 = 3.67 k N
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RA = (14 - 3.67) = 10.33 k N
So, in this way I can find out both the reactions.

There may be some other loads also. So, if I know the value, and if I know the distances, I can
again put those particular change in the equations, so if I put two more loads, then two more
load will increase and those equation will going to change and finally we can have some
different values of RA and RB. So, this is the way we can find out, and this is one of the
examples.
Now, let us conceptualize the uniform distributed load or UDL.
Before we conceptualize that one, let us have a brick work or a brick wall and assume that this
brick wall is having 4 meters of length, thickness is of 250 mm or 0.25m, and height is 2 meters,
as shown in Figure 5. As you may know that the density of the brick masonry is 1900 kg/m3,
and if I put all together, I can easily find out what is the total volume.
Figure 5: understanding load on a brick wall
So,
Volume = 4 x 2 x 0.25 = 2 m3
Weight = 2 x 1900 = 3800 Kg
Force = 3800 Kg = 38 kN
So, I can say that instead of two zeros if I convert them to kilo Newton then it is almost 38 kilo-
Newton is the total weight of the masonry.
Similarly, I can compute for RCC.
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Figure 6: understanding load on RCC wall
Let us assume an RCC work of 3-meter length, 2-meter height and thickness of 150 mm. So,
the volume is
Volume = 3 x 2 x 0.15 = 0.9 m3
Weight = 0.9 x 2500 = 2250 Kg
Force = 2250 Kg = 22.5 k N
So, like that we can actually compute if we know the density of the material, dimension of the
material, and the total weight; and that cab be changed to total force.
Now we will try to understand the uniform distributed load on a structural element.
Figure 7: distribution of load on a beam
Now, as shown in top left image of Figure 7, we have a beam of cross section 300 x 500 mm,
shown in yellow color, which is supported on two columns, shown in blue color; and it is
having a span of 5 meters. So now, what I am going to do is that, I am going to find out what
is the uniform distributed load (UDL) because of that beam which is placed over the two
columns. So, what I will do?
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I will take 1 meter of the length, 1 meter, please remember this 1 meter of the length of the
beam, as shown in bottom image of Figure 7; and I will try to find out the volume and the
weight. So, the force due to the RCC beam of 1 meter of the length is, the volume is 0.3, why
0.3; because 300 is the cross section, one dimension into 0.5, why 0.5 because 500 mm is the
another dimension of the cross section, so those two gives me the area of the cross section and
1, why 1; because the length of unit considered. So, volume will be;
Volume = 0.3 x 0.5 x 1 = 0.15 m3 (of beam of 1m)
Force = 0.15 x 25 = 3.75 k N
Density = 2500 Kg/ m3
This volume is uniform throughout each 1 meter running length of the beam. Now, I multiply
that with 25, why 25. The density of the RCC is 2500 kg/ m3, which is equivalent to 25 kilo-
Newton/ m3. So, if I just multiply them, I get the force to be 3.75 k N. So that means, this
particular beam is having a load intensity 3.75 kilo Newton per meter length.
Figure 8: distribution of load and its reactions
Now, the beam has a length of 5 meters, I have to multiply this uniform load by five times.
Intensity of load per meter length is 3.75kN. So, I can also write that this is under a uniform
distributed load. Hence, the load is uniformly distributed from point A to point B over the span
of 5 meter with the intensity of 3.75 kilo-Newton per meter. Now, from that point of view how
can I find out this RA and RB.
So, I can say that instead of putting all over, I can imagine in this particular beam is having no
load but a concentrated load of 18.75 kilo-Newton, which is acted at the middle, as shown in
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left side bottom image of Figure 8. Why 18.75 suddenly, because 18.75 comes from the total
RA + RB, total load of this, that comes from:
3.75 x 5 = 18.75 k N; (meter-meter gets cancelled).
So, finally, I will get 18.75 kilo-Newton as the total load and that is acting over here at a
distance 2.5 meter from A. So, I may now say that
∑FY = 0 , then
RA + RB = 18.75 (total load) and
∑MA = 0; because it is a hinged end.
So, now the at RB, this RB x 5 is moving upward in anti-clockwise direction, must be equal to
the moment downward, in clockwise direction at the load point, this is 18.75 x 2.5. This 2.5 is
nothing but the 5 /2, that is half of the total length. Because, if it is uniform distributed load,
we can assume that this 18.75 which is total load is acting at the center of gravity of the total
loading that is the center point of the total span.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:28)
∑MA = 0;
5RB = (3.75X 5) x (2.5) = 18.75X2.5 = 46.875
RB = 46.875/5 = 9.375 kN
RA = (18.75 – 9.375) = 9.375 kN
So, by virtue of this understanding, we can now find out the reaction RB as 9.375 kilo-Newton
and RA is also 9.375 kilo-Newton.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:37)
Now we will consider another example, where there is a RCC beam of similar nature to the last
example 300 by 500 mm, but in this case, there is a red colored brick wall also, whose
dimension is 4500 millimeter in height and 250 mm in thickness and density of the RCC is
2500 kg/m3 and of brick is1900 kg/m3 , see Figure 9. So, I can easily find out how much is the
total weight of the 1-meter length of this particular brick wall. So, that is
Force due to Brick Work of 1m length = (4.5 x 0.25 x 1) x 19 = 21.375KN
I will explain this, 4500 mm gives me the 4.5 meter, that is the length in one dimension, 250
mm thickness is 0.25m and 1 is the considered unit length. So, I have taken all the 3 dimensions
for this, so I found out the volume. After found out the volume, I have multiplied that with the
density, so I got 21.375 k N. So, the total weight, the total UDL. UDL stands for uniform
distributed load. Similarly, for the beam
Force due to RCC beam of 1m length = (0.3 x 0.5 x 1) x 25 = 3.75 KN
So, the UDL is now 3.75 is for the beam and 21.375 is for the wall.
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Figure 9: load distribution in RCC and Brick work
So, the total weight of this will be:

Total UDL = (3.75 + 21.375) = 25.125 KN/m
The next is again, see right-hand side image of Figure 9. This is having a span of 5 meters, and
total uniform distributed load intensity is 25.125, and again I can compute this. So, the total
load on this 5-meter span will be:
25.125 x 5 = 125.625
Assuming the total loads acting at the centre, and I found out the moment at A = 0; like previous
example.
∑MA = 0;
5RB = (25.125X 5)X(2.5) = 125.625X2.5 = 314.0625
RB = 62.8125 KN
RA = (125.625 – 62.8125) = 62.8125 KN
Finally, I come down to that, 314.0625 is the total moment or balancing moment and the
reaction force at B, RB = 62.8 kilo-Newton; and RA = 62.8125. So, like that we can find out
what is the intensity of the UDL from the nature of the building element multiplying the
density, with a unit length of the particular element volume and the UDL can be calculated.
Now we will the next example.
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Figure 10: reactions in UDL
So, this is now very easy. If we see, we have shown the UDL half circles, or series of circles.
So, total 10 kilo-Newton per meter is the intensity of the UDL from A to B, it is a simply
supported beam and RA = RB = 30 kilo-Newton. It is very easy, because it is a simply supported
beam at a symmetrical kind of beam, so the RA must be equal to RB and total intensity of the
load is 10 x 6 that is 60 kilo-Newton. So, 30-30 will be the share of this beam.
Another example, I put a particular load, UDL which is 24 kilo-Newton per meter, at a smaller
distance of about 2 meter, almost at the centre, 1 meter from the left and 3 meter from the right
support. So, here you see the total load is 24 x 2 = 48 kilo-Newton is the total load. So, RA and
RB must be equal to 48. RA and RB = 48. Now again I take the moment at A
∑MA = 0;
6RB = (24 X 2)X(1+1) = 48X2 = 96
RB = 16 KN
RA = (48 – 16) = 32 KN
That means, if I am taking the moment, the first RB, RB gives me like this moment, the anti
clockwise kind of a moment which is RB into 6, why 6, because 3+2+1 = 6, must be equal to
the moment due to this load and the total load is 48, acting at the center point. So, suppose, 48
acting at the centre, transfer that particular UDL to a pointed load at the center point.
So, this is 48, and this is why it is 1+1, because the acting perceive the point, you see the point
of acting of 48, this is 1 meter and half of 2 meters, so this is another 1 meter, so 1+1 = 2. So
48 x 2 is 96. So, RB = 96 /6 = 16 kilo-Newton and RA = 32 kilo-Newton that is 48 – 16. So,
like that we can easily find out the reactions for the UDL, any kind of UDL placing anywhere
in the particular beam.
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Figure 11: distribution of loads and computation of reactions in simply supported beam
So, this is another example where I have put two different types of UDL, left side UDL of 1
meter from A, it is little heavy, it is 18 kilo-Newton/m, on the right side 2 meter span of UDL
with B, is the lighter one, of UDL 6 kilo-Newton; and 9 is the concentrated load at the particular
point, 1m from A. So, let us first find the first equation of this
∑FY = 0 , then RA and RB must be equal to total downward loads.
RA + RB = (18 x 1) + 9 + (6 x 2) = 18+9+12 = 39
The total download load, we can get from the sum of load into respective distances. So it gives,
18 into 1, why 18 into 1, 18 kilo-Newton is the intensity over a length of 1 meter, now 9, this
is straightforward, and this is 6 into 2, why 6 into 2, six 6 is the intensity of the load over a
distance of 2 meters, so that is why 6 into 2. So that is 18+9+12, which is equal to your 39 kilo-
Newton is the total downward load.
So, RA and RB, here I have written RVA and RVB, both should be equal to 39 kilo-Newton.
Now, again I will take the moment from the A. So, if I take the moment from the A, this force
will not create any kind of a moment. Moment will be created only by RB which is:
∑MA = 0;
6RB = (18 X 1) x 0.5 + 9 x 1 + (6 x 2) x 5 = 9+9+60 = 78
RB = 78/6 = 13 KN
RA = (39 – 13) = 26 KN
6 into RB will give upward, clockwise reaction. So, this 18 into 1 is acting at a distance of 0.5
meters, and then the 9 into 1, 6 into 2 is your 12, total load and it is at a distance of 5 meters
because 1+3+1 = 5 meters. So, 78 and finally we come down to the RVA and RVB as 13 and
26 kilo-Newton.
So, like that we have some other examples also.
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Figure 12: reactions due to UDL in overhanging beam
As shown in Figure 12, from that plate we can have some UDL which is overhanging kind of
a scenario, where our RA + RB is given, the total load is also come out to be the 81; and again
I am taking the moment about A which gives me, moment about A means from point A it is 5
into RB is equal to 18 into 4.5, why 18 into 4.5? The load is 18 and distance is 4.5. Because
2.5 + 2 and the other distance, if you please read from point A then this is 2.5 + half of 4.5.
∑MA = 0;
RA + RB = 18 X 4.5 = 81
5RB = (18 X 4.5) X (2.5 + 0.5 X 4.5) = 81 X 4.75 = 384.75
RB = 384.75/5 = 76.95 KN
RA = (81 – 76.95) = 4.05 KN
So, that gives me the equation and finally I come down to the RB and the RA.
Now going to the next example.
Figure 13: UDL, concentrated load and reactions in simply supported beam
Here, I have put it little another way around, what should be the value of this P? Towards the
left end, there is a force P that gives the reaction at B = 0. So, reaction at B = 0 means if I take
the moment at about the point of left hinge, that is 2m from the left end, then RB becomes 0.
So, the moment because of the 4 kilo-Newton per meter must be equal to the moment at A. So,
if I equate these two 4 into 7 (because 5+2 = 7) and from here the center point of this load is
your 3.5 meter. So, that must be equal to P into 2. Hence, I can find out P and RA, this RA in
that case will be 77 kilo-Newton and the value of P is 49 kilo-Newton.
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∑MA = 0;
(4 x 7) x 3.5 = P x 2
P = 98/2 = 49 KN
RA = (49 +4 x 7) = 77 KN
So, like that we can do for the simply supported beams.
Now, we will look some examples of cantilever beams
Figure 14: cantilever beam
So, in the cantilever beam, I have put some photographs where you see the fixed end and the
free end.
Figure 15: examples of cantilever beam

Source: http://content.time.com:
So, on the left-hand side image of Figure 15, you can see a balcony, which is an example of
cantilever beam. In the cantilever beam also, there are some loading we can see. The yellow
arrows represent the UDL and the Red line represents the pointed. The bottom image in left-
hand side is the schematic representation of cantilever beam. The right-hand side image is the
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Astra tower, Hamburg. It was constructed in 1971, where the cantilever beams can be
visualized.
So, we can have those cantilever beam equations also where we can find out the RA and RB.
Figure 16: moment and reaction in a cantilever beam
Here, there is only one reactions RA, so

∑FY = 0; that gives me
RA = 20 x 5 = 100 KN (20 is the UDL and 5 is the distance)
MA = (20 x 5) x (0.5 X 5) = 100 x 2.5 = 250 KN-m
So, that means the movement at A is your 250 Newton meter because as you know the
cantilever beam, there are 2 unknowns, one is the reaction at A and another one is the
movement at A or the fixed end.
Similarly, I can find out for thus too.
Figure 17: moment and reactions in a cantilever beam
∑MA = 0;
RA = 12+ (10 X 2) = 32 KN
MA = [12 X 6] + (10 X 2) X (2 + 1) = 72 + 60 = 132 KN-m
This is also very simple, RA is just adding up the forces 12 + 10 into 2 that is 32, and MA
similarly I can find out 10 into 2 multiplied by this 2 into 1 because 2 + half of the 2 is 1 and
this 12 into 6 six, why 12 and this acting as a distance 6, which is 132 kilo-Newton meter.
So, I have taken the reference for this particular discussion on these particular 2 books. You
can go through these 2 books.
Publisher
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Now, let me conclude the lecture today. As we have estimated the exact loading on the structure
and how it is essential for the structure. The type of structural loading also depends upon the
material, the dimension and density of the parameter that also has been understood. The support
reaction depends upon the type and the placement of the loading that is also we understood
from our lecture.
Figure 18: application of load and its reactions
Now next is, let us go to some homework. The homework 1 is suppose a particular boy is going
with a bicycle, and this in a 6-meter span on a bridge, or wooden plank kind of a thing. So, I
have given the weight of the boy, I have also given the weight of the bicycle. The distance
between the wheels of the bicycle is almost about 1 meter. So, you have to find out what is the
reaction at 2 supports when this boy is 1 meter away from the left-hand support.
Also, you have to plot a graph, to show the changes of the left and right support reactions.
Suppose the boy is moving from the left support to the right support; so, how the changes of
the reaction at A and reaction at B, reaction at A (left end) and B(right end), and how is it going
to change you have to plot it through a graph.
The next homework is;
I have some typical profile, profile of 2 walls. So, there is a cut in the left -hand side profile
and on right-hand side, it is triangular kind of a wall; and all the wall dimensions are given.
The thickness of the wall is 250 and density of the wall material is 200 kg per meter cube. So,
you have to finally find out what are the reaction in A and what will be the reaction in B?
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Figure 19: profiles of two walls
Finally, the third one is another small problem; the beam and the loading is given, in Figure
20. Find the reaction at A and B; and what should be the intensity of the additional UDL within
BC. Suppose what should be the additional UDL I should put in between B and C, so that the
reaction at B will be 40 kilo Newton. So you also have to find out that. So, those are the three
homework. That is the end of this lecture number 5.
Figure 20: distribution of load and reactions
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Structural Systems in Architecture 2020
Structural System in Architecture

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Module No # 02
Lecture No # 06
Theory of Elasticity-1
Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on Structural System in Architecture. This is
the second week of this particular course. And in the second week in the module number 2 we
will discuss the strength of material. If you remember in the last week we had discussed about
the different type of force and force system. So now we will go to the strength of material part of
our syllabus of our course curriculum.
This is the lecture number 6 and we will discuss about the theory of elasticity that is part 1 in this
lecture and in the next lecture 7 we will discuss the part 2.
In this particular lecture we are going to cover some concepts which include the properties of
engineering materials initially. And we will understand or try to develop some of the concepts of
elasticity and the theory of elasticity, Hooke’s law and stress-strain diagram in general.
Learning Objectives:
The objective of this particular lecture will be:
 To outline the material properties.
 To discuss the concept of elasticity and it is application in the structures.
Indian Institute of Technology | Kharagpur
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Introduction:
Figure 1 Classification of Mechanics
So if you remember this flow diagram we had introduced in the second lecture where we had
mentioned that the solid mechanics is one of the integral part of the mechanics domain. And in
the solid mechanics part we will deal with the stress-strain deflection, bending etc., which will
come into play in any kind of structure when it is under some external loading. As a building is a
composition of different structural elements, therefore we need to understand that due to various
types of loading, the particular element or the group of elements will be under some kind of
deformation. And as it is deformed there will be some kind of stress-strain and bending and so
forth. From that point of view we discussed the static part initially in the first week so in the
second and third week we will thoroughly deal with the solid mechanism part.
Besides, in this part we will have some mathematical formulae which are very simple, for small
mathematical computations, just to know about the basic principles of the solid mechanics or
strength of materials.
Properties of Engineering Materials: 2

So first of all, let us discuss about the engineering properties of the material. And those are
elasticity, which is one of the most important properties, next, plasticity, ductility, brittleness,
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malleability, toughness and also the hardness. So each material has to actually undergo various
types of test and properties had to be determined. And depending upon the quality or the
character of these various parameters we can use the particular material in the different field or
different types of applications.
Elasticity:
Now, what is the elasticity? The elasticity as you understand when a body is under some external
loading, it is going to deform because its molecular structure will undergo some kind of
transformation or in other words, the molecules readjust themselves and offer some kind of
resistivity against the deformation or against that particular external loading. And by registering
that particular external loading, if the body moves towards the molecular distribution, it
redistributes itself in a deformed shape.
So all in all, a particular object or maybe a particular body will either shorten or elongate or it
may get twisted angularly when it is subjected to external load. But, if you remove the load the
deformed body will try to come to the original position. However, sometimes it regains its
original shape fully and sometimes partially. This phenomena of regaining its original shape by
the deformed body once the loading is withdrawn from the body, is called elasticity.
Next, we have to measure the elasticity in various ways to evaluate how much it has regained the
original shape and how much is it going to deform under how much load so that we can quantify
its elasticity.
Elasticity of a material is one of its most important properties. Every object/ material in the
world has some elasticity. For example, if you consider the human bone, it has some elasticity.
The steel, copper, aluminum or other metals also definitely possess a fair amount of elastic
property. The skin and the human hair, everything has some elasticity. Also, if you take some
stone, it also has some amount of elasticity in it.
Nevertheless, different materials maybe either classified as high elastic material or low elastic 3
material depending on the magnitude of elasticity exhibited by them under various loading
conditions.
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Plasticity:
Now the next property is plasticity which is just the reverse concept of elasticity. Hence
plasticity is the property of material by which when it is subjected to external load, the body will
go for a permanent deformation naturally which is a non-reversible kind of change. Most of the
materials become plastic under the action of a large force and behave in a manner similar to a
viscous fluid. Even if a load of very small magnitude is exerted over a plastic substance, it can
cause non-reversible changes and that is called plasticity.
Then the next property is ductility which is another property of material and is very much in tune
with the property of elasticity. It states that under external load (tensile) a material can be drawn
out in small wires or small sections.
For example, a chewing gum or a rubber kind of material, if subjected under tension such as
stretching, will become thinner. This property is called ductility. Metals like steel, aluminum etc.
are very highly ductile.
Brittleness:
The next property is brittleness which is the lack of ductility. So when a particular material
cannot be drawn into a smaller section by subjecting it to a tensile load then it is called
brittleness. For instance if you take a chalk piece and subject it to a tensile load it will not cause
any kind of elongation with a thin sectional increment and it is eventually going to break. This
happens due to the property of brittleness.
Malleability:
Then the next property is malleability which is quite similar to the property of ductility.
However, unlike the latter where a material is drawn into smaller sections by virtue of tensile
force, in case of malleability it is defined as the property by which the body is uniformly
extended under the compressive loading. 4
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So suppose you take a small piece of a malleable material and you hammer it and subject it to
some compressive load or maybe you roll it with another hard material then that material will
become a very thin flat plate. This phenomenon is called the malleability of the material. Metals
like gold, iron, copper and silver have wonderful malleable property, and that is why from gold
and silver you can create lots of wonderful ornaments with various embossing and engravings
etc.
Toughness:
The next property is toughness. It is the property of a material which enables it to absorb energy
without fracture. So even if you hammer a tough material it will just absorb the load and won’t
break or deform. Hence this is another very important property of a material. It is especially
beneficial while designing bridge like structures where there is fatigue loading acting upon it.
Finally, the last property is hardness which is the ability of a material to resist indentation or the
deep recess. Suppose if you exert pressure on a hard material then after withdrawing the force
the material would not elongate or form any kind of deep recess or notches as in indentation on
its surface. For example, diamond is one of the hardest materials found on earth.
Now additionally, we have some other 2 properties along with the above mentioned ones. Those
are homogenous materials and isotropic materials.
Homogenous:
The material can be said homogenous when it has a homogenous composition throughout. So if
you take a particular material which is having 3 different dimensions of X, Y and Z. But if you
check the composition from each corner of each of the dimensions and find out that it is similar
then you can say that the material is homogenous.
Isotropic:
5
Lastly, the isotropic materials are the materials that have uniform elasticity in all the 3 directions.
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Sometime a material may have different magnitude of elasticity in different directions. For
example, let us consider a bamboo which is actually made of some kind of grains. So in the
direction along that of the grains we will encounter some elasticity value due to which either it
would compress, or it would shrink and or maybe elongate and come back to its original position
in a different way. And if you just put the load in the other direction, i.e. across that of the grains,
it may show some different phenomena. This shows that the elasticity is not equal in the
mutually perpendicular direction of fibers or grains. So then we cannot say that the bamboo is
isotropic. In order to be isotropic it has to have uniform elasticity in all the directions.
Effect of Theory of Elasticity on the following cases:

CASE-1: When a spring and a metal bar are suspended
Figure 2 Theory of elasticity when a spring and a metal bar are suspended
Now let us go to the next concept, i.e. the theory of elasticity. Here, this first figure is very
common to us; when a spring of a length L is hanged and subjected to a force P or F downward,
then this spring will elongate. So here I have shown that the elongation is ∆L because the
original length was L and ∆ L was the elongation. So the final length of the spring is L + ∆L.
Similar phenomena will happen if there is a bar. If there is a solid bar which is subjected to a
particular force then even though it is made up of steel or any kind of material it is going to
elongate because of the property of elasticity. As I have told you earlier, that when an elastic
material is subjected to the external force there are some molecular distribution changes which
takes place within the material in an attempt to resist the force and eventually elongates. 6
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Figure 3 Graph showing theory of elasticity when a spring and a metal bar are suspended
Nevertheless, if you remove the force the bar will come back to its original position L and that is
why the material is called as an elastic material. Now as I understand from the very common
behavior of any particular spring or a particular body, if you increase the force it will increase the
elongation. Hence, based on this observation, I have drawn a graph where let us suppose that
given a 100 N load the elongation is 4 mm and if I exert 225 N of load I might get a 9 mm
elongation. So more the tensile forces more will be the elongation.
CASE-2: When 2 bars of same length but different cross-sections are

suspended
Figure 4 Theory of elasticity when 2 bars of same length but different cross-sections are suspended
Similarly, let us take 2 bars having same length L but different cross-sectional areas ‘a’ and ‘A’
respectively. Now if I put the load on the fat bar where the cross-sectional area is higher, it
elongates by a length, say ∆ L1 whereas the thin one which has ‘a’ as the cross-sectional area
elongates by ∆L2. Here, the thin bar will exhibit lesser resistivity as compared to that of the thick
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bar. So the ∆L2 will be higher than the ∆L1. Hence, a fat or a thick bar will elongate less whereas
the thin bar will elongate more if both the original length is similar.
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Figure 5 Graph showing theory of elasticity when 2 bars of same length but different cross-sections are suspended
Now let us assume that the load P is same and is 100 KN or 100 N. Then the thicker bar will give
me an elongation of suppose, 4mm and the thinner one, say 9 mm respectively. So now we can
say that not the load alone but the cross-sections also play a role vital role in determining how
much it will elongate.
CASE-3: When 2 bars of same length but different cross-sections are

suspended (computation with load intensity)
Figure 6 Theory of elasticity when 2 bars of same length but different cross-sections are suspended (computation with load
intensity)
So next what I have decided that I will take a ratio of the load and cross-section. So the intensity
of the load of the thicker bar is P/A whereas, that of the thinner bar is P/a. Now, since P/a is
higher than P/A, intensity of load is higher here in the thinner bar and hence elongation is also
high.
Figure 7 Graph showing theory of elasticity when 2 bars of same length but different cross-sections are suspended
(computation with load intensity)
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So we can conclude that load intensity is also equally important in determining the elongation of
an elastic substance. Hence, not just the load or length but the cross-section of the material on
which the load is acting upon is also very essential in the computation of the elongation.
CASE-4: When 2 bars of different lengths but equal cross-section are

suspended
Figure 8 Theory of elasticity when 2 bars of different lengths but equal cross-section are suspended
Now let us assume another criterion where I have 2 bars of same cross-section but different
lengths L1 and L2 respectively. L1 is smaller than L2. Here, also see that when the length is higher
the elongation is also higher. In other words, ∆L2 is greater than ∆L1 as L2 is greater than L1.
Hence we may conclude that the absolute value of the elongation is not a prime factor rather, the
ratio of proportionate of elongation and the original length is a more dependable factor in
determining the elasticity of a material.
Figure 9 Graph showing theory of elasticity when 2 bars of different lengths but equal cross-section are suspended
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Stress:
Instead of the absolute force if we take the intensity of the force i.e., the ratio of force and area,
we get the stress. Hence, stress is nothing but the force by the perpendicular area.
Mathematically,
Stress (σ) = =
Its unit is N/m2 or kN/m2.
Strain:
The ratio of the change in length and the original length is known as strain.
Mathematically,
Strain (ε) = =
Therefore, both stress and strain are very important in determining the deformation of the elastic
body.
Hooke’s Law:
The scientist Hooke had given a law some 250 years back but is very much applicable till date.
The law states that within the elastic limit, the stress is proportional to strain.
Hence, if you increase the amount of stress proportionally the strain is also going to increase to
some extent of some limit. This limit is called the proportionated limit or maybe the elastic limit.
10
Figure 10 Hooke's Law
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Mathematically,
Stress α Strain
i.e., σαε
i.e., σ = Eε
where, E is a constant called Modulus of Elasticity or the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity. This is
a prime property of the material which signifies its elastic property.
Therefore,
= = E = Modulus of Elasticity
So now, as you know from the earlier slide that stress is P/A (force by area) and the strain is
∆L/L, we can rewrite the above equation of elasticity as given below:
Numerical-1:
Let us solve a small problem. Suppose I have given a bar of original length, L =
1.2 m. The area of the cross-section of the bar is also given as 100 mm2. The
elongation is 6 mm, and external force, P is 75 KN. We have to find out the
magnitude of elasticity of the material of the bar.
Solution: So, we have

Original length, L = 1.2 m = 1200 mm
Area of cross-section, A = 100 mm2
Elongation, ∆L = 6 mm
Force, P = 75 KN
Then,
Step-1: Find the Stress.
Stress (σ) = = = 750 N/mm2

Step-2: Find Strain. 11
Strain (ε) = = = 0.005
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Step-3: Calculate Young’s Modulus of Elasticity.
E= = = 1.5 x N/mm2
Therefore, the value of the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of the material of the bar is 1.5 x
N/mm2.
Graphical Representation Of Elasticity
Figure 11 Graphical representation of Elasticity
Since elasticity is computed as the stress by strain, so the latter is represented in the X-axis in the
graph and the former is represented in the Y-axis. Now I can say that the slope of the graph is
going to give you the elasticity.
Mathematically,
Modulus of Elasticity (E) = = = tan
Because the tan θ is nothing but the height divided by the base; so if you have the different
material. So by either knowing the value of or that of both σ and ε of a particular material, you
can find the Modulus of Elasticity of the corresponding material.
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Numerical-2:
Now I have another problem for you. Here I have shown that this is a 2 m long
bar in which the lower 1 m is hallow. In the hollow part, the outer diameter is 20
mm and inner diameter is 10 mm. In the upper solid portion the diameter is 20
mm. External force, P is 120 KN. Young’s modulus is 2 x N/mm2 which is
equal to the value of steel. So you have to find out the extension of the bar.
[Hint: Find out the elongation separately for each portion as change in area
results in change in stress.]
Solution: Given,
Total length of the bar, L = Ls + Lh = 1 m + 1 m = 2 m
In the solid part of the bar,
Diameter, ds =20 mm
In the hollow portion of the bar,
Outer diameter, d1 = 20 mm
Inner diameter, d2 = 10 mm
External force, P = 120 KN
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity, E = 2 x N/mm2
Now,
Step-1: In the solid portion of the bar
Step-i: Calculate the cross-sectional area
Cross-sectional area of the solid portion, As = = 314.28 mm2
Step-ii: Find the Stress
Stress in the solid portion, σs = = = 381.97 N/mm2
Step-iii: Compute the elongation

Let elongation in the solid portion = ∆Ls
We know that,
Modulus of Elasticity, E = =
13
i.e., E =
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i.e., E =
i.e., ∆Ls = = = 1.909 mm
Step-2: In the hollow portion of the bar

Step-a: Find the cross-sectional area
Cross-sectional area of the hollow portion, A h = a1 – a2 = = 235.71 mm2
Step-b: Compute the Stress
Stress in the hollow portion, σh = = = 509.29 N/mm2
Step-c: Calculate the elongation

Let elongation in the solid portion = ∆Lh
We know that,
Modulus of Elasticity, E = =
Therefore, ∆Lh = = = 2.546 mm
Step-3: Find the total elongation

Total elongation, ∆L = ∆Ls + ∆Lh = 1.909 mm + 2.546 mm = 4.455 mm
Therefore, the total elongation of the bar is 4.455 mm.
The Universal Testing Machine

The Universal Testing Machine is used to find the value of the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity
for various elastic materials.
Figure 12 shows a universal testing machine. 14
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Figure 12 Universal Testing Machine
Stress-Strain Diagram
Following are some salient features of a typical stress-strain diagram, explained through that of
steel.
Limit of Proportionality:
It is the stress at which a stress-strain diagram ceases to be a
straight line. The increase in stress is directly proportional to
strain. Hooke’s law is valid within this zone of stress-strain
combination.
Elastic Limit:
Elastic limit represents the maximum stress in a tensile test
Figure 13 Stress-Strain Diagram showing Limit sample that causes no permanent or residual Deformation after
of Proportionality & Elastic Limit
the removal of the load.
Yield Point
Yield point is the point at which there is an appreciable
elongation or yielding (flow) of material without any
corresponding increase of stress (or loading). Ductile materials
possess a definite yield point.
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Yield Strength
It is the lowest stress at which the extension or yielding of the
Figure 14 Stress-Strain Diagram showing Yield test specimen increases without increasing the load. It is also
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Point & Yield Strength called Yield Stress (σ y). This yield stress is an important
parameter to design any structure.
Ultimate Strength
Ultimate strength or ultimate stress corresponds to the highest
point of the stress –strain curve.
Rupture Strength
Rupture strength is the stress corresponds to the failure of test
Figure 15 Stress-Strain Diagram showing sample under the tensile loading.
Ultimate Strength & Rupture Strength
Figure 16 Stress-Strain Diagram showing different zones of material properties.
In the above figure you can clearly see that in the stress-strain diagram the portion till the Limit
of Proportionality is the Elastic Zone. After the elastic zone we see the Yield Plateau because the
sudden elongation or the strain takes place without increase of the load or the stress. And after
that it again can take up some stress if you consider the redistribution of the molecular structure
in the particular body or the particular object and this zone is called as a Strain Hardening
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portion going to harden again.
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However, during this process if you stretch the material or if you increase the load a large
amount of strain localize disproportionately over the particular part of the material. This results
in a decrease in the cross-sectional area of the concerned portion. This eventually leads to the
formation of a neck and the corresponding position in the curve is known as the zone of Necking.
The stress strain curve above clearly shows that necking starts after the ultimate strength of the
material is reached and sometimes after that point the material may rupture. This point is known
as the Ultimate Stress Point or the Ultimate Tensile Strength. Therefore, the zones corresponding
to the yield plateau, strain hardening and necking combined together, is called the Plastic Zone.
Furthermore, you might have noticed that the material ruptures at a point having lower stress
rather than at the Ultimate Stress Point. Why does it happen so?
This happens because the cross-sectional area reduces locally due to necking. While the stress on
the neck may continue to go up; the reduction in area meaning the load can decrease. If we keep
track of the reduction in sample area, we can divide the force by the actual area (rather than the
original area), and the displacement by the actual length. This leads to quantities
called True Stresses and Strains. Indeed, the true stress-strain graph doesn’t show any negative
gradient.
So stress is increase enormously but what we can do is we can actually find out the area of cross
section before the test. We do not have any kind of testing system that will every time we can
find out the cross section in the duration of the particular this thing particular test. So if you can
actually find out the neck areas so actual the true curve will be something like this and this will
be the point of rapture and that will be the actual highest point of that.
But unfortunately, we cannot measure the necking and we cannot recalculate the stress as we do
not possess any such instrument which would be able to track the change in the cross-section
during the experiment.
Besides, Hooke’s law is applicable in this phenomenon till the yield point as you know. And if
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you put the load till this point and then if you remove the load the curve will come back but it
will not come back to the original strain or the original position. There will be some kind of
permanent deformation in the material.
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References:
 Engineering Mechanics by Timishenko and Young McGraw-Hill Publication
 Strength of Materials By B.C. Punmia, Ashok K.Jain & Arun K.Jain Laxmi Publication
 Basic Structures for Engineers and Architects By Philip Garrison, Blackwell Publisher
 Understanding Structures: An Introduction to Structural Analysis By Meta A. Sozen
Conclusion:
 Elasticity is a very important property of the material.
 During an application of external load a material initially undergoes the principle of
elasticity.
 Further, it undergoes large or plastic deformation.
Home Work:
Q1. A solid bar (diameter ‘D’) is replaced by a hollow bar (outer diameter ‘D’ and inner
diameter ‘0.5D’). If all other geometric, material and loading parameters remain unchanged, then
find the percentage increase in elongation in the hollow bar w.r.t. the solid bar.
Q2. A composite member is formed by connecting steel and aluminium bars with following
specifications. Calculate the magnitude of the axial compressive load should be applied on steel
bar so that total length of the composite member decreases by 0.3 mm. Given: ES = 2X105
N/mm2 and EA = 0.7X105 N/mm2.
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Module No # 02
Lecture No # 07
Theory of Elasticity-2
Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on structural systems in architecture. Today
we will discuss the lecture number 7 this is in the module 2 in the Strength of Materials. The
topic of this lecture is Theory of Elasticity-2. If you remember in the part 1 we discussed the
Hooke‟s law and the elasticity theory and with that we also discussed the stress-strain curve of an
elastic material.
Concepts Covered
In this lecture we will delve deeper into the topic with the following concepts:
 Poisson‟s Ratio
 Shear Stress and Rigidity Modulus
 Bulk Modulus
 Engineering Properties of Material
 Factor of Safety
 Concept of Modular Ratio
Learning Objectives
The learning objectives of the lecture are as follows:
 To define the elastic constants.
 To understand the application of factor of safety.
 To learn the concept of modular ratio and its association in design.
Poisson’s Ratio 1
In mechanics, Poisson‟s ratio is the negative of the ratio of transverse strain to lateral or axial
strain. It is named after Siméon Poisson and denoted by the Greek letter „µ‟. It is the ratio of the
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amount of transversal expansion to the amount of axial compression for small values of these
changes.
Hence, it is defined as follows:

“The ratio of Lateral Strain to Longitudinal Strain is always constant for a given material
and is known as the Poisson‟s Ratio.”
Mathematically,
Poisson‟s Ratio (µ) =
Poisson‟s Ratio is dimensionless and for most materials, it ranges between 0-0.5.
When a material is stretched in one direction, it tends to compress in the direction perpendicular
to that of force application and vice versa. The measure of this phenomenon is given in terms of
Poisson‟s ratio. For example, a rubber band tends to become thinner when stretched. For tensile
deformation, Poisson‟s ratio is positive whereas, for compressive deformation, it is negative.
To understand this concept better, let as imagine a material such as rubber as shown below in the
Figure 1(a). Now let us suppose that this material is pulled from its ends (lateral strain occurs) as
shown in the Figure 1(b).
Figure 1 (a)- Original Bar; (b)- Transformed Bar
As shown in the figures, when the tensile force is applied at the ends of the bar of length L, it
elongates by a length of ∆L whereas, the force results in a compression in the vertical direction
of the bar (longitudinal strain occurs) which in return decreases the original diameter (d) of the
cross-section by ∆d.
Formula of Poisson’s Ratio 2
Given in the Figures 2(a) and 2(b) are two pictures of the same bar suspended vertically, before
and after transformation due to the application of load respectively.
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Figure 2 (a)- Original Bar; (b)- Transformed Bar
Contrary to the previous case, here, the strain acting upon the cross-section of the bar is lateral
strain whereas, that acting upon the length of the bar is longitudinal strain.
Hence, Poisson‟s Ratio (µ) =
But, lateral strain =
And, longitudinal strain =
Here we have,
Original diameter = d
Change in diameter = ∆d
Original length = L
Change in length = ∆L
Then, lateral strain =
And, longitudinal strain =

Therefore,
µ= = × 3
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Numerical-1
Q. A rod of original length 500mm is elongated by 2.5mm under a tensile load. During the
process the diameter of the rod is reduced by 0.025mm. The original diameter of the rod was
20mm. Compute the Poisson‟s Ratio of the material.
Solution:
Given,
L = 500 mm
∆L = 2.5 mm
∆d = 0.025 mm
d = 20 mm
Then,
Step-1: Find the lateral strain.
Lateral strain = = = 0.00125
Step-2: Find the longitudinal strain.
Longitudinal strain = = = 0.005
Step-3: Calculate the Poisson‟s Ratio.
Poisson‟s Ratio (µ) = = 0.25 4
Therefore the value of the Poisson‟s ratio for the given criteria is 0.25.
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Shear Stress
You may have tried to break a thick wooden stick, but failed in the attempt to do so. You may
have tried to break it by stepping on it really hard. Here, what made it break is its shear stress.
Shear stress is the deforming force acting per unit area and in the direction perpendicular to the
axle of the member. The impact of your load when you step in a wooden stick causes two types
of stress, these are:
 Bending Stress, which is parallel to the axle of the member also called flexural stress.
 Shear Stress, which acts in a direction perpendicular to the axle of the member.
Nonetheless, it is interesting to note that the word “shear” means „to cut off‟. When force is
applied over the surface area of a rigid body (force acting in a direction parallel to the surface)
then this force tries to cut off one part of the body from the other. As a result of this the body
gets deformed and hence strain is produced (shear strain- the angular deflection of the body from
its original position). Due to the rigidity of the body, it resists the deformation caused and a
restoring force (equal and opposite to the applied force) is developed along the surface of the
body as per Newton‟s 3rd law of motion). This restoring force of the body tends to oppose the
shearing effect of the applied force. Thus shear stress is just an effect of shear strain.
Hence, the shear force may be defined as:

“It is a force that acts on a plane which passes through the body.”
Mathematically,
Shear stress = q =
It is measured in N/mm2.
The shear forces are unaligned and separate the structure into two different parts in opposite
directions. The shear force acts in a perpendicular direction to the larger part of the body.
5
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Shear force, in a beam, acts perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. The beam‟s ability to resist
shear force is much more important as compared to its ability to resist axial force. Axial force
acts parallel to the longitudinal axis of the beam.
Figure 3 (From top right) (a)- Two plates fastened by a rivet; (b)- Shear stress due to breakage of rivet due to pulling in the
opposite directions; (c)- a broken rivet
To better explain the shear force let us consider two identical plates as shown in the figure above.
Figure 3(a) shows two green coloured plates fastened together by a rivet. Now let us suppose that
the two plates are pulled in two opposite directions as shown in the Figure 3(b). Under this
circumstance the excessive shear force caused will result in the slicing of the rivet as shown in
the Figure 3(c). Hence this force is also known as a slicing force and acts in a direction
perpendicular to the larger part of the body.
However, it is important to note that the rivet could break only because both the plates were of
equal dimension and hence the force acting upon was also equal and opposite.
Deformation under Shear Stress

Let us consider a block made of any material or best, let us consider a very thick book to better
understand this concept. Then, when you subject it to a tangential force from the top, the book
will deform as shown in the figure 4.
This kind of deformation takes place when the force is applied at the top tangentially as shown in 6
the Figure 4 the shear force is transferred through the different layers of the book or the block.
The change in angle at the corner of the original block or book is called the shear strain. Shearing
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forces cause shearing deformation. An element subjected to shear does not change in length but
undergoes a change in shape.
Figure 4 Deformation of a block under shear stress
Modulus of Rigidity
Figure 5 Modulus of Rigidity
Figure 5 shows a one sided sectional view of the block shown in Figure 4 which is having a
height „h‟ and a shear stress „q‟ units is applied at the top. So because of this application of the
shear stress at the top there will also be resultant shear stress acting in the base. This eventually
results in the deformation of the body as represented by the red dotted lines in the Figure 5.
We can measure the deformation by the angular displacement as Φ. But this angle is so small
that tan Φ is equivalent to Φ.
Mathematically,
Since, tan Φ → Φ
Therefore, tan Φ = Φ = = Shear Strain
Where, δ is the small increment of the lateral displacement at the top most layer and h is the 7
thickness of the plate or thickness of that particular block.
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Then,
Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus (G) =
Numerical-2
Q. A 2mX2m metal plate is subjected to a shear force of 40000KN. The lower face of the metal
plate is fixed. The thickness of the plate is 200mm. Due to the application of the shear force the
top face is deformed by 0.24mm. Find Modulus of Rigidity of the metal.
Solution:
Given,
Dimension of the plate = 2m x 2m
Thickness of the plate, h = 200 mm
Shear force = 40,000 KN
Linear displacement, δ = 0.24 mm
Now,
Step-1: Find the Shear Stress
Shear stress, q = = = 10 N/mm2
Step-2: Find the Shear Strain
Shear strain, Φ = = = = 0.0012

Step-3: Calculate the Modulus of Rigidity
Modulus of Rigidity, G = = = 8.33 × N/mm2
Therefore, the modulus of rigidity of the given metal plate was found to be 8.33 × 10 3 N/mm2.
Bulk Modulus
Bulk Modulus is the third kind of modulus after the Young‟s Modulus of Elasticity which is
8
applicable for linear stress or strain, and the Rigidity Modulus which is applicable for the shear
strain. The Bulk Modulus is volumetric where considering an object such as a balloon, if you
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push or press it with some load or may be some stress, the total volume of the balloon decreases
or the stress increases internally.
Figure 6 Bulk Modulus
Since the volume of the balloon is decreasing, its volumetric changes can only be computed with
the help of some kind of modulus which in this case is the Bulk Modulus.
So let us consider a cube with its original volume V as shown in the Figure 6. And let there be
„p‟ unit of stress acting in three mutually perpendicular directions on the cube.
Let us consider that the cube is filled with air just like a balloon. Then, if the cube is placed
under water there would be hydrostatic force acting on the cube from all directions, trying to
compress it. At this point, the cube offers some resistivity so as not to get crushed completely.
This resistivity is inherent to the material and is known as Bulk Modulus.
Now let us assume that this phenomenon leads to a reduction in the volume of the cube by ∆V.
Then,
Volumetric Strain =
Hence, Bulk Modulus, K = =
Therefore, Bulk Modulus may be defined as

9
The measure of how resistant the material is to compression.
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Mathematically,
Bulk Modulus = = =
Relationship with other Moduli

Relationship between Young’s Modulus and Bulk Modulus :
The relationship between the Young‟s Modulus of Elasticity and the Bulk Modulus is given as
E = 3K (1-2µ)
Where, E is the Young‟s Modulus, K is Bulk Modulus and µ is the Poisson‟s Ratio.
Relationship between Young’s Modulus and Rigidity Modulus:

The relationship between the Young‟s Modulus and the Rigidity Modulus is given as
E = 2N (1 + µ)
Where, E is Young‟s Modulus, N is the Rigidity Modulus and µ is the Poisson‟s Ratio.
Engineering Properties of Various Materials

Table 1 shows the various engineering properties of different materials, such as the Young‟s
Modulus of Elasticity, Yield Strength and the Ultimate Strength. However, it is important to note
that some alloys such as steel varies in its magnitude yield strength and ultimate strength
depending on its type. For instance, the stainless steel may have a different value than its high
tensile variants. Hence, depending upon the percentage of the carbon used and how the steel is
processed, it will have different values of various engineering properties.
Factors of Safety
Here, the graph shown in the Figure 7 is a stress-strain curve of steel. As discussed earlier, there
is a point in the curve called the yield stress which comes at a certain distance after the
proportional limit.
10
At this point if you increase the stress or replace the sample with a higher load the stress will not
increase but the strain would increase rapidly.
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Figure 7 Stress-strain curve of steel showing factor of safety
However, the stress again increases after a while and then it reaches to its ultimate stress and
finally the material ruptures. Hence, the yield stress has been considered as one of the important
criteria for designing any structure.
Thereupon, during the designing process, it is taken care that the load of the structural element
doesn‟t exceed the yield stress otherwise the material would exhibit plastic deformations which
will not be suitable for use in a structural component. Despite this fact, it is advisable that the
load restrictions should be fixed after considering a safety margin and not the yield stress
straightaway. This stress limit is known as the permissible working stress.
For instance, let us suppose that the yield stress is 250 units but the permissible working stress is
150 units then even though the stress exceeds 150 units and goes up to 160 units or 170 units, the
structure will still be safe and would not undergo plastic deformation.
Hence, we may define the Permissible Working Stress as

“The safe stress taken within the elastic range of material.”
It is also called the safe stress, working stress, actual stress and allowable stress.
Whereas, Factor of Safety may be defined as 11

“The number used to determine the working stress.”
It is fixed based on the experimental works on the material.
110
Mathematically,
Permissible Working Stress ( =
Where, factor of safety > 1.
Numerical-3
Q. A steel bar needs to carry an axial pull of 80KN. The Yield Stress of steel is found as 250
N/mm2. Using Factor of Safety as 1.25, estimate the diameter of the bar required to safely carry
the axial pull.
Solution:
Given,
Force, p = 80 KN
Yield stress, σy = 250 N/mm2
Factor of safety = 1.25
Diameter of bar = ?
Then,
Step-1: Find the Permissible Working Stress
Permissible working stress (σp) = = = 200 N/mm2
12
Step-2: Calculate the cross-sectional area of the bar
Required cross-sectional area of the bar = = = 400 mm2
111
Step-3: Compute the diameter of the bar

We have,
3.142 x = 400
i.e., d2 = = 509.09
i.e., d = 22.56 mm
Therefore, the diameter of the bar required to safely carry the axial pull is 22.56 mm.
Percentage Elongation
Consequently, let us now study how to calculate the percentage elongation of a bar when
subjected to a tensile stress.
Let us suppose that the original length of a bar is L0 and at the time of rupture the bar elongates
to a length of Lf.
Figure 8 Percentage elongation
Then,
elongation in the bar = Lf – L0
13
Hence,
Percentage elongation =
112
Types of Fracture
Next, there are mainly three different types of fractures which may occur in case of rupture.
They are pure ductile fracture, cup and cone fracture and brittle fracture. Conversely, unlike the
first two kinds of fractures which occur in ductile materials, the third kind takes place in case of
brittle materials. All these three types are explained along with pictures in the following
paragraphs.
Pure Ductile Fracture
This kind of fracture occurs in very ductile materials such as soft metals
(at room temperature), other metals, polymers, glasses at high
temperature. In a pure ductile type of fracture the cross-section of the
material at the point of rupture reduces considerably and finally breaks
Figure 9 Pure Ductile
Fracture
into two parts.
Cup & Cone Fracture
This kind of fracture happens in moderately ductile materials mainly

due to uniaxial tension. It is essentially the separation of a body into two
separate pieces due to the application of excessive tensile stress. This
mode of fracture gets its name from the resulting shapes at the end of
Figure 10 Cup & Cone the broken pieces after a failure has occurred.
Fracture
Brittle fracture
This kind of fracture happens only in brittle materials such as pieces of

chalks or concrete. During brittle fractures the structure fails with a
slicing kind of failure.
Figure 11 Brittle Fracture
14
113
Numerical-4
Q. A bar having original gauge length 600m and diameter 16mm is tested under tensile load. The
maximum load that is recorded in the test is 95.5KN. At failure the final length of the bar had
become 675mm. Find (i) Ultimate Strength of the bar material, (ii) the percentage elongation.
Solution:
Given,
Original length, L0 = 600 m
Original diameter, d = 16 mm
Load, p = 95.5 KN
Final length, Lf = 675 mm
Then,
Step-1: Find the area of the cross-section
Cross-sectional area of the bar = = = 201.14 mm2 ≈ 201mm2

Step-2: Calculate the Ultimate Strength
Ultimate strength = = = 475.12 N/mm2 ≈ 475 N/mm2
Step-3: Compute the Percentage Elongation
Percentage Elongation = × 100 = × 100 = 12.5
Therefore,
(i) The ultimate strength of the bar was found to be approximately 475 N/mm2.
(ii) The percentage elongation of the bar was calculated to be 12.5.
15
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Modular Ratio
Case-1: Two bars of different lengths and cross-sectional diameters
Figure 12 Modular Ratio
Finally, let us go to the concept of modular ratio. So let there be two bars A and B the details of
which are given below in the Table 1.
Table 1 Modular Ratio
Bar-A Bar-B
Length La Lb
Cross-sectional Area Aa Ab
Young‟s Modulus Ea Eb
Force Pa Pb
Let the total load be P such that

P = Pa + Pb
Now,
Stress in bar-A = σa =
And Stress in bar-B = σa =
16
Then,
Elongation in the bar-A = ∆La =
115
And Elongation in the bar-A = ∆Lb =
But,
∆La = ∆Lb
i.e., =
i.e., =
i.e., =m×
i.e., σa = m × × σb
Where, m is the modular ratio.

So theoretically,
The Modular Ratio is the ratio of Modulus of Elasticity of two materials.
Generally Modular Ratio is expressed as modulus of stronger material to relatively weaker

material. Usually it is used in case of composite beams.
Finally, the force or stresses in each bar can be computed by the following equation:
Case-2: Two bars having same original length

We know that,
σa = m × × σb
i.e., = =m
i.e., σ a = m × σb
Again we know that,

P = (σa × Aa) + (σb × Ab)
Then,
17
Substituting σa = m × σb
P = (m × σb × Aa) + (σb × Ab) = σb (m Aa + Ab)
Now,
116
Substituting σb =
P = (m × × Aa) + ( × A b) = (m Aa + Ab)
Numerical-5
Q. A column having cross-sectional dimension as 300mm × 300mm, is reinforced with four bars
of 16 mm diameter. The total load on the column is 2500 KN. Young‟s Modulus of elasticity of
steel is 2 × 105 N/mm2 and that of concrete is 0.17 × 105 N/mm2. Find the stress in the steel and
column. Also find the load share between concrete and steel.
Solution: Given,
Cross-sectional area of column, A c = (300 × 300) mm2 = 90000 mm2
Diameter of steel bars = 16 mm
Then, Cross-sectional area of a steel bars = 3.142 × = 201.14 mm2 ≈ 201mm2

Then, cross-sectional area of 4 steel bars, A s = 804 mm2
Also given,
Total load, P = 2500 KN
Young‟s Modulus of Elasticity of steel, Es = 2 × 10 5 N/mm2
Young‟s Modulus of Elasticity of concrete, Ec = 0.17 × 105 N/mm2
Now,
Step-1: Find the Stress in concrete 18
We know that,
= = = 11.7
117
i.e., σs = 11.7 σc
Again,
We also know that,
i.e., P = (11.7 σc × 804) + [ × (90000-804)] = σc (9406.8 + 89,196)

i.e., P = 98,602.8 σc
i.e., 98,602.8 σc = 2500 × 103
i.e., σc = 25.35 N/mm2
Step-2: Find the stress in steel

We have, σs = 11.7 σc = 11.7 × 25.35 = 296.64 N/mm2
Step-3: Compute the load share concrete and steel

Load share of Concrete = 25.3 × (90000-804) = 2256.66 KN ≈ 2256 KN
Load share of Steel = 296.6 × 804 = 238.466 KN ≈ 238 KN
Therefore, the strain in steel was found to be 296.64 N/mm2 and that of concrete was found to be
25.35 N/mm2. Furthermore, the load share in the former and latter was found to be
approximately 238 KN and 2256 KN respectively.
Conclusion
Thus, the following points may be noted in conclusion:
 Elastic material possesses various parametric constants like Poisson‟s Ratio, Modulus of
Rigidity and Bulk Modulus.
 They all are interrelated with the Young‟s Modulus of Elasticity.
 Modular Ratio is one of the prime factor that governs the design of composite structures.
19
118
References
 Understanding Structures: An Introduction to Structural Analysis By Meta A. Sozen & T.
Ichinose, CRC Press
Homework
Q1. The following data table was obtained during a tensile test of a metal sample. The length of
the sample is 1.2 m and the cross-section area is 200 mm2 . The sample fails into two parts at 80
KN load, mentioned at the last row of the table.
Tensile Load Elongation

KN mm
10 0.4
Find the following:
20 0.8
1. Modulus of Elasticity
30 1.2
2. Yield Stress
40 1.6
3. Ultimate Stress
50 2
4. Rapture Stress
60 2.4
5. Permissible working stress keeping factor of safety as
70 8
1.5
80 12.6
6. Percentage elongation
90 18.2
100 34.8
90 50.4
80 75
Q2. Two posts of different material, cross-section area and length are supporting 50KN load. 20
Find the following referring the figure below:
(i) Modular Ratio and
119
(ii) Stresses in the posts
21
120

Module No # 02
Lecture No # 08
Shear Force Diagram
Hello students! Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems In
Architecture. We are in the module 2; the topic is Strength of Materials which is the 3rd lecture
under this module. And today we will discuss the shear force diagram.
Concepts Covered
In this particular lecture we will cover the following concepts:
 Introduction
 Shear Force
 Shear Force Diagram
 SFD for Cantilever Beams
 SFD for Simply Supported Beams
Learning Objectives
The learning objectives of this particular lecture are as follows:
 Overviewing the Shear Force.
 Understanding the Concept of Shear Force Diagram.
 Illustrating the Shear Force Diagram.
Indian Institute of Technology | [Type the company address]
121
Introduction
Now in the introduction I want to say that any kind of a loading is integral part of a structural
member because they are actually required to transmit the load of any super structure such as a
bridge.
The load of the vehicles, pedestrians etc. act as an external load on a structural element such as a
beam or a column. This load will create some kind of physical deformation in the body (as we
have seen in the past 2 lectures) due to some axial force resulting in compression or tension in
the members. But this physical transformation of the body is purely based on some of the typical
parameters as mentioned below:
 Loading type and intensity
As an illustration of this point, I’d like to mention that by loading type I mean to say it
can either be a moment kind of a loading or maybe axial force or a force which is
applied directly perpendicular to the axis etc.
 Loading geometry
Secondly, by geometry of the loading I mean what are the distances or what is the length
of a particular uniformly distributed load and what is the distance between the 2
consecutive loads and so forth.
 Types of support and the orientation of the structural element

As you know that a structure behaves differently if the supports are different and the
orientation of the structure is also different.
 Sectional property of the element

The area, the moment of inertia, the section modulus etc. come under this category.
 Material property of element

It is basically the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity.
2
122
Orientation of various forces

The following figures show the orientation of different forces and their effect on a body.
Compressive force
Compression force (or compressive force) occurs when a
physical force presses inward on an object, causing it to
become compacted. This change maybe either temporary or
permanent depending upon the elasticity of the object.
Figure 1 Compression
Tensile force
Tensile force is the stretching forces acting on the material and
has two components namely, tensile stress and tensile strain.
This means that the material experiencing the force is under
tension and the forces are trying to stretch it. The elongation
caused in the body due to this force also maybe either
temporary or permanent depending upon the elasticity of the
Figure 2 Tension material.
Shear force
A shear force is a force applied perpendicular to a surface, in
opposition to an offset force acting in the opposite direction.
This results in a shear strain. In simple terms, one part of the
surface is pushed in one direction, while another part of the
Figure 3 Shear force surface is pushed in the opposite direction.
Moment
A moment is equivalent to a force multiplied by the length of
the line passing through the point of reaction and that is 3
Figure 4 Moment
perpendicular to the force.
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Shear Force
The following figures show the effect of shear force on a horizontal member such as a beam
supported over two walls having a gap between them.
A simply supported beam is subjected to a very heavy

load at its center.
Figure 5 Shear failure step-1
Due to the excessive load the beam keeps bending until

it can stand no longer and finally breaks from the center
due to the resultant shear force.
The middle portion after breaking gets detached from
the portions at the ends which are supported over the
walls.
As has been noted that shearing forces are unaligned forces pushing one part of a body in one
specific direction, and another part of the body in the opposite direction.
Here In this case also there are two kinds of forces formed at the point of breakage. The
downward forces are formed at the ends of the purple portion of the beam due to which it crashes 4
to the ground while the upward forces are formed at the ends of the yellow colored portion of the
124
beam which enables them to stay put. In other words, the yellow ends of the beam, towards the
center, move upwards relative to the downward-moving purple portion. So we get a failure
where the failure surfaces slide past each other causing a shear failure. Hence a shear force is
rightly called as a cutting or slicing force.
Shear Force Diagram
Figure 8 Simply supported beam having partly UDL and subjected to point load
A shear force diagram is one which shows variation in shear force along the length of the beam.
As you already know that a beam is subjected to various kinds of loads and also reactions at the
supports due to these loads. Figure 8 shows a beam supported at both the ends represented by
blue colored upward arrows. The beam is partly subjected to a uniformly distributed load (UDL)
and three point loads represented with black colored downward arrows. The black colored dotted
lines show the points of cross-sections where the resultant forces maybe calculated.
In order to draw the shear force diagram of a given beam, at first you need to find the reactions at
each support due to the loads acting on it. Thereafter, you may proceed computing the forces by
adding the positive ones and subtracting the negative ones at each point starting from left to
right.
5
When you start computing from the left side, the forces shown with upward arrows (such as the
supports) are positive whereas, that shown with downward arrows (such as the loads shown with
black arrows in the Figure 8) are negative. Conversely, if you start computing from the right the
125
vice-versa is true. These set of rules used to estimate the sign of particular force acting upon the
given beam is known as sign convention. It is extremely important while drawing the shear force
diagrams.
Example-1
Figure 9 Example of SFD; Step-1
Now let us understand the process of making a shear force diagram with the following example.
Given in Figure 9 is a simply supported beam subjected to two point loads of 15 units and 5 units
respectively. The length of the span is not mentioned as this example is meant just for the basic
understanding of how to approach a problem of shear force diagram.
Step-1: Find the reactions at each of the supports

Here we have,
Total load = 15 + 5 = 20 units
Then,
Sum of the total reactions = 20 units
i.e., reaction at left end + reaction at right end = 20 units
Now,
Since the span is not given, we cannot estimate the exact reaction forces.
So,
Let us assume that it is 12 units in the left hand side.
Then, 6
Reaction at the right hand side = 20 -12 = 8 units
126
Step-2: Calculate the forces at each point

The computation of forces is done here from left to right. In the present example the two point
loads divide the span of the beam into three parts. So first, we have to consider the portion
starting from the very left end and up to the point where the point load of 15 units is acting upon
the beam, as shown in the Figure 10.
Figure 10 Example of SFD; Step-2(a)
Now in this particular section, the magnitude of reaction at the support is 12 units. In other
words, an upward force of 12 units acts in the support at the left hand side of the beam. Hence
this is a positive force. So from this point onwards and until the next point, where the point load
of 15 units acts on the beam, the shear force will be constant, i.e. 12 units. It’ll be constant as
there is no other force acting on the beam between these two points. Figure 11 shows the shear
force diagram at this point.
Figure 11 Example of SFD; Step-2(b)

7
Conversely, since the point load of 15 units is a downwards force, it is negative.
Thus,
The shear force at this point will be (12-15) units i.e., -3 units.
127
Therefore,
The shear force diagram at this point will go 3 units below the axis and will remain
constant until the point where the point load of 5 units acts upon the beam, as shown in the
following Figure 12.
Figure 12 Example of SFD; Step- 2(c)
Again at this point, the point load of 5 units is a downward force. So it is negative.
Hence,
Shear force at this point is (-3-5) units, i.e., -8 units.
This value will also be constant till the right most end of the beam as shown in the Figure 13.
So,
At this point the value of the shear force will be (-8 + 8) units, i.e., 0 units.
Accordingly, the resultant shear force diagram can be seen in the Figure 13.
128
Figure 13 Example of SFD; Step-2(d)
Therefore, to sum up, we may say that,

A shear force diagram or an SFD is the representation of graphical variation of the shear
force in different cross-sections over the length of the particular structural element.
Computation of Reactions for SFD

Case-1: Simply Supported Beam Subjected To a Concentrated or Point Load
Figure 14 Simply supported beam due to concentrated or point load
Given in the Figure 14 is a simply supported beam spanning across length L and subjected to a
point load P at its center.
Then,
Step-1: Compute the reactions
9
As we know that,
Sum of positive forces = sum of negative forces
i.e., sum of the reactions at both ends = P
129
i.e., = P [Since, the load P divides the beam symmetrically]

Hence,
Reaction at each end of the given simply supported beam subjected to a point load
at its center is P/2.
Step-2: Computation of shear force and the SFD

As mentioned earlier,
Starting the computation of the shear force from the left most end, we have shear
force at the left support is +P/2. This value of shear force will remain constant until the
center of the beam.
Then,
Shear force at the center = =-

Hence at this point,
In the SFD, there is a visible drop in the graph from P/2 and –P/2, as shown in the
Figure 14. From this point, the graph will again be constant till the far right end as there
is no other load in between. At this end also there is positive force acting, having
magnitude P/2.
So,
Shear force at the right end = - =0

Therefore, the SFD will end hear with a shear force value as 0.
Figure 15 SFD of a simply supported beam subjected to point load
The final SFD of given beam can be seen in the above Figure 15. 10
130
Case-2: Simply Supported Beam Subjected to Two Point Loads
Figure 16 Simply supported beam subjected to two point loads spaced at equal intervals
Similarly, here we have another simply supported beam of length L, which is subjected to two
point loads of equal magnitude P placed at equal intervals. Let these points be B and C
respectively and the two end supports be A and D respectively. See Figure 16 for reference.
Then,
Step-1: Find the Reactions RA and RB
We have,
Total downward forces = P + P = 2P
So,
RA + RD = 2P
Here,
Though our common sense tells us that since loading is symmetrical so the
reactions also must be equal, but let us go step-by-step so as to understand the process of
calculating the reactions.
So as per the law of equilibrium of forces we also know that,

Total clockwise moment = total anticlockwise moment
So taking moment about A we have,
i.e.,
i.e., P × L = RD × L
i.e., RD = P
i.e., RA = P
11
Step-2: Determine the Shear Force at A

Shear force at A = RA = P
131
So we have,
The shear force at A as P and this value will remain constant till B as there is no
other load in between.
Step-3: Compute the Shear Force at B

Shear force at B = RA – Load at B = P – P = 0
Similarly,
The shear force at B is 0 and this will remain constant till C as there is again no
other load between B and C.
Step-4: Calculate the Shear Force at C

Shear force at C = SF at B – Load at C = 0 – P = -P
Again,
The SF at C is –P which will also remain constant until D as there is no other load
in between.
Step-5: Shear Force at D

Finally,
Shear force at D = SF at C + RD [Since RD is a positive force]
= -P + P = 0
Step-6: Plot the graph

Now plot the values of SF at each point A, B, C and D on a graph. The resultant drawing
is the Shear Force Diagram. The SFD for this example can be seen in Figure 17.
12
Figure 17 SFD of a simply supported beam subjected to two point loads.
132
Case-3: Cantilever Beam Subjected to Point Load at the End
Figure 18 Cantilever beam subjected to point load at the end
Next, let us see how to compute the reaction for a cantilever beam subjected to a point load.
Given in the Figure 18 is a cantilever beam with its supported at the left end and spanning across
a length of L. Besides, a point load P is acting on the beam at the right most end of the beam as
shown in the Figure 18.
Then,
Step-1: Find the Reaction
As per the law of equilibrium of forces,
Total upward force = total downward force
i.e., reaction at support = P
Hence,
The SF at the reaction is P and it will remain so till the other end where a point
load P is acting and there’s no other load in between.
Step-2: Find the SF at the right end

SF at the right end = SF at support – Load at the right end = P – P = 0
Therefore,
The SFD of the given cantilever beam can be drawn as shown in the Figure 19.
13
Figure 19 SFD of a cantilever beam subjected to a point load at the end
133
Example-2
Figure 20 Cantilever beam subjected to two point loads
We can better understand the SFD of a cantilever beam subjected to point load with this
example. Here in this Figure 20 we have a cantilever beam of span 6m supported at the left end.
The beam is subjected to two point loads of 10 KN and 20 KN at a distance of 2m and 5m from
the support respectively. For the ease of reference let us name each of these points as A, B, C and
D respectively, starting from the support.
Now,
It is important to note that while computing the SFD of a cantilever beam you must
proceed from the free end of the beam.
Step-1: SF at D
So at the point D,
We see that there are no loads acting on it.
Hence, SF at D = 0
Step-2: SF at C
As we can see,
There is 20KN of load acting on the beam at this point.
So, SF at C = 20 KN
Step-3: SF at B
We have,
Load acting at B = 10 KN 14
Thus,
SF at B = load at B + SF at C = (10 + 20) KN = 30 KN
134
Step-4: SF at A
Clearly,
There is no load acting between A and B. So the SF value at B will continue till
the point A.
Also,
SF at A = total downward load
= (10 + 20) KN = 30 KN
Therefore, the final SFD can be drawn by plotting all these values in a graph as shown in the
Figure 21 given below.
Figure 21 SFD of a cantilever beam subjected to two point loads
Case-4: Simply Supported Beam Subjected to Uniformly Distributed Load
Figure 22 Simply supported beam when subjected to a UDL
In the earlier sections we’ve seen how to draw a shear force diagram in case of a point load. But
now let us see what happens to the SFD when a beam is subjected to the UDL. So here we have a
simply supported beam subjected to a UDL of 10 KN/m spread across a length of 3m. Again, the
length of the beam is not provided as it is only meant for understanding purpose. However, the 15
reactions at the supports are given to be 22 KN and 8 KN respectively. The diagram has been
given in the Figure 22.
135
For our ease let us name the vital points as A, B, C, D and E where, A is the support on the left
hand side, B is the point from where the UDL begins, C is the midpoint of the UDL, D is the
point where the UDL ends and E is the support at the right hand side.
Then,
Step-1: SF at A
We have,
Reaction at A = RA = 22 KN
So, SF at A is 22 KN.
Step-2: SF at B
As,
SF at A = 22 KN
This value of shear force will remain constant until the point B as there is no other load in
between.
Also,
SF at B = 22 KN
Step-3: SF at C
Here,
C is the midpoint of the UDL.
So,
SF at C = SF at B – (load at C) [-ve sign because UDL is acting downwards]
= [22 – (1.5 × 10)] KN = 7 KN
Unlike the SFD of point loads, that of the UDLs comprise of sloping lines. So here, the
line joining the SF value corresponding to the point B and that of point C is a sloping line
starting from the value 22 KN and ending at 7 KN.
16
Step-4: SF at D
We have,
136
SF at C = 7 KN
So,
SF at D = SF at C – Load at D
= [7 – (10 × 1.5)] = -8 KN
Here also the line joining the SF value corresponding to the point C, i.e. 7KN, and that of
point D, i.e. -8KN, is a sloping line.
Step-5: SF at E
Finally,
SF at E = SF at D + RE [+ve sign because the reaction at E is an upward force]
= (-8 + 8) = 0 KN
Figure 23 SFD of a simply supported beam partly loaded with a UDL
Therefore, the final SFD of the given beam will be as shown in the above Figure 23.
Nevertheless, it is important to note that the shape of the SFD comprises of sloping lines only in
the place of the UDL and not along the entire beam.
Case-5: Simply Supported Beam Subjected to UDL

Next, let us see what happens to the shape of the SFD of a simply supported beam when it is
completely subjected to a UDL. So here we have a simply supported beam of length 5m 17
subjected to a UDL of 12 KN/m.
137
Figure 24 Simply supported beam subjected to UDL
Now,
Step-1: Find the reactions
Let us suppose,
that a simply supported beam of length L is subjected to a UDL of w units.
Then,
Total downward load on the beam = wL units
So,
Total upward load acting on the beam = wL units
i.e. sum of reactions at both supports = wL units
i.e., reaction at each support = units [Since the reactions at both the
supports are equal]
Therefore,
The formula for finding the reactions of a simply supported beam when subjected to a
UDL = units
Hence,
Reactions for the given beam = = = 30 KN each
Step-2: SF at left end

We have,
Reaction at left end = 30 KN
i.e., SF at left end = 30 KN
So the SFD here will be a straight vertical line from the base axis and reaching up to the
18
point 30 KN on the positive side i.e., above the base axis.
138
Step-3: SF at midpoint
As,
SF at left end = 30 KN
Then,
SF at midpoint = 30 - load at midpoint [-ve sign because UDL is acting
downwards]
= 30 – (12 × 2.5) = 0
Therefore,
The SFD here will be sloping line joining the previous point and intersecting the
base axis at the midpoint.
Step-4: SF at right end

We have,
SF at the midpoint = 0
So, SF at right left of the right end = 0 – UDL acting at this point
= 0 – (12 × 2.5) = -30 KN
But,
The support reaction at this end is a positive upward force of 30 KN.
Then,
SF at right end = (-30 + 30) KN = 0
Therefore,
Here again the SFD will be a straight inclined line joining the preceding point to
the point representing -30 KN of SF and then it will go straight up with a vertical line
joining this point to 0 on the base axis.
Hence,
The final SFD of the given beam is as shown in the Figure 25.
19
139
Figure 25 SFD of a simply supported beam subjected to UDL.
Case-6: Simply Supported Beam Partly Loaded with a UDL
Figure 26 Simply supported beam partly loaded with a UDL
Further, let us see what happens to the SFD of a simply supported beam when it is partly loaded
with a UDL. So given in the Figure 26 is a simply supported beam of span 8m which is loaded
with a UDL of 10 KN/m till the geometric center of the beam, i.e., up to 4m.
For the ease of computation three points A, B and C has been marked in the Figure 26. Yet let us
consider some more points P, Q and R where each of these points are placed at an interval of 1m
along the UDL respectively. This is done so as to track the changes in the values of SF along the
UDL at these points.
Next,
Step-1: Find the reactions at supports
We have,
Total downward load = 10 KN/m × 4 m = 40 KN
Then, 20
RA + RB = 40 KN
Taking moment about A,
140
(10 × 4) × 2 = 8 RB
i.e., 80 = 8RB
i.e., RB = 10 KN
i.e., RA = 40 – 10 = 30 KN
Step-2: SF at A
As,
RA = 30 KN
So SF at A = 30 KN
Here the SFD will be a straight vertical line starting from the base axis and reaching up to
the point corresponding 30 KN.
Step-3: SF at P
We have,
SF at the left of P = SF at A = 30 KN
So, SF at P = 30 – (10 × 1) = 20 KN
i.e., from the point A if you move towards right then after every 1m of distance we’ll lose
10 KN of load. This happens because it is a UDL and its value is given as 10 KN/m.
For this reason,
The SFD here will be a straight inclined line starting from the point corresponding
30 KN and joining up to the point corresponding to 20 KN.
Step-4: SF at Q
Here,
SF at the left of Q = SF at P = 20 KN
So, SF at Q = 20 – (10 × 1) = 10 KN
Again,
There is a reduction in the load by 10 KN.
As a result, here also the SFD will be a straight inclined line joining the points 21
corresponding to 20 KN and that of 10 KN.
141
Step-5: SF at R
Similarly,
SF at the left of R = SF at Q = 10 KN
Thus, SF at R = 10 – (10 × 1) = 0
Therefore,
The SFD at this point has to intersect the base axis.
Step-6: SF at C
Again,
SF at the left of C = SF at R = 0
Then, SF at C = 0 – (10 × 1) = -10 KN
Hence,
Here also the SFD will be a straight inclined line joining the previous point and
the point corresponding to the SF value -10 KN.
Step-7: SF at B
Finally,
SF at the left of B = SF at C = -10 KN
So, SF at B = -10 + RB = -10 + 10 KN = 0
As there is no UDL present so here the SFD will be a straight vertical line. The final SFD
can be seen in the following Figure 27.
22
Figure 27 SFD of a simply supported beam partly loaded with a UDL.
142
Case-7: Cantilever Beam Completely Loaded With UDL
Figure 28 Cantilever beam completely loaded with UDL
Next, we’ll discuss about the SFD of a cantilever beam subjected to UDL. Here we have a
cantilever beam of length L subjected to a UDL of w units.
So,
Let X is a point on the beam at x distance from the free end.
Then,
SF at X = wx
Thus,
At x = 0, SF = 0
At x = L, SF = wL
Therefore,
The final SFD is given in the following Figure 29.
Figure 29 SFD of a cantilever beam subjected to UDL

23
143
Case-8: Cantilever Beam Partly Loaded With UDL and Point Loads
Figure 30 Cantilever beam partly loaded with UDL
Finally, in the Figure 30 we have a cantilever beam of 6m length. Now let us take four points A,
B, C and D on the beam starting from the fixed end and then at intervals of 2m each.
Then, as evident from the figure, we have a point load of 20 KN at B, a UDL of 10 KN/m from
B to C and another point load of 15 KN at D
Now starting the computation from the free end,

Step-1: SF at D
SF at D = 15 KN
Step-2: SF at C
As there is no load between C and D the value of SF at D will continue till C. But as
evident from the Figure 30, we have a UDL from B to C and as you’re aware from the
previous sections that the SFD in presence of a UDL is an inclined line. So, it is
important to find the SF at the left of C.
Thus,
Let us conside a point X anywhere between B and C, at a distance of x metres
from C.
Then,
SF at X = SF at C + load at X = (15 + 10x) KN
So,
At x = 1m, SF at X = 25 KN 24
At x = 2m, SF at X = 35 KN
i.e., SF at the right of B = 35 KN
144
Step-3: SF at B
SF at B = SF at the right of B + load at B = (35 + 20) KN = 55 KN
Step-4: SF at A
As there’s no load between A and B, so the SF at B will continue till A.
The final SFD can be seen in the following Figure 31.
Figure 31 SFD of a cantilever beam subjected to UDL and point loads
References
Conclusion
25
 Shear is a slicing force that acts on a structural section due to external loading.
 The graphical representation of variation of shear force over the length of structural
member is called Shear Force Diagram.
145
Homework
Q1. Draw the SFD of the following Cantilever Beam.
Q2. Draw the SFD of the Following Simply Supported Beam assuming a UDL of intensity
6KN/m as per following three locations:
(i) Entire Span, (ii) Only in the central 3 meter portion (iii) End 3 meter portions only, no UDL
in the central portion
26
146

Module No # 02
Lecture No # 09
Bending Moment Diagram
Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on structural systems in architecture in the
module number 2 i.e., the week 2. Strength of Materials is our chapter and today in the lecture no
9 we are going to discuss the bending moment diagram.
The concepts covered in this lecture are given below:

 Bending Moment
 Bending Moment Diagram
 BMD for Simply Supported Beams
 BMD for Cantilever Beams
Besides, the learning objectives for the lecture are as follows:

 Overviewing the theory of Bending Moment.
 Understanding the concept of Bending Moment Diagram.
 Illustrating the Bending Moment Diagram.
Bending Moment
If you remember in the last lecture we had briefly discussed about the bending moment in the
introductory portion. There you had seen that because of external loading some changes occur in
a particular body or a particular element of a structural component. This change is based on the
orientation of the load with respect to the object and how is it applied on the concerned object.
So out of the four kinds of forces, as discussed in the last lecture, one is compression, one is 1
tensile force which results in elongation, the shear force which results in layer deformation and
finally the bending moment which results in the bending of a particular component of a structure.
147
In this lecture we’ll predominantly study the concepts related to the bending of a structure. As
we know that external forces in any structural element produce support reactions. A stable
structural member tends to bend under the external force and support reaction combination. This
moment created by the external force causes bending of member, in general called the Bending
Moment.
The combination of the external loads and the support systems together will give you the
tendency of the bending and the magnitude of bending.
Here in the Figure 1 we have a beam supported

on pillars at both the ends. Also, the beam can
be seen to be subjected by external loading
from above (represented by black downward
arrows). Additionally, we can see two red
colored upward facing arrows at the supports.
These are reaction forces offered by the
supports in response to the external loading. As
you must be aware of the third law of Sir Isaac
Figure 1 A simply supported beam subjected to
external loading Newton which states that “every action has an
equal and opposite reaction”.
Consequently, we know that the structure is

stable as the external loading is balanced by the
reaction forces. However, though this stable
structure will not collapse under the external
loading, yet it will undergo some deformation
2
in the form of bending in the beam.
Figure 2 Bending in the beam
148
Due to the bending the straight beam will take

a curvilinear shape as shown in the Figures 2
and 3. This bending creates a sagging moment
in the beam. Though this moment will not
result in any king of turning or rotation, but it
Figure 3 Bending in elevation will create a zone of compression at the top of

the beam and tension at its bottom.
Due to the tensile force created at the bottom

of the beam it tries to stretch this portion
eventually creating a crack there.
Figure 4 Crack in the beam
Sagging Moment
As discussed earlier, the bending in a simply supported beam creates a sagging moment in it due
to which there is a formation of compression zone at the top of the beam and tension at its
bottom as shown in the Figure 5.
Figure 6 Sign convention of sagging moment
Figure 5 Sagging moment created due 3

to bending in a simply supported beam
It is very important to understand the sign convention of the bending moment.

149
A downward bending is known as the sagging moment which is always positive.
Nevertheless, it is also important to recognize the sagging moment because often times the
bending is so minute that it is seldom visible through the naked eye. In such cases consider a
section of the member which goes from one end to the other end as shown in the Figure 6. Then
if there’s a clockwise moment on the left hand side and an anti-clockwise moment on the right
hand side, the overall moment in the beam is sagging.
Here it is important to note that if one side of the beam has clockwise moment then the other side
will have an anti-clockwise moment so as to balance the previous moment and make the
structure stable.
Hogging Moment
Hogging moment is the opposite of sagging moment where the
bending occurs towards the upward direction. In case of cantilever
beams where one end is fixed, if you place a load above it then the
type of moment you see is a hogging moment.
Contrary to the sagging moment, here the tension zone is created at

the top of the beam whereas the compression zone is created at the
Figure 7 Hogging Moment bottom as shown in the Figure 7. Hence the crack is formed at the
top.
Figure 8 Sign convention of hogging moment

4
Here also it is very important to note the sign convention which is always negative for a hogging
moment.
150
A hogging moment can be recognized if a structural member faces clockwise moment in the
right side and anti-clockwise moment in the left side.
Bending Moment Diagram

Now let us understand the bending moment diagram for which you need to first understand how
the bending takes place. For this let us do a small experiment (shown in the video).
Let us take a 12 inch scale and place it over two supports, one in the position of 1 inch and the
other at the position of 11 inch. So, we have a span of 10 inch between the supports. Then you
exert some pressure on the scale. You’ll be able to see that the scale is bending downwards.
Now, move the supports closer, i.e., at the positions of 4 inch and 9 inch respectively. Now if
you exert the same amount of pressure over the scale you won’t see any bending. However, if
you increase the pressure you’ll now be able to see the scale bending. Hence it is important to
note here that earlier when the span was bigger a small amount of load could cause the bending
in the scale whereas, when the span was reduced considerably, a load almost double the previous
one was required to create the bending of similar magnitude.
Therefore, it is rightly said that bending in a particular structural member is dependent on the
geometry of the loading, magnitude of the load, position of supports etc. Furthermore, let us see
how to draw the bending moment diagram for a simply supported beam subjected to point loads.
The Figure 9 shows a simply supported beam of span 5m supported at the ends A and B. the
beam is subjected to two point loads of 15 units and 5 units at a distance of 1m and 4 m from the
support A respectively.
151
Figure 9 Simply supported beam subjected to two point loads
So, given
P 1 = 15 units
P 2 = 5 units
L = 1m + 3m + 1m = 5 m
Then,
Step-1: Find the support reactions
We know that,
RA + RB = total downward load = 15 + 5 = 20 units
So taking moment about A,
5RB = 5X4 + 15X1 =35
i.e., RB = 7KN
i.e., RA = (20-7) = 13KN
Step-2: BM at X
Let X is any point on the beam at x units from A.
Thus,
BM at X = load on the left side of X × distance = R A × x = 13x
Step-3: BM at X when x = 0
BM at X = RA × x = 13 × 0 = 0 = BM at A
6
Step-4: BM at X when x = 1m
BM at X = (RA × x) – (15 × 0) = (13 × 1) - 0 = 13 units
152
BM at X = (RAx) – (15 × 3) – (5 × 0) = (13 × 4) – 45 – 0 = 7 units
BM at X = (13 × 5) – (15 × 4) – (5 × 1) = 0
Now, all the above values of bending moment can be plotted in a graph to obtain the BMD as
shown in the Figure 10.
Figure 10 BMD of a simply supported beam subjected to point loads
BMD of Beams Under the Following Cases

Case-1: Simply Supported Beam Subjected to Point Load
Here in the Figure 11 we have a simply supported beam of span L, supported at its ends A and B.
Further, this beam is subjected to a point load P concentrated at its geometric center C. 7
153
Figure 11 Simply supported beam subjected to a point load at the center
We have,
Load = P
Span = L
As we know that,
Sum of positive forces = sum of negative forces
i.e., sum of the reactions at both ends = P
i.e., = P [Since, the load P divides the beam symmetrically]

Hence,
Reaction at each end of the given simply supported beam subjected to a point load
at its center is P/2.
Step-2: Compute the BM

Here,
Let X be a point anywhere on the beam at a distance x from A.
Then,
BM at X (when x = 0) = Load on the left of X × distance = R A × 0 = 0
BM at X (when x = L/2) = RA × = =
BM at X (when x = L) = (RA × L) – (P × ) = 0
8
Step-3: Draw the BMD
Now all the above values of bending moment can be plotted in a graph to get the BMD.
154
Figure 12 shows the BMD of the given beam.
Figure 12 BMD of a simply supported beam subjected to a point load at the center.
Case-2: Simply Supported Beam Subjected to Two Point Loads Placed at

Equal Intervals
Figure 13 Simply supported beam subjected to two point loads placed at equal intervals
Here we have another simply supported beam of length L supported at the ends A and B. Two
point loads of P units are placed at C and D dividing the beam equally by length L/3.
So we have,
P1 = P2 = P
Span = L 9
155

Clearly,
RA = RB = P
Step-2: Calculate the BM

BM at A = RA × 0 = 0
BM at C = (RA × ) – (P × 0) =
BM at D = (RA × ) – (P × (P × 0) =
BM at B = (RA × L) – (P × (P × =0

Finally, all the above values can be plotted in a graph to achieve the resultant BMD as shown in
the Figure 14.
Figure 14 BMD of a simply supported beam subjected to two point loads placed evenly
10
156
Case-3(a): Simply Supported Beam Subjected to UDL
The Figure 15 here shows a simply supported beam of span 5m supported at the ends A and B.
the beam is subjected to a UDL of 10 KN/m up to 4m from A.
Step-1: Compute the reactions

Taking moment about A,
5RB = (10 × 4) × (2) =80
i.e., RB = 16KN
Then, RA = (40-16) = 24KN
Step-2: Find the BM

Let X is a point anywhere on the beam at a distance of x units from A.
Then,
Mx = (RA × x) – (10 × x) × = 24x – 5x2
Thus,
BM at X (when x = 0) = (24 x 0) – (5 x 02) = 0
BM at X (when x = 1m) = (24 x 1) – (5 x 12) = 19 KN-m
BM at X (when x = 5m) = (24 x 5) – (10 x 4 x 3) = 0 KN-m 11
157

Now, all the above values of bending moment can be plotted in a graph to obtain the requisite
BMD. Figure 16 shows the BMD of the given beam.
Figure 16 BMD of a simply supported beam subjected to UDL
Case-3(b): Simply Supported Beam Subjected to UDL
Figure 17 Simply supported beam partly subjected to UDL
Here in the Figure 17 we have a simply supported beam of span 5m supported at the ends A and
12
B. A UDL of 5KN/m is spanning over 2m length at a distance of 1m from A.
158
Step-1: Calculate the reactions

We know that,
RA + RB = 5 x 2 = 10 KN
But Taking moment about A,
5RB = (5 × 2) × (2) = 20
i.e., RB = 4KN
i.e., RA = (10 - 4) = 6KN
Step-2: Compute the BM
BM at A = RA × 0 = 0
BM at C = RA × 1 = 6 KN-m
BM at X (Let X is a point at such that x = 2m from A) = (RA × 2) – (5 × 1) = 7 KN-m
BM at D = (RA × 3) – (5 × 2) = 8 KN-m
BM at X (Let X is a point at such that x = 4m from A) = (R A x 4) – (5 × 2 × 2) = 4 KN-m
BM at B = (RA × 5) – (5 × 2 × 3) = 0
Lastly, all the above values of bending moment can be plotted in a graph so as to get the
corresponding BMD as shown in the Figure 18.
13
Figure 18 BMD of the simply supported beam partly loaded with UDL
159
Case-4(a): Cantilever Beam Subjected to UDL and Point Load
Figure 19 Cantilever beam subjected to UDL and point load
Figure 19 shows a cantilever beam AB of span 5m, fixed at B and A being the free end. A point
load 5 KN is acting on the free end A of the beam. A UDL of 10 KN/m is acting on the beam
from B and reaching up to 4m distance.
Step-1: Compute the reaction

RB = (10 x 4) + 5 = 45 KN
Step-2: Calculate the BM

Let X be a point on the beam at a distance x meters from A.
Then,
MX = - (5 × x) – [10 × = -5x – 5(x-1)2
Now,
MA = - (5 x 0) = 0
MX at (x = 1) = - (5 x 1) = -5 KN-m
MX at (x = 2) = - (5 x 2) – (10 x 0.5) = -15 KN-m
MX at (x = 3) = - (5 x 3) – (5 x 22) = -35 KN-m
MX at (x = 4) = - (5 x 4) – (5 x 32) = -65 KN-m
MX at (x = 5) = - (5 x 5) – (5 x 42) = -105 KN-m
14
Plot the above values of bending moments in a graph so as to obtain the BMD such as shown in
160
Figure 20.
Figure 20 BMD of cantilever beam subjected to UDL and point load
Case-4(b): Cantilever Beam Partly Loaded with UDL
Figure 21 Cantilever beam subjected to UDL and Point Load
Lastly, we have another cantilever beam of span 6m which is subjected to a UDL of 10KN/m
across 2m length at the center of the beam. Further, two point loads of 20 KN and 15 KN are also
acting on the beam as shown in the Figure 21.
15
161
Step-1: Compute the bending moment

Let A, B, C and D are four points on the beam starting from the free end of the beam and
marking all the eventful places.
Then,
MA = 0
MB = - (15 x 2) = -30 KN-m
MC = - (15 x 4) – (10 x 2) = -80 KN-m
MD = - (15 x 6) – (10 x 2 x 3) – (20 x 2) = -190 KN-m

Plot the above values on the graph to get the resultant BMD as shown in the Figure 22.
Figure 22 BMD of the cantilever beam subjected to UDL and point loads
References
 Strength of Materials By B.C. Punmia, Ashok K.Jain & Arun K.Jain Laxmi Publication 16
162
 Understanding Structures: An Introduction to Structural Analysis By Meta A. Sozen & T.

Ichinose, CRC Press
Conclusion
This lecture can be concluded with the following points:
 The beam shows a tendency of bending under the external load and support reaction.
 The graphical representation of variation of bending moment over the length of a
structural member is called Bending Moment Diagram.
 It is one of the prime factors to design a structural element.
Homework
Q1. A 6 meter long beam AB is divided into three equal parts at points C & D
(AC=CD=DB=2m). Place the 2-meter long UDL of intensity 12 KN/m as per the following three
cases and develop the BMD.
Case-I: UDL in AC only

Case-II: UDL in CD only
Case-III: UDL in AC & DB
Q2. A 4 meter long cantilever is loaded with 6KN/m intensity UDL as per the figure given
below. Develop the BMD.
17
163
If two equal pointed loads are placed at free end and mid span (two ends of UDL) then the
bending moment at the fixed end become 60KN-m. Find the value of the point load.
18
164

Lecture – 10
SFD & BMD: Special Cases
Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture. We

are in the module 2 i.e., the Strength of Material is our topic of concern of the second week.
And this is the last lecture of this module, which is based on the SFD and BMD special cases.
Concepts Covered
The following concepts are covered in this lecture:
 Relation Between Shear Force and Bending Moment
 Point of Contra-flexure
 Two-sided Overhang Beams
 Loading Diagram from SFD & BMD
Learning Objectives
The learning objectives of this lecture are given below:
 To differentiate and relate between BMD & SFD.
 Illustrating the overhang beam.
 Relating the Loading diagram from SFD & BMD.
165
Relation Between Shear Force and Bending Moment

Case-1: Cantilever beam subjected to UDL
Figure 1 Cantilever beam subjected to UDL
Here we have a cantilever beam AB of span L. the beam is loaded with a UDL of w KN/m as
shown in the Figure 1. The figure also shows the SFD and the BMD of the given beam.
We know that,
The SFD being linear, can be expressed as
Fx = - wx
Differentiating the above expression we get,
Also, we know that

The BMD being parabolic, can be expressed as
2
Differentiating the above expression we get,
166
Differentiating the above expression again, we get
So finally we may conclude that the differentiation of bending moment is the shear force and
the differentiation of the shear force is nothing but the loading intensity. In other words, the
second order of the differentiation of the bending moment is the differentiation of the shear
force i.e., the loading intensity. The motto behind discussing this is not to make your life
complex but to explain this concept to you so that it’ll be helpful to you in the future while
discussing some of the principles of the deflections and also when you do need some amount
of this differential calculus. But those will be very simple.
Case-2: Simply Supported Beam Subjected to UDL
The Figure 2 above shows a simply supported beam of length L subjected to a UDL of w
KN/m.
Let X be a cross-section anywhere on the beam at a distance x meters from the left end.
Now,
The reactions on either side =

Then,
Shear force at X = Fx = – wx
Differentiating the above equation we get,
3
167
Also,
Bending moment at X = Mx =
Clearly, the results of the Case-1 and Case-2 are same which is worth noting.
Point of Contra flexure

So next let us discuss another very interesting thing called the Point of Contra flexure.
In a beam that is flexing (or bending), the point where there is zero bending moment is called
the point of contra flexure. At that point, the direction of bending changes its sign from
positive to negative or from negative to positive. (It may also be thought of as a change
from compression to tension or vice versa).
For this change to happen, it must pass through zero – the point of contra flexure. On
a bending moment diagram, it is the point at which the bending moment curve intersects with
the zero line.
An analogy may be made with a speeding train travelling west on a single track. In order to
reverse direction and travel east, it must decelerate, stop then accelerate in the opposite
direction. The point it stops, even if momentary, is zero – the neutral point, where it is not
travelling.
Theoretically, when considering a structural member under load, such as a reinforced

concrete beam, the point of zero bending moment would seem to suggest
no reinforcement would be required. However, omitting reinforcement at that point is
considered inadvisable as, in a real-life situation; it may be difficult to locate the exact point
of contra flexure.
Moreover, you’re already aware from the previous lectures that where does the tension and
compression zones lie in different types of beams, how is their BMDs and what is the sign
convention in each of the cases. So now let us see what happens to simply supported beam if
4
we alter the position of its supports. See the Figure 3 for reference.
168
Here we have a simply supported beam.
Moving one support towards the centre

of the beam results in an overhang beam
from one side. It consists of a simply
supported portion and a cantilever
portion.
Moving both the supports towards the
centre gives an overhang beam from two
sides. It consists of a simply supported
portion in the middle and two cantilever
portions on both the ends.
Figure 3 Point of contra flexure
Therefore, as the various portions of the beam changes from being simply supported to being
cantilevered, so do their corresponding zones of tension and compression and thus, so do
their sign of bending moment (explained in Lecture 9). So, the point(s) where the curve of
BMD will change its sign will be the point(s) of contra flexure.
Case-1: One-sided Overhang Beam
Figure 4 One-sided overhang beam subjected to UDL.
Here we have a one-sided overhang beam subjected to UDL of 10 KN/m as shown in the
Figure 4.
Step-1: Compute the support reactions 5
We know that,
RA + RB = (10 × 6) KN = 60 KN
169
So taking moment about A,

4RB = (10 x 6) x (3) = 180
i.e., RB = 45KN
i.e., RA = (60 - 45) = 15KN
Step-2: Find the shear force

SF at A = RA = 15 KN
SF at D = RA – (10 x 2) = -5 KN
SF at the left of B = RA – (10 x 4) = -25 KN
SF at B = RA + RB – (10 x 4) = 20 KN
SF at C = 0 (as there are no supports)
Step-3: Draw the SFD

Plot the above values of shear force in a graph to get the SFD of the given beam, as shown in
the Figure 5.
Figure 5 SFD of the given one-sided overhang beam
Here it is important to note the shear force is 0 at a distance of around 1.5 m from A. So let us
cross-check this.
6
Let us take a cross-section Y over here.
Then,
SF at Y = RA – (10 x 1.5) = 15 – 15 = 0
170
Step-4: Compute the bending moment

In C-B, Taking a section at ‘x’ from C
Then,
At B,
Again,
In B-A, Taking a section at ‘x’ from C
( )
So,
At D,
Next,
In B-A, Taking a section at ‘x’ from C
Equating the above equation to 0 (i.e., when SF = 0) we get,
i.e., x = 4.5
In other words, the shear force of the given beam is 0 at a distance of 4.5 m from C i.e., 1.5 m
from A as also known from the SFD. Hence, the bending moment of the beam has to be the
maximum at this point because whenever the derivative of any mathematical equation is 0, 7
the function is either the local maximum or the local minimum at that particular point.
So, Mmax = = 11.25 KN-m
171
Further,
In B-A, Taking a section at ‘x’ from C we have,
So, when Mx = 0
45x – 90 – 5x2 = 0
i.e.,
i.e.,
i.e., ( ) ( )
i.e., ( )( )
i.e., x = 6, 3
In other words, the bending moment of the given beam is 0 at distances of 3m and 6m from
C. Let us verify that from the BMD given in the Figure 6.

The BMD of the given beam can be obtained by plotting the above values of bending
moment in a graph as shown in the Figure 6.
Figure 6 BMD of the given one-sided overhang beam
172
In the Figure 6, the point at a distance of 3m from C, which is also marked in red, is the point
of contra flexure. It is so because as we know that the point of contra flexure is when the
bending moment is 0 and also, the sign convention either changes from +ve to –ve or vice
versa. Moreover, the change of sign occurs depending on whether the type of moment is
sagging or hogging which you’ve already learnt in the Lecture 9. So here, for the given beam
the portion of affected by sagging and that by hogging is shown in the Figure 7.
Figure 7 BMD of the beam with respect to sagging and hogging moment
Points to remember:
Bending Moment is Maximum at the point where the Shear

Force is Zero.
Point of contra-flexure is a point on a bending beam, where

bending moment is zero (changes its sign). 9
Figure 8 Points to remember
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Case-2: Two-sided Overhang Beam

Here we have a double sided overhang beam whose supports are repeatedly moved so as to
show the variation in their corresponding SFDs and BMDs.
Case - 2 (a)
Overhang Length = a = 2m
Total Length = L = 8m
a/L = 2/8 = 0.25
( ) ( )
Figure 9 Case-2(a)
Case – 2 (b)
a/L = 1/8 = 0.125, (Less than 0.25)
( ) ( )
10
Figure 10 Case-2(b)
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Case – 2 (c)
a/L = 3/8 = 0.375, (Greater than 0.25)
( ) ( )
Figure 11 Case-2(c)
Case – 2 (d)
Overhang Length = a = 1.656m
a/L = 1.656/8 = 0.207
( ) ( )
Figure 12 Case-2(d)
Clearly, cases 2(b) and 2(d) consist of two points of contra flexures whereas the other two
cases i.e., 2(a) and 2(c) consist of none.
In case of the reinforcement of the beams it should be noted that the reinforcement should be
11
provided in the tensile zones. Hence, for sagging moments the reinforcement has to be
provided at the bottom whereas, for the hogging moments it should be provided at the top.
175
Further, in the fourth case, the maximum positive value of bending moment is equal to the
maximum negative value of the same. Hence this kind of a structure is symmetrical and
similar reinforcement can be used at the top as well as the bottom. Therefore, it may be
concluded that when the overhang is 20% of the length of the beam the structure is beneficial.
Loading Diagram from SFD and BMD

We’re discussing this particular topic purely because of academic interest as this kind of
questions often comes in the competitive exams.
Q1. Given below are a beam and its SFD. Draw the loading diagram for the given beam.
Solution:
Clearly from the given SFD we know that,
RA = 28 KN
Now,
Let C and D are two points at the distances of 1m and 4m from A respectively. Also,
let the loads at C and D be P 1 and P 2 respectively.
Again,
From the SFD we have,
SF at C = 3 KN
i.e., RA – P 1 = 3 KN
i.e., P 1 = 25 KN
12
Similarly, we know that,
SF at D = -37 KN
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i.e., 3- P 2 = -37 KN
i.e., P 2 = 40 KN
Therefore, the final loading diagram can be drawn as shown in the figure below.
Q2. Given below are a beam and its BMD. Draw the loading diagram for the given beam.
13
177
Solution:
Let C and D be two points at the distances of 2m and 4m from A respectively. Let the loads
acting on C and D be of P KN each. Also, since the curve of the BMD between C and D is
parabolic so there must be a UDL acting here. So, let this UDL be of w KN/m.
Then,
Mc = RA x 2 = 60 KN-m
i.e., RA = 30 KN
i.e., RB = 30 KN (as per symmetry)
Thus from symmetry,
(P + w.1) = 30
i.e., P = (30 – w)
Now, let X be another point at the midpoint of the beam.
Then,
MX = (RA × 3) – (P × 1) – (w ×1 × 0.5) = 65
i.e., 90 - (30-w) – (0.5w) = 65
i.e., 60 + w – 0.5w = 65
i.e., 60 + 0.5w = 65
i.e., 0.5w = 5
i.e., w = 10 KN/m
Therefore, the final loading diagram can be drawn as shown in the figure below.
14
178
References
 Strength of Materials By B.C. Punmia, Ashok K.Jain & Arun K.Jain Laxmi
Publication
 Basic Structures for Engineers and Architects By Philip Garrison, Blackwell
Publisher
Conclusions
To sum up the lecture we can note the following:
 The differentiation of bending moment expression gives the expression of shear force.
 Point of contra-flexure is a point where bending moment is zero (changes its sign).
 The loading diagram can be established from BMD or SFD.
Homework
Q1. Draw the SFD & BMD for the overhang beam shown in the figure below.
Q2. A simply supported beam AB and its BMD is shown in the figure below. Draw the
Loading Diagram and SFD. Beam is supported at A & B
15
179
16
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Lecture – 11
Bending Stress in Beam - I
Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture.

Today we are going to start the 3rd module, the week 3. In this module we will be talking about
the structural mechanics. In continuation it is the lecture number 11. In this lecture we are going
to discuss about the bending stress in beam; that is in the part one. We will continue the same
in this lecture part two and part three.
So, these are the concepts that will covered during this particular lecture:
➢ Introduction
➢ Centre of Gravity
➢ Moment of Inertia
➢ Theory of Bending
➢ Assumptions in Theory of Bending
➢ Pure Bending
➢ Stress-Curvature Relationship
We will introduce the bending stress and the theory of bending. Then we will discuss about
the concept of the centre of gravity and the moment of inertia. We will also discuss some of
the assumptions in the theory of bending and the way it can be handled for the formulation of
the bending formula. We will discuss the pure bending and also the stress curvature relationship
of bending.
The learning objective includes formulation and calculation of centre of gravity and moment
of inertia. These are the two most important sectional property of any section. They are
regularly required to find out the stresses in the beams. Moreover, here we will also derive the
theory of bending.
So, before we go to this particular module, let me tell you one very important thing; that is, the
3rd module talks about the structural mechanics and here the bending stress is one of the very
important concepts. This concept of bending stress will take you to design and analysis of
beams, and finally to the bending equation, the bending stress and bending theory. All of these
has enormous importance in the domain of structural engineering.
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Any structure which is designed, typically the beam or the slab or anything that can take care
of the bending moment, are finally designed based on bending stress. So, initially in the last
week what we did, if you remember, we did in the second week is the strength of material, we
discussed two or three very important things.
One is the Hooke’s law and how the Hooke’s law is implemented for the axial compression.
Also, it will produce some kind of axial compressive stress. We also did some explanations
and lot of examples on how to solve the bending moment of a loaded beam. So, if a statically
determinate beam is loaded by uniform distributed load or maybe the pointed or concentrated
load here and there, we can easily compute the profile of the bending moment diagram and the
profile of the shear force diagram. Then, from the profile we can understand and can eventually
capture the highest amount of bending; and bending moment and the magnitude of that. We
will take that from there. So, we know a beam is having that much amount of bending moment,
that means that much amount of bending moment is existing in a beam and due to that the beam
behaves in a way that it will give you some deformation.
For example, let’s consider a rod or a bar. When it is comes under compression it will give you
an axial deformation, which may be shortening or may be elongation. A beam is also going to
behave in a similar way; and under the loading and bending it will give some kind of deflection.
So, in the introductory notes I have written that, under axial external loading the beam will
bend and the bending of the beam will be shown as a bending moment and each cross section
will have different moments.
This bending moment induces stresses. Yes, definitely! Because of this kind of a bending there
will be deflection and the stresses will actually be implied or embedded in various layers of the
beam. In other word we can say that this bending is due to the bending moment and this bending
moment is due to the external loading.
So, beam will try to bend and try to counter-attack the external loading. It will develop the
stress in the beam and try to counteract the external loading by that. These induced stresses are
called the bending stress, and the principle of the bending stress distribution is required to
understand to design the beam. So, before we directly go to the solving of bending equation,
try to clearly understand the developing of bending equation.
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First of all, let us discuss the centre of gravity and moment of inertia, the two-sectional
properties in any section.
Figure 1: Centre of Gravity of different bodies
So, centre of gravity, as you must know about it because the class 12th physics gives you some
idea about it. Centre of gravity is an imaginary point in section plane where, the total weight
of the body may be thought to be concentrated. Suppose, this is a rectangular kind of a section,
and its imaginary point from where the total mass of this particular section or body is
concentrated is the centre of gravity. So that is one of the ways to understand centre of gravity.
So, we assume that the whole mass of the particular section or the laminar section is
concentrated about the point, an imaginary point inside, as shown in Figure 1, and that point is
the centre of gravity. On the other hand, if irregular mass is there and we have to find out the
centre of gravity, and if mass is somewhat distributed little heavily in the downside, as shown
in central image of Figure 1, then it may come down. If the body is triangular, as shown if right
hand side image of Figure-1, its centre of gravity goes toward side, because the distribution of
mass is heavy in the left side.
There are small formulas that expresses that the centre of gravity of triangle lies above H/3
from the base. In the same way, there are other various formulas to find out the centre of gravity
of critical sections.
The next is the moment of inertia. It is basically the product of the area and it is perpendicular
distance from a fixed axis. It gives the quantum of effort required to rotate that particular
section with respect to the specific axis.
Let us imagine a door, and when you just put a handle, you can swing that particular door. So,
this particular door will actually rotate about the hinge points. So, depending upon the total
area of the door, hinge locations, the masses and all, definitely the effort required to open will
be different. So, moment of inertia depends upon the area and the particular fixed axis; and the
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fixed axis is sometimes the centre of gravity axis or CG, or sometimes it is an axis parallel to
the CG axis, or maybe anyway.
So, in Figure 2, I have considered a body with an axis. This considered area or the lamina has
to rotate about this particular black dot axis.
Figure 2: a body and its moment of inertia
So as per the definition this area has to be multiplied with the y square. What is y? This y is the
distance from CG of the body to the considered axis.
𝐼 = ∑𝑑. 𝐴 × 𝑦2
So, this is going to be your moment of inertia of this particular yellow coloured area. Now if
you sum it for the whole, then you will get the moment of inertia. That is the one single way
we can understand moment of inertia.
So, now if we see the moment of inertia of a rectangular section with depth D and width B,
then it is given by:
1
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝐵𝐷3
12
Figure 3: a rectangular section
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It is always going to be depth cube and B you will remain same. Of course, the xx axis is the
CG axis, without xx axis it is invalid, because as you know the CG of this will be at D/2. So,
from that point of view, the moment of inertia about xx axis will be as shown in equation above.
So similarly, for circular section, rectangular hollow section and for a ring is given in Figure
4.
Figure 4: moment of inertia about an axis Ixx, from left to right - for a circular section, hollow rectangular
section and a ring section
In Figure 4, the red dotted line ‘xx’ at the centre is the axis of rotation, that is the CG axis. In
circular section, ‘D’ is the depth. In the hollow rectangular section (the central image of Figure
4), ‘D’ is outer depth, ‘d’ is inner depth, ‘B’ is outer width and ‘b’ is inner width. In case of
ring section, ‘D’ is outer width or diameter and ‘d’ is inner width or diameter.
In case of a ring or circular sections the D is raised to power 4; and instead of 1/12 it is PI/64.
But for complex figures you have to actually see how can you do the change of the axis.
Whatever we have discussed before, it is based on the xx axis, that is the CG axis. But what if
it is not the CG axis? In complex figures the axis may not lie with the CG axis. Then, we have
to go for the parallel axis theorem.
For parallel axis theorem you can refer any book of engineering mechanics; but very briefly I
will explain this to you. So, as you know about the xx axis, of the CG axis, the IXX is
1
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝐵𝐷3
12
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The parallel axis says that, if we want to find out the rotation, the IXX , the amount of effort in
the rotation in some other axis which is parallel to the CG axis, suppose the axis AA in right-
hand side image of Figure 5, which is parallel to xx axis and shown red in colour.
Figure 5: parallel axis theorem
Then:
So, new axis and CG, new axis is this AA and CG is the central axis, computing the distance
between them is ‘y’. So, it is:
1
𝐼𝐴𝐴 = 𝐵𝐷3 + (𝐵𝐷) × 𝑦 2
12
The equation above will be your equation of parallel axis theorem. Here, 1/12 BD3 is about the
CG axis and BD is the area and y2 is the the distance square. So, this is the parallel axis theorem.
You have to remember this parallel axis theorem for finding out all the IXX values.
Now, let’s consider a rectangular plane, with a central axis of rotation, as shown in Figure 6
(a). Now we need to find out the rotation of the plane about a new axis, the axis at the bottom,
in Figure 6 (b). The distance from bottom edge of the plane to the new axis is 2, and half of
the depth (that is distance from CG to bottom of the plane) of the plane is given as 2. So, the
distance to the CG from the new axis of rotation is 5.
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Figure 6: example of parallel axis theorem
So, applying the formulas, we can find out the moment of inertia for both the cases (a) and (b)
1 1
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 12 𝐵𝐷3 = 12 × 63 = 36
1 1
𝐼𝐴𝐴 = 𝐵𝐷3 + (𝐵𝐷) × 𝑦 2 = × 2 × 63 + (2 × 6) × 52 = 36 + 300 = 336
12 12
So now, IXX will be the effort to rotate this plane about CG axis, and IAA will be the effort to
rotate bout the new axis on the bottom, which is parallel to CG. We found IXX = 36, whereas
IAA = 336, which is huge amount of change. So, the rotation about any axis, other than the CG
axis, the effort required for the rotation is going to be changed. Because of the bending, there
is the rotation comes in the picture, and that is why we need to know about what is the amount
of effort required for the rotation. So, based on the moment available in a beam, and the typical
section, where the CG is lying of that particular beam, we can find out how much is the effort
and how much is the IXX value.
Now, let us see some of the examples. You can just go through this particular PPT and solve
this; but here I’ll briefly explain it. Considered here is a T section, the vertical portion is called
web, and this web is 50/10; and consider it as part (i). The topmost horizontal part is called as
flange, and consider it as part (ii). So, what I did is, I separated out these two parts as shown in
Figure 7.
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Figure 7: example with a T section
So, area of the part (i) 500, 50 into 10. The red dotted line is considered as the base line or the
bottom line. The CG of part (i) is half of 50, that means 25 away from the bottom line; and plus
is the top the area, to the top area is 300, 30 into 10 and the CG of part (ii) will be 50 plus half
of 10 so this is 55, 55 away.
{(50 × 10 × 25 ) + (30 × 10 × 55)} 29000

𝑦̅ = = = 36.25
{(50 × 10 ) + (30 × 10)} 800
So, you may say that, this 𝑦̅ is:

∑𝐴𝑦̅
𝑦̅ =
∑𝐴
This will give you the 𝑦̅, the exact 𝑦̅ or the CG of the particular section. So now, I have got it
as 36.25. So that means, the CG of the whole section lies at about 36.25 from the bottom or
base line.
So now, I have tried to compute the I value, that is the moment of inertia of the T section.
We will take the web and the flange individually, and then sum it. First let us see the web part.
Here the width (B) is 10, depth (D) is 50, distance of CG (d) from ground is 25, and difference
in location of CG axis will be the difference between location of combined CG axis and the
CG of the web; that is (36.25 – 25). Then second is the flange part. Here the width (B) is 30,
depth (D) is 10, location of its own CG (d) from ground if 55, and difference between combined
CG and own CG will be (36.25-55). For details refer Figure 8.
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Figure 8: a T section details for calculation of IXX values
Now, putting these in the formula, we can find out the IXX value for this T section.
1
𝐼𝑋𝑋 = { × (10 × 503 ) + (50 × 10) × (36.25 − 25)2 }
12
1
+ { × (30 × 103 ) + (30 × 10) × (36.25 − 55)2 } = 275416.67
12
Therefore, IXX value of the whole section will be 275416.67

Similarly, we can compute the IXX value of an I section. As I sections are symmetrical in
nature, it is always very interesting to work. Here, as shown in Figure 9, I can find out the
respective CGs for all three parts, that is the bottom flange, web and the top flange. The depth
of bottom flange is 2, so the CG will be half of it; that means 1. The depth of web (the central
vertical part) is 40, its half is 20, and CG will be 2+20=22. Here, as the location whole section
is very uniform, the location of CG axis for the complete section will half of 44 (2+40+2=44)
that is 22, that is the distance from the ground line. Similarly, for the top flange, the depth is 2;
so, the CG axis point from the base will be 2+40+1=43.
Figure 9: details of an I section and its IXX value
Now, applying the formula, we can calculate the IXX value for this I section.
189
1
𝐼𝑋𝑋 = { × (25 × 23 ) + (25 × 2) × (22 − 1)2 }
12
1
+ { × (2 × 403 ) + (2 × 40) × (22 − 22)2 }
12
1
+ { × (25 × 23 ) + (25 × 2) × (22 − 43)2 } = 54800
12
Therefore, IXX value of the whole section will be 54800
So, now we will see an example with a square hollow section. I have given this problem in
such a way that, the value of x has to be computed. The value should be such that the CG of
the square hollow section lies 18 centimetre above the bottom line. It is given that the
dimension of bigger rectangle, the depth (D) is 40 and width (B) is 20; and location of CG will
be half of 40, that means at 20. The dimension of hollow part is, depth (D) is 30, width (B) is
10 and location of CG of hollow part will be at X+15. Refer Figure 10.
Figure 10: example of a hollow section
Now applying the formula, satisfying the given condition, it will be:
Given condition is: 𝑦̅ = 18
Then
(40 × 20 × 20) − (30 × 10) × (𝑋 + 15)
𝑦̅ = = 18
(40 × 20) − (30 × 10)
16000 − 300 × (15 − 𝑋)
= 18
(800 − 300)
16000 − 4500 − 300𝑋 = 9000
300𝑋 = 2500
𝑋 = 8.33
Therefore, to satisfy the condition, the value of X should be 8.33; then only the location of CG
of the whole section will lie 18 above the ground line.
190
Now let us go to the theory of bending. Let us consider a beam; when it is subjected to any
kind of the external load the beam is going to deform. For example, if you take a scale and just
put some external load by your thumb, it will bend, and it will have some kind of axial
deformation of the layers. This axial deformation is called as bending of a beam. There are two
type of bending; one is called the hogging and another is sagging.
So, if we just put the load over the beam then it will bend as shown in Figure 11, the red dotted
line; and this kind of bending is called the sagging. Here, the tension will be at bottom and the
compression will be on the top. As a result of this deformation there some stresses will be
developed and due to these stresses, the layer will go one after another or it will try to slide one
after other. Due to shear force and bending moment, the beam undergoes deformation. These
normal stresses due to bending are called flexure stresses.
Figure 11: a beam and its bending
So, here we have some assumptions in theory of bending.

1. The material of the beam is homogeneous and isotropic.
2. The value of Young's Modulus of Elasticity is same in tension and compression.
3. The transverse sections which were plane before bending, remains plane after bending
also.
4. The beam is initially straight and all longitudinal filaments bend into circular arcs with
a common center of curvature.
5. The radius of curvature is large as compared to the dimensions of the cross-section.
6. Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contract, independently of the layer, above
or below it.
When we talk about the material, homogeneous means the material is of same kind throughout;
and isotropic means that the elastic property in all directions are equal.
The young modulus of elasticity is same in the tension and compression. This is truly one of
the suitable assumptions for the theory of bending. Then, the transverse sections which was
plane before bending remain plane. So, this is also one of the assumptions the plane sections
remain plane after bending also. Then, the beam is initially straight and longitudinal filaments
191
of the bend in circular. So finally, it will go with a circular arch. Initially the beam was straight,
but it will go into a circular arc form, what we have shown in Figure 11. The radius of curvature
is very large with compared to the dimension of the cross sections; and each layer of the beam
is free to expand.
So now, let us discuss about pure bending. See, if you load a beam like it is shown in Figure
12, the portion in between the two loads will be no shear zone; but the bending moment exists
there.
Figure 12: beam with loads and showing pure bending
Similarly, if we see a overhanging kind of a beam as shown in Figure 13, then in between the
support there will be no shear force bending moment will exist.
Figure 13: shear force and bending moment in an overhanging beam
So, the portions of the beams in between the loads will act as a pure bending. It may not be the
whole portion of the beam, but a certain portion of the beam. Hence, pure bending zone will
experience no shear but only bending moment.
Now let us see about stress curvature relationship. Let us consider a beam with loads, as shown
in Figure 14 (a).
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Figure 14: stress curvature relationship in a beam
When an external load is applied, it will bend as shown in Figure 14 (b), the red dotted line.
Now let us say that, I have put two lines as shown in Figure 14 (c); AC and BD, equidistant
from the centre of the beam; let us consider the distance as 10cm. Then when load is applied,
after bending what will be the scenario? What will happen to this beam? The points A and B
will come little closer like A’, B’ and C and D will go little away that is C’, D’ as shown in
Figure 14 (d). It will happen this way because of the bending and because of the curvilinear
nature.
So, the top portion of the layer will go little inward and the bottom portion will go outward.
Hence, in case of the AB it will get shortened to A’, B’ and in case of CD it will be elongated
to C’, D’. Because as we all know, it is a sagging kind of a moment, therefore the tension will
be created in the bottom and it will become elongated, whereas at top, there will be compression
and it will result into shortening.
Now, if we go like this, then we can say that that A’B’ < AB, so, compressive stress will be
induced in the topmost layer; and similarly, C’D’ > CD, so, tensile forces will be induced in
the bottom most layer. The stress will decrease towards the centre. Therefore, there will be
some layer in between AB and CD, suppose it is the EF, as shown in Figure 15, there with no
change in the length.
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Figure 15: stress curvature relationship
In the beginning we have assumed the length between A and B (and C and D) before application
of the load to be of 10-centimetre. But, after application of loads, when stresses will be
developed, the distance between A and C will be reduced, may be say 9 centimetre. On the
other hand, even though the distance between C and D was also 10 centimetre, after application
of loads it will increase, let us say it will become 11 centimetre.
But there will be some portion or some layer, let us say it is EF, as shown in Figure 15, which
will which remain same. So, there will be no stress at all.
I the topmost portion if you see there are stresses, and it is shown in yellow colour points in
Figure 15 (c), they are the compressive stresses. So, the maximum compressive stresses will
occur in the topmost layer and maximum possibility shortening will apply here, and gradually
it will decrease. So, the layer next to it will elongate slightly, let us say it may be 9.1 or little
more. In the neutral axis as shown in Figure 15, no change will occur. So, the axis where there
no change in length occur is called the neutral plane in the beam and in the section it is called
the neutral axis. Similarly, in the bottom plane also, as shown in blue dots of Figure 15 (c), are
depicting the tensile stress. So that is why it is drawn in the other side of the yellow dots. So,
in that way the stress will be distributed. Therefore, the Figure 15 (c) is called as the stress
distribution diagram.
Now, if you see the radius of curvature, as shown in Figure 16, assuming it is a circular arc.
194
Figure 16: radius of curvature
So, I can say that the strain in the top layer is:
𝐸𝐹 − 𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ 𝜎
=𝜀=
𝐸𝐹 𝐸
Because, EF remains same, there is no change, and A’ and B’ is a shrink length. So, ′𝜀′ is your
𝜎
strain; and strain to stress I can use this as a Hooke’s law (𝐸). So now EF and A dash B dash
can be related with the R and R – y.

𝐸𝐹 − 𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ 𝑅𝜃 − (𝑅 − 𝑦)𝜃 𝑅𝜃 − 𝑅𝜃 + 𝑦𝜃 𝑦
= = =
𝐸𝐹 𝑅𝜃 𝑅𝜃 𝑅
𝜎 𝑦
=
𝐸 𝑅
𝜎 𝐸
=
𝑦 𝑅
Why it is R- y? I have kept the distance between B’ and F as ‘y’; because it is the half of the
depth or the topmost layer portion is the ‘y’ and R is the centre of curvature till the EF.
195
Therefore, the equation σ/E must be equal to y/R; and finally, σ/y = E/R is called the stress
curvature relationship.
For this particular lecture I have taken these references:
➢ Structure as Architecture by Andrew W. Charleson, Elsevier Publication.
Publisher.
➢ Structure and Architecture by Meta Angus J. Macdonald, Elsevier
Publication.
➢ Examples of Structural Analysis by William M.C. McKenzie.
➢ Engineering Mechanics by Timishenko and Young McGraw-Hill Publication.
➢ Strength of Materials by B.C. Punmia, Ashok K.Jain & Arun K.Jain Laxmi
Publication.
➢ Understanding Structures: An Introduction to Structural Analysis by Meta
A. Sozen & T. Ichinose, CRC Press.
Finally, we can conclude that, the bending stress varies in the different layers depending upon
its depth, and we have verified that in the stress curvature relationship.
Now, I have some homework for you, where you have to find out the CG of the given sections.
Also try to find out the moment of inertia of the ‘I’ section shown in Figure below. All the
dimensions are given in centimetre.
196
197
Lecture – 12
Bending Stress in Beam – II

Today we are in the module 3, the third week. The topic of the module 3 is Structural Mechanics
and today is the lecture number 12, the second lecture in this week and this is on bending stress
in beam part-II.
So, in this particular lecture, we intend to cover the following concepts:

➢ Numerical Examples of Stress-Curvature Relationship
➢ Moment-Curvature Relationship
➢ Bending Equation
➢ Numerical Examples of Bending Equation
➢ Concept of Section Modulus
➢ Advantages of Hollow Sections
If you remember, we have already developed the stress curvature relationship in our first
lecture of this week, and we will try to solve some small numerical examples from that and
then we will again try to find out another relationship in the bending theory. That is the moment
curvature relationship, which is one of the very important relationship in this bending theory
and that particular moment curvature will take you to till the last stage, that is designing.
We will do some bending equations, and based on that we will try to solve some numerical
examples. We will also look at some of the concept like section modulus and advantages of the
hollow sections.
The main learning objectives of this lecture are:
• To Develop the Bending Equation.
• To understand the Application of Theory of Bending in basic Structural Engineering.
So, the learning objective of this thing is very clear-cut. Here we have to apply the theory of
bending stress in the structural engineering. So, you will be able to see, how the basic things
in structural engineering can be mobilized by this equation of bending.
198
So, if you remember these are the few things that I have taken out from the previous lecture,
lecture no 11.
Bending Stress: When a beam is subjected to an external loading system, then the beam
deforms. In simple terms, this axial deformation is called as bending of a beam. Due to the
shear force and bending moment, the beam undergoes deformation. These normal stresses due
to bending are called flexure stresses.
So, depending upon the bending it is going to rotate each and every section which we are going
to rotate and that rotation gives you a kind of radius of curvature at a certain point of the above
or maybe the below.
Assumptions in Bending Stress:
1. The material of the beam is homogeneous and isotropic.
2. The value of Young's Modulus of Elasticity is same in tension and compression.
3. The transverse sections which were plane before bending, remains plane after bending
also.
4. The beam is initially straight and all longitudinal filaments bend into circular arcs with
a common center of curvature.
5. The radius of curvature is large as compared to the dimensions of the cross-section.
6. Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contract, independently of the layer, above
or below it.
If you remember, we have also derived the radius of curvature versus the stress equations, that
is:
𝜎 𝐸
=
𝑦 𝑅
Now we will spend some time here, the E is the young modulus of elasticity; that the material
property. The R is the radius of curvature of the beam, that is the distance from the neutral axis
or the neutral plane to the centre of the arc.
So, sometimes it is difficult to find out these values; or sometimes we may not require the value
of this R. But, the value of σ and y are very important because they represent the property of
each individual sections of the beam.
When I say individual section, that means, it is a part of the beam; which may be a rectangular
section, a T section or an I section; and then we can find out the values of IXX. So, when we
take a section, may be a rectangular section then, the stress is zero at the neutral axis, and
199
maximum at the top and the bottom. So, here ‘y’ is the depth of each individual layers.
Therefore, when you try to find out the stress, you must know the depth of that particular layer.
We can find out the value of ‘y’, with the help of CG, therefore, CG is important.
Now let us see a small numerical problem, “A straight steel scale is bend into an arc having 1200 at
the centre of curvature. Estimate the Maximum stress in the steel scale.”
Figure 1: bending of a straight steel scale
Here, I have found out the R value. The angle is given 120⁰. So, half of this is 60⁰. So, with
Pythagoras theorem or trigonometry I can find out the value of R. Please note that E value
considered is 2x105
Then, as I know the value of R and E, and σ is the stress value at 1.5 mm; because I want to
find out the stress in this particular steel at the topmost part and the 3 millimetre is the thickness.
Moreover, the CG will lie at the centre, so, half of 3 millimetre is 1.5, that is the top most part,
and that is taken into account to find out the maximum stress at the top.
Now, let us go to another important topic, that is moment curvature relationship. As we know
that a particular section will have a neutral axis NA and above the neutral axis, there will be
some compressive stress which is shown here color green arrows, and below is the tensile stress
which is in color blue arrows, in Figure 2.
Figure 2: moment-curvature relationship
200
So, this total compressive stress is applied over the area above neutral axis, maybe it is varying
from 0 to some value, but in totality it will give some kind of a compressive force, it is having
an area of application and there is a stress value. Similarly, the total tensile force is also going
to be evaluated because it is below the neutral axis and you know the area below the neutral
axis you know the variation. So, we can find out the what is the tensile force. This will be
separated by a distance called the Lever Arm, and as these two are the equal and opposite force
it will create a moment (Refer Figure 2). So somehow, I can find out this particular moment
which is actually generated because of the applied force and the moment; so, that is called the
moment of resistance of the section.
So now, I will assume that there is a small area dA which is at a distance ‘y’ from the neutral
axis; and this ‘y’ is very to calculate what will be the stress over there, and suppose the stress
over there is ‘f’. So, I can just project it in the stress distribution curve and find out the stress.
So, I may say that,
The force at elementary area (dA) = f.dA
Moment of the force about NA = (f.dA) y
So, as I have assumed that at this particular ‘y’ the stress is your ‘f’ and this is the area which
is almost at a distance ‘y’. So, this is the small force elementary force and the moment created
by this elementary force about the neutral axis is the force into the distance. So, this force and
distance is the ‘y’ so it is fdA into y. So now if accumulate all the sum of these forces you can
find out the total moment of resistance of the sections.
𝑦=𝑦𝑇𝑜𝑝
𝑀= ∑ 𝑓 × 𝑑𝐴 × 𝑦
𝑦=𝑦𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
So that is why I have written this sum of from y from ‘y’ bottom, and ‘y’ top. So please
remember, this y which is layer distance has to be calculated from the CG axis. So throughout,
from bottom to top f.dA.y is nothing but the moment.
Now, this has to be again thought and derive. So, ‘f’ I have changed because I know that:
𝜎 𝐸
=
𝑦 𝑅
Please remember, this is the stress curvature relationship. So, from this relationship, replacing
the value of ‘f’ with 𝐸/𝑅 × 𝑦 we can derive the following:
201
𝑦=𝑦 𝑇𝑜𝑝
𝑀= ∑ 𝑓 × 𝑑𝐴 × 𝑦
𝑦=𝑦 𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝐸
𝑀= ∑ ( 𝑦) × 𝑑𝐴 × 𝑦
𝑅
𝐸
𝑀= ∑ 𝑑𝐴 × 𝑦 2
𝑅
𝐸
𝑀= ×𝐼
𝑅
Where, 𝐼 = ∑𝐴𝑦 2 (this is from the last lecture)
So, by rearranging we can get the final moment-curvature relationship as follows:
𝑀 𝐸
=
𝐼 𝑅
We can also say that this the relation of moment that created or the external moment created
by the external loading by the sectional property, I = E by the radius of curvature.
So, the final bending equation is:
𝑀 𝜎 𝐸
= =
𝐼 𝑦 𝑅
And, this is one of the very important equations.
𝑀 𝐸
This bending equitation, specially the first part = 𝑅 is widely used in structural engineering.
𝐼
Figure 3: components of bending equation
M = External Moment or Moment of Resistance of the given beam section

I = Moment of Inertia of the Beam Cross section of the interest
R = Radius of Curvature of beam due to bending.
E = Young's Modulus of Elasticity of the beam material.
σ = Distribution of bending stress over a depth ‘y’ from neutral axis.
202
Now, let us suppose a simply supported beam, as shown in Figure 4, and the bending moment
diagram along with. Then consider a rectangular cross section of the beam, as shown in yellow
color. The bending moment will be very high the centre of the span and it will be very low
towards the supports.
Figure 4: bending moment diagram of a simply supported beam
Similarly, for a simply supported beam, if we make the central portion of the beam thicker as
shown in Figure 5, then the value of I will increase, so we can create a better way to support
the particular stress.
Figure 5: simply supported beam with a thicker central portion
Similarly, in case of the cantilever beam, the bending moments will be as shown in Figure 6.
In this case the bending moment will be very high near to the fixed end and gradually decrease
towards the end.
Figure 6: bending moment in a cantilever beam
203
As the stress distribution decreases towards the free end, therefore we need to have the beam
thicker towards the fixed end where stress distribution is more, say ‘D’, and thinner, say ‘d’
towards the free end where the stress distribution is lesser, as shown in bottom image of Figure
5.
Here the σc that means the compression will be at bottom and the σT that means the tension will
be at top.
So, now to understand this bending equation let us see a small numerical example. Let us
consider a beam of 6 meters span, and I have placed 2 buckets of water and each bucket
contains 1200 litres of water. These buckets are placed 2 meters apart. Now 1200 litres of water
is approximately equal to 12 kilo Newton. So, I replace these 2 buckets of water by two-pointed
load of 12 kilo Newton each, as shown in Figure 7. So, it will generate the maximum bending
moment at the centre.
Figure 7: simply supported beam with pointed loads
Here the bending moment will look like trapezoidal distribution, as shown in Figure 7.
Then the M maximum will be:

𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 12 × 2 = 24 𝐾𝑁𝑚
Now, let us suppose the beam cross-section is 300 depth and 120 wide.
Figure 8: beam cross section
Then the I value will be:

1
𝐼= × 120 × 3003 = 270 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
12
Here we are calculating the values about the CG, the CG axis is the centre and therefore the
‘y’ or the y max is 150 and that gives me the maximum stress value.
204
So, now to find out the stress at topmost fibre:
𝑀 𝜎
=
𝐼 𝑦
𝑀 24 × 106
𝜎= ×𝑦 = × 150 = 13.33𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝐼 270 × 106
On the other hand, let us suppose that the permissible bending stress of the beam material is
only 10. So, it can only bear 10 N/𝑚𝑚2 . If we put those loads, that is 13.33, it is more than
10, that means more than permissible load; so, it will to crack. Hence, at this present condition
of beam under bending stress 13.33 is going to fail. Then what can be the solutions for this?
Because we have to make the structure safe. Therefore, we have to check the bending equation.
So, what I have to do is, I have to reduce the value of σ, may be from 13.33 to 10 because 10
N/𝑚𝑚2 is the permissible load. So, to gain that, now I can increase the value of I, that will
definitely decrease the value of sigma; or I can reduce the value of M.
So, there are two way out, and beyond that we have some solutions available. One is to reduce
the load, yes instead of 1200 litre you can put less amount of water to decrease the load. Second
is, you can rearrange the positions of the bucket, sometimes that may also work. Third is, you
can increase the depth of the beam section. If you increase the depth of the beams main sections,
then the value of I will be increased, because we will consider depth cube, D3 in the formula,
which will result into decrease of σ value.
Now, let us go step by step to solve this.
At first, we will reduce the load by decreasing the amount of water in the bucket. Here the σ
permissible is now 10.
1
𝐼= × 120 × 3003 = 270 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
12
y = 150mm
σ permissible = 10 N/𝑚𝑚2
Now, we will find out the M,

𝑀 𝜎
=
𝐼 𝑦
𝜎 10
𝑀= ×𝐼 = × 270 × 106 = 18 × 106 𝑁𝑚𝑚
𝑦 150
𝑀 = 18 × 106 𝑁𝑚𝑚 = 18𝐾𝑁𝑚
Here, I value and y value is same, but we have reduced the σ value.
From this, we can find out the maximum bending moment.
205
So, maximum value of each bucket should not be more than 18/2 = 9KN
9 KN = 900 Kg = 900 Litres
Now, in case of the first option, we can conclude that,
• Reduce the load by decreasing the water in each bucket
• Each bucket can have maximum 900 Litres of water.
Second option to solve this is, rearranging the positions of the buckets. In this case we will
keep the loads as 12KN, but we will only reposition the buckets. We also know that maximum
permissible bending moment M is 18KNm.
𝑀 𝜎
=
𝐼 𝑦
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 18 × 106 𝑁𝑚𝑚 = 18𝐾𝑁𝑚
So now, let us assume that the bucket is x meter away from the support, as shown in Figure 9.
Now, I can find out the moment equations and find out the value of x.
𝑀 = 12𝑥 = 18
18
𝑥= = 1.5
12
Figure 9: rearranging the position of buckets
Therefore, what I have written here is to move both the buckets 0.5 meter towards the support.
If you remember, before the distance was 2, 2, 2; now it is 1.5, 3 and 1.5. The bending moment
will be again as shown in Figure 9, right-hand side image; but this bending moment instead of
the 24, now it will be 18.
Then the third way to solve this is by increasing the depth of the beam. Here we will keep the
other variables unchanged. Let us assume that the depth of the beam is D. Here 120 is the width
of the beam. Also, we have considered I value and the distance from the CG, as follows
1
𝐼= × 120 × 𝐷3
12
206
𝐷
𝑦=
2
Then solving this with the equation:
𝑀 𝜎
=
𝐼 𝑦
1 3
12 × 120 × 𝐷 = 24 × 10
6
𝐷 10
2
1
× 120 × 𝐷2 = 2.4 × 106
6
𝐷2 = 120000
𝐷 = 347 𝑚𝑚
So, the third option will be to increase the depth of the beam from 300 to 347 millimetre.
Now, let us go to the concept of section modulus.
If you see the given equation below you can see that IXX and y are the properties of the section.
𝑀 𝜎
=
𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝑦
You also know that, maximum sigma will be encountered at the topmost layer of the section,
as shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10: section modulus
Then, by rearranging we can write it as:

𝐼𝑥𝑥
𝑀= × 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑀 = 𝑍𝑥𝑥 × 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼
This 𝑦 𝑥𝑥 , we can say as𝑍𝑥𝑥 , or the section modulus.
𝑚𝑎𝑥
We know that:
1
𝐼= 𝐵𝐷3
12
207
𝐷
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2
Because, CG will be at the centre.
1
𝑍𝑥𝑥 = 𝐵𝐷2
6
Now, let us see few examples of some symmetrical sections where your ytop and ybottom will be
equal.
Figure 11: examples of some symmetrical sections
In such cases as the CG is at the centre, dividing the section into two equal parts, the ytop and
ybottom both the values will be same. But if both the values are different, then that we will see
in the next lecture.
Now we will see some numerical examples; to find out section modulus.
First, let us consider a circular section with diameter D, as shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12: a circular section
We know that
𝐼𝑥𝑥
𝑍𝑥𝑥 =
𝑦max
Using the formula for circular sections, we can compute it as:
𝜋
× 𝐷4 𝜋 3
𝑍𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 64 = 𝐷
𝐷 32
2
Similarly, if we see a square section, as shown in Figure 13,
208
Figure 13: a square section
Then,
1
× 𝐷4 1
𝑍𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 = 12 = 𝐷3
𝐷 6
2
So now, these two may be compared and then we can find out the ratios of the moment. The
equation of moment is:
𝑀 = 𝑍𝑥𝑥 × 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
So, comparing the square and the circular
1 3
𝑀𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒
=
𝑍𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒
= 𝜋6 𝐷 = 32 = 1.69
𝑀𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑍𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 3 6𝜋
32 𝐷
Now we will see the example of an I section. This is a symmetrical I section as shown in
Figure 14.
Figure 14: a symmetrical I section
Here, the 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 60 , that is half of total depth and 𝜎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 250 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
The cross-section area will be:
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (75 × 10) + (100 × 10) + (75 × 10) = 2500 𝑚𝑚2
Moment of inertia of the beam section is given by:
209
1 1 1
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = ( × 75 × 103 ) + {75 × 10 (60 − 5)2 } + ( × 75 × 1003 ) + ( × 75 × 103 )
12 12 12
+ {75 × 10 (60 − 115)2 }
1 1
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 2 × × 75 × 103 + 2 × 75 × 10(55)2 + × 10 × 1003
12 12
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 5.388 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
Now
𝐼𝑥𝑥
𝑍𝑥𝑥 =
𝑦max
5.388 × 106
𝑍𝑥𝑥 = = 89800 𝑚𝑚3
60
Now the moment of resistance of beam is:
𝐼𝑥𝑥
𝑀= × 𝜎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑦max
𝑀 = 𝑍𝑥𝑥 × 𝜎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑀 = 89800 × 250 = 22.45 × 106 𝑁 𝑚𝑚 = 22.45 𝐾𝑁𝑚
So, 22.45KNm, this much amount of moment the beam can resist.
So now, if that beam, with this particular section is applicable over a span of 6 meter, and the
beam is simply supported, as shown in Figure 15 (a), then the maximum bending moment at
the centre will be:
𝑤𝐿2
Maximum bending moment at the centre of the span = = 22.45
8
Figure 15: a simply supported beam and a cantilever beam
210
Therefore,
22.45 × 8
𝑤= = 5𝐾𝑁/𝑚
36
So, this 5𝐾𝑁/𝑚 is the maximum in UDL, the uniform distributed load we can put on the beam.
Now, if we consider a cantilever beam of span 6 meter, as shown in Figure 15 (b) then,
𝑤𝐿2
Maximum bending moment at the centre of the span = = 22.45
2
22.45 × 2
𝑤= = 1.25𝐾𝑁/𝑚
36
So, the cantilever beam can resist only load of 1.25𝐾𝑁/𝑚
Now, let us see the advantage of hollow sections. Suppose, I have a square section of dimension
40mm by 40mm, so;
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 40 × 40 = 1600 𝑚𝑚2
1
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 40 × 403 = 213.3 × 103 𝑚𝑚4
12
213.3
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 103 = 10.67 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
20
Now let us say there is a hollow section, which is having the outer dimension is 85mm by
85mm, and the inner dimension is 75mm by 75mm. Now, if you find out the area, then:
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (852 × 752 ) = 1600 𝑚𝑚2
This is same as the cross-sectional area of the solid section with dimension 40mm by 40mm.
So, you we can say that, same amount of material has been used for both solid and the hollow
sections. Now, if we see the moment of inertia of the section, then;
1
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × (854 − 754 ) = 1713.3 × 103 𝑚𝑚4
12
But, here the moment of inertia has increased a lot.
Now let us see the section modulus for the section.
173.3
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 103 = 40.31 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
42.5
Now, if you try to compare and validate that which section is better for strength purpose, then,
we have seen that both are having same area of cross section, there is no question of that; but
If we see the Z values then, the Z value of hollow section is almost four times more than the
solid section. The Z value is important because the product of Z value and the sigma
permissible is the moment value.
211
Figure 16: a solid and a hollow section
So, we can write it as,

𝐴𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 𝐴𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 1600𝑚𝑚2
𝑍𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 10.67 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
𝑍𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 40.31 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
We know that;
𝐼𝑥𝑥
𝑀= × 𝜎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑦max
𝑀 = 𝑍𝑥𝑥 × 𝜎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
Now, if we compare the resistance capacity of hollow section to the solid, then;
𝑀𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑍𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 40.31 × 103
= = = 3.77
𝑀𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑍𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 10.67 × 103
Here, we have not considered the 𝜎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ,because, we assume that both the sections have
same material properties and it will nullify each other.
So, even though both the sections are consuming same amount of material, I must say that from
the strength point of view, the hollow is 3.77 times better than the solid section. So, we can say
that, the same cross-section area, same weight, same and material, but the hollow section can
take 3.77 times higher moment than the solid. Therefore, the beam with hollow sections is far
more effective than a solid section.
Following are the references I have taken for this particular presentation.
➢ Structure as Architecture by Andrew W. Charleson, Elsevier Publication
Publisher
Publication
➢ Examples of Structural Analysis by William M.C. McKenzie
➢ Engineering Mechanics by Timishenko and Young McGraw-Hill Publication
212
➢ Strength of Materials by B.C. Punmia, Ashok K.Jain & Arun K.Jain Laxmi
Publication
A. Sozen & T. Ichinose, CRC Press
In the conclusion I must say that the bending theory and bending equation plays a vital role in
the structural engineering applications; and the beam sections needs to be chosen suitably to
take the effective use of material.
And I have some homework for you;

1. A beam having 30 cm depth and I = 8000 cm4 is simply supported over a span of 8 meter.
Calculate:
(i) Maximum UDL it may carry
(ii) The single concentrated load it may carry at the centre
The permissible bending stress is limited to 110 N/mm2
2. A 4-meter long simply supported beam is having uniform rectangular section of 60mm X
200mm (200 mm as depth). The value of Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of the beam material
is 1.5 X 105 N/mm2. A line AB of length 30 mm was marked symmetrically over the centre
line of the beam. The line AB is 75 mm above the mid depth line of the beam. The line AB
was straight before loading. After a UDL is imposed over the beam the length of AB decrease
by 0.03 mm. Find the following:
(i) The stress at the top most layer of the beam and its nature.
(ii) The Magnitude of impose UDL.
Thank you; and this is the end of the lecture number 12.
213
Indian Institute of Technology - Kharagpur
Lecture – 13
Bending Stress in Beam - III

are going through the module number 3, the structural mechanics; and today is the last part of
the bending stress on beam. Today we are going to have the lecture number 13.
So, in this lecture we will go through the following concepts:
➢ Advantages of Flanged Beam
➢ Built-up Beams
➢ Section Modulus of Asymmetric
➢ Beam Section with Composite Materials
The learning objectives of this particular the lecture will be:

➢ Application of Bending equation in various beam sections.
➢ Justification of advantages of flange sections over others.
➢ Outline the theory of bending conceptually in beams with composite material.
We should know what composite material in case of a beam? How this theory of bending is
applicable? It is important to know because we sometimes use some of the composite material
in our structural members like the concrete, RCC is one of example of composite materials.
Now, let us first discuss about the advantage of the flanged sections. But, before we go to the
flanged section, let us very curiously see the stress diagram given in Figure 1. The figure shows
the stress distribution diagram over the section of a beam, because of bending.
Figure 1: stress distribution diagram of a beam section due to bending
214
So, in the figure you can see that on top on bottom of the beam section the bending stress is
more; that means, you require more material over those areas to resist the bending stress or to
pull down the stress to the permissible limit. Whereas in the central portion, near to the neutral
axis or near to the CG axis of the beam, the bending stress is less or minimal. Therefore, it
requires less amount of material. So, the material distribution also should follow the stress
distribution from top to bottom. It should be in such a way that, we can do effective use of
materials to result very economic beam sections.
So, here if we consider a rectangular kind of a beam, as shown in Figure 2 (a). Here the two
portions which are near to the neutral axis or the near the centre, we do not require them
anymore, because we know that the central portion of the beam experiences less amount of
stress.
Figure 2: beam section and material used
So, why should I give same material throughout the rectangular beam section when I can
economize it? Yes, in some of the cases we cannot help. Practically we cannot cast this kind of
sections, for example in concrete we can’t. But, in some other materials we can think of this
it, we can reduce the amount of material to economize the total cost of the structure. For
example, steel gives us some solutions to create such kind of beam sections.
Now, steel we can have some beam sections as shown in Figure 2 (b). This is an I beam. It is
called as joist, rolled beam, or I section. Very popularly it is known as I section, because it
looks like the English letter ‘I’. In this section we have two flanges; top and bottom, and the
central portion connecting the two flanges is called the web. As we have discussed in the earlier
cases, that is stress distribution, let us see this from stress distribution and material
215
concentration point of view. Here in case of an I section, both the flanges are thin but wide. So,
this section is having more material concentration on top and in bottom, which is required in
high stress zone. On the other hand, the web is deep, long and thin. In web the concentration
of material is not much, here it is less. Here, the thin but deep web will increase the values of
IXX and ZXX.
We can have series of I sections with different dimensions. In some cases, the depth remains
same but the flange increases, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: wide flange sections
For example, in Figure 3, the dimension of the web is 150, and flange changes as 100, 125, and
150. So, the depth remains same, but the width of the flange is increased. This is called the
wide flange sections. So, I can have a series of I sections which does not change its depth;
depth remain same but it is the flanges increases. Sometimes we require this kind of sections
to take care of the heavy amount of bending moments.
On the contrary, we can also have some other types of sections where the flange will not be
changed, width of the flange will remain same but the depth of the section, that is the web will
be changed. For example, dimensions of the web are 100, 125, and may be 150; which is shown
in Figure 4.
Figure 4: deep I-section
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So, this is also good and this kind of the sections are also sometimes required to take care of
the bending moments in beams, because with increment of the depth of the sections, you can
increase the IXX value and eventually, you can increase the ZXX value.
So, I have calculated some of the wide flange section as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: the wide flange sections
Section Width Area MI MR MR/Area

50x100x50 50 2000 3866667 16.1 8.06
75x100x75 75 2500 5383333 22.4 8.97
100x100x100 100 3000 6900000 28.8 9.58
125x100x125 125 3500 8416667 35.1 10.02
Here, in all the cases, the dimension of the web is constant; but the dimensions of the top and
bottom flange changes. The thickness of each members of the section is kept as 10. So, in the
1st case, the 50x100x50, that means the width of the flange is 50 (for both top and bottom), and
the web is 100. Similarly, for the other cases too. Using the formulas discussed earlier in the
lecture, the area, MI, MR, and ratio of MR/Area is calculated, and here the σpermissible is kept as
250. From here we note that, as we increase the width of the flange, the area increase, the
moment of inertia increases, the moment of resistance increases and MR/Area also increases.
The MR is important in resistance point of view and Area is important in cost point of view.
The higher is the value of MR/Area better is the section and more beneficial. The graph of this
is plotted in Figure 5, shown in blue line.
Similarly, now if we increase the depth then, let us see what happens.
Table 2: the deep I sections
Section Depth Area MI MR MR/Area

100x50x100 70 2500 1920833 13.7 5.49
100x75x100 95 2750 3980729 21.0 7.62
100x100x100 120 3000 6900000 28.8 9.58
100x125x100 145 3250 10756771 37.1 11.41
So, here the flange remains same as 100, with thickness 10. I have increased the depth from
50. Therefore, it goes like 70 and then to 95, 120, 145 like that. The area I have calculated
which is increasing, MI, the moment of inertia increasing, MR is also increasing, MR by area
is also increasing like that but considerably high amount over here, the jump is very, very high
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as shown in Figure 5. This jump is very high with compared to wide flange sections. So,
because of the height increasing this jump is much more and at some point it is overshoot the
wide flange sections.
Figure 5: comparison of wide flange sections and deep I sections
So, these calculations can also be done easily in excel sheet, where you can put your values
and you can find out lot of things. By putting the formulas, the moment of inertia, the Y top, Y
bottom, the Z bottom, Z top, the MR, the moment of resistance of the sections, stress in the top
and bottom most sections etc. By changing the values, for example the bending moment, you
can also check whether the section will be stable or will it fail. If we put higher values, which
is more than permissible, than it will reflect as fail. If the stress at top and bottom are higher
than permissible, the top and bottom conditions will be reflected as fail. So, in this way you
can actually see that all the things can calculate by virtue of excel sheet.
So, let us next go to built-up beams. Sometimes you may need more amount of moment to be
controlled or moment to be actually support. So, with I sections we can do that as we can go
with lot of variety. We can go with plate, introducing some plates on top and bottom of the I
section, we can use some kind of a channel section, we can also go with some kind of an angle
sections and the plate, or some 2 channels can be put together and make a box sections; as
shown in Figure 6. So, like that there are ample of ways to go for a geometrical construction
of those different types of sections and different kind of built-up beams. These kinds of heavy
sections are used in industrial structures, railway stations and maybe stadiums as well as for
high-rise buildings.
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Figure 6: built-up beams
Now, let us go to another criteria that is section modulus of asymmetric sections. In previous
lectures we have discussed about the sectional modulus for the symmetrical sections where the
Z top and the Z bottom we calculated based on the ‘y’ top and the ‘y’ bottom; ‘y’ is the distance
from the neutral axis in the top and bottom respectively; and for the symmetrical section it is
equal both the way, the top to bottom. But in some cases, it is not so, we may have some
asymmetrical sections too. Hence, we will have the different values of the y top and the y
bottom. However, the pivoting case will be there the neutral axis.
So, at the neutral axis the value of sigma will be equal to 0. So as the y top is higher than the y
bottom, then this σ top will be higher than that of σ bottom, refer Figure 7. The asymmetrical
beam sections will have two section modulus.
Figure 7: section modulus of an asymmetrical section
219
So, each will have as a Z top and the Z bottom, because as you know the Z is nothing but –
𝐼𝑥𝑥
𝑍𝑥𝑥 =
𝑦max
In asymmetrical sections, I cannot have a single ymax, I have a bottom ymax from the neutral
axis; which will give me the tensile stress and I have a top ymax which will give me the
compressive stress. Therefore, I have to calculate two such Z bottom and the Z top, refer Figure
7.
Now, we will see examples of some asymmetrical sections, where it would not give you the
CG exactly at the central depth, as shown in Figure 8. So, the y top and the y bottom will be of
different values.
Figure 8: examples of some asymmetrical sections
So, now let us try to solve a small problem. We will consider a T section and we will try to find
out the stresses in top and bottom layers of the T- beam Section. The Bending Moment on the
section is 20KN-m
So, at first, I have calculated the position of the CG, and it will be at 107 from the bottom. So,
as it is 107 from the bottom, the top fibre is 53 from the neutral axis. So, these two are not equal
and it won’t be. When we see the stress distribution diagram, then it will be like as shown in
Figure 9. The σc will be smaller here and the σt will be higher; because the neutral axis is above,
or closer to the top.
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Figure 9: stresses in a T beam section
So, the stress will be smaller and the top and due to the funnel effect, it will be higher in the
bottom.
{(150 × 10 × 75) + (100 × 10 × 155)}
𝑦̅ =
{(150 × 10) + (100 × 10)}
267500
𝑦̅ = = 107
2500
Now
𝑀 𝑀
𝜎𝑐 = × 𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑝 =
𝐼 𝑍𝑡𝑜𝑝
𝑀 𝑀
𝜎𝑡 = × 𝑦𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 =
𝐼 𝑍𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
Now,
𝐼𝑋𝑋
𝑍𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 =
𝑦𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝐼𝑋𝑋
𝑍𝑡𝑜𝑝 =
𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑝
Then,
1 1
𝐼𝑋𝑋 = × 10 × 1503 + 1500 × (107 − 75)2 + × 100 × 103 + 1000 × (155 − 107)2
12 12
𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 6.66 × 106
Assuming M=20 KNm
𝐼𝑋𝑋 6.66 × 106
𝑍𝑡𝑜𝑝 = = = 125.15𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑝 53
𝐼𝑋𝑋 6.66 × 106
𝑍𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = = = 62.24 × 103 𝑚𝑚3
𝑦𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 107
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Then 𝜎𝑐 and 𝜎𝑡 will be
𝑀 𝑀 20 × 106
𝜎𝑐 = × 𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑝 = = = 159.15 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝐼 𝑍𝑡𝑜𝑝 125.66 × 103
𝑀 𝑀 20 × 106
𝜎𝑡 = × 𝑦𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = = = 321.33 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝐼 𝑍𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 62.24 × 103
Figure 10: computation of stresses in a T beam section
So, next we will see another problem with an asymmetrical I section. This is to find the Moment
of Resistance of the I- section. Given: Permissible Bending Stress in Compression and Tension
is 250 N/mm2 and 150 N/mm2 respectively.
This is asymmetrical because, bottom flange is 120 by 20 and the top one is 60 by 10, as shown
in Figure 11; also, the permissible bending stress in the compression and tension is not equal,
compression it is 250 N/mm2 and the tension it is 150 N/mm2, where the tension is little less.
Now, calculating the CG of the section, we found that to be at 42.25 above bottom.
Moment of Inertia 𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 8.29 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
Figure 11: stresses in an asymmetrical I section
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So, it will be pivoted at red dot point shown in Figure 11, and the neutral axis will lie towards
the bottom or near to bottom. Therefore, the 𝜎𝑐 that is the stress in the compression zone will
be higher with compared to the stress in the tensile zone. If remember in the last example we
have seen that the neutral axis was towards the top that is why the top fiber stresses are less
compared to the bottom. However, in this example the scenario is reversed.
Here it is given that the Permissible Bending Stress in Compression and Tension is 250
N/mm2 and 150 N/mm2 respectively.
Now, there is a relation between 𝜎𝑐 and 𝜎𝑡 which is governed by the two triangles above and
below the pivoting points; and we can find the relation with respect to 𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑝 and 𝑦𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 . We
can compute the relation as follows:
𝜎𝑐 𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑝 87.75
= = = 2.08
𝜎𝑡 𝑦𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 42.25
𝜎𝑐 = 2.08 𝜎𝑡
So, from here we can see that 𝜎𝑐 is almost 2 times of 𝜎𝑡 ; that means whatever may be the
value of 𝜎𝑐 , it will be almost twice of that 𝜎𝑡 . It is higher because the neutral axis is towards
the end or the bottom.
Now, assuming 𝜎𝑡 = 150 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 because this is the maximum permissible limit, I cannot put
it this value as 151, because I know that beyond maximum permissible limit, it will fail. So,
computing this, we can find
𝜎𝑡 = 150𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜎𝑐 = 2.08 × 150 = 312 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
So, if we take the bottom tension limiting case as 150, then the top compression goes much
higher than its limiting case of 250. Therefore, we cannot go with this, because with 𝜎𝑡 =
150𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 the beam section will fail.
Figure 12: with limiting case of σt finding σc in an asymmetrical I section
223
As shown in the red highlighted circle in Figure 12, the permissible compression in the material
is only 250, so if I put 150 as 𝜎𝑡 , then 𝜎𝑐 becomes 312, which is beyond the permissible limit
of the compression; and the beam will fail.
So, let us go to the other case around. What is the other case? That is checking with the limiting
case of compression. We know the relation that 𝜎𝑐 = 2.08 𝜎𝑡 ; then computing this:
If
𝜎𝑐 = 250𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜎𝑡 = 250/2.08 = 120 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜎𝑡 < 150
As 150 is a limiting permissible case for the tensile stress, and it is 120, then this is okay.
Therefore, it is mark it in green colour in Figure 13; and it is safe.
In the earlier case it was not safe. So, in the safe case the topmost portion should catch the
compression which is highest compression or the permissible compression that is 250 N/mm2
and corresponding to that the bottom most portion will have 120 and that is safe. Based on that
MR will be:
𝑀𝑅 = 𝑍 × 𝜎 = 94.5 × 103 × 2550 = 23.625 × 106 𝑁𝑚𝑚
𝑀𝑅 = 23.625 𝐾𝑁𝑚
Figure 13: with limiting case of σc finding σt in an asymmetrical I section
So, now going to another problem. Here I have kept a particular channel sections as beam and
the I have to find out the values of thickness ‘t’ such a way that these both compression and
the tension achieve simultaneously. So, for that I have to achieve σc permissible as 200 and
achieved σt permissible as 100, so what should be the value of x such a way that I can achieve,
refer Figure 14.
224
Figure 14: stresses in case of a channel section
So, for that I know the total depth of the section is 120, so if the depth below pivoting point is
x, then above pivoting point will be 120 minus x; and computing this, we can find the value of
x as:
120 − 𝑥 200
=
𝑥 100
120 − 𝑥 = 2𝑥
𝑥 = 40𝑚𝑚
So, x has to be 40 and this the upper portion has to be 80. The hinge or pivoting point should
be such a way that the sigma compression at the top will be 200; and at the same time, the
sigma tension will be 100 in the bottom. After that I have then found out the CG of the section
and the value of t.
{(160 × 20 × 10) + (2 × 100 × 𝑡 × 70)}
𝐶𝐺 = = 40
{(160 × 20) + (2 × 100 × 𝑡)}
32000 + 14000𝑡
= 40
3200 + 200𝑡
32000 + 14000𝑡 = 12800 + 8000𝑡
6000𝑡 = 96000
𝑡 = 16𝑚𝑚
Figure 15: stresses in case of a channel section and its thickness
225
So, to achieve achieve σc permissible as 200 and achieved σt permissible as 100, the thickness ‘t’ should
be equal to 16mm
Now, let us see the last example with composite material. Let us suppose a wooden timber
beam, and the timber beam of cross section 100 X 200 mm is subjected to a bending moment
of 75 KN-m.
Then
1
𝐼= × 100 × 3003 = 225 × 106
12
The stress can be given by:
𝑀 75 × 106
𝜎= × 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = × 150 = 50𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝐼 225 × 106
Then the stress distribution diagram can be given as:
Figure 16: stress distribution diagram in a composite material beam section
On the other hand, if I put two steel reinforced plates with thickness 10mm each, on the top
and bottom of this section, then, assuming Es = 2X105 N/mm2 and Et = 0.1X105 N/mm2, we
will have two compatibility conditions. First is strain compatibility equation and second is
radius of curvature compatibility equation, refer Figure 17.
Figure 17: composite material beam section and compatibility equations
226
And from this strain compatibility, you may say that the stress in steel, σs must be equal to
product of m and σt . What is m? If you remember m is 𝐸𝑠 /𝐸𝑡 that is the modular ratio. If you
go for the radius of curvature compatibility, because radius of curvature also has to be equal
and these two interfaces of the timber and steel; otherwise one will slip with other. So, in that
case also we can say that σs, the stress in steel is equal to modular ratio into the stress in timber.
So, in that case what I have done is, our original section has to be enlarged to equivalent to
timber sections where I increased the sections of the steel by multiplying the dimension of 100
by 20; and 20 is nothing but the modular ratio. So, now the equivalent timber section looks like
as shown in Figure 18. The dimension 300 by 100 remains same, but at top and bottom there
are two such enlarged portion of 20×100=2000.
Figure 18: original and equivalent timber beam section
From that you can find out the moment of inertia, stress in steel at top, stress in timber at
junction, and stress in steel at junction.
Moment of inertia of equivalent section:
1 1
𝐼= × 100 × 3003 + 2000 × 103 + (2 × 2000 × 10) × 1552
12 12
𝐼 = 231.53 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
Stress in timber junction

𝑀 75 × 106
𝜎𝑡 = ×𝑦 = × 150 = 48.6𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝐼 231.53 × 106
Stress in steel junction:

𝜎𝑠 = 𝑚 × 𝜎𝑡 = 20 × 48.6 = 972𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
227
Stress in steel top:
𝑀 75 × 106
𝜎𝑠 = 𝑚 × 𝜎𝑡 = 𝑚 × × 𝑦 = 20 × × 160 = 1036.6𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝐼 231.53 × 106
These will be important for your RCC design of course, but RCC design is not included in this
course.
The references taken for this lecture is:

Publisher
Publication
➢ Strength of Materials By B.C. Punmia, Ashok K.Jain & Arun K.Jain Laxmi
Publication
➢ Understanding Structures: An Introduction to Structural Analysis By Meta
So, in conclusion we can say that the flange beam is effectively used as a main section which
is very much important and very much effective; and the composite beam can be used to
improve the moment of resistance or the capacity of the beam.
At the end of this lecture, I have given three questions as homework.

1. An I-Section is having following dimensions and act as a simply supported beam over
a span of 12 meter. Estimate the maximum impose UDL it can carry. Assume the Self
Weight of the beam as 1.2 KN/m. The permissible stress in compression and in tension
is 250N/mm2
Section Dimension of I-Section: Top Flange: 150mm X 20mm
Web: 600mm X 10mm
Bottom Flange: 100mm X 10mm
228
2. Re-estimate the impose load (UDL) if two plates of 150mm X 20mm is fixed at top and
bottom flanges. The self-weight and permissible stress of the beam remains unchanged.
3. A 200mm X 400mm wooden beam is further reinforced with a

steel plate of 200mm X 15mm at bottom. Find the Moment of
Resistance of the (i) Wooden beam only (ii) wooden beam with
steel plate. The permissible bending stresses in steel and wood are
250 N/mm2 and 150 N/mm2 respectively. Es = 2X105 N/mm2 and
Et = 0.1X105 N/mm2
So, thank you very much. This is the end of lecture 13.
229
Lecture – 14
Shear Stress in Beam
Welcome to the NPTEL online course on Structural System in Architecture. Today we will
discuss the lecture number 14. This is under module number 3 of week 3. Name of the module
is structural mechanics and this lecture will cover shear stress in beam.
The tentative concepts to be covered here asr:
➢ Introduction
➢ Shear Stress in Beam Section
➢ Shear Stress Distribution Profile
➢ Numerical Problems on Shear Stress
Here, we will introduce the shear stress and then we will go to define the shear stress in a beam
section and how it can be calculated and measured. Then we will see the shear stress
distribution profile in beam section and some numerical problems.
The learning objective for this course is:
➢ To derive the expression of shear stress in beam section.
➢ To explain the shear stress distribution in beam section.
➢ To apply the shear stress formula to evaluate shear stress for a given beam.
So, let us start with the shear stress. As you all know, the shear stress is a stress which will be
generated by the shear force; and the shear force is nothing but a force which is applied in a
particular junction of the planes or in between the two layers. So, let us see one case as shown
in Figure 1, where two steel or wooden plates which are joined by a bolt or a rivet or maybe
some kind of a key and they are connected by a lap joint.
Figure 1: shear force in two planes
230
Now, if you just pull these two bars in opposite directions, applying equal and opposite force
then initially, it may remain same or undisturbed for some time. It will remain stable when
applied force is not enough to pull it away. However, if the force is increased furthermore, then,
the joint will fail and as a result it may break or get distorted. Now, why it will this join break?
Because at this particular cross section of these two plates, the shears force will be developed.
As the applied force is much higher than its shear stress capacity the joint will fail. As a result,
there will be a shear failure. So, we can say that the shear stress is not axial in direction. Axial
stresses are perpendicular to the axis of the body and on the other hand shear stress acts along
with some planes.
Now, if I take a beam and this beam is supported at both the ends. I am just zooming the central
portion and if I just put some load on this particular beam, then, shear stress will be developed,
as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: shear force in a beam
Here, of course, the bending stress will also be developed; and we have already seen in the last
3 lectures how the bending stress is being developing and how the bending stress in the different
sections can be calculated.
But shear force is a transverse force which will be applied in the beam section. If I imagine that
this total depth of the beam is having 100 layers, then in between each layer, let’s say the first
layer and the second layer, will be a kind of transverse force in them. Similarly, between second
layer to the third layer, there will be another shear force, and it will continue in between the
layers.
So, in those 100 layers, the concentration of the shear stress or the magnitude of the shear stress
may or may not vary, that will see afterwards; but there will be formation of shear stress. So,
due to this shear stress, if it is very less then it is fine, the beam will remain as it is; but if it is
really large, if you just put little bit extra amount of load or may be large amount of load, then
first there will appear some flexural cracks in the mid-section; because this is a simply
supported beam. The flexure means bending crack or the crack that is developed due to the
bending stress; and as it is understood that this is a simply supported beam and it is going to
have a sagging kind of a moment, the tension will occur at the bottom most fibers; and a crack
231
will develop. This crack is a perpendicular crack, it will start from the bottom most fiber and
will try to go towards the neutral axis or the centre of the beam. But afterwards, it may also
generate some cracks which is other way inclined and those cracks are shear crack, you will
see the cracks which is generated and that will be in a 45⁰ orientation and that will be the shear
crack. Why this is 45⁰ crack? Why that is a shear crack? We will try understand it little later.
So, now let us go to the stress distribution, how to measure that particular stress and how can I
say that there is a shear stress develop. Again, let us consider a beam as shown in Figure 3,
which is loaded with two concentrated loads. So, definitely this particular beam will have some
bending moment (even if you have some load other than concentrated load).
So, if I take two sections AC and BD, then bending moment at AC will be less than in BD;
because it will always be less towards the support and higher towards the centre or we can say
away from the support. If the bending moment is not equal, then there will be different kind of
stress distribution and different type of the force will be applied. Let us see how these two
sections AC and the BD will have the stress distribution
Figure 3: bending moment and distribution of bending stresses in a simply supported beam
If we zoom in to the view of AC and BD, then we will see that they will have the bending
stresses as shown in Figure 3. So, as I have assumed that AC is having less amount of bending
moment, so the bending stress, compressive and the tensile will be smaller, whereas the BD
this compressive and the tensile bending stress will be higher. So, in any layer if you just
compare the layer, then you will see that AC will be smaller and the BD will be higher.
So, suppose if I take a layer which is just above the neutral axis, or just below the top most
fiber, the green colour layer shown in Figure 4. Here, in AC, if σ is the stress, then on the other
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hand, at BD, in the same layer will experience some extra amount of stress. Because, this BD
will have the higher amount of bending moment.
Figure 4: bending stress distribution
Then logically I can say that, yes, if this is so, then how much is the force. So, force is nothing
but the stress into the area. Let us suppose this particular thin line or thin layer, the green layer
drawn in the Figure above, it is having the area of dA, that is the elementary area. So, the force
will be σ × dA and whereas the little extra force 𝛿 𝑑𝐹 will be 𝜎 + 𝛿, there will be a σ and dA.
There will be some additional amount of force. Therefore, now I transfer this sigma to moment
as I know that M by I equal to sigma by y, so sigma is equal to your M by I into y, I have just
replaced the sigma by virtue of this M by y.
So, I understand that this particular green layer will have some different amount of stress, so
different amount of force, both the forces are not equal. The force in AC and the force here in
BC is not going to be equal. These two are unbalanced forces. Then how can I compute these
unbalanced forces? I can find it out by subtracting force in AC from force in BC, and that is
the amount of the unbalanced force applied in a small area dA which is at a distance y from the
NA. So, we can say that only in a small area dA the unbalanced force is occurring which is
𝛿𝑀
𝑦 × 𝑑𝐴
𝐼
Figure 5: shear force in a beam
So, that is why if you just push a particular beam, it may be two wooden log or may be two
scales; and here there is no adhesive in between them; and just put some kind of a load, there
will be a slippage. Why slippage? Because this total unbalanced force will be there in between
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them and they will try to slip with each other; and that is the shear force. So, I can sense some
kind of an unbalanced force which is a sense of a shear force.
So, I have again taken that particular AC and BD in a zoom view and let us assume that the
distance between this AC and BD is also very, very small and that is 𝛿𝑥, as shown in Figure 6;
and also, the sectional depth BD is shown. The small area that I have marked in the image
below, which is at a distance y from the neutral axis.
Figure 6: unbalanced force in a beam section
Now, I have an unbalanced force on the area dA, but how much is the unbalanced force in this
total region from y to y top, the area shown in red color in right-hand side image in Figure 6;
that is the region y to ytop. So, I am interested to find out how much is the unbalanced force in
that red region. So, mathematically the total unbalanced force will be:
𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑝
𝛿𝑀
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = ∑ 𝑑𝐴 × 𝑦
𝐼
𝑦
Now, I can redistribute this particular total unbalanced force as:

𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑝
𝛿𝑀 𝛿𝑀
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = ∑ 𝑑𝐴 × 𝑦 = × 𝑨𝒚
𝐼 𝐼
𝑦
Because del M and I does not have anything with the y and A, so I can take it out; and I found
this particular under summation sign y to ytop the dA and the y, that means it is going to be the
area of this particular region which is above y, and the CG of this region to the neutral axis.
So, this is called the first moment of area above the line or above the depth y. So, I can find out
the total unbalanced force now not in dA, but the area which is above y, that means the selected
portion.
So, this particular unbalanced force has to have some support to maintain the equilibrium.
Therefore, the inherent shear stress is developed by the particular body and that particular shear
stress will be act like opposite in direction. So, if I want to find out the shear stress, I have to
divide that particular force by the area.
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The contact area of that particular the beam is 𝐵 × 𝛿𝑥. Why 𝛿𝑥 ? Because 𝛿𝑥 is the length
and B is the width. So, if I divide that the unbalanced force, divide that 𝐵 × 𝛿𝑥, I can find out
the shear stress.
𝛿𝑀
Further, I may write the same and I may say that this 𝛿𝑥 is the rate of change of bending
moment; and it is nothing but shear force. If you remember in the second week, we have studied
about the differentiation of the bending moment is nothing but the shear force, so finally I got
𝛿𝑀
the equation. So, I replace this by F.
𝛿𝑥
Here
q = Shear Stress at a location on beam section
F = Shear Force at the beam Section
I = Moment of Inertia of the Section
B = Width of the section at the location
A = Area of the portion of the section above the specific location
y = Distance of CG of the area ‘A’ from the Neutral Axis of the section
So, now we will see the stress distribution profile of the section. I have to find out the stress
distribution profile of a rectangular beam of B by D. Here, I have considered a particular
distance y from the NA, then shear stress for this will be:
𝐹
𝑞= × 𝐴𝑦
𝐼𝑏
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In this equation the A is the area above the y, that is the green area as shown in Figure 7, and
is the CG of the green area from NA.
Then considering these we can rewrite the equation as:
𝐷
𝐴 = 𝐵 × ( − 𝑦)
2
1 𝐷
𝑦̅ = 𝑦 + ( − 𝑦)
2 2
𝐷 𝑦 𝐷 𝑦
𝑦̅ = 𝑦 + − = +
4 2 4 2
1 𝐷
𝑦̅ = ( + 𝑦) Figure 7: shear stress distribution in
2 2
a rectangular beam section
Then
𝐹 𝐷 1 𝐷
𝑞= × 𝐵 ( − 𝑦) × ( + 𝑦)
𝐼𝑏 2 2 2
𝐹 𝐵 𝐷2
𝑞= × ( − 𝑦2)
𝐼𝑏 2 4
Then the shear stress distribution function in rectangular cross section is:
𝐹 𝐷2
𝑞= ( − 𝑦2)
2𝐼 4
And this is parabolic in nature, that we will see next. Now let us consider a rectangular beam
section as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8: shear stress distribution in a rectangular beam
Now, see how can we define it. Here in the top layer and the bottom layer, the shear force has
to be 0, why 0? In this equation of shear stress distribution function, if I say the top layer, the
𝑦 = 0; here the y is the distance from the neutral axis to the layer; and considered is the topmost
𝐷 𝐷
layer. So, it is going to be 2 . On the other hand, in bottom layer it will be − 2 . So, we will
substitute it in the equation; and now, I am interested to find out at the center of the neutral
axis. Then
𝐹 𝐷2
𝑞 = ( − 𝑦2)
2𝐼 4
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𝐹 𝐷2 𝐹 𝐷2
𝑞= × = ×
2𝐼 4 1
(12 𝐵𝐷3 ) 4
6𝐹 3 𝐹
𝑞= = ×
4𝐵𝐷 2 𝐵𝐷
𝐹
𝑞 = 1.5 ×
𝐵𝐷
So, that is the green point in Figure 8.
Now the distribution, will it be straight line? No, it won’t be. It will be a parabolic distribution,
because its equation is a parabolic equation. So, if we see now
𝐹
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.5 × = 1.5 × 𝑞𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝐵𝐷
Because F by BD is what; F is the shear force and BD is the area of the beam, which is the
average shear force in the beam, which is 1.5 times the average. So, maximum shear force is
1.5 times, 50% average in case of rectangular beam. So, if you design a beam with the average
shear force taking into consideration, then the beam will fail; because the actually it will come
1.5 times the q average in the central axis or the neutral axis and definitely, in that particular
central portion there will be crack and failure.
Now, let us also see the distribution for a circular section. So, the stress distribution is
𝐹 2
𝑞= (𝑟 − 𝑦 2 )
3𝐼
Figure 9: shear stress distribution in a circular section
Here,
Top Layer, y=r, q =0
Top Layer, y=-r, q =0
At neutral axis, y=0
Then,
𝐹𝑟 2 𝐹𝐷2 𝐹𝐷2
𝑞= = =
3𝐼 12𝐼 12 × 𝜋 × 𝐷4
64
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16 𝐹
𝑞= ×
3 𝜋𝐷2
Then,
16 𝐹 4 𝐹
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = × = ×
3 𝜋𝐷 2 3 𝜋𝐷2
4
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.33 × 𝑞𝑎𝑣𝑔
So, I found that the maximum stress for the circular section is 1.33 times that is 33% higher
than the average. So, in all the cases it is higher than the q average, and it is not same, it is 1.5
times for rectangular case and 1.33 times for the circular case.
Now we will try to see some distribution profiles at different locations.
Figure 10:shera stress and bending moment distribution profiles at near support and near mid-span in a
uniformly loaded beam
Here if we see, near support the shear force is higher and the bending moment is low, so your
bending stress distribution sigma compression and the sigma tension which will be smaller, but
the q is higher. On the other hand, near mid-span that is near central portion, the shear is low
but the bending moment is high. So, q will be low but sigma compression and the sigma tension
is very high.
Now, we will see a small problem. The problem states that:
Let the span of the simply supported beam is 8-meter and the intensity of UDL is 25KN/m.
The beam is a rectangular in shape with cross section dimension: 200mm X 450mm. Find the
Maximum shear stress in the beam section at
(i) Support, (ii) 2-meter from Support
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So, computing this we can find that:
Figure 11: maximum shear stress in a beam section
So, it is 1.11 N/mm2 near the support and 0.55 N/mm2 almost half of course, near the 2 meters
from the support. So, it is linearly decreasing.
Now, let us see in case of a cantilever beam. The problem is to find the maximum shear and
bending stress at fixed end of the cantilever beam. The beam is having 250X450mm cross
section area.
So, SFD, BMD diagram will be as shown in Figure 12. Then the Fmax will be the in the support,
and from that we get the maximum shear stress. Similarly, we will also find the maximum
bending moment.
Figure 12: maximum shear stress and bending

moment in a cantilever beam with UDL of 15 KN/m
Now, we will see a numerical problem on shear stress for a T section. The T beam section has
to resist shear force of 100 KN.
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So, first we will find the CG and the moment of inertia and then we will see the shear stess in
top and bottom layer.
Centre of Gravity:
{(100 × 10 × 50) + (150 × 10 × 105)}
𝑦= = 83
100 × 10 + 150 × 10
Moment of inertia:
1
𝐼= × 10 × 1003 + 100 × (83 − 50)2 = 2.66 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
12
Figure 13: shear stress in a T beam section
Now, we have to see that in top and bottom most layer it has to be 0. So, the topmost layer it is
0 because the A is 0. What is A here? A is the area above the selected section. But this case
topmost layer is the selected one, there is no more beyond that; so, area is 0. Similarly, in the
bottom most layer also it is 0; because y equal to 0. Why y equal to 0? Because, the CG of this
area is 83 and it is lie on the 83 itself. So, the difference between the CG and the CG of the area
is 0, so that is why y equal to 0.
Now let us see what is happening at the junction. First, we will just above the neck, may be
0.001 mm above the perfect neck. The width is 150mm.
𝐹 = 100 𝐾𝑁
𝐼 = 2.66 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
𝐴 = 150 × 10 = 1500
𝑦̅ = 22𝑚𝑚 (because 27-5)
𝑏 = 150𝑚𝑚
𝐹 Figure 14: stress just
Now, 𝑞= × 𝐴𝑦 above neck in a T beam section
𝐼𝑏
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Now putting the values, we can compute the stress distribution as:
100 × 103
𝑞= × (1500 × 22)
2.66 × 106 × 150
𝑞 = 8.27 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
This is a parabolic distribution, refer Figure 16.
Now, let us see it just below the neck, may be 0.001 mm below; that is in web portion. Here
b=10mm.
𝐹
𝑞= × 𝐴𝑦
𝐼𝑏
Now putting the values, we can compute the stress
distribution as:
100 × 103
𝑞= × (1500 × 22)
2.66 × 106 × 10 Figure 15: stress just below the
neck in a T beam section
𝑞 = 124 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Here, the only change is the thickness. For above neck, it was 150 mm and for below neck it is
10 mm.
So, in the web, the stress is a sharp jump. In the flange portion it was 8.27 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 and in web
it is 124 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 , refer Figure 16.
Now, let us see at the CG of the T section. Here, b=10
In Flange
𝐴 = 150 × 10 = 1500
𝑦̅ = 22𝑚𝑚
In Web
𝐴 = 17 × 10 = 170
𝑦̅ = 8.5 𝑚𝑚 (half of 27)
Then
∑𝐴𝑦̅ = (1500 × 22) + (170 × 8.5) = 3445
Again,
𝐹 = 100 𝐾𝑁
𝐼 = 2.66 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
𝐹
𝑞= × 𝐴𝑦
𝐼𝑏
100 × 103
𝑞= × 3445
2.66 × 106 × 10
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𝑞 = 129.5 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
This is the highest.
Figure 16: shear stress distribution in a T beam section
So, the shear stress distribution starts at zero, at top, then 8.27 at just above the neck, as shown
in Figure 16, then sharp jump at neck, which is 124, then it is highest at CG, which is 129.5
and then again zero at bottom.
So, any neck formation will increase your value, and this increment will be how much? It will
be 15 times here. Why 15 times increment? Because this neck is decreasing by 15 times, only
change is, if you see in the earlier case is 150 to 10, so definitely this will be increased by 15
times.
Next, we have considered a symmetrical I section. The dimensions are as shown in Figure 17.
The CG will be at the centre 100, because total depth is 200 and I value also I have calculated.
So, I can see that it will start from 0, then it will be top and bottom will be 0.
Figure 17: distribution pattern in a symmetrical I section
Here,
𝐹 = 100𝐾𝑁
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CG is at 100 mm above the base.
𝐼 = 24.7 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
Now, 𝐴𝑦̅ = (80 × 15) × 92.5 = 111000
𝐹
𝑞= × 𝐴𝑦
𝐼𝑏
So, q at just above the neck, at flange portion will be:
100 × 103
𝑞= × 111000
24.7 × 106 × 80
𝑞 = 5.62𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Then, q at just below the neck, at web portion will be:
100 × 103
𝑞= × 111000
24.7 × 106 × 10
𝑞 = 45𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Now at CG axis
𝐴𝑦̅ = (80 × 15) × 92.5 + (85 × 10 × 42.5) = 147125
𝐹
𝑞= × 𝐴𝑦
𝐼𝑏
100 × 103
𝑞= × 147125
24.7 × 106 × 10
𝑞 = 59.6𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Here, between just above the neck and just below the junction, the flange and the web
respectively, the only difference is the width, which is 80 and 10 respectively. The change is
sharp, by 8 times (80 to 10).
The shear stress will start from zero, then slight increase that is 5.62, then at neck sharp increase
to 45, and then at CG it will be highest, 59.6.
So, in this way we can calculate the shear stress distribution in various beam sections.
The references taken for this lecture are:

Publisher
Publication
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Publication
Lastly, in conclusion, I must say that the transverse shear force is developed in the beam due
to the external loading. The shear stress distribution is mostly parabolic over the depth of the
beam section. The top and bottom layers, the shear stress is 0, while in the central web portion
it is maximum.
So, I have given two homework for you, which you can try at your end.
1. For the I-section shown below calculate the proportion in which the Flange and Web
resist the:
(i) Bending Moment and (ii) Shear Force
This I section is given to you and you have to find out the proportion of the flange and web
resist the bending moment and the shear force. How much bending moment the flange can take
and how much proportion the web can take? You cannot find out the exact value because F and
the M is not given to you. So, the proportion of how much percentage is taken by the flange,
how much percentage bending moment is taken by the web. Similarly, how much percentage
of shear force is taken in the web and how much will be in the flange. So, mostly if you see the
bending moment, the flange will take maybe 85% higher and the web will take rest 15% mostly,
this is not the correct answer, this is just an idea that I am giving you.
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The second question is:
2. Calculate and Draw the shear stress distribution over the section shown in the figure
below. The shear force in the section is 120KN.
Kindly solve these two questions and try to practice.
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Lecture – 15
Theory of Column
Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture. This
is module 3, and this is on structural mechanics; and we are in the last lecture on this module,
the lecture number 15 in serial, and the topic of this lecture is theory of column.
So, in this particular lecture I am going to cover the following concepts:
➢ Introduction
➢ Classification of Column
➢ Euler’s Theory of Long Column
➢ Concept of Equivalent Length
➢ Concept of Slenderness Ratio
The tentative learning objective of this particular lecture will be:
➢ Discuss the types of column and its structural implications.
➢ Outline the stability of long column.
➢ Apply the concept of slenderness ratio in analysis of column.
So, first let us go to the initial discussion on column. Columns are the vertical members also
called pillars, and everybody knows what is that. Today in our society, there are buildings
coming up here and there. They may be RCC building, sometimes it may be of steel, or wood.
You might have seen these particular buildings coming up from the foundation to the roof. So,
when constructed, first they construct the foundation and the columns.
Columns are nothing but the vertical element of the any structural systems and this is actually
going to support the beams and the slab; and the prime objective of the column is to transmit
the super structural load or load from the beam finally to the ground. It has to be finally
transmitted through the foundation. Primarily, a column is a compression member in its nature.
For example, if you have some load on a top of a particular stick, the stick acts as a column
and that is definitely being under a compression.
It is not a tension member; but yes, depending upon the location of the column and depending
upon the associated load between the two sides or the adjacent side or maybe there is a third
side, column also experiences some bending. So, in case of the monolithic construction, when
there is a two-side beam and the cross beams are monolithically casted with the column, there
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might occur some rotation in the column head. Due to the rotation at the column head, bending
might occur; and such bending is uniaxial bending. Sometimes there might be biaxial bending
too; but that is not in our scope.
In architecture columns also contributes strongly to aesthetics. It strongly acts as a visual
element in elevations. Even in early civilizations from the Egyptian to Roman to the Greek, if
you see even in the modern architecture also, columns have been used as prominent
architectural element. Sometimes they are very dominating. For example, in Parthenon in
Athens; and another one is the British Museum in London.
Figure 1: Parthenon, Athens and British Museum, London

Source: https://www.ancient.eu/Athens/, https://interestingengineering.com/
So, in those buildings if you see; the columns are huge and prominent. The columns give you
an impression of monumental scale in an iconic structure.
So, again if you look into the history of architecture, then you can see that, there are different
types of columns, based on its design, its capital, the proportions of length and shafts. There
are three orders in the Greek column. They are Doric, Ionic and Corinthian order. I am not
going to elaborate on that, but it shows the growth of design in different period and adoption
of details and designs to achieve aesthetic satisfactions.
Figure 2: the three Greek orders of column

Source: https://imgur.com/
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It also satisfies the situational or conditional use of different type and design of columns in
respective buildings.
DORIC is the oldest column type. It is simplest and shortest; and looks heavy.
IONIC columns stand on a large base. The capital of the column is having simple form of
decoration with two opposite ornamental spirals.
CORINTHIAN were the most having, most decorative and delicate capital. It is also extended
to a larger portion below the capital.
In designs, there are always lot of experiments; sometimes the radius increases towards the
feet, also different type of the capital came; capital of the column also changes because of the
bearing length, because it also has to take care of the higher amount of load. As a result,
different orders came.
So, from that point of view if we suddenly increase the capital, it will look very odd. So, you
have to make some ornamentations to camouflage that in such a way that it creates a
proportional beauty on the column.
Now, let us see some examples of modern columns. The photographs shown in Figure 3, are
some examples of modern columns, which I have taken from online sources. They are
completely different from what we have seen earlier, in case of early ages. Now, in the modern
era, the columns are very slick, having different type of definitions, different type of
dimensions and expressing a pleasing visual appearance. On the other hand, by virtue of these
element, it will also create an amazing and wonderful interior experience with different
expressions of the column capitals, like with different proportions, mushrooming or tree kind
of designs.
Figure 3: different modern columns

Source: https://in.pinterest.com/, https://www.dreamstime.com/, https://www.architectmagazine.com/, https://www.thoughtco.com/,
https://www.thoughtco
248
Now, the classification of the column. Columns can be classified in many ways, and
structurally there are two ways to classify the columns. The first is the short column and the
long column. Short and long column are defined with the two dimensions of a column; one is
the lateral dimension that is the thickness or maybe the diameter or maybe the cross-sections;
these are lateral dimensions; and another dimension is the length. So, these two dimensions
determine that whether the column is a long or short. If the ratio between the length and the
𝐿
lateral dimension, let’s say ‘L’ is the length and ‘D’ is the diameter, and ratio 𝐷 is less than 12,
then it is short column, and it will look very bulky; on the other hand, if the ratio is more than
12, then it is long column, and long column will appear slender. The short column is subjected
to the compressive stress and it fails due to crashing. On the other hand, the long columns are
subjected to critical stress and it fails due to buckling.
Figure 4: short and long columns and its failure
There is another way to classify the columns, that is braced column and the unbraced column.
The braced columns have an additional member which will take care of the stability against
lateral loads. The additional member is either a single diagonal member or maybe there is a
brick wall. If it is an infill brick wall, it will act as a bracing or can take any kind of a lateral
load, like wind or maybe some earthquake load.
Figure 5: braced and unbraced column
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On the other hand, sometimes columns are unbraced, there is nothing, it is empty. There is only
the beams and the columns, no additional members exist, no filling or brick wall or neither
there is diagonal member. They are the unbraced column. So, we have to make sure that the
column itself is so strong enough to tackle the lateral load.
Now, let us go to the Euler’s theory. Euler’s was a mathematician and he gave a theory on long
column and he developed one mathematical equation for the long column. Till today we use
that equation to design and analyse the columns.
The long column fails due to buckling and eventually, we have to find out the critical load. The
critical load if we see conceptually, then if there is a very long and straight column, and if you
just gradually increase the load on it, then at a particular point of time the column will buckle.
The buckling will not be gradual, it will be sudden, within a fraction of second it will fail. If
you just decrease the load, with slight decrease will be stable, it will not buckle. So, this
particular point, with that amount of load which will result into buckling of the column is the
critical load; and with that load the column becomes very, very unstable. So, to gain the
stability, you have to lower the critical load. Therefore, we have to understand and we find out
how much is the critical load of the column.
There are four major parameters which decides the critical load of a column, and they are:
1. Geometric property of the column cross section.
2. Property of column material.
3. Length of the column.
4. Support condition at the ends of the column.
There are different end conditions for columns. The columns can be with:
1. hinge and hinge at both the ends, it can be definitely constructed in steel but not
in RCC;
2. fixed and the free
3. fixed and fixed; and
4. fixed and hinged
In the first case, at the hinge point there will be no moment, moment 0, and a slope will be
generated from both ends as shown in Figure 6; and the equation of deflection is also given. In
case of a fixed and free, there will be 0 slope and it will bend like as in the figure. The equation
of deflection is also given. Similarly, for fixed and fixed ends and for fixed and hinged it is
also given in Figure 6.
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Figure 6: deflection equations of column
The differential equations for deflection are really tough. So, I am not going to solve those
differential equation. There are books that you can go through and solve the same.
The general form of the standard differential equation is given by:
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵
𝑑𝑥 2
The solution of the standard differential equation for different conditions is given by:
Table 1: the Euler’s Critical Load and Equivalent Length of column with different support conditions
Support Condition Euler’s Critical Load Equivalent Length

Hinge - Hinge 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 LE = l
𝑃𝐸 =
𝑙2
251
Fixed – Free 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 LE = 2l
𝑃𝐸 =
4𝑙 2
Fixed – Fixed 4𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 LE = l/2
𝑃𝐸 =
𝑙2
Fixed - Hinged 2𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 LE = l/√2
𝑃𝐸 =
𝑙2
When there are various end conditions or boundary conditions, we can find out the Euler’s
critical load, which is our intention to find. Here if we see:
PE = critical load of the column
E = Young modulus
I = moment of inertia
l = actual length of the column
LE = equivalent length of the column
The PE and LE varies with change in end conditions. The E is different for different materials,
for example, for RCC it is 1 × 104 , in case of steel 2 × 105
If you observe it, then you can see that there are always some numbers in each formula, like
¼, 4,2 etc. So, we can actually rewrite this all the Euler's critical equation or critical node
equation as:
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝐸 =
𝐿2𝐸
So, you have to remember this formula and you have to remember these four such equivalent
length and the length comparison for the 4 different type of support system, then we can solve
the problem or we can actually go ahead.
Now, we have to understand what is equivalent length?
Figure 7: Equivalent length of a column with fixed and hinged support
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So, I have taken a condition of fixed and hinge, as it is a fixed and hinge after deformation the
slope will have some value, say θ, and θ tis not equal to 0; but here in the fixed end θ is going
to be 0, so the deflected curvature will be as shown in Figure 7, and the slope will be 0 at fixed
end.
When I see the deflection curvature, then I can see that the curvature of the deflected shape of
the column changes its orientation. The direction of radius of curvature at fixed end and at the
free end is different. That means at a particular point the curvature changes, as shown in Figure
7. Curvature changes means, if you remember second week lecture then, that is the point of
contraflexure and the moment will also change. So, if you just put it in the horizontal way, it is
from the hogging to sagging something like that. So, we may say that at point where the
curvature changes, the moment will be 0. Why will this moment be 0? Because this is the point
where the moment changes, as curvature changes this point changes from positive to negative,
so definitely there is a sign change in the moment. Where there is this change of curvature, that
length; the distance between this moment 0 points is nothing but the equivalent length of the
column, refer Figure 7. So, first we have to find out where is the moment 0 point and we have
to find out that the length between them.
So, if it is a hinge and hinge, we know the moment 0 will occur at the hinge itself, so the
equivalent length will be same as actual length. The moment 0 points are shown in red dots in
the Figure 7. In fixed and free case, the moment 0 point will be mirror image to each other,
and the fictitious length is twice of ‘l’’. In the third case; this is fixed and fixed, the equivalent
length will be 0.5 l. In case of fixed and hinged it is 0.7l.
Figure 8: equivalent length of columns with different supports
So, we now have understood about the whole theory and philosophy associated with the
equivalent length and the original length of a column.
253
Next, let us go to the small problem. I am considering a column of 100 × 300, as shown in
Figure 9; and I have IXX and IYY values. Ixx and Iyy values. The length of the column is 3 meters;
and value of E for concrete is 1 × 104 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2. Here out of these two, I have to consider the
minimum one. Because the column will buckle in the weakest direction. So, computing Ixx and
Iyy:
1
𝐼𝑋𝑋 = × 100 × 3003 = 225 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
12
1
𝐼𝑌𝑌 = × 300 × 1003 = 25 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
12
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑌𝑌 = 25 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
Now, calculating PE:
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝐸 =
𝐿2𝐸 Figure 9: plan of the column
First, computing with consideration of both ends hinged:

Given that 𝑙 = 3000𝑚𝑚 and in case of both ends hinged, 𝐿𝐸 = 𝑙
So,
𝜋 2 × 1 × 104 × 25 × 106
𝑃𝐸 =
30002
𝑃𝐸 = 274156 𝑁 = 274 𝐾𝑁
Second, let us consider with both ends fixed:
Given that 𝑙 = 3000𝑚𝑚 and in case of both ends fixed, 𝐿𝐸 = 0.5𝑙 = 1500 𝑚𝑚
So,
𝜋 2 × 1 × 104 × 25 × 106
𝑃𝐸 = = 1097 𝐾𝑁
15002
Now, if we compare both the conditions then we can see that, when both the ends are fixed,
the column do have more capacity of taking load; because 𝑙 is decreasing, that is the equivalent
length is decreasing.
When both ends are hinged, the column can tackle 274 KN, after that it will buckle. Whereas,
when both ends are fixed, the column can tackle 1097 KN of load; and may be beyond that it
will fail or buckle and it will become unstable.
Next, let us consider another problem with similar conditions. The problem states that:
Length of the Column is 3 meter and both the ends are hinged. The Column needs to carry 500
KN. Assuming E = 1 X 104 N/mm2; Find the cross-section dimension of column with B:D =1:3
254
As both the ends are hinged, 𝐿𝐸 = 𝑙 = 3000 𝑚𝑚.
Now, computing it with using the same formulas:
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝐸 =
𝐿2𝐸
𝜋 2 × 1 × 104 × 𝐼
= 500 × 103
30002
𝐼 = 45.59 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
Then, keeping 𝐵 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 = 3𝑥
1
× 3𝑥 4 = 45.59 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
12
Solving this, we get Figure 10: the new
dimension of the column
𝑥 = 𝐵 = 116 𝑚𝑚, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 = 348 𝑚𝑚
So, approximating it, the design dimension of the column will be considered as:
120 𝑚𝑚 × 350 𝑚𝑚.
Now, I can see that the if dimension of the column instead of 100 by 300, is 120 by 350, it can
easily take the load of 500 KN.
Next, we will discuss the concept of the slenderness ratio. We have found out the Euler’s
critical load.
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝐸 = 2
𝐿𝐸
So, now based on this particular critical load, I want to find out the critical stress, so stress is
nothing but the load by area, so I divide the critical load by the cross-section area of the column
that is A.
𝑃𝐸
𝜎𝑐𝑟 =
𝐴
𝜋2𝐸
𝐿2𝐸
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝐼
𝜎𝑐𝑟 = 2 = 𝐴
𝐴𝐿𝐸
Then, let
𝐼
√ = 𝑟
𝐴
And this is called Radius of Gyration.

Then,
255
𝐿2 𝐸 2
𝐼 = 𝐿𝐸 = 𝜆2
𝐴 𝑟
Finally;
𝜋2𝐸
𝜎𝑐𝑟 =
𝜆2
Then
𝐼
√ = 𝑟
𝐴
This is called as Radius of gyration. Radius of gyration of a body about an axis of rotation is
defined as the radial distance to a point which would have a moment of inertia the same as the
body's actual distribution of mass, if the total mass of the body were concentrated.
Then, 𝜆 is the slenderness ratio.
𝐿𝐸
𝜆=
𝑟
If λ is very high, the column is long column and λ is smaller that means, it is not slender it is
bulky. Radius of gyration is smaller means it is very cosy, very small section, and if radius of
gyration is very high then it’s a fat column.
Now, let us see how this lambda values will help us. So, I am comparing the strength of two
sections; one is a solid circular section and another one is a hollow section, as shown in Figure
11.
So, the area I have computed almost similar area, I have computed the I, the moment of inertia
of the hollow and the solid sections, I also computed the radius of gyration.
So, I can say that this particular 100 mm diameter solid circular section, the mass is
concentrated almost about 25 mm around the center. On the other hand, in the case of hollow
section, I may say that it has similar comparable area but the mass is concentrated almost about
53.29 millimetre away from the centre. So, it is much wider. This ring or hollow section may
have almost same area with solid section, but here the mass is distributed towards outward.
Whereas, in case of a solid section, it is very cosy. Then I have computed the r value. If I
assume that here the column is 2 meter long, and the E value, the Young modulus is 2 × 105 ,
then I can find out the λ value; which is 80 for solid section, and 37.5 for hollow section.
256
Figure 11: a solid and a hollow column
So, I may say that, in this particular column, the solid column is much longer as compared to
the hollow column. Therefore, finally the critical stress also can be found out, so in case of the
solid column I computed the critical stress is 380 𝑁 /𝑚𝑚2 , whereas in case of the hollow it is
1401 𝑁 /𝑚𝑚2. If I now multiply this with the area, I can find out the critical load that PE.
So, we can say that, if we use almost same amount of material, it is always better to have a
hollow column and distribute the mass outward such a way that the slenderness ratio is lower,
why it is lower, because I have the higher amount of radius of gyration.
Next, I have computed the slenderness ratio for steel and aluminium, putting their values of E,
2 × 105 and 0.8 × 105 respectively. Then I have computed that how the slenderness ratio
has drastically decreased the critical stress. Refer Figure 12. So, I may say that it depends upon
the material, E values and also upon the lambda values.
257
Figure 12: relation between slenderness ratio and critical stress
So, now if you see the Egyptian temple, for example the temple in Karnak or maybe the Luxor
or maybe the Abu Simbel, anywhere, they always followed a particular pattern or particular
formation. The central aisle will have a clerestory, the clerestory allows the daylight, so it has
to be higher, refer Figure 13.
Figure 13: typical Egyptian temple
258
So, you need a higher column and these columns will have papyrus capital, and others will
have the lotus capital, as you know from your history of architecture. So, you have two types
of column; the central one is high and the wings or the flanks are the lower or smaller column.
In the plan if you see carefully then you will notice the variations in dimensions of the columns.
The columns at central aisle is with higher diameter and in the flank the column dimensions
are less. Why so? Because you have to understand that if you want to put the higher, the longer
column you have to increase the diameter to take care of your critical stress, take care of the
slenderness ratio and take care of the PE that is the critical values of the forces.
So, we will see one small problem. The problem states that:
A 150 mm thick square slab of 5m X 5m dimension is supported by four columns of size
300mm X 300mm. The RCC slab supports a water tank of 15000 litre capacity. The length of
the column is 3-meter. Assume both the ends of the column are fixed. The unit weight of RCC
is 25KN/m3. Estimate the Actual and Critical Stress of each column.
Figure 14: the plan of the concrete slab
So, I have found out how much is the total load on each column and I also find out the what is
the compressive stress and then I again found out the how much is the critical stress, I found
out the I vale, A value and all those, the dimensions of the columns are also given 300 by 300,
I found out the area and the moment of inertia I by A under root.
Load of RCC Slab: (5 × 5 × 0.15) × 25 = 93.75𝐾𝑁
Load of Water:
(15000 × 9.81)
= 147.15 𝐾𝑁
1000
Total Load: (93.75 + 147.15) = 240.9𝐾𝑁
Load in each RCC Column: 0.25 × 240.9 = 60.225𝐾𝑁
Actual Compressive Stress:
259
60.225 × 1000
= 0.67 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
300 × 300
Moment of Inertia of the Column:
1
𝐼= × 3004 = 675 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
12
Area of Column: 300 × 300 = 90000 𝑚𝑚2
Effective Length of the Column = 0.5 × 3000 = 1500𝑚 (𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑)
𝐼 657 × 106
𝑟=√ =√ = 86.6𝑚𝑚
𝐴 90000
𝐿𝐸 1500
𝜆= = = 17.32
𝑟 86.6
𝜋 2 𝐸 𝜋 2 × 1 × 104
𝜎𝑐𝑟 = 2 = = 329𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜆 (17.32)2
Here the compressive stress for 3000mm tall column is 329𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 , but my actual
compressive strength is very less, which is 0.67 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 . So, it is very much safe.
Now, the next condition we are assuming that the column length is 8 meters instead of 3 meters.
So here length is changing and the λ will change.
Then computing this:
Moment of Inertia of the Column:
1
𝐼= × 3004 = 675 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
12
Area of Column: 300 × 300 = 90000 𝑚𝑚2
Effective Length of the Column = 0.5 × 8000 = 4000𝑚 (𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑)
𝐼 657 × 106
𝑟=√ = √ = 86.6𝑚𝑚
𝐴 90000
𝐿𝐸 4000
𝜆= = = 46.18
𝑟 86.6
𝜋 2 𝐸 𝜋 2 × 1 × 104
𝜎𝑐𝑟 = 2 = = 46.3 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜆 (46.18)2
So, in earlier case the critical stress was 329𝑁/𝑚𝑚2, but when height is changed to 8m, the
critical stress is changed to 46.3 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
In the Figure 16 if you see, the structure that is the image of a water tank, some intermediate
beams are introduced. But there is no slab, it is not holding anything. So, do we need that? Are
they unnecessary?
260
Yes! we need them and they are nit unnecessary. If we do not put them, then these long columns
will buckle. These intermediate beams create the small diversion of the long columns and
effective length of the column is reduced, one sense, it also acts as bracing.
Figure 15: references of water tank designs and its elements
. Now, you can calculate the effective length of the columns of these images, which is now
maybe 2 meter or 3 meters. But here it is 12-meter, 15 meters? Definitely with the huge amount
of load of water, it will buckle. So, for better stability reduce the slenderness ratio of the
columns.
For this lecture, the references taken are:
➢ Structure as Architecture By Andrew W. Charleson, Elsevier Publication
➢ Basic Structures for Engineers and Architects By Philip Garrison,
Blackwell Publisher
➢ Structure and Architecture By Meta Angus J. Macdonald, Elsevier
Publication
➢ Examples of Structural Analysis By William M.C. McKenzie
Publication
261
In conclusion, I can say that the column can be classified into the short and long column. The
shear is predominant for the short, buckling is in the long, slenderness ratio is a prime geometric
factor for designing a column. So, in the next lecture we will go to the frame structure analysis
and design.
Next, I have two homework for you.
1. Find the critical load and critical stresses for the column section given below for
following four conditions of supports. The length of the column is 3-meter. E = 2X106
N/mm2.
i. Both ends are Hinged

ii. Both ends are Fixed
iii. One end fixed and other is fixed
iv. One end fixed and other is free
2. Compare the ratio of strength of a solid steel column to that of a hollow of the same
cross section area. The internal diameter of the hollow column is 0.75 times the external
diameter. Columns are of same length hinged at both the ends.
So, try out this two homework.

262

Lecture - 16
Deflection of Beams
Welcome to the online NPTEL certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture. Today,
we will start with the lectures of week 4 i.e.,the module number 4. The module number 4 will be
of the Frame Structure Analysis and Design and in addition we’ll also discuss about Deflection
of Beams.
Concepts Covered
The following concepts are covered in this lecture:
 Equation of Deflection
 Boundary Conditions
 Double Integration Method
Learning Objectives
 Deducing the equation of beam deflection.
 Outlining the double integration method to evaluate slope and deflection of beams.
 Solving numerical examples on beam deflection.
Equation of Deflection
Before moving to the equation of deflection let us first recall something which we already know
from our previous lectures. And that is, in a two dimensional coordinate plane, if I place a
particular system or structural systems and if I applied some kind of a load and if the load is not
axial but transverse kind of a load, it will cause the structure to bend.
1
263
Suppose we have a beam as given in the Figure 1. Now if this beam is subjected to transverse
load across its length it will experience some bending moment. Then as a result, each cross-
section of the beam will try to resist the local bending moment created in that particular area.
Consequently, the portion will tilt accordingly resulting in the formation of a curvature in the
concerned portion of the beam. This phenomenon will continue throughout the length of the
beam resulting in the overall bending of the beam. Nonetheless, the curvature will not be the
same throughout.
Figure 1 Bending in a simply supported and a cantilevered beam
The relationship between this profile of curvature and the external moment can be given by the
Moment- Curvature Relationship of the Bending Theory which we have already studied in the
last week’s lecture and is given below:
𝑀 𝐸
=
𝐼 𝑅
Now let us delve further and put that particular curvature in a two dimensional plane having x
and y axes as shown in the Figure 2.
Figure 2 Beam curvature represented in a two-dimensional graph
𝑑2 𝑦
But, we know that the curvature of any function is nothing but 𝑑𝑥 2 , which is the second order of 2
differentiation of the said function. So here we have,
264
1
𝐸𝐼 (𝑅) = 𝑀 [Moment-Curvature Relationship]
𝑑2 𝑦
i.e., 𝐸𝐼 (𝑑𝑥 2 ) = 𝑀
Integrating the above equation once we get,

𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝐼 (𝑑𝑥 ) = ∫ 𝑀 + 𝐶1
This is nothing but the slope equation.
Next, integrating the above equation twice we get,

𝐸𝐼𝑦 = ∬ 𝑀 + ∫ 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
This is the equation of deflection. C1 and C2 are the integration constants whose values can be
found out by appropriate boundary conditions. As a boundary value problem is a differential
equation (or system of differential equations) to be solved in a domain on whose boundary a set
of conditions is known. So in this case boundary conditions are those when you already know
some of the values such as the deflection values in a particular point whose x and y coordinates
are known to you. Then from there you can easily find out the values of the constants C1 and C2.
Only after finding the values of C1 and C2 this equation can be further solved and the slope, θ can
be computed which is given by
𝑑𝑦
Slope, θ = 𝑑𝑥
Methods of Determining Slope and Deflection of a Beam

There are various types of methods of determining slope and deflection of a beam but these are
applicable to different types of problems.
1. Double Integration Method

This method is applicable for beams which are symmetrically loaded along with a
continuity of moment throughout. In other words, the moment doesn’t change along the
length of the beam. 3
2. Macaulay’s Method
265
This method is an improvised version of the double integration method and is applicable
for complex kind of loading along with a discontinuity in its moment.
3. Moment-Area Method
This is a semi-graphical method applicable in some specific cases. With this method
where on one hand few very complex problems can be solved easily whereas on the other
hand some simple problems cannot be solved that simply. However, it is important to
note that the Moment-area Method is used for further development of other methods for
complicated structures.
4. Unit Load Method

The Unit Load Method is also used in some specific cases.
So out of the four methods, I must say that this Macaulay’s method is little broader. So you can
actually use it for the various types of beams. But you’ll require some more lectures to
understand this method. So I’ll just skip it for this particular discussion. Thus, we will only study
the double integration method for the time being and see how the deflections of the beams can be
deduced from it.
Boundary Conditions
Now let us see the boundary condition, which is very important both in the double integration
method and the Macaulay’s method. As mentioned earlier, a boundary value problem is a system
of ordinary differential equations with solution and derivative values specified at more than one
point. Most commonly, the solution and derivatives are specified at just two points (the
boundaries) defining a two-point boundary value problem.
So, in this case the boundary conditions are when there is some specific data or some specific
condition that we already know from the given curvature or given slope of a particular structure.
It depends upon the support systems most often. However, sometimes it may also depend upon 4
the support and loading both and also the application of loading. To better understand this let us
see the following examples.
266
Figure 3 Example-1
Let us consider a beam here of length L consisting of hinged supports at its ends. Then, at the
supports the moments will be 0. As a result, the beam will bend as shown in the Figure 3 by an
angle, say θ. Clearly, the beam will not have any deflection at the supports; hence y=0.
Then, at x=0 and y=0, we have

𝑑𝑦
θ= 𝑑𝑥 ≠ 0
Also at x=L, y=0, we have

𝑑𝑦
θ= 𝑑𝑥 ≠ 0
Thus, we have achieved boundary conditions at both the supports.
Figure 4 Example-2
Similarly, in the Figure 4 we have a cantilevered beam fixed at one end and free at another. The
length of the beam is same as previous, i.e., L. Here at the fixed end, moment is not equal to zero
and hence the support at this end will try to restrain the moment. This will eventually cause a
5
deflection towards the other end of the beam.
So, at the fixed end we have,
267
x = 0, δ or y = 0
𝑑𝑦
And, θ or 𝑑𝑥 = 0
At the free end we have,

x = L but δ or y ≠ 0
Thus, here we cannot achieve the boundary conditions at the free end though we’ve achieved it
on the fixed end. A beam must have at least two boundary conditions. After knowing the
boundary conditions the constants C1 and C2 can be computed very easily.
Double Integration Method

Case-1(a): Cantilever Beam with Concentrated Load at the Free End
Figure 5 Cantilever beam with concentrated load
In the Figure 5 we have a cantilevered beam of length L fixed at A and free at B. A point load of
P units is acting on the beam at B.
We know that,
𝑑2 𝑦
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑀
Now,
Let us take a section at X, at a distance of x units from B.
Then, moment at X = Px
So we have,
𝑑2 𝑦 6
𝐸𝐼 = 𝑃𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
Integrating this equation once we get,
268
𝑑𝑦 𝑃 𝑥 𝑛+1
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑥 2 + 𝐶1 [Since ∫ 𝑥 = ]
𝑛+1
This is the slope equation of the given beam.

Integrating the equation twice (or integrating the above equation once) we get,
𝑃
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = 6 𝑥 3 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 [Deflection equation]
Next,
Let us consider the free-body diagram of the beam in a two-dimensional graph having x
and y axes and origin at B.
Then, at x=L (i.e., at the point A)
θ = 0 and δ or y = 0 [Boundary conditions]
Substituting these values in the slope equation we get,
𝑃
0 = 2 𝐿2 + 𝐶1
𝑃𝐿2
i.e., C1 = - 2
Also, substituting the boundary conditions in the equation of deflection, we get

𝑃𝐿3 𝑃𝐿2 𝑃𝐿3 𝑃𝐿3 𝑃𝐿3
0= − 𝐿 + 𝐶2 = − + 𝐶2 = − + 𝐶2
6 2 6 2 3
𝑃𝐿3
i.e., C2 = 3
Thus, the slope equation can be written as

𝑑𝑦 𝑃 𝑃𝐿2
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑥 2 −
2
So at x = 0,
𝑑𝑦 𝑃𝐿2 𝑃𝐿2
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = 0 − =−
2 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑃𝐿2
i.e., 𝑑𝑥 = − 2𝐸𝐼 = 𝜃𝐵
Again, the equation of deflection can be written as

𝑃 𝑃𝐿2 𝑃𝐿3
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = 6 𝑥 3 − 𝑥+
2 3 7
At x = 0,
𝑃𝐿3
𝑦= = δB
3𝐸𝐼
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Case-1(b): Cantilever Beam with Concentrated Load anywhere on the Beam
Figure 6 Cantilever beam with concentrated load at its centre
Similarly, if the load P is move anywhere at a distance “a” from A then the equations will be as
follows:
𝑃𝑎 3
Deflection due to the load at C (δB1) =
3𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑎 2
And, θC = − 2𝐸𝐼
Now,
From this point onwards the deflection will be a straight line as there is no effect of any load
between C and B, which can be given by
𝑃𝑎 2
𝛿𝐵2 = 𝜃𝑐 (𝐿 − 𝑎) = (𝐿 − 𝑎)
2𝐸𝐼
Therefore,
𝑃𝑎 3 𝑃𝑎 2
The total deflection at B = δB = δB1 + δB2 = + (𝐿 − 𝑎)
3𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
Case-2: Cantilever Beam with UDL

Here we have the cantilever beam AB subjected to a UDL of w KN/m as shown in the Figure 7.
Let us consider a section x-x’ at x units from B.

8
270
Figure 7 Cantilever beam subjected to UDL
So here we have,
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑤
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑀 = 𝑥2
2
Integrating the above equation we get,

𝑑𝑦 𝑤
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 𝐶1 [Slope equation]
6
Again integrating the above equation we get,

𝑤
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = 24 𝑥 4 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 [Deflection equation]
Then we have,
Boundary Conditition-1:
At A,
x = L and δ or y = 0
𝑤 3
0= 𝐿 + 𝐶1
6
𝑤𝐿3
i.e., 𝐶1 = − 6
Also,
Boundary Condition-2:
At A, x = L and δ or y = 0
Substituting these values in the equation of deflection we get,
𝑤𝐿4 𝑤𝐿4
0= − + 𝐶2
24 6 9
𝑤𝐿4
i.e., 𝐶2 =
8
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Thus, we can re-write the slope equation as

𝑑𝑦 𝑤 𝑤𝐿3
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥3 −
6 6
At the free end B, x = 0. So,

𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝐿3
𝜃𝐵 = 𝑑𝑥 = − 6𝐸𝐼
Next, we can re-write the equation of deflection as

𝑤 𝑃𝐿3 𝑤𝐿4
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = 24 𝑥 4 − 6
𝑥+ 8
At free end,
𝑤𝐿4
𝛿𝐵 = 8𝐸𝐼
Case-3: Cantilever Beam
Figure 8 Cantilever beam
Now let us compute by taking moment in general for the given cantilever beam.
Then we have,
𝑑2 𝑦
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑀

𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑀𝑥 + 𝐶1 [Slope equation]
Again integrating the above equation we get,

𝑀
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 [Deflection equation]
2
Boundary condition-1:
At A, we have 10
x = L, slope = 0
So substituting the values in the slope equation we get,
272
0 = 𝑀𝐿 + 𝐶1
i.e., C1 = -ML
Boundary condition-2:
At A we have,
x = L, δ or y = 0
𝑀 2
0= 2
𝐿 − 𝑀𝐿2 + 𝐶2
𝑀𝐿2
i.e., 𝐶2 = 2
Then, the equation of slope can be re-written as

𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑀𝑥 − 𝑀𝐿
At the free end (x = 0)

𝑑𝑦 𝑀𝐿
𝜃𝐵 = 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝐸𝐼
Also, the equation of deflection can be re-written as

𝑀 𝑀𝐿2
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑀𝐿𝑥 +
2 2
At the free end (x = 0)

𝑀𝐿2
𝛿𝐵 = 𝑦 = 2𝐸𝐼
Example-3
Length = 900mm
Width = 60mm
Thickness = 5mm
E = 50000 N/mm2
Figure 9 T-square
Density = 4Kg/m3
11
Now let us find the deflection of a T-square whose dimensions, Young’s Modulus of elasticity
and the density of material is already given.
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We have,
Self weight of the T-square (w) = (0.06 X 0.005 X 1) X 4 = 0.0012 Kg/m
= (0.0012 x 10) = 0.012 N/m
Now,
𝑤𝐿4
We know that the maximum deflection in a cantilever beam with UDL = 8𝐸𝐼
So,
60×53
I= = 625 mm4
12
0.012×9004
δB = 8×50000×625 = 31.5 𝑚𝑚
5×603
I= = 90,000 mm4
12
0.012×9004
δB = 8×50000×90000 = 0.22 𝑚𝑚
Clearly,
The deflection in both the cases is poles apart.
For this reason the beams are designed having greater depths so as to increase the value of I and
therefore decrease the deflection as the former is inversely proportional to the latter.
Another important point to note here is,

The product of E and I is called Flexural Rigidity.
This parameter will greatly determine the deflection. As it is inversely proportional to deflection,
so a greater value of flexural rigidity will lessen the deflection adversely. Nevertheless, you can
achieve this by either using a material of better quality (so that E is higher) or by increasing the
depth of the beam as compared to its width (so that I is higher).
Example-4
12
Find the magnitude of the force ‘P’ such that the deflection
at free end (B) is zero.
274
So here we have two kinds of load acting on the cantilever beam AB. One is a UDL which will
cause a downward deflection (let it be δ B1) in the beam and the other one is a pulling force which
will cause an upward deflection (let it be δB2) in the beam as shown in the Figure 10.
Figure 10 Deflections in case of different kinds of forces
Step-1: Computing deflection in case of the UDL

Given,
w = 30 KN/m
L=4m
We know that,
𝑤𝐿4 30 × 44 960
δB1 = 8𝐸𝐼 = =
8𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
Step-2: Computing deflection in case of the point load

We know that,
𝐹𝑎 3 𝐹𝑎 2
δB2 = 3𝐸𝐼 + 2𝐸𝐼 (𝐿 − 𝑎) [here a = L/2]
𝐹 𝐿 𝐹 𝐿 2 𝐿
= 3𝐸𝐼 (2)3 + 2𝐸𝐼 (2) (𝐿 − 2)
𝐹𝐿3 𝐹𝐿3 𝐹𝐿3 1 1 𝐹𝐿3 2+3 5𝐹𝐿3 5𝐹43 20𝐹
= 24𝐸𝐼 + 16𝐸𝐼 = 8𝐸𝐼 (3 + 2) = 8𝐸𝐼 ( ) = 48𝐸𝐼 = 48𝐸𝐼 = 3𝐸𝐼
6
Step-3: Equating both the deflections

If the deflection at the free end has to be 0 then,
𝛿𝐵1 = 𝛿𝐵2
960 20𝐹
i.e., =
𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼 13
i.e., F = 144
275
Again we have,
P cos 45° = F
𝐹
i.e., P = cos 45° = F√2 = 144 x 1.41 = 203.65 KN
Therefore, I have to put 230 KN of force inclined at an angle of 45° such that the deflection at
the free end B will be 0.
Case-4: Simply Supported Beam with Concentrated Load
Figure 11 Simply supported beam with concentrated load
Next let us see how to compute the deflection in case of a simply supported beam subjected to a
point load. So here we have a simply supported beam AB of length L. A point load P is acting
over the beam at its center C.
We know that,
RA = RB = P/2
Now,
Let us take a section x-x’ at a distance of x units from A.
𝑃
Then, moment at x = - 2 𝑥
So,
The moment-curvature equation for the given beam will be
𝑑2𝑦 𝑃
𝐸𝐼 2
=− 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
Integrating the above equation we get, 14
𝑑𝑦 𝑃
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = − 4 𝑥 2 + 𝐶1 [Slope equation]
276
Integrating the slope equation we get,

𝑃
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = − 12 𝑥 3 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 [Deflection equation]
At mid-span C we have,
x = L/2, Slope = 0
𝑃 𝐿2
0=−4× + 𝐶1
4
𝑃𝐿2
i.e., 𝐶1 = 16
At A we have,
x = 0, Deflection = 0
Substituting these values in the deflection equation we get,
𝑃
0 = 12 03 + 𝐶1 × 0 + 𝐶2
i.e., 𝐶2 = 0
Thus,
We can re-write the equations for slope and deflection as below
𝑑𝑦 𝑃 𝑃𝐿2
𝐸𝐼 = − 𝑥2 +
𝑑𝑥 4 16
𝑃 𝑃𝐿2
And 𝐸𝐼𝑦 = − 12 𝑥 3 + 𝑥, respectively.
16
But we have,
Slope at A and B (x = 0, L) are equal.
𝑃𝐿2
i.e., 𝜃𝐴 = 𝜃𝐵 = 16𝐸𝐼
Also, 15
Deflection at mid-span, C (x = L/2)
𝑃 𝐿 𝑃𝐿2 𝐿 𝑃𝐿3
So, 𝐸𝐼𝛿𝐶 = − × ( )3 + ×( )=
12 2 16 2 48
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𝑃𝐿3
i.e., 𝛿𝑐 = 48𝐸𝐼
Case-5: Simply Supported Subjected to UDL
Figure 12 Simply supported beam with UDL
Similarly, here we have a UDL whose Moment-Curvature equation can be given as below:
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑤𝐿 𝑤𝑥 2
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑀 = − 𝑥+
2 2

𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝐿 𝑤
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑥 2 + 6 𝑥 3 + 𝐶1 [Slope equation]
4

𝑤𝐿 𝑤
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = − 12 𝑥 3 + 24 𝑥 4 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2 [Deflection equation]
We have,
At mid-span, x = L/2 and slope = 0
𝑤𝐿 𝐿 𝑤 𝐿
0=− × (2)2 + × (2)3 + 𝐶1
4 6
𝑤𝐿3 16
i.e., 𝐶1 = 24
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At A, x = 0 and deflection = 0
𝐶2 = 0
Thus, we can re-write the equation of slope as

𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝐿 𝑤 𝑤𝐿3
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑥2 + 6 𝑥3 +
4 24
But we know that,

Slope at A (x = 0) = Slope at B (x = L)
i.e., θA = θB
Substituting x = 0 in the slope equation we get,
𝑤𝐿 𝑤 𝑤𝐿3
𝐸𝐼𝜃𝐴 = 4
02 + 6 03 + 24
𝑤𝐿3
i.e., 𝜃𝐴 = 24𝐸𝐼 = 𝜃𝐵
Also, we can re-write the equation of deflection as

𝑤𝐿 𝑤 𝑤𝐿3
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = − 12 𝑥 3 + 24 𝑥 4 + 𝑥
24
Then, deflection at the mid-span (x = L/2)

𝑤𝐿 𝐿 𝑤 𝐿 𝑤𝐿3 𝐿
𝐸𝐼𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑑 = − 12 × (2)3 + 24 × (2)4 + ×2
24
𝑤𝐿4 𝑤𝐿4 𝑤𝐿4 5𝑤𝐿4
i.e., 𝐸𝐼𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑑 = − + 384 + =
96 48 384
5𝑤𝐿4
i.e., 𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑑 = 384𝐸𝐼
Example-5
Q. A 600 X 600 mm square air-conditioning duct is made out of 5mm thick aluminum sheet.
Find the maximum support span to control the central deflection within (Span/240). Take
Density of aluminum as 2700Kg/m3 and Young's Modulus of Elasticity of aluminum is 1 X 104
N/mm2. Assume the deflection due to self weight of duct only, neglect the weight of air. 17
279
Here we have,
Cross section area = (6002 – 5902) = 11900 mm2
Moment of Inertia = (6004 – 5904)/12 = 702.2 X 106 mm4
UDL due to self weight = 11.9 X 10-3 X 1 X 2700 X10 = 321.3 N/m = 0.3213 N/mm
Also,
5𝑤𝐿4 𝐿
= 240
384𝐸𝐼
384𝐸𝐼 384×1×104 ×702.2×106
i.e., 𝐿3 = 5×240𝑤 = = 6.99 × 1012
5×240×0.3213
i.e., L = 19123 mm = 19.1 m
Conclusion
To sum up, I’d like to state the following:
 The slope and deflection of beam due to external loading can be deduced from bending
equation.
 Other than the intensity of loading and span of beam, flexural rigidity plays a vital role in
beam deflection.
References
 Understanding Structures: An Introduction to Structural Analysis By Meta A. Sozen 18
280
Homework
Q1. A certain intensity of UDL is distributed over a simply supported beam of span ‘L’. If the
total load (equivalent to the UDL) is now acted as a concentrated load at mid span what will be
the change in maximum deflection?
Q2. Find the deflection at free end ‘B’ of the cantilever beam given in the figure below.
19
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Lecture - 17
Indeterminate Beams
Welcome to NPTEL’s online certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture. Today

we are in the 2nd lecture of module 4 (Frame Structure Analysis and Design) i.e., the
Indeterminate Beams.
Concepts Covered
The concepts covered under this lecture are as follows:
 Methods of Structural Analysis
 Degree of Indeterminacy
 Force Method or Flexibility Method
 Displacement Method or Stiffness Method
 Analysis of Continuous Beam
 Analysis of Propped Cantilever
Learning Objectives
 Discussing the types of Methods of Structural Analysis.
 Differentiating between Force and Displacement Methods.
 Illustrating the Continuous beam and Propped Cantilever.
Introduction
Structural Analysis is an important step towards the overall structural engineering. In Structural
Analysis a designer determines the internal forces like axial compression, bending moment,
shear force, twisting moment etc. Structural analysis also determines the displacements due to
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time-independent loading conditions. This process requires the knowledge of mechanics and
strength of materials. The output of the analysis is beneficial for the designing process.
The elastic and linear methods of structural analysis are based on following conditions:
 Material of a structure obeys Hooke’s law.
 Displacements of a structure are small.
 Parameters of a structure do not change under loading.
Methods of Structural Analysis

There are various types of methods of structural analysis broadly classified under four categories.
These methods under their respective classifications are mentioned below:
1. Classical methods
a. Three-moment method
b. Consistent deformation method
c. Slope-deflection method
d. Methods of strain energy
2. Computer methods
a. Matrix method
b. Finite difference method
c. Finite element method
3. Relaxation/Iterative methods
a. Moment distribution
b. Method
c. Kani’s method
4. Approximate methods
a. Substitute frame method
b. Portal method
c. Cantilever method
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It is important to note that the iterative method, as the name suggests, involves lot of iterations.
Hence complicated structures cannot be solved with these methods. Conversely, the approximate
methods give very quick results. However, the results will be approximate of course.
Nonetheless, in this course we’ll not be dealing with all of these methods. Our concern here is to
study how an indeterminate beam can be solved from the architectural point of view and after
solving what is the tendency of the bending moment and how can it be conceived in the design.
Before moving to the next topic it is important to mention here that Statically Indeterminate
Structure can be analyzed by various methods. But by virtue of the theory and approaches the
methods are classified into following two major types:
1. Force Method of Analysis

2. Displacement Method of Analysis
Degree of Indeterminacy
We’ve already mentioned in our lectures of the first week that Degree of Indeterminacy is the
number of unknown equations in a structure over the available equilibrium equations. By the
term’unknown equations’ we mean the reaction unknown equations. As the number of supports
increases so do the reaction forces from these supports. Those are unknowns and hence we need
to find them.
Besides, we also have to look for the known equations. In general, we might have around three
available equilibrium equations viz., ∑Fx = 0, ∑Fy = 0 and ∑M = 0. Apart from these some
more, maybe one or two, equations can be there also depending on the specific cases. Sometimes
there might be any internal hinge or link also though it’s less less likely to occur in reinforced
concretes or steel structures or any other structure to be studied for the purpose of Civil
Engineering or Architecture.
However, if the number of unknowns become more than the knowns then the structure becomes
statically indeterminate. In other words, it cannot be achieved by the statical equations of
equilibrium. So the difference between the unknowns and the available equations is the degree of
284
indeterminacy. Now let us see some examples below where the unknowns have been denoted as
U, the available equilibrium equations have been denoted as E and the degree of indeterminacy
have been denoted as DOI.
U = 1+1+1 = 3
E=2
DOI = (3-2) = 1
Figure 1 Continuous beam
Given in the Figure 1 is a continuous beam. Assuming all the forces are gravity load, no forces
have been considered in the x-direction. Hence, ∑Fx = 0 will not come into picture. Thus the
only known equations are ∑Fy = 0 and ∑M = 0.
U = 2+1+2 = 5
E=2
DOI = (5-2) = 3
Figure 2 Fixed beam
Given in the Figure 2 is a fixed beam. In case of fixed beams there are always two additional
equations as there are moments at both the ends which are unknowns.
U = 2+1+1 = 4
E=2
DOI = (4-2) = 2
Figure 3 Fixed, continuous and overhang beam
The Figure 3 shows a beam which is fixed from one end and then it is continuous up to some
extent and then ending in an overhang.
To put it differently, in the first case you’ve to find out one known equation to solve the structure
because whenever you’ll proceed to calculate the bending moment and all, the first thing you’d
need are the reactions. Without knowing the reactions you cannot proceed further.
285
In the second case you need three such equations to solve the structure. These equations can be
formulated using the theories of Structural Analysis. In the third case you need two such
equations. These equations can be found out using some of the methods which we had briefly
mentioned earlier and will discuss in detail now.
Force Method or Flexibility Method

In the force method of analysis, the primary unknowns are the forces acting upon the structure in
concern. For instance, if you exert a force of P units on an elastic body, it is going to deform.
Besides, there’d be some stiffness K in the body. So, the deflection will be P/K. Thus, here we
can say that in order to find the deflection, you’ve to first know the K if P is already known or
vice versa. Similarly, in this method the primary unknowns are the forces.
In this method compatibility equations are written for displacement and rotations (which are
calculated by force displacement equations). Redundant forces are calculated while solving these
equations. Once the redundant forces are calculated, the remaining reactions are evaluated by
equations of equilibrium. Some of the examples of the force method are given below:
 Method of Consistent Deformation
 Theorem of least work
 Column Analogy method
 Three moment Equation Method
 Unit Load Method
 Flexibility Matrix Method
Figure 4 Given continuous beam and its deflection
In the Figure 4 we have a continuous beam ACB in which the reaction at C is unknown. But if
you consider its deflected state you’ll realize that in its deflected state the displacement at C is
286
known and that is 0.
Figure 5 Given fixed beam and its deflection
Similarly, in the fixed beam AB given in Figure 5 the reaction and moment at B are unknown.
But when you consider its deflected state you’ll get two known equations concerning the point B
as the displacement and slope at this point are 0.
So these extra equations that we got in both the cases are known as the compatibility equations.
It is beneficial in finding the unknowns present in any structure. We’ll deal with more such
examples in this lecture.
Displacement Method or Stiffness Method

In the displacement method of analysis, the primary unknowns are the displacements. In this
method, force -displacement relations are computed at first and subsequently equations are
written satisfying the equilibrium conditions of the structure. After determining the unknown
displacements, the other forces are calculated complying with the compatibility conditions and
force displacement relations. The displacement-based method is amenable to computer
programming and hence the method is being widely used in the modern-day structural analysis.
Following are some of the examples of the displacement method.
 Slope-Deflection method
 Moment Distribution method
 Kani’s method
 Stiffness Matrix method
287
Here the rotations at A, B and C are unknown
but the moments at these points are known. So
these become the equilibrium equations which
would be useful in solving the unknowns.
Figure 6 Equilibrium equations in a continuous beam
Similarly, when one end is fixed we cannot say

that the moment at that end is 0, so here we
have only two equilibrium equations which are
enough to find the unknowns as the unknowns
are also two in number, i.e., the rotations at B
and C. At A there won’t be any rotation as it is
Figure 7 Equilibrium equations when one end of the beam is fixed.
fixed
Analysis of Continuous Beam
Figure 8 Continuous beam loaded with UDL
Here we have a beam shown in the Figure 8 for which the following conditions hold true:
Unknown Reaction = 3
Static Equilibrium equation available = 2
Degree of Indeterminacy of the beam = 1
Therefore, only one Compatibility Equation is required to solve the third unknown reaction.
288
Here the given continuous beam can be broken into two separate determinate beams and
superimposed to find the value of one unknown reaction (lets Rc ) as shown below in the Figure
9.
Figure 9 Solving the beam given in Figure 8
As evident from the Figure 9, the first portion has now become a simply supported beam AB
subjected to UDL of w KN/m. Let the deflection here be termed as δ C1. Secondly, the other
portion is also a simply supported beam AB but with a point load acting upwards at C. Let this
deflection be termed as δC2. The combination of these two beams will give the original beam and
the sum of their respective deflections will give the resultant deflection of the original beam, i.e.
0.
Hence, the compatibility equation here is
𝛿𝐶 = 𝛿𝐶1 + 𝛿𝐶2 = 0
We have downward deflection at ‘C’ due to UDL:
5 𝑤(2𝐿)4 5𝑤𝐿4
𝛿𝐶1 = 384 × = (↓) [From Lecture 16]
𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼
And upward deflection at ‘C’ due to Unknown Reaction R c :
1 𝑅𝑐 (2𝐿)3 𝑅𝑐 𝐿3
𝛿𝐶2 = 48 × = (↑)
𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼
289
But we know that,
𝛿𝐶1 = 𝛿𝐶2
5𝑤𝐿4 𝑅𝑐 𝐿3
i.e., =
24𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼
5𝑤𝐿
i.e., 𝑅𝑐 = 4
We also know that,

𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐵 = 2𝑤𝐿
5𝑤𝐿
i.e., 𝑅𝐴 + + 𝑅𝐴 = 2𝑤𝐿 [Since RA = RB]
4
5𝑤𝐿
i.e., 2𝑅𝐴 = 2𝑤𝐿 − 4
3𝑤𝐿
i.e., 𝑅𝐴 = 8
Now let us find the point where shear force is 0. So, let the point be situated at x units from A.
3𝑤𝐿
Then, − 𝑤𝑥 = 0
8
3𝐿
i.e., 𝑥 = = 0.375𝐿
8
Thus, the resultant SFD is given in the Figure
Figure 10 SFD of the given beam
290
Next,
We have both the supports at the ends of the beam hinged.
i.e., 𝑀𝐴 = 𝑀𝐵 = 0
Now,
3𝑤𝐿 𝑤
Moment at any section at a distance ‘x’ from A, Mx = 8
𝑥 − 2 𝑥2
And we have,
3𝑤𝐿 𝑤 𝑤𝐿2
Mc = 𝐿 − 2 𝐿2 = −
8 8
Next we have,
3𝐿
Shear force is zero at 𝑥 = = 0.375𝐿
8
But we know that,

Maximum bending moment will occur at the point where shear force is zero .
9𝑤𝐿2
So, Mmax = [By substituting the value of x in the expression of Mmax]
128
Now for finding the point of contra-flexure,

Mx = 0
3
i.e., 𝑥 = 4 𝐿 = 0.75𝐿 [By equating the expression of Mx with 0]
Therefore, the resulting BMD is given in the Figures 11 and 12.
291
Figure 11 BMD of the given beam
Figure 12 Understanding the sagging and hogging moments in the BMD
292
Analysis of Propped Cantilever Beam
Figure 13 Propped cantilever beam
Given in the Figure 13 is a propped cantilever beam of two equal span (L) is loaded with UDL of
intensity ‘w’ where the following conditions hold true:
Unknown Reaction = 3

Therefore, ONE Compatibility Equation is required to solve the third unknown reaction, and let
it be Reaction at B (RB)
Here the given beam can be disintegrated as shown in the Figure 14.
Figure 14 Disintegration of the given beam
𝑤𝐿4 𝑅𝐵 𝐿3
𝛿𝐵1 = (↓) 𝛿𝐵2 = (↑)
8𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼
We know that,
𝛿𝐵 = 𝛿𝐵1 + 𝛿𝐵2 = 0
𝑅𝐵 𝐿2 𝑤𝐿4
i.e., =
3𝐸𝐼 8𝐸𝐼
3𝑤𝐿
i.e., 𝑅𝐵 = 8
3𝑤𝐿 5𝑤𝐿
Also, 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑤𝐿; 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑅𝐴 = 𝑤𝐿 − =
8 8
293
Then, shear force is 0 at:
3𝑤𝐿
𝑤𝑥 = 8
3𝐿
i.e., 𝑥 = 8
Then the final shear force diagram can be drawn as given in Figure 15.
Figure 15 SFD of the given beam.
3𝐿
As shear force is 0 at x = from the free end, so bending moment has to be maximum at this
8
point. Thus,
3𝑤𝐿 𝑤 3𝑤𝐿 3𝐿 𝑤 3𝐿 9𝑤𝐿2
Mmax = 𝑥 − 2 𝑥2 = × − × ( 8 )2 =
8 8 8 2 128
3𝑤𝐿 𝑤 𝑤𝐿2
Then, MA = 𝐿 − 𝐿2 = −
8 2 8
Point of contra-flexure:
Mx = 0
3𝑤𝐿 𝑤
i.e., 𝑥 − 2 𝑥2 = 0
8
3𝑤𝐿 𝑤
i.e., 𝑥= 𝑥2
8 2
3𝐿
i.e., 𝑥 = 4
Therefore, the final BMD is given in the Figure 16.
294
References
Conclusions
To conclude I’d like to state the following:
 The indeterminate structures are having excess reaction unknowns over the available
static equilibrium equations.
 Additional compatibility or equilibrium equation is developed to solve the structure.
 Methods of structural analysis are broadly classified into Force and Displacement
Methods.
295
Homework
Q1. Sketch the Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram profile of the following beams.
296
Structural System in Architecture 2020

Lecture – 18
Indeterminate Beams and Frames
Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture. So,
today we are in the lecture number 18 of module 4, which is about Intermediate Beams and
Frames. Earlier, we have already discussed about the intermediate beams and also the
deflection of beams.
Concepts Covered
 Analysis of Fixed Beam
 BMD and Deflected Shape
 Portal Frame
Learning Objectives
 Analyzing of Fixed Beam.
 Evaluating the Bending Moment diagram of continuous beam.
 Assessing the deflected shape of continuous beam from BMD.
 Introducing the Portal Frame.
Analysis of Fixed Beams
Figure 1 Fixed beam with UDL
We have,
Unknown Reaction = 2+2
1
297
Therefore, two Compatibility Equations are required to solve the third & fourth unknown
reactions, and let it be Reaction at B (RB & MB )
To solve this, let us disintegrate the given beam in the following manner as shown in the
Figure 2.
Figure 2 Disintegration of the given beam
Then we have,
𝑤𝐿4
𝛿𝐵1 = (↓)
8𝐸𝐼
𝑅𝐵 𝐿3
𝛿𝐵2 = (↑)
3𝐸𝐼
𝑀𝐿2
And, 𝛿𝐵3 = (↑)
2𝐸𝐼
But we know that,

Deflection at B = 0
So, 𝛿𝐵1 = 𝛿𝐵2 + 𝛿𝐵3
𝑅𝐵 𝐿3 𝑀𝐵 𝐿2 𝑤𝐿4
i.e., + =
3𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼 8𝐸𝐼
𝑅𝐵 𝐿 𝑀𝐵 𝑤𝐿2
i.e., + =
3 2 8
i.e., 8𝑅𝐵 𝐿 + 12𝑀𝐵 = 3𝑤𝐿2 [First compatibility equation]

2
298
Also we have,
𝑤𝐿3
𝜃𝐵1 = 6𝐸𝐼
𝑅𝐵 𝐿2
𝜃𝐵2 = 2𝐸𝐼
𝑀𝐿
And, 𝜃𝐵3 = 𝐸𝐼
Again we know that,

Slope at B = 0
So, 𝜃𝐵1 = 𝜃𝐵2 + 𝜃𝐵3
𝑅𝐵 𝐿2 𝑀𝐵 𝐿 𝑤𝐿3
i.e., 2𝐸𝐼
+ =
𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼
𝑅𝐵 𝐿 𝑤𝐿2
i.e., + 𝑀𝐵 =
2 6
i.e., 3𝑅𝐵 𝐿 + 6𝑀𝐵 = 𝑤𝐿2 [Second compatibility equation]
Next,
Solving both the compatibility equations (multiplying the latter with 2 and the
subtracting the resulting equation from the former) we get,
2𝑅𝐵 𝐿 = 𝑤𝐿2
𝑤𝐿
i.e., 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅𝐴 = 2
(↑) [Due to symmetry]
Now, substituting the value of RB in the first compatibility equation we get,

8𝑅𝐵 𝐿 + 12𝑀𝐵 = 3𝑤𝐿2
𝑤𝐿
i.e., (8 × × 𝐿) + 12𝑀𝐵 = 3𝑤𝐿2
2
𝑤𝐿2
i.e., 𝑀𝐵 = 𝑀𝐴 = − [hogging] [Due to symmetry]
12
Then,
𝑤𝐿 𝑤𝐿2 𝑤
Bending Moment at any section ‘x’ from end-A, Mx = 𝑥− − 2 𝑥2
2 12
At mid-span, x = L/2
𝑤𝐿 𝐿 𝑤𝐿2 𝑤 𝐿 𝑤𝐿2
𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑑 = (2) − − 2 (2)2 = + (Sagging)
2 12 24
Finding the location of zero Bending Moment:

3
𝑤𝐿 𝑤𝐿2 𝑤
𝑀𝑥 = 𝑥− − 2 𝑥2 = 0
2 12
i.e., 6𝑥 2 − 6𝐿𝑥 + 𝐿2 = 0
299
6𝐿±√36𝐿2 −24𝐿2
i.e., 𝑥 = = 0.211𝐿
12
Therefore, the resulting BMD is given in the Figure
Hence, the deformed beam would look as it is shown in the Figure 4.
Figure 4 Shape of beam deflection 4

Then,
As a beam is likely to develop cracks at the tension zones, the position of the cracks
300
for the given beam is shown in the Figure 5. Thus the reinforcement has to be provided in
these areas perpendicular to the direction of cracks. As a designer you need to calculate how
much amount of reinforcement is required in these areas so that the steel can take up the
excess tensile stress over here. So that is why it is important to find the magnitude of bending
moment and along with that you also need to find where it is hogging and where it is sagging
kind of moment.
Figure 5 Position of cracks in the given beam
Important Formulae
5
Figure 6 Case-1: Fixed beam partly loaded with UDL
301
Figure 7 Case-2: Fixed beam subjected to point load
BMD and Deflected Shape
Figure 8 Continuous beam loaded with UDL and Point Load
To explain this concept we have a continuous beam here in the Figure 8, which is loaded with
UDLs of different intensities at both the ends and a point load at the mid-span. Also, as
evident from the figure, the spans of each of the sections are different.
Now,
As the ends A and B of the beam consist of hinged support, there’ll be a sagging kind
of a moment here as shown below in the Figure 9. And as the beam is continuous, there’d be
a hogging kind of a moment at the supports C and D as shown below in the Figure 10.
Figure 9 Sagging(+ve) moment at the ends A and B
Figure 10 Hogging(-ve) moment at the mid-supports C and D

6
Next,
You’ll encounter two kinds of moments in the given beam, viz. the support moments
302
and the span moments. Considering the support moments, we know that the moments at the
ends A and B will be 0. And the moments at C and D will be hogging moments for which
you need to find the values by solving the unknowns. Here, we’re taking the assumed values
just to explain the concept to you. So suppose the moments at C and D are 20 and 40
respectively. Then the resulting BMD may be drawn as given in the Figure 11.
Figure 11 Support moments
In addition, for finding the span moments, each of the sections of the beam viz., AC, CD and
DB maybe considered as simply supported. Nonetheless, the ends A and B in the given beam
are already hinged, but had they been fixed, even then you may consider them as simply
supported for the ease of computation. However, the mid-supports C and D could never have
been fixed as those are parts of a continuous beam.
Figure 12 Span moments
303
Then, after considering each of the sections AC, CD, and DB as simply supported, you’ve to
find the simply supported bending moment for each of them which is also known as the span
moments which is a sagging kind of a moment. The span moments of the corresponding
sections and their BMDs have been shown in the Figure 12.
Next, you’ve to superimpose both the BMDs shown in the Figures 11 and 12. Here, please
note that the former has been shown in red colour as it is a hogging moment and hence
negative. Whereas the latter has been shown in green colour as it is sagging moment; hence it
is positive. These colour differentiation has been done solely for the ease of representation.
The superimposed BMDs have been shown in the Figure 13.
Figure 13 Superimposed BMDs
In the Figure 13 the areas coloured in green represent the zones of positive moment or
sagging moment or the areas where the tension zones lie in the bottom whereas the areas
coloured in light red represent the zones of negative moment or hogging moment areas or
support moment areas or the areas where the tension zones lie at the top.
Consequently, you’ve to find the average of the adjacent support moments. Here it is 10, 30
and 20 (Figure 13). Now from these points you need to find the difference from the
maximum span bending moments of the corresponding span. Here it is +40, +15 and +10
respectively. These are the central span moments with these you need to design the beam. 8
Now, the Figure 13 also shows the deflected shape of the moment. You can verify the
304
tension-top and tension-bottom zones from here as well. The values of the corresponding
sagging and hogging moments are again mentioned below and above the beam respectively.
As you already know that the position of the tension zones will determine the position of the
reinforcement, the reinforcement drawing for the given beam is shown in the Figure 14.
Figure 14 Position of reinforcement for the given beam
All things considered, the zones of sagging and hogging, the points of contra-flexure etc., all
these together constitute the outcomes of the structural analysis and hence are carried forward
to the design stage. For this reason, structural analysis is extremely important prior to the
designing of the structural elements.
Bending Moment Coefficients

In some of the handbooks you may find the bending moment coefficients mentioned for
easier calculation in case of structures with equal spans such as the hotels, hostels etc., which
you have to multiply with the total span load to get the corresponding moments or the
reactions.
There’d be three types of coefficients mentioned viz., the support moment coefficients, span
moment coefficients and the support reaction coefficients, which you have to distinguish
9
according to the space where they’re mentioned. The following figure shows such an
example wherein each of these coefficients are mentioned with different colours for your
better understanding.
305
Figure 15 Bending Moment Coefficients
The beam shown in the above figure is a continuous beam with four equal spans of 4m and
carrying a UDL of 12KN/m throughout.
Then,
Total Span Load = W = 12 X 4 = 48 KN
Therefore, now if you keep multiplying each of the support reaction coefficients with this
total span load, you’ll get the reactions at each of the supports. Similarly, you can also get the
corresponding span moments and the support moments. The following figures show the
support reactions, the span moments and the support moments respectively for the given
beam.
Figure 16 Support reactions
Figure 17 Span moments
Figure 18 Support moments
Portal Frames
A simple Portal Frame consists of two columns and one connection beam, rigidly fixed at the
junctions. They are also called “Moment Resisting Frame”. Portal frames can be analyzed for
gravity and lateral loads. Under external loading, portal frames produce Axial Force, Shear
Force and Bending Moment unlike the beams and the trusses where the former carries shear
forces and bending moments and the latter carries only axial forces. 10
306
Given here is an example of a simple portal frame. As it is

fixed, it will have three unknowns. Besides, there will also
be 6 known reactions comprising of 2 upwards, 2
horizontal and two moments. Thus, the degree of
indeterminacy here is 3.
Figure 19 A simple portal frame
A portal frame comprises of two components viz., bays and storeys. The former is the
horizontal space between two columns whereas the latter is the vertical space created within.
The following figure shows the bays and storeys in a typical portal frame.
Figure 20 Bays and storeys in a typical portal frame
Following are some more examples of the portal frames and their uses.
Suitable for factories Suitable in contours Discontinuity created for more

11
headroom. Suitable for banquet halls
etc.
307
The portal frames are created to take

the gravity loads as well as the
lateral loads such as the loads due to
wind, earthquakes etc.
Figure 21 Various types of portal frames, their uses and the loading system
Bending Moment Diagram in Portal Frame

We’ll not deal with this topic in detail here but only give you a basic idea through the
diagrams below.
Figure 22 Bending due to gravity load

Figure 23 Bending due to lateral load
References
 Strength of Materials By B.C. Punmia, Ashok K.Jain & Arun K.Jain Laxmi
Publication
Publisher
 Understanding Structures: An Introduction to Structural Analysis By Meta A. 12
308
Conclusion
To summarize, I’d like to state that the bending moment diagrams of fixed and continuous
beams consist of both sagging and hogging. The nature of bending moment provides the
deflected shape of beam and hence the reinforcement zones can be marked accordingly.
Homework
Q1. Using formula (mentioned in the PPT) and superimposition method, find the ‘Fixed End
Moments’ of the beam shown below. Also sketch the Bending Moment Diagram of the
following beams.
Q2. Draw the BMD of the beam given below. Assume the support moments at A & C are
20KN-m & 30KN-m respectively. Also sketch the possible zone of beam reinforcement.
13
309

Lecture – 19
Structural Grid and Framing
Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course in the Structural Systems in Architecture.
Today, we are in the module 4, the fourth lecture of the module 4 and in continuation this is
the lecture number 19. The topic of today’s lecture is Structural Grid and Framing.
Concepts Covered
 Structural Grid
 Load Path
 Structural Configuration
 Tributary Area
 Load Distribution
Learning Objective
 Configuring the structural grid.
 Outlining the load path in building structure.
 Evaluating the beam and column loading through tributary area concept.
Structural Grid
The concept of structural grid is extremely important from the point of view of both structural
engineering and architecture. Figure 1 shows the components of a typical structural grid.
Figure 1 Structural grid
310
A grid is defined as the principal points or the lines of support for any structural system. At
the points of intersection of these lines there might be either a vertical member such as a
column, a shear wall or a plate member or a linear member.
While designing a building the architect is needed to have an idea about the structural grid as
it is the footprint of the basic structural system. The series of lines in the grid represent the
position of beams or maybe trusses. The structural grid also represents the position of
columns in the plan. Though the beams will not cause any hindrance in the circulation as
those would be present either above or below but the columns might come in the way of
circulation. Hence it is very essential to position them wisely.
The series of lines of supports create the bay. In between the bays in both directions creates
the major spatial division. In general the length of the bays maybe around 16’-24’. Hence it is
highly essential that in case of parking like spaces there is enough space for the cars to
circulate freely throughout the parking. Also, if there’s a staircase or a lift well kind of a
space, you’ve to see whether the bay dimensions are sufficient. If not, you may have to shift
the position of the columns. And when you do that, sometimes you may not get the requisite
permissions as it will increase the span which will further lead to an increased bending stress.
So the structural engineer may not allow that. Hence you need to have an idea about the
tentative grid size and how will it impact the activities of your building.
As a matter of fact, the arrangement of the bays provides four basic classification of structural
grid which are as follows:
Rectangular Grid
Bay distances are almost equal in both the x and y
directions.
Figure 2 Rectangular Grid
Curvilinear Grid
The major bay lines are curvilinear while the other side 2
of the bay lines forms a radial line.
Figure 3 Curvilinear Grid
311
Oblique Grid
The inter bay distances are irregular, but forms a
certain symmetric arrangement amongst the point of
support.
Figure 4 Oblique Grid
Circular Grid
This is a typical type of curvilinear grid, where the
major bay lines are circular. The radial lines are
also connected with lines of structural supports.
Figure 5 Circular Grid
All these are the regular grid patterns. However, sometimes it may so happen that none of
these regular patterns are being completely suitable for your building. For instance,
somewhere near the entrance you may notice that the oblique grid is being suitable. But then
you notice that it is no longer appropriate for the other parts of the building and you go for a
rectangular grid there. Then you might notice that the rectangular grid is obstucting your
circulation in the hallway. So you might opt for a curvilinear grid there.
All in all, it is important to note that there is no fixed pattern in this last type of grid. It is
developed as per the design requirements where you’ve to mainly see how the columns are
binding with the other structural elements of the building; and hence it is termed as the
Hybrid Grid. Figure 6 shows the image of a hybrid grid.
3
Figure 6 Hybrid Grid
312
Structural Grid Defines

 Basic Function Area for Any Specific Activity
Suppose we have a given space whose structural grid is shown in the Figure 7. Suppose this
is an art gallery or a museum. Then I’ve a defined area in which I’ve to provide spaces for
different activities such as exhibition space, cafeteria, souvenir shop, entry, circulation space
etc. So based on the activities I can assign spaces in this grid.
Figure 7 Grid-1 Figure 8 Grid-2
 Modular Relation of Any Space

In the places like hostels, apartments and hotels, you can create one module such as one
hostel room, one apartment and one hotel room respectively and then replicate them to
complete the design.
 Structural Loading Intensity

Sometimes you may want to change the grid size as per the structural loading intensity. For
instance, if you have a library in the upper floor where the dead load is huge, then here the
grid size will be different as compared to a conference room or any other space which
requires comparatively less furniture and also there is minimum dead load.
 Pattern of Spaces
Suppose you have the same grid layout given to you where the ground floor was assigned for
some different purpose. Then you cannot obviously change the grid in the upper floors but
construct the internal walls in such a way that you reach a middle ground with the already
existing column layout and as well as your purpose. In other words, you can construct the 4
internal walls such that it not only aligns with your grid but also serves your purpose.
313
Load Path
Multiple Structural elements are used to transmit and resist external loads. These elements
define the mechanism of load transfer in a building known as the load path. The load path
extends from the super structure roof through each structural element to the substructure
foundation.
Depending on the type of load to be transferred, there are two basic load paths viz., the
gravity load path and the lateral load path.
Gravity Load Path

Gravity load is the vertical load acting downward on a building. It includes dead load and live
load due to occupancy or snow. Gravity load on the floor and roof slabs is transferred to the
columns or walls, down to the foundations, and then to the supporting soil beneath.
Figure 9 Gravity load path flow chart

Figure 10 Gravity load path in a multi-storeyed structure
The gravity load path travels from the floor slab to the beams and from here they’re
transferred to the columns and from the columns finally to the foundations. Figures 9 and 10
show the path taken by the gravity loads in a building.
Lateral Load Path

Lateral loads are imposed in the building structure due to wind and earthquake. The lateral
load path is the way lateral loads are transferred through a building.
5
The primary elements of a lateral load path are shown in the Figures 11 and 12.
314
Figure 11 Flow chart of lateral load path

Figure 12 Lateral load path in a multi-storeyed
structure
As evident from the Figure 11, the lateral load first comes in either the floor slab or the beam-
column junction. In case of the latter, the load is then transferred from the beam-column
junction to the columns or the walls and then to the foundations. But in case of the former,
i.e. if the lateral load first comes to the floor slabs a diaphragmic action will take place
wherein the load from the floor slab moves to the peripheral beams and from there to the
columns and from the columns to the foundations.
Structural Configuration
Moment Resisting Frames
The moment resisting frames or the portal frames are
the most commonly used structural configuration
nowadays.
As discussed in the previous lecture, a simple portal
Figure 13 Moment resisting frames frames consist of a beam supported over two columns.
Then if you just keep repeating the bays both in the horizontal and the vertical directions the
whole beam-column system is ready for a particular building. This is known as the moment
resisting frame.
However, these are not completely suitable for the places where there is a high wind velocity
or earthquake prone i.e., where lateral load could be more; or maybe the building has a
varying load distribution due to varying heights and also in case of the tall buildings. In such
cases some bracing is required to hold the structure tight. So you can go for the braced frame 6
structures.
315
Braced Frame Structures

This structure is same as the moment resisting frames
except there are some added bracing in some of the bays
at strategic locations to provide an inherent strength to the
building. Thus this structure is capable of providing more
Figure 14 Braced frame structures
stiffness or rigidity against the increased lateral loading.
Shear Wall
It is a wall which can carry a huge amount of

shear force. It is mostly required in case of
tall buildings.
Figure 15 Shear walls
The shear wall is constructed in some strategic locations just to encounter the huge shear
forces encountered by the building due to the lateral load.
Therefore, different types of structural configurations can be incorporated as per the loading
requirement.
Tributary Area
As we’ve seen that the gravity load first comes to the floor slab from where it is transferred to
the beams and then to the columns. So it is important to know how much is the load share of
each of these beams. The tributary area helps in finding that. It is related to the load path, and
is used to determine the loads that the beams, girders, columns, and walls carry. The tributary
area of slab to neighboring beam depends upon the slab aspect ratio which is a key parameter
in finding the tributary area.
The aspect ratio of the slab has been categorized
𝐿
under three different categories viz., 𝐿1 > 2, 1 <
2
𝐿1 𝐿1
< 2 and lastly, = 1 where, L1 and L2 can be
𝐿2 𝐿2
7
seen in the Figure 16. So let us see how to find the
tributary area in each of these cases. Figure 16 Nomenclature of the slab lengths
316
𝑳𝟏
Case-1: Narrow Strip (When > 𝟐)
𝑳𝟐
In this case the slab will be like a narrow strip as one side is more than double the other side.
So in such a scenario the share of the load will only be on the longer beams and the amount
of share will be half the length of the shorter beam.
Figure 17 Slab with (L1/L2) >2
Now let us see how to find the tributary area and the magnitude of load shared by each of
these beams when the aspect ratio of the slab is greater than 2 through the Example-1.
Example-1
Let The thickness of Slab is 150 mm
(Density 25 KN/m3 )
The thickness of Floor Finish is 35 mm
(Density 16 KN/m3 )
Let the Live Load intensity is 3 KN/m2
L1 = 6m, L2 = 2.4m
To solve this let us take one-metre strip whose depth is equal to L2/2 as shown in the above
figure. Thus, the final dimension of the strip here would be 1m x 1.2m.
Then,
Load of Slab per meter = (1.2 × 1.0 × 0.15) × 25 = 4.5 KN
Load of Floor Finish per meter = (1.2 × 1.0 × 0.035) × 16 = 0.672 KN
Thus, Total Dead Load on Slab = (4.5 + 0.672) = 5.172 KN/m
And, Total Live Load on Slab = 1.2 × 1.0 × 3 = 3.6 KN/m 8
Therefore, Total UDL on Beam = (5.172 + 3.6) = 8.772 KN/m (Figure 18)
317
Figure 18 UDL on the slab
Hence, the beams AB and CD will carry a UDL of intensity 8.772 KN/m each.
Next, we need to find the tributary area of the column and the load carried by it.
So, Tributary Area of each Column = product of the half length of L1 & L2 = (3×1.2) = 3.6m2
We have,
Load produced per Square meter of slab=(1×1×0.15×25) + (1×1×0.035×16) + 3 = 7.31KN/m2
Thus, Load on each Column = 3.6×7.31 = 26.316 KN
𝑳𝟏
Case-2: Rectangular Strip (When 𝟏 < < 𝟐)
𝑳𝟐
In this case all the beams will have a contribution in carrying the load. The tributary area for
each of the beams is shown in the Figure 19. Clearly, the shorter beams can be seen to have a
triangular shaped tributary area while the longer beams can be seen to have a trapezoidal
shaped tributary area.
Figure 19 Tributary area when 1<(L1/L2)<2
318
Example-2
(Density 25 KN/m3 )
(Density 16 KN/m3 )
L1 = 6m, L2 = 4m
To solve this let us again take a one-metre strip whose depth is again equal to half of L2 as
shown in the above figure. Then the final dimension of the strip becomes 1m x 2m.
So,
Load of Slab per meter = (2.0×1.0×0.15) × 25 = 7.5 KN
Load of Floor Finish per meter = (2.0×1.0×0.035) ×16 = 1.12 KN
Total Dead Load on Slab = (7.5+1.12) = 8.62 KN/m
Total Live Load on Slab = 2.0×1.0×3 = 6 KN/m
Thus,
Total UDL on Beam = (8.62+6) = 14.62KN/m (Figure 20)
Figure 20 Load share in each of the beams
Next,
Load produced per square meter of slab = (1×1×0.15×25)+(1×1×0.035×16)+3 = 7.31KN/m2
But,
Tributary Area of each Column = (3×2) = 6m2
Hence,
Load on each Column = 6×7.31 = 43.86 KN
𝑳𝟏
Case-3: Square Strip (When = 𝟏)
𝑳𝟐
In this case also all of the peripheral beams will have to carry a share of the gravity load
10
coming on the floor slab but here it will be an equal share between the beams. The tributary
areas of the peripheral beams are shown in the Figure 21, which are clearly triangular in
shape.
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Figure 21 Tributary area of a square slab
Example-3

(Density 25 KN/m3 )
(Density 16 KN/m3 )
L1 = 6m, L2 = 6m
To solve this let us again take a one-metre strip whose depth is 3m (half of L2). So the
dimension of this strip becomes 1m x 3m.
Then,
Load of Slab per meter = (3.0×1.0×0.15) ×25 = 11.25 KN
Load of Floor Finish per meter = (3.0×1.0×0.035) ×16 =1.68 KN
Total Dead Load on Slab = (11.25+1.68) = 12.93 KN/m
Total Live Load on Slab = 3.0X1.0X3 = 9 KN/m
Thus,
11
Total UDL on Beam: (12.93+9) = 21.93KN/m (Figure 22)
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Figure 22 Load distribution of the beams
Next,
Load produces per Square meter of slab= (1×1×0.15×25)+(1×1×0.035×16)+3 = 7.31 KN/m2
But,
Tributary Area of each Column = (3×3) = 9 m2
Therefore,
Load on each Column = 9×7.31 = 65.79 KN
Load Distribution
Figure 23 Grid showing the slab aspect ratios and the tributary areas
Here we have a grid whose aspect ratios for each of the slabs are calculated and their
tributary areas are also marked. Also, the given data for further calculation are given below:
Let The thickness of Slab is 150 mm (Density 25 KN/m3)
The thickness of Floor Finish is 35 mm (Density 16 KN/m3)
Then,
Load produced per Square meter of slab = (1×1×0.15×25)+(1×1×0.035×16)+3 = 7.31 KN/m2
12
So the load shares for each of the tributary areas are:
(7.31×1.5) = 10.965 = 11 KN/m
(7.31×1.0) = 7.3 KN/m
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(7.31×2.0) =14.6 KN/m
These load shares for their corresponding tributary areas are shown in the Figure 24.
Figure 24 Load shares of the corresponding tributary areas
Then the load share for each of these beams can be drawn as follows:
Figure 25 Beam wise load share
Finally, the column tributary areas the corresponding load shares (Column Tributary Area ×
7.31 KN/m2) are given in the Figures 26 and 27 respectively.
13
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Figure 26 Column tributary area Figure 27 Column load
References
 Strength of Materials By B.C. Punmia, Ashok K. Jain & Arun K. Jain Laxmi
Publication
Publisher
 Understanding Structures: An Introduction to Structural Analysis By Meta A.
Conclusions
In short, I’d like to conclude by stating that
 The structural grid is one of the primary and important stages of erecting the building
structure.
 The proportion of the load to beam and column depends upon the slab tributary area.
 The tributary area is based on the slab aspect ratio.
Homework
Q1. Estimate the load in the perimeter beams of two slabs shown in the figure. Assume: 14
Slab thickness 125mm (Density: 25KN/m3)
Floor finish thickness 25mm (Density: 15KN/m3)
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Live Load: 3KN/m2
15
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Lecture – 20
Structural Design
Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture. Today,
we are in the last lecture of Module 04, i.e. the lecture number 20 which is about Structural
Design.
Concepts Covered
 Objective of Structural Design
 Methods of Structural Design
 Material Property
 Design for Flexure
 Beam Design Example from SP-16 (Design Aids)
 Design for Shear
Learning Objectives
 To discuss the Structural design philosophy.
 To outline the Design for bending and shear.
 To workout the beam design using Design Aids to IS:456.
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Objective of Structural Design

Safety
Safety is the prime issue that any structural design deals with. A structure is rendered safe when
it has the strength to resist the various stresses induced in different structural elements. Sufficient
margins of safety such as keeping the overall stress limit of the structure within the permissible
working stress limit will have an acceptable low risk of collapsing under possible overloads
during its design life.
Stability
Stability is different from safety. A structure maybe safe but not stable. So it’s important to
ensure the stability of a structure. By the term “stability” it means that the structure should not
move (by sliding or overturning) under the expected loads.
Serviceability
After checking for the safety and stability of the structure it is also important to ensure its
serviceability which is nothing but satisfactory performance of the building under service load
conditions and to contain deflections, crack-width, story drift, vibration within the acceptable
limit.
Sometimes it might so happen that the structure under some load conditions, even though doesn’t
fail but undergoes so much deflection or maybe vibration that it is visible through the naked eye,
then it can create panic among the inhabitants. Also, if there’s a tall building which keeps
swaying in wind then it’ll be a very scary experience for its residents. Hence it is highly essential
that a building is serviceable also apart from being safe and stable.
Durability
The durability of a structure can be achieved by using high performance concrete which provides
impermeability, corrosion resistance, control of creep and shrinkage. 2
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As you know that due to the thermal variation, either diurnal or seasonal, the materials tend to
expand or contract. This may eventually lead to the development of cracks in the material. Even
the structural materials also are prone to this phenomenon.
Besides, with constant usage a once stable structure is also prone to wear and tear wherein its
strength diminishes with time. This is known as creep.
Therefore, to combat all these issues it is highly essential that materials of supreme quality are
used in any structure.
Economy
Structural Design should be economically viable from the choice and use of the material point of
view.
Aesthetics
Structural Design should be aesthetically pleasant and should not conflict with the imagination of
the Architect.
Methods of Structural Design

Working Stress Method
It is a traditional method of design and has been in use since the inception of the Structural
Design. This method assumes that the structural material behaves in a linear elastic manner. An
appropriate factor of safety is ensured for limiting the stresses in the material. Working Stress
method design is based on service load of the structure. It will lead to over-sized sections, thus
the sections will be uneconomical.
For this reason another method came up during the 60-70s which is the Ultimate Load Method.
3
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Ultimate Load Method

In this method the stress condition at the state of impending failure of the section is analyzed. In
other words the first thing that is analyzed, in this method is what is the loading condition of a
structure when it is likely to fail. The method assumes that the structural material behaves in a
non-linear elastic manner. In the Ultimate Load Method, the ultimate strength of the material is
considered which gives much slender sections for columns and beams compared to Working
Stress Method.
However, in spite of the structures being safe and stable some serviceability issues came into
picture due to the use of slender beams and columns. Hence another method called the Limit
State Method came up to combat this issue.
Limit State Method

It was a benchmark method and is in practice till date. Unlike Working Stress Method, which is
based on service load condition alone, and unlike Ultimate Load Method, which is based on
ultimate load condition alone, Limit State Method aims for comprehensive and rational solution
to the design problem, by considering safety at ultimate load and serviceability at working load.
Material Property
Concrete
The quality or grade of concrete is a term which denotes its characteristic compressive strength.
This characteristic compressive strength is evaluated by cube test (150mm cube, 28 days). It is
expressed as a letter ‘M’ and followed by a number. ‘M’ stands for ‘Mix’ and the number
indicates the Compressive strength in MPa or N/mm2. For Example, M25 grade of concrete
denotes a concrete mix of characteristic compressive strength having 25 N/mm2.
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Figure 1 Stress-strain curve of concrete
Here we have the stress-strain curve of concrete in the Figure 1. As you know that the x-axis
represents the strain values which is change in length divided by the actual length; hence it is
unit less. And the y-axis represents the stress values. As shown in the figure, the curve gets
flattened beyond a certain limit when the strain value is 0.002. This is because we are not
concerned about what happens to the concrete beyond that. We are just concerned about the
value of yield stress of the concrete which here is fck as per the blue coloured curve which in fact
is the true characteristic curve of concrete.
However, as we’ve already discussed in our previous lectures, we must design a structure leaving
some safety margin i.e., we must design the structure as per the permissible working stress value
and not the actual yield stress value. Hence there is the need of another curve which is shown in
the Figure 1 in red colour, as per the safety margin. This red curve is known as the design curve
according to which the value of yield stress is 0.446fck. So any structure designed with the
concrete of the given characteristics must follow a yield stress value of 0.446fck.
This is the boundary condition in case of the Working Stress Method. Conversely, in the Limit 5
State Method, the designers do not mind considering the ultimate strain for their design which
here is 0.0035.
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Steel
Steel is used as reinforcement in RCC in the form of bars in order to provide tensile strength to
the RCC. As discussed earlier, reinforcement is provided in the tension zones because concrete
has very low tensile strength contrary to steel. Reinforcement bar or rebar are available in
nominal diameters ranging from 6mm to 50mm. The reinforcements are of two types viz., mild
or plain and deformed or twisted. Presently, high strength deformed bars are used in
construction. The grade of steel is specified in terms of ‘Yield Strength’. IS:450 specifies three
types of reinforcement bars: Fe-250, Fe-415 and Fe-500 (Yield strength 250,415 & 500 N/mm2
respectively.
Figure 2 Stress-strain curve of steel.
Figure 2 shows the stress-strain curve of steel which is also idealized (flattened) beyond the yield
strength for the same reason as that of concrete. Here 0.87fy of stress value is considered for the
structural designs i.e., 87% of the actual fy value.
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Design for Flexure
D = Overall depth of the Beam

d = Effective depth of the beam
Effective Depth = Overall Depth – Clear cover (25mm as per code)
b = Width of Beam
Ast = Area of Steel Reinforcement
xu is the depth of Neutral axis from the top of the beam
Figure 3 Cross-section of a
beam
For the specific grade of concrete and steel xu holds a limiting value xu,max
𝑥𝑢,𝑚𝑎𝑥 0.0035
=
𝑑 0.0055 + 0.87𝑓𝑦 /𝐸𝑠
Table 1 Table B from the code
𝑥𝑢,𝑚𝑎𝑥
From the above table taken from the code you can find the corresponding values of based
𝑑
on the yield strength of the steel.
7
Figure 4 Stress-strain curve of the beam cross-section
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Now if you see the stress-strain curve (Figure 4) of the cross-section of the given beam (shown
in Figure 3), you’ll notice a non-linear form. So the final stress here is 0.446fck. The region
denoted by the blue arrows is the summation of the compression and its area is 0.362fckbxu
where, bxu is the area of the beam cross-section under compression i.e., the region above the
neutral axis (denoted by red dash-dot line).
Here it is important to note that the area below the neutral axis is not considered during the
design of RCC because it is assumed that concrete cannot take any kind of tension; hence it is of
no use.
Next,
The tensile force, T = 𝑓𝑠𝑡 × 𝐴𝑠𝑡
Lever Arm, LA = d - 0.416𝑥𝑢
Then,
Moment of Resistance of the section, M = 𝐶 × 𝐿𝐴 = 𝑇 × 𝐿𝐴
So, 𝑀 = 0.362𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑥𝑢 (𝑑 − 0.416𝑥𝑢 )
Also, 𝑀 = 𝑓𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (𝑑 − 0.416𝑥𝑢 )
However,
In limiting case, when xu = xu, max
The beam is balanced section and both the permissible stress in concrete and steel reaches
simultaneously.
So, 𝑀𝑢,𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 0.362𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑥𝑢,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑑 − 0.416𝑥𝑢,𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
When, Mu < Mu,lim

The beam is under reinforced i.e., proportion of steel is less than that of concrete. Hence, steel
will touch the permissible stress first. So,
𝑀𝑢 𝑝𝑡 𝑓𝑐𝑘 𝑝𝑡
= 0.87𝑓𝑦 (100 ) [1 − 1.005 (100 )] 8
𝑏𝑑2 𝑓𝑦
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When Mu > Mu,lim

The beam is over reinforced i.e., proportion of steel is higher than that of concrete. Hence,
concrete will touch the permissible stress first. Therefore, the beam has to be re-designed.
Beam Design Example from SP-16 (Design Aids)
Figure 5 Example from code
So here we have an example (Figure 5) of beam design from the code SP-16. The support and
9
span moments are given in the Figure 6. Then the BMD can be drawn easily (Figure 6). Also you
can see that, the support moments remain as it is while the span moments are reduced due to the
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superimposition to 55 (120-0.5(80+50) = 55), 50 and 55 (Figure 6) respectively. So basically, if

we design the beam considering the support moment 80 and span moment 55 (as 50 and 55 are
very close), then our goal is achieved. Therefore, the design moments here are 80 and 55 KN-m.
Now,
Let the Section dimension of the beam is 300X450mm, concrete grade: M20 and steel
Grade: Fe-415.
Then,
Using a clear cover of 25mm (recommended for beam) d = (450-25) = 425mm
Table 2 Table D from the code IS:456
Then,
𝑀𝑢,𝑙𝑖𝑚
From the above table we know that = 2.76
𝑏𝑑2
So, 𝑀𝑢,𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 2.76 × 𝑏𝑑 2 = 2.76 × 300 × 4252 = 149.5 KN-m
We have,
Design Moments: 1.5×80 = 120 KN-m and 1.5×55 = 82.5 KN-m
Now,
As Mu, lim > Both the Design Moments (120, 82.5)
10
So the beam can be designed as an Under Reinforced Section otherwise, I’d have to increase the
depth.
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For Mu = 120 KN
𝑀𝑢 120×106
= = 2.22
𝑏𝑑2 300×4252
For Mu = 82.5 KN
𝑀𝑢 82.5×106
= 300×4252 = 1.52
𝑏𝑑2
Next, we know that,

𝑝𝑡 ×𝑏𝑑
𝐴𝑠𝑡 = 100
Table 3 Table from IS:456 code
Taking the pt values from the above table,

0.725×300×425
For Mu = 120 KN: 𝐴𝑠𝑡 = = 924.4𝑚𝑚2
100
0.465×300×425
For Mu = 82.5 KN: 𝐴𝑠𝑡 = = 593𝑚𝑚2
100
Then using 16mm φ bars,

𝜋
𝐴𝜑 = 4 × 162 = 201 𝑚𝑚2
924.4
So when Mu=120 KN, no. of bars = = 4.59 ≅ 5
201
11
593
And when Mu=82.5 KN, no. of bars = 201 = 2.94 ≅ 3
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Therefore, the required reinforcement is given in the Figure 7.
Figure 7 Reinforcement for the given beam
Now this reinforcement drawing is ready to be sent to the site. Then, the final section of the
beam is shown in the Figure 8.
Figure 8 Cross-sections of beam
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Design for Shear
Figure 10 Reinforcement
Figure 9 Reinforcement for diagonal cracks in a beam Figure 11 Stirrups
Shear stress is diagonal and in order to resist that the reinforcement has to be placed vertically
across the depth of the beam as shown in the Figure 9. Figure 11 shows the shear stirrups which
are placed at regular intervals and now we’ll discuss about its size requirements and the centre-
to-centre distance at which those are to be placed.
Now, the shear stress in the beam can be found by

𝑉
𝜏𝑣 = 𝑏𝑑𝑢
Where, Vu is the ultimate shear force which can be obtained by multiplying 1.5 with the overall
shear force of the beam sections.
If 𝜏𝑣 > 𝜏𝑐,𝑚𝑎𝑥
Beam has to be re-designed.
If 𝜏𝑐,𝑚𝑎𝑥 > 𝜏𝑣 > 𝜏𝑐
Stirrups have to be designed accordingly. 13
The value of 𝜏𝑐,𝑚𝑎𝑥 can be found from another table which is also available in the IS:456 and is
shown here in the Table
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Table 4 Table J from code IS:456
After the requisite criteria is achieved, we’ve to find

𝑉𝑢𝑠 = 𝑉𝑢 − 𝜏𝑐 𝑏𝑑
Now, τc depends upon the concrete grade and percentage of tensile reinforcement (pt) which
again can be found out from another table from the code IS:456. Then based on the above value
the stirrups can be designed.
Example-1
Now let us solve an example based on the above concept.
Suppose given,
Shear force at the section is 120KN
Section dimension: 300X450mm
Concrete M20 and Steel Fe-415
Percentage of Tensile Steel is 1%
Then,
𝑉𝑢 = 1.5 × 120 = 180𝐾𝑁
𝑉 180×1000
𝜏𝑣 = 𝑏𝑑𝑢 = = 1.41𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
300×425
Table 5 Table 61 from IS:456
14
338
We have,
From Table 4 τc,max for M20 concrete is 2.8 N/mm2 .
And from Table 5 τc is 0.62 N/mm2.
Since,
𝜏𝑐,𝑚𝑎𝑥 > 𝜏𝑣 > 𝜏𝑐
So the stirrups have to be designed accordingly.
Then,
The excess amount of shear force that needs to be taken care of is
𝑉𝑢𝑠 = 𝑉𝑢 − 𝜏𝑐 𝑏𝑑 = 180 − 0.62 × 300 × 425 × 10−3 = 100.95 𝐾𝑁
Next,
𝑉𝑢 100.95
= = 2.38 𝐾𝑁/𝑐𝑚
𝑑 42.5
Table 6 Table from IS:456 to find the stirrup dia. & spacing
Therefore, from the Table 6 we know that we can use two-legged stirrups of 8mm diameter with
a centre-to-centre spacing of 150mm. hence the final reinforcement drawing for the given beam
is shown in the Figure
15
339
Figure 12 Reinforcement drawing for the given beam
Structural Design Procedure

Finally, a typical structural design procedure can be explained by the following flow chart.
Figure 13 Structural design procedure
16
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Conclusion
Finally, I’d like to conclude by stating the following:
 The Limit State Method is adopted for designing RCC elements.
 Material properties and section dimension together plays a contributory role in structural
design.
 For RCC design IS:456 is followed. Design Aids to IS:456 (SP-16) makes quick design
solutions.
References
 Reinforce Concrete Design by S. Unnikrishna Pillai and Devdas Menon Tata-McGraw-
Hill Publication
 IS:456, Bureau of Indian Standard
 Design Aids to IS:456, Bureau of Indian Standard
17
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Lecture - 21
Introduction to Truss
Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture. We are
now in module number 5, the week 5; and from this week onwards we will start the various types
of structural systems one by one. In this week we will start with one of the very important structural
system called the Truss and the Space Frames. The two main topics Truss and the Space Frames
are further subdivided into five lectures of half an hour each. This is lecture number 21; and topic
of the lecture “Introduction to Truss”.
We will try to cover the following concepts:
➢ Definition of Truss
➢ Structural Concept of Truss
➢ Types of Truss
➢ Truss Geometry
➢ Parts of Truss
➢ Structural Advantages
The intended learning objectives of this lecture is:
➢ To Outline the Structural Concept of Truss.
➢ To know about Classification of Truss.
➢ To Illustrate Truss Geometry and Parts of Truss.
Truss is one of the very important and very popular structural systems, that you might have noticed
in various buildings or built environments. This is used as a one of the major and common
structural systems. Truss is composed of or made up by triangular units or the triangular
component. These triangular units are constructed with straight members and their ends are joint
in some typical points known as nodes. Sometimes it is also referred as open web girder. About
the girder, we have discussed in the earlier lectures that, it is a kind of a deep beam, where the
webs are open. We will discuss the details it further.
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Truss is a vector active system because it has a direction and also a magnitude of the forces acting
on it. The connections in a Truss System is normally pinned. In the Truss System the external
forces and reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes; and result in forces in
the members which are either Tensile or Compressive forces. When all the members and applied
forces are in a same plane, the system is a plane or two-dimensional Truss. Whereas, a space truss
has members and nodes extending into three-dimensions, here the members are not confined in
one plane, it is in the three-dimensional plane.
We will discuss about Space Frames in the last lecture of this module. The first four lectures will
be based on two-dimensional Truss. In the first four lectures gradually, we will see about analysis
and then comparative analysis of two-three type of Trusses.
Now, let us first discuss about structural components or the concept of a Truss. Here, I have started
with a beam and this beam is having two pointed loads dividing the beam into three equal parts.
So, the bending moment diagram is trapezoidal diagram; and I have deliberately drawn the bending
moment diagram in the negative side, to look into some basic principles and to understand that
how that will be governed out (Refer Figure-1).
Figure 1: bending and shear in beam
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It is also very important to have the shear force diagram (SFD) as shown in Figure-1, and we have
already discussed this thing many times in the earlier lectures. Here in the SFD, in the middle one
third portion there is high bending moment, that is under pure bending and the side portions are
under the shear. But if we see the bending moment diagram, what we understand from it is that the
central span is having the high moment and almost low shear, in the sense almost 0 shear.
Therefore, the central span needs to have more depth; because, it will have to encounter a high
moment. Hence, we have to increase the distance between the top and bottom fiber, that is the
sectional depth as it has to encounter the high moment, as well as to reduce the bending stress in
the top and bottom fiber.
So, we can say that a girder can be designed as shown in Figure-2.
Figure 2 : the bending moment and shear stress details in a beam section
A beam will always have an equal cross section, but the cross section in the end part is not that
much efficient, because it does not encounter that much amount of bending moment. Therefore,
the central portion need a high amount of depth, and this depth is actually responsible for resisting
moment and web is responsible for the resisting shear. The central wide portion shown in Figure-
2 is called the web and that is responsible for the shear. But if you remember, in the earlier Figure-
1 we have seen that, in this central portion of the beam there is no shear. So, in this portion we can
make it open or we can save some amount of materials by making voids. We can put some material
at the top and bottom of it, because we require a high amount of material to resist the moment; and
as the shear is 0, we can open out few portions of the web.
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So, a high depth with open web typic of structural member is more economical, suitable, and
efficient to carry the load.
Next, if I take this particular proposition, for a pointed load with a huge span, where there will be
very heavy or huge amount of bending moment at the central portion, the I will be in need of higher
central depth; which means we need material at the top and bottom. Because as per bending
moment diagram, we know that we need higher stress value at top and bottom; and therefore, we
need more materials at top and bottom. whereas the central portion may be with void, as shown in
Figure-3
Figure 3 : pointed load with wide span and high central depth
So, what we can think of; we can think of a structural system which shown in Figure-3. It is a very
theoretical structural system, and what I did is, I followed the bending moment pattern of uniform
distributed load, or may be a pointed load which is parabolic, or may be a triangular system for a
simply supported beam of length high length L. Then I took out some materials from central
portion of it and make it like an open web. Because, the central portion web will experience less
amount of shear force but high amount of bending moment. Therefore, I require the depth, but not
high denseness of material. So, high central depth with the open web type design is more efficient;
which I have discussed earlier for 2 point loads. But this is for 3 point loads.
So, this proposition or this type of the structure conclude to be a Truss kind of structure; where we
can see triangular elements in the central portion of the span; the depth of the portion is high and
it is having number of triangular voids which is the open web kind of portion. Therefore, Truss is
called as an open web kind of structure or open web girder.
Now, when we see a Truss, we notice that it is a composition of lot of smaller triangles. So, why
we need triangulation? Why it is triangle? Why not square or pentagon or any other shape? Why
it is triangle? Let us discuss that why the triangle suits best in case of the load resisting phenomena.
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See, in Figure-4, I have considered a square consisting of four bars or may be four ice-cream sticks
of equal size. These four bars are joined pinned; and the resultant structure out of it may be very
flexible in nature. The bottom member is pasted to a table or to a particular platform.
Figure 4 : deformation of shapes and stability of a triangle
Now, if you apply a lateral load as shown in case-A, in Figure-4, then what will happen? The
structure will change its shape, and the square will change to Rhombus, as shown in case-B. So, it
is very easy to deform with application of a small amount of load. But there is no change in length
of the member.
But the if I put a fifth member, that is a diagonal member as shown in case-C of Figure-4. The
diagonal member may in any direction; it may connect point 1 and 3, or point 2 and 4. Here, I am
showing the diagonal member from point 1 to 3. After introducing the fifth member, if apply the
same amount of force in same direction as it was in case-A, then, deformation of the shape will
not be easy. Why it is so? Because, if we want to make a deformation the diagonal member has
to be shortened (when connected from point 1 and 3). Whereas, if we put it on the other way,
connecting point 2 and 4, this it has to elongate. Therefore, we can say that it is quite tough to
deform or transform from square to Rhombus.
So, what happened here is that because of introduction of the fifth member, the whole system
divided into two triangles; and deformation of the triangle is not easy. To deform the triangle, at
least one of the sides of the triangle either has to compress or elongate, and that is going to be
tough; and therefore, triangulation is very stable.
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Therefore, in case of a square or any other polygon, it will be much easier to change its shape
without deforming or any member of it.
There are lot of examples of truss in the nature, and one is wing bone of Vulture. Vulture is the
one of the strongest birds we have ever seen in our nature, and its wing bone seems like a true truss
structure, which is shown Figure-5.
Figure 5 : wing bone of Vulture and a conceptual truss similar to it
Hence, conceptually it seems like a Truss, which we commonly notice in the railway bridges.
Now, let us see mechanism of the Truss with respect to Figure-6.
Figure 6 : Truss Mechanism: reduction of external forces through suitable patterns of individual members
So, in this case, if you have the loads and these loads are placed in typical nodes. These loads will
now act on the members placed. Therefore, it is very important that we have to choose the right
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inclination of the members to distribute the force evenly through the members, by virtue of nodal
forces or the external forces applied at the nodal points.
Hence, the geometrical pattern of the Truss will definitely provide an impact on total system design
and total assessment of the load; as well as in final design of each individual members.
Now, let see the classification of Truss. Truss is broadly classified into two types, as given in
Fogure-7.
Figure 7 : classification of Truss
the Plane Truss are again subdivided into two further categories, one is called Pitched Truss
another is called Parallel Chord Truss. Parallel Chord Truss are mostly used in the bridge and Pitch
Truss is mostly used for the large span roofs.
The pitch Truss is something like which pitch that means it is inclined. It is triangular in shape and
often used as for roof construction. There are plenty of its types. When we see it from geometrical
form, there are various types of Pitched Truss, which are applied in various types of buildings and
to cater various needs. For example: Pratt Truss, Howe Truss, Fan Truss, Fink Truss, Fan Fink
Truss, Mansard Truss, North-light Truss, Attic Truss, Scissors Truss
The two most common Pitched Truss are Fink and Fan. They are almost similar, but the Fan has
two additional vertical members than Fink. Refer Figure-8.
Figure 8 : Fink Truss and Fan Truss
The next, with vertical members are Pratt Truss and Howe Truss, as shown in Figure-9. Here, the
difference between them is mainly the direction or orientation of the internal vertical members.
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They are opposite in direction.
Figure 9 : Pratt Truss and Howe Truss
The Fink, Fan, Pratt and Howe are for smaller spans, may be 10 meters to 12 meters.
Now, if we go for a larger span, then we have to increase the number of triangular units. Mansard
and the Fan-Fink Trusses are examples of such.
Figure 10 : Mansard and Fan-Fink Truss
So, when we have to go beyond 10- 12 meters, say 15 meters or more than that, we go for Mansard
Truss and Fan-Fink Truss. Here in the Fan- Fink the members are mostly inclined, whereas in
Mansard Truss it is vertical and horizontal.
Figure 11 : Scissor and Gambrel Truss
In Scissors Truss or the Gambrel Truss, due to different geometrical orientations of the unit
elements, its roof profile or the outer profile and the bottom profile changes or differs. So due to
the change in the geometrical pattern the name also changes.
Figure 12 : Mono Pitch and Dual Pitch Truss
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When we intend to get diffused North Light, then we go for Mono and Dual Pitch Truss. As the
name suggests, Mono Pitch is unidirectional sloped pitch and Dual Pitch is with two directional
sloped Truss. These Trusses are widely used in libraries and industrial buildings to get diffused
natural light. They are also called as North-Light Truss.
When we need to cater a large span like railway station, then we go for Truss with very wide spans.
One such is Bowstring Truss. It looks like a bow which is circular in the top and flat in bottom, as
shown in Figure-13. The internal members are in zigzag pattern resulting into composition of
triangular units. This type of Truss we can see in Howrah Railway Station, Kolkata.
Figure 13 : Attic and Bowstring Truss
Attic Truss is also useful. Most commonly it is

used in houses or we can say for smaller spans. In
this Truss the central portion is created with a
larger void, as shown in Figure-13, and this space
is used as a storage space. This void or the storage
space also acts as a thermal barrier helping to create
a better and comfortable indoor environment.
Another type is Double Inverted Truss. As shown
in Figure-14 (the top image), it seems like to be
consists of two inverted Fan-Fink type of Truss,
but central member is missing in this Truss.
Another two types are Flat Truss and Sloping Flat Figure 14 : Double Inverted, Flat and Slopping Flat
Truss
Truss. They are commonly used for long span
designs such as auditoriums, stadiums, warehouses
etc.
Next is the Parallel Chord Truss. In this, the top and bottom Chords are parallel to each other, and
within that the triangular units are composed. They are mostly used for bridges, floor joists,
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framing in multistoried buildings, and auditoriums. There are many types of Parallel Chord Truss.
Some are: Lattice Girder, Warren Truss, Floor Girder, K-Type Web, Diamond-Type Web etc.
Refer Figure-15.
Figure 15 : examples of Parallel Chord Truss
Sometimes to increase the strength and rigidity, we can introduce or add some additional members,
increasing the number of triangular units. This addition is done when we expect some additional
load on it.
Now, let us discuss about geometry of Truss.
We know that Truss is inclined or pitch in nature, therefore, span of the Truss is measured from
support to support. We do not want to have any intermediate support, because we wish to go for
long span applications with less hinders. For example, a railway station or an auditorium or a
stadium etc. where we need free and open spaces.
The span has to be catered with the rise of the Truss. Rise is the central vertical most point or the
depth of the Truss. Refer Figure-16.
So, these two are the elementary geometrical dimensions for a Truss. Therefore, first we have to
decide how much is the span and what should be the rise for that span? What should be the ratio
between this R (rise) and L (Span)?
This ratio is very much important, and we generally keep it around 1:3 or 1:4; where 1 is the rise
and the 3 or 4 those are span. So, by virtue of that, we can also find out the slope of the Truss, that
is the angle θ, in Figure-16. Because we know the R and L/2. We can also find the gradient of the
Truss given 1 in ‘n’; and ‘n’ is some number.
Let us suppose a Truss with span (L) of 12 meters and rise (R) of 3 meters. Then we can compute
it as:
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Figure 16 : geometry of a Truss
Slope of the Truss: Angle θ

Pitch of the Truss is the gradient of roof slope given 1 in ‘n’
Now, considering L=12m; and R=3m
Then;
𝑅 3
𝜃 = tan−1 { } = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1(0.5) = 26.56⁰
𝐿 6
2
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = 3 𝑖𝑛 6 = 1 𝑖𝑛 2
So, if we go 6 horizontally, then 3 will be the rise, or we can say that 1 is the rise when we go 2 in
horizontal.
A Truss is the skeleton of the structure and it always has to be covered with a roof. So, to put the
roof coverings we need some supports or we can say some connecting members between the roof
covering and the Truss; and they are known as Purlins. The purlins are placed on the Truss, but
not on any intermediate places. So, whatever the load comes from the roof is transferred to the
purlins, then to the nodes and then to the Truss.
Figure 17 : roof covering, purlins and the Truss
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The various components of the Truss are having further detailed nomenclatures, as shown in
Figure-18 and Figure 19.
Figure 18 : components of a Pitch Truss
Figure 19 : components of a Parallel Chord Truss
There are various advantages of Truss system.

Truss can be assembled by individual members, so it results quicker and faster installation. It can
provide higher span requirements like stadium, industry and auditorium. It is a light weight
construction method and it saves time and cost.
The references taken for this lecture are as follows:
Publisher
➢ Structure and Architecture by Meta Angus J. Macdonald, Elsevier Publication
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Publication
➢ Understanding Structures: An Introduction to Structural Analysis By Meta A.
At last we can conclude that, Truss is considered as a vector active structural system and it is
widely used structural forms, providing long span solutions in buildings. It is used for supporting
the roofs.
So, in the next lecture, we will discuss the analysis of Truss part-1.
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Lecture - 22
Analysis of Truss-1
Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture. The
week 5 is on Truss and Space Frames; and we are in the second lecture on this module which will
be on the Analysis of Truss Part-1. This is lecture number 23 in sequence. Here we will discuss
about two types of analysis.
The basic concepts to be covered are:
➢ Indeterminacy of Truss
➢ Methods of Truss Analysis
➢ Joint Method of Truss Analysis
➢ Section Method of Truss Analysis
➢ Examples
The intended learning Objectives are:
➢ To Outline the Various Methods of Truss Analysis.
➢ To Analyze Truss by Joint Method with examples.
➢ To Analyze Truss by Section Method with examples.
First of all, let us see what is the indeterminacy? Indeterminacy we have already discuss in the
very first week of lecture, and if you have some doubts then you can go back to the first week
lectures and get a revision.
Indeterminacy is the redundancy; that is how many unknown forces are there in a particular system
that we have to first judge and then we have to actually find out whether it is possible to tackle the
condition or to find out unknown forces by virtue of the 3 statically equilibrium equations like
∑𝐹𝑋 = 0, ∑𝐹𝑌 = 0 and ∑𝑀 = 0 or not. If it is; then it is indeterminate; and if it is not it is
indeterminate structure.
In case of Truss, it will have two type of indeterminacy. The first one is called external
Indeterminacy and the second one is Internal Indeterminacy.
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So, what is external indeterminacy (or the determinacy whatever you may call it)? In case of a
Truss it is about the supports and support conditions of the Truss. We can also say that external
indeterminacy depends upon the support conditions; like how many supports and what type of
supports are there in a particular Truss; and it follows the rule adopted for beams. Because supports
are the external conditions which is plugged into a particular system of Truss. Let us say that, there
is a beam and beam is supported with 2, 3 or may be 1 support; and those are plugged-in systems.
So, here we have to see how those support systems exists in a given Truss system. The applicability
of the indeterminacy will be same as it is for beams.
Now, let us see some examples for external
indeterminacy. Let us consider a Truss as shown in
Figure-1. The black lines are internal members and
yellow dots represents the joints or nodes of the
Truss; and it is rested on a hinge and a roller support.
The supports are placed on same base with same
directions.
Then, as you already know, the hinge support will
have two unknown reactions, vertical and horizontal
as given in Figure-1; and roller support will have
only one unknown reaction in vertical direction. So, Figure 1 : external determinacy of a Truss system
there will be 3 (2+1) unknown support reactions, and as we can see they are external to the Truss.
Now, we have to see whether it will be stable or determinate or not. As there are 3 unknown
reactions and we have 3 equations of static equilibrium with us, we can solve the unknowns; and
therefore, the Truss is externally determinate.
On the other hand, what will be situation if we change the support type, support location and
support orientation? Let us assume that we change the roller support to a hinge support and it is
relocated and re oriented as shown in Figure-2. So, both are now hinge supports. Therefore, the
unknown reactions at each support will be 2, resulting into a total of 4 (2+2) unknowns. But we
have only 3 equations available to resolve this, which is not possible. So, compatibility equations
are required to solve this. Therefore, it is not a determinate Truss system; it is an externally
indeterminate Truss system; and the degree of indeterminacy will be 4-3=1 (no. of unknowns-
equations of static equilibrium).
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Figure 2 : external indeterminacy of a Truss system
So now let us discuss the what is Internal Indeterminacy? A structure or a Truss can be externally
determinate or indeterminate, we can find it out by solving the reaction forces. If the reactions are
more, then by virtue of some other methods like compatibility equations, we can find out 4 or 5
unknown reaction forces. If it is statically determinate type of structure, then we can find the
reactions forces very easily with the help of 3 equations of static equilibrium.
But after that we have to see the internal members. How the internal members are geometrically
linked with each and other so that we can easily compute those internal forces by virtue of those 2
or the other 3 equations of the static equilibrium.
So, let us first see a triangle. The number of members (m) is 3, the black lines, and number of
joints (j) is also 3, the yellow dots, in Figure-3. Next, we will see it with respect to the relation
𝑚 = 2𝑗 − 3
A Truss is internally statically determinate, if it satisfies the above equation.
Figure 3 : internal determinacy of a Truss system
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In case A of Figure-3, we have 3 members and 3 joints, then if we see it with respect to the relation
of ‘m’ and ‘j’ then
𝑚 = 2𝑗 − 3
𝑚 =2×3−3= 6−3 =3
In this the relation of ‘m’ and ‘j’ holds good.
In case B, we have added two new members with one more joint. Then, number of members are
now 5, and number of joints are 4; then
𝑚 = 2𝑗 − 3
𝑚 =2×4−3= 8−3 =5
In this the relation of ‘m’ and ‘j’ holds good.
In case C, let us go one step further; and we have added another joint with two new members. So
now, number of joints are 4 + 1=5 and number of members are 5 + 2 = 7. Then;
𝑚 = 2𝑗 − 3
𝑚 = 2 × 5 − 3 = 10 − 3 = 7
In this case also the relation of ‘m’ and ‘j’ holds good.
So, what we have seen here is that, at least two members are connected to a joint or node. It may
be more than two, but it should contain at least two. Then, we can easily find out the forces in the
members by using the two equations of static equilibrium, that is ∑𝐹𝑋 = 0 and ∑𝐹𝑌 = 0 . So, if
we proceed like this, first by solving the nodes with two members, say joint-1 (as shown in Figure-
1, central and right-hand side image) then next we go the joint-2, with three members. In joint-2,
even if we have 3 members, force in one member linking joint 1 and 2 is already know by now;
so, we have to find force in rest of the two members connecting 2 to 3; and 2 to 4; which can be
done easily. Similarly, next we can go the joint-4; and so on.
So, gradually you will see that, if you start from a joint having 2 members, then you can easily go
to the next joint and next joint like that and finally find out all the forces by virtue of the ∑𝐹𝑋 =
0 and ∑𝐹𝑌 = 0 equations.
So, that means if the Truss holds the relation 𝑚 = 2𝑗 − 3; between the members and the joints,
then the Truss is internally statically determinate. If the Truss is having more members than 2𝑗 −
3; then remember, you have a problem and internally somewhere you have to stop; you cannot
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actually find out those unknown forces by virtue of those equations of statics. Now, you have to
think of some compatibility equations.
Now, let us see another condition.
Figure 4 : indeterminacy in a square to triangular units
So, what is shown in Figure-4 is a square unit, and gradually we are adding members and joints
developing it into triangular components. In case A, there are 4 members and 4 joints. Now, if we
see the ‘m’ and ‘j’ relation, then
𝑚 = 2𝑗 − 3
𝑚 =2×4−3
𝑚 =8−3=5
Here, m < 2j-3
In last lecture we have discussed about it with the example of ice cream sticks joined by pins; and
we know that it is very unstable; and similar case is this. Case A, is statically indeterminate and
unstable
Then in case B, we have introduced a new diagonal member, the fifth member connecting joint 2
to 4 as shown in Figure-4. Here the joints are 4 but members are 5; then the relation is:
𝑚 = 2𝑗 − 3
𝑚 =2×4−3
𝑚 =8−3=5
It satisfies the relation and it holds good. So, I can say that case B is a statically determinate and
stable condition, also internally determinate structure. Here, I can easily start from this joint-1, and
I can find out the forces in the two links or members, and gradually I can find all unknown forces
in all the members of the given structure.
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Next, in case C, if I join another member with one more joint, then m=7, and j=5; then
𝑚 = 2𝑗 − 3
𝑚 =2×5−3
𝑚 = 10 − 3 = 7
It also satisfies the ‘m’ ‘j’ relation; and with the help of static equilibrium equations we can find
out the unknown forces. Here also, we will start with a joint with two members or links and
gradually proceed to three member joints; and finally, we can find out the unknown forces in all
the all the members.
But if introduce one more member, keeping number of joints as 5, as shown in case D of Figure-
4, then it becomes m=8, and j=5. Then looking into ‘m’ ‘j’ relation:
𝑚 = 2𝑗 − 3
𝑚 =2×5−3
𝑚 = 10 − 3 = 7
Here, m > 2j-3.
So, the structure is statically stable but internally indeterminate. So, I cannot actually find out the
forces in all the 8 members by virtue of the equations of static equilibrium, ∑𝐹𝑋 = 0 and ∑𝐹𝑌 =
0.
In order to find all the 8 forces, I have to search for one extra equation; because the degree of
indeterminacy (DOI) is 1 here.
𝐷𝑂𝐼 = 𝑀 − (2𝑗 − 3)
𝐷𝑂𝐼 = 8 − (2 × 5 − 3)
𝐷𝑂𝐼 = 8 − 7
𝐷𝑂𝐼 = 1
Therefore, I’ll be in need of one more equation to solve this.
Now, if we see to conclude these conditions then we can say that;
If, m < 2j-3 .... The Truss is structurally unstable.
If, m = 2j-3 .... The Truss is structurally stable & internally determinate.
If, m > 2j-3 .... The Truss is structurally stable & internally indeterminate.
Now, let us see the “Joint Method of Truss Analysis”. In this method what we will do is that, we
will assume each and every joint is in equilibrium we have to go one by one. We have to draw the
free body diagram of each joint or each node and we will apply the simple equations ∑𝐹𝑋 = 0 and
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∑𝐹𝑌 = 0 . In this analysis approach is applicable to the joints having maximum two unknown
force members. So, we have to go like that.
In case of section method typically we will break the Truss into two typical parts and we will draw
the free body diagram of the left or right side of the Truss. But what will happen here is that, we
only either left side or the right side of the Truss; and then we will apply the equilibrium equation
for moments in each part of the free body, ∑𝑀 = 0 . and we will try to find out the unknown
forces in it. The analysis is applicable to the free body portion having maximum three unknown
force members; and this method is applicable only to internally statically determinate trusses.
Now, we will discuss some examples. First, we will discuss through Joint Method of Truss
Analysis. Let us consider a parallel chord Truss as shown in Figure-5. The bottom chord nodes (or
joints) are marked as L1, L2, L3, L4 and L5 and top chord nodes are marked as U1, U2, U3, U4
and U5. The top nodes are given with pointed loads of 10KN each, resulting total load to be 50
KN. The span of the Truss is ranging from L1 to L5. The intermediate distance between bottom
nodes (L1 to L2, L2 to L3 etc.) and top nodes (U1 to U2, U2 to U3 etc.) is 2 meters, having total
span of 8 meters; and the depth of the Truss is 1.5 meters.
Figure 5 : a symmetrical parallel chord Truss
Now, I can easily find out the support reaction as 25 each, because it is symmetrical and there are
total 50 KN loads. Now dividing the Truss in to two equal parts, from L1 to L3 one part; and L3
to L5 the second part; and then we can solve the unknown forces.
Then, first we will touch the node L1; because this is having only two members associated with it;
and we can easily find out these two forces. When we can find these two forces then, we can jump
into the next node U1; because at U1 the force in the member connecting L1 to U1 is already
known to us and we can find out rest of the two forces associated with U1 (connecting U1 to U2
and U1 to L2).
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Then we will go to L2, because here also one force is known, that is the force in the member
connecting U1 to L2; and then we can find out the two unknown forces associated with node L2
that is force on L2 to U2 and L2 to L3.
Then we can go to U2; again, here also two forces are known to us, they are the forces in the
member connecting U2 to U1 and U2 to L2. Then we are left with two unknown forces, and we
can resolve those two; that is force on U2 to L3 and U2 to U3.
Finally, we can come back to the U3 and we can find out the force in the member connecting U3
to L3, because force in member connecting U3 to U2 is already known to us, and force in member
connecting U3 to U4 will be same as force on member U3 to U2, because it is a symmetrical Truss.
The navigation to proceed from one node to another is given in Figure-6.
Figure 6 : navigation to calculate unknown forces in different nodes of a Truss
Now, if we find the value of θ, then from trigonometry and from the values of rise and span we
can get it as
1.5
sin 𝜃 = = 0.6
2.5
2
cos 𝜃 = = 0.8
2.5
Then, if we take the joint L1, putting ∑𝐹𝑋 = 0 and ∑𝐹𝑌 = 0
we will get the values FL1U1=25 (C) and FL1L2=0. FL1U1 is under
compression because in the free body this particular joint is
Figure 7 : joint L1
under compression.
So, if the force is towards the joint that means joint will be under compression. Please don’t be
confused with force diagram, because in force diagram it will look like tension.
Next is joint U1.
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Then if we see the figure,
Figure 8: the forces
Now, we already have L1U1 is 25 and L1L2 is 0 which is shown in Figure8, the direction of the
force will be equal and opposite. Next, in joint U1 and we need to find force in U1, U2 and U1,
L2.
Then solving the unknown forces in U1, with respect
to ∑𝐹𝑋 = 0 and ∑𝐹𝑌 = 0
𝐹𝑈1𝐿2 = sin 𝜃 = (25 − 10) = 15
𝐹𝑈1𝐿2 × 0.6 = 15
𝐹𝑈1𝐿2 = 25 (𝑇)
𝐹𝑈1𝑈2 = 25 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 20 (𝐶)
Finally, I can find 𝐹𝑈1𝐿2 is 25 (T) and 𝐹𝑈1𝑈2 is 20 (C).
𝐹𝑈1𝐿2 is under tension because at this joint it is force is
actually trying to take out the joint; it is under tension Figure 9 : joint U1
and other 𝐹𝑈1𝑈2 is towards the joint, the notation

considered is also correct, so it is compression. So, as
𝐹𝑈1𝐿2 is under tension, the notation of force will merge
and in compression the notation will diverse.
?
Now we will go to joint L2. Similarly, solving the
unknown forces in U1, with respect to ∑𝐹𝑋 = 0 and ?
∑𝐹𝑌 = 0
𝐹𝐿2𝑈2 = 25 sin 𝜃 = 15 (𝐶)
Figure 10 : forces in the Truss
𝐹𝐿2𝐿3 = 25 cos 𝜃 = 20 (𝑇)
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Figure 11 : the joint L2
Then, similarly at U2.
Figure 12 : the forces
Then solving the unknown forces in U1, with respect to ∑𝐹𝑋 = 0 and ∑𝐹𝑌 = 0
𝐹𝑈2𝐿3 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = (15 − 10)

𝐹𝑈2𝐿3 = 8.33 (𝑇)
𝐹𝑈2𝐿3 = 20 + 8.33 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 26.67 (𝐶)
Then, similarly solving joint U4 we will get the final

resultant as shown in Figure 14.
Now, the whole result is with us and we can see that it is Figure 13 : joint U2
very symmetrical. So, if you say L1 is 25, compressions
then L5 has to be 25 compressions too. Because it is a symmetrical Trusses. We can solve half the
portion of the Truss and it can be mirrored to the other half portion.
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Figure 14 :all the resultant forces
If the force in L1, L2 is 0, then force in L4, L5 will also be 0. Similarly, if force in U2, L3 is 8.33,
the force in L3, U4 will also be 8.33 as shown in Figure-14. So, in this way all the forces in the
Truss can be solved by virtue of solving the half portion.
Now, we will see the section method to analyze a Truss. Here also we have considered the same
Truss as in Figure-5. We already have solved that one, so we can actually crosscheck the answers
by the section method. But here I have formulated the problem as: “Given a Lattice Truss of 8
meter of span, 1.5 meters depth. The truss is simply supported at the ends (L1 & L2). Find the
forces in the members: U2U3, U2L3, & L2L3.”
So, I have to find out only these three members. Then I will create a section over there, as shown
in Figure-15; and I will bifurcate the Truss into two portions. I will either I consider the left or the
right portion and try to solve the Truss by virtue of moment.
Figure 15 : considered portion of the truss with three members to compute
As you can see in the Figure-15, U1, U2 and L1, L2 is visible. There are three cutting forces or the
cutting members which is written F1, F2 and F3.
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First of all, assume that all are tensile forces and they are coming out from the joint. I also have to
check the balance of the left portion and find out the force F1, F2, F3. What should be the correct
values of F1, F2, F3 and what should be the correct direction of F1, F2, F3 so that this total half
system on the left part of the system comes under equilibrium.
So, for that I have to use some moment equations in each joint. I have to take the moment either
at L1 or L2 or at any point among the four points that is L1, L2, U1 and U2. Or it can be any node
point, like meeting point of U2 and L2. But I cannot take the middle point of the members.
First, I will take the moment about U2. Why U2? Because automatically the moment created by
F1 and F2 will be 0, because F1 and F2 passes through U2, as the distance is equal to 0. Therefore,
the moment created by the force F1 and F2 at U2 = 0.
Then if see F3 at L2, then it is having a distance 1.5 meters from U2, so the F3 X 1.5 meter, the
moment goes in clock-wise direction at L2; and this must be equal to 25 X 2 (here 2 is the distance
between node L1 to L2 or U1 to U2), and its direction is anti-clock-wise at L1, and minus counter
moment by load 10 and distance 2. So,
Moment about U2:
1.5 × 𝐹3 = 25 × 2 − 10 × 2
𝐹3 = 20(𝑇)
So, F3=20 (T), direction is right, so it is tensile direction.
Next, what I will have to do is that I have to
find out the F1 and F2.
Then, I have taken the movement about U1.
Why U1? Because force F1 passes U1
along the same line, so this will be
automatically 0. So, I have to compute the
perpendicular distance from U1 to F2, that
we can find out by extending the lines as
shown in Figure-16, and then compute it by
trigonometry.
So, similar to F3, we can compute Moment at U1 as:
1.2 × 𝐹2 + 10 × 2 = 𝐹3 × 1.5 Figure 16 : the unknown forces
= 20 × 1.5
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1.2 × 𝐹2 = 20 × 1.5 − 10 × 2
𝐹2 = 8.33 (𝑇)
The F2 moment will be anti-clockwise. The force 25 KN and 10 KN will vanish because of
collinearity. The F3 X 1.5 (the rise), this moment will be in clock wise direction. So, we get the
value of F2 = 8.33, and it is tensile.
Finally, I have to take a moment from L2, and for this I have to find F1 and it will be very easy,
because F2 and F3 is already computed. So, moment about L2 is:
1.5 × 𝐹1 + 1.2 × 𝐹2 + 25 × 2 = 10 × 2
1.5 × 𝐹1 = 20 − 50 − 10 = −40
𝐹1 = 26.67 (𝐶)
Now, we can check with the values of the section method with the values of joint method and we
see that these three vales valid.
In this way the section method has been taken into consideration. Here we have to take the each
and every point and try to locate the point such a way that one of the forces can be computed by
nullifying the other forces. Therefore, I have taken the U2 as they first joint, U1 as the second joint
and the L2 in the third; and gradually I have computed the forces.
Next, we will see another example with joint method analysis of Truss. It is given with a Warren
Truss of 8 meter of span, 1.5 meters depth. The truss is simply supported at the ends (L1 & L5).
The intermediate distance between nodes is 2 meters, and at the bottom chord, the nodes are given
with pointed load of 12.5 KN each.
Figure 17 : Warren Truss
Here the reaction forces at each support will be half of total load that is 25 each. Again, I can find
out the half portion of the Truss and I will start with a node having not more than two unknowns;
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and here we will take L1. Then we will find out the values of Sin α and Cos α.
1.5
Sin 𝛼 = = 0.83
1.8
1
Cos 𝛼 = = 0.55
1.8
Then to find different unknown forces, we will proceed following the concept of not resolving the
nodes with more than two unknowns. So, first we will start with L1, because it is having only two
unknowns which we can resolve. Then following the same concept, we will proceed as the
navigation shown in Figure-18.
Figure 18 : sequence of resolving unknown forces in a Warren Truss
We will start with L1, and then we can go to the U1, the upper chord first point, where we know
the force on U1, L1, and we will find out the two unknowns associated with it, (the U1, L2 and U1
U2). After U1 we will go to L2. Can we go to U2? We cannot go to the U2, because at that joint
we only know the force on U1, U2, but we do not know rest of the three forces associated with
this joint. There will be three more unknowns, which will be tough to resolve. At L2, we have two
known forces, on L2, L1 and L2, U1; and two unknown forces, L2, U2 and L2 L3. Sotwo
unknowns can be resolved. Then from L2 we will move to U2. At U2 we have two known forces,
U2, U1 and U2, L2; and two unknown forces, U2, L3 and U2, U3. So, we can resolve the two
unknowns. The symmetrical other part of the Truss will have mirrored values of the resolved part.
Now, at joint L1:
Let us assume the force directions are as shown in Figure-19. Then by resolving it, we can find,
𝐹𝐿1𝑈1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 25
𝐹𝐿1𝑈1 = 30(𝐶)
𝐹𝐿1𝐿2 = 30 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼 = 16.5 (𝑇)
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Figure 20 : joint U1
Figure 19 : joint L1
Then at joint U1
𝐹𝑈1𝐿2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 30 Sin 𝛼 − 12.5
𝐹𝑈1𝐿2 = 15 (𝑇)
𝐹𝑈1𝑈2 30 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 15 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼 = 24.75 (𝐶)
Then the resolved forces till now will be as given in Figure-21.
Figure 21 : resolved forces after considering L1 and U1
Then at joint L2, we will resolve it using ∑𝐹𝑋 = 0 and ∑𝐹𝑌 = 0
𝐹𝐿2𝑈2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 15 Sin 𝛼

𝐹𝐿2𝑈2 = 15(𝐶)
𝐹𝐿2𝐿3 = 15 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 15 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + 16.5
𝐹𝐿2𝐿3 = 33 (𝑇)
Figure 22 : joint L2
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Then looking at joint U2, and solving it by applying
∑𝐹𝑋 = 0, and ∑𝐹𝑌 = 0
𝐹𝑈2𝐿3 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 15 Sin 𝛼 − 12.5
𝐹𝑈2𝐿3 = 0
𝐹𝑈2𝑈3 = 24.75 + 15𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼
𝐹𝑈2𝑈3 = 33(𝐶)
Figure 23 : joint U2
Then after solving these four joints, we get the resolved forces for half of the portion of given
Truss; and values of forces of another half of the Truss will be just mirror image of it.
Figure 24 : the resolved forces for half portion of the given Truss
Then final resolved forces for the given Truss will be as shown in Figure-25.
Figure 25 : the resolved forces for the whole Truss
So, for joint method of analysis of Truss, each and every joint has been taken into account as the
∑𝐹𝑋 = 0, and ∑𝐹𝑌 = 0 and in that manner, we computed all the forces.
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I have taken the reference of the following books for this lecture.
Publisher
Publication
Now, let us conclude this discussion. In conclusion we can say that structurally a truss consists of
external and internal determinacy. So, the first thing we have to see is whether it can be solved by
the equations of statics or not; and a determinate truss is analyzed by joint method or section
method.
In the next lecture we will continue this analysis of Truss part-2 in lecture number 23.
Now, I have given you some homework.

Problem 1:
Find the forces in the truss shown below by joint method
C
D E
A F B
Problem 2:
Find the forces in the following members in the truss shown below using section method
(i) U1U2, U2L2 & L2L3
(ii) U2U3, U3L3 & L3L4
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I think that is all for this lecture.
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Department of Architecture and regional Planning
Lecture – 23
Analysis of Truss Part-2
Welcome to the NPTL or online certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture. This
is module 5 and it is on Truss and Space Frame. Today we are in third lecture of this week; and
topic is Analysis of Truss Part-2.
The concepts to be covered in this lecture are:
➢ Truss Framing System
➢ Classification of Truss System
➢ Numerical Analysis of Truss
The intended learning objectives of this particular lecture is to:

➢ Outline and classify of the framing system of Truss.
➢ Analyze force distribution in Truss due to geometrical patterns.
So far whatever we have discussed on Truss, all are about individual Truss. We have talked about
geometrical formations of a Truss, what are the different parts of a Truss, and how to analyse an
individual Truss. But you should know that one single Truss cannot serve the purpose; and we
need a series of Truss, which may be of similar kind or may be different with changes in its
geometry. Then we have to place those series of Truss one after another, maintaining some distance
in between, and that distance is called as spacing of the Truss. So, the series of Truss is integrated
as one structure to take care the whole roof of the building. All the Truss will be supported by
some pillars or columns or by some other structural members like wall.
The series of Truss will be then connected by means of some horizontal connecting members called
as purlins; and by virtue of the purlins the integrated system of Truss is generated. The purlins are
always placed at the joints or the nodes of a Truss, in order to obtain smooth transferring of roof
loads. So, the series of Truss, its span, spacing, and plan view is shown in Figure-1.
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Figure 1 : series of Truss and its basic details
In the plan (in Figure-1, above) we can see three lines, they are the three Truss, separated by a unit
of distance. So, we can see the spacing of Truss, span of Truss and the vertical supports.
Now, only these three units of Truss is not enough to hold the roof. As discussed, they must be
united or tied together by some other structural members, and they are the purlins. So purlins are
the connecting members between one Truss to another, and it is shown in blue color in Figure-2.
Figure 2 : three Truss connected by purlins
The purlins will create the surface to hold the roof covering; and there are various types of roof
coverings available.
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The Purlins will actually help in two ways; one, it will connect one Truss to another Truss in
between the spacing and they will give an integrated Truss system; second, the purlins will transfer
the roof load through nodes or joints of each individual Truss.
Let us assume there is roof covering, the yellow portion in Figure-2, left side image. The load of
this roof covering is actually transmitted by the purlins to the particular Truss, through those four
nodes shown in red dots in Figure-2. Then, we can find out total amount loads, the dead lode, live
load, wind load etc. and we can also evaluate the load amount in each of these four joints of the
Truss. We will discuss about load transfer mechanism of Truss in the next lecture. However, the
plan of the Truss system with purlins is shown in Figure-2.
Sometimes, this type of Truss system only with the Truss and the purlins is fine. If the wind load
is not much high, there is no much of span then, only the purlins can take care of the roof covering.
However, if you expect a longer span or you expect very high wind load, like in situations of
coastal areas, when you are near to the sea. As well as, sometimes there may be some other loads
like infrastructural load like gantry girder or something like that. Then, only the linear purlins will
not help. In such situations, you have to go for top diagonal bracings.
Figure 3 : diagonal bracings in a Truss system
In Figure-3, the diagonal bracings are shown in red color; connecting members diagonally from
one Truss to another, and this should also connect through the nodal points only. So, in addition
to the purlins we have to provide some diagonal bracing. How many bracings and of what type
and size, we have to identify through some mathematical computations; for that we also have to
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know about the load distribution of the system. In the Figure-3, if you see the plan, it is called Top
Chord Plan because whatever is shown over there, the purlins and the diagonal bracings, all are
actually placed over the Top Chord or the two sloping portions of the Truss. Sometimes, this may
be the suitable design, because, the combination of these diagonal bracings and purlins can hold
the system good, under heavy wind load or for larger spans.
But, in some cases, the wind load may further high and you need much more robustness in your
system. You need much more strong connectivity in your system to make it stable under those
kinds of situations. Then we have to go for the next left out option, that is bottom chord.
In case of bottom chord, you can place the purlins in the bottom chord. They are not exactly the
purlins, but we can call it as bottom chord horizontal members or bottom chord purlins. As well
as, you can place some diagonal bracings in the bottom chord. If you do that, then you have to
draw the bottom chord plan also, connecting the Truss, bottom chord purlins, and the bracings,
just the way it was done for top chord. It is shown in Figure-4.
Figure 4 : bottom chord diagonal bracing
Finally, this will be the end of it, because now you will be not left with any other surfaces.
Further, if you still have the stability problem or something like that, then what you have to do is,
you might have to change the pattern of the Truss. So, instead of this pattern you can go with some
heavy type of Truss or you may decrease the spacing of the Truss to resolve the issue. Why spacing
of the Truss? Because that will reduce the load on the individual Truss and it will result in better
stability. Hence, number of Truss will increase in the length of the building, and definitely the load
sharing will be reduced per Truss. So, this is about the Truss framing system.
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We, use steel sections for Truss. Typically, there are three types of steel sections used. They are
Light Sections, Heavy Sections and Built-up Sections, as shown in Figure-5.
Figure 5 : types of sections used in Truss
What is the light section? The light sections are angle section, T section, circular pipes or the
square hollow sections or square rectangular hollow sections, as shown in left-hand side image of
Figure-5. The lower middle and lower right-hand side images in Figure-5 are rectangular hollow
section and channel section respectively.
In case of the channel section it is a heavy section. Sometimes I sections can also be used as some
of the members or you can use two channel sections and make it a box, which is called as the built-
up section. So, we can have two angle sections to create the inverted T, you can actually make a
box out of two channel sections, and we may go with a heavy section made up by two I section.
So, those are the typical built up sections that can be formed and we can have those sections as
members of the Truss. The light sections are very popular. The designer tries to make or try to
build the Truss with the help of this angle, T or the box sections, first they will try to make it with
the angle and then the T and the box sections. The circular hollow pipes are also used for a
lightweight Truss system. The built-up sections are used for auditoriums and similar structures.
But the last one the heavy sections are used for structures like railway bridges.
Now, the classification of the Truss system. If you see the typical geometry of the Truss, the
profiling of the total Truss, the purlins and diagonal bracings, and finally how the total form will
look like, and then, again you come back to the individual Truss you can understand the system of
the Truss. And the Truss system can be categorized into the three types. These Truss systems are
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for two-dimensional Truss system. For the 3-dimensional Truss system like the space frame system
we have another category. In 2-dimensional Truss system, the first category is called the Flat Truss
System. The Flat Truss System has further four sub-categories. The second one is called the
Transmitted Flat Truss System; and it is having three subcategories. The third one is called Curved
Truss System, which is having four subcategories. Detailed classification is given in Figure-6.
Figure 6 : classification of Truss system
Now, when you see the classification of Truss then first one is Flat. So, I understand that this Truss
will have an inclined or the pitch member. The second one is the flat Truss system but it is
transmitted form. It may be provided in a linear or maybe some angular transformation or with
folds in a direction; so that is a transmitted Flat Truss System. The third one is clear from the name
itself; that is curved Truss System.
Now, let us go into further details of these three types of Truss system.
Flat Truss System:
In Flat Truss System, first is Top Chord System. In this the bottom chord is flat and top chord is
inclined or curved. The top chord is not flat; and it takes care of the roof covering, membrane or
the profiling, whatever we provide. Refer Figure-7.
Figure 7 : Top Chord System
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Second is Bottom Chord System. It is opposite to top chord system. Here, top chord member is
flat and bottom chord members are inclined or curved. This is not much used in buildings. But
have wide applications in bridges; most commonly, the middle and the right-hand size images in
Figure-8.
Figure 8 : Bottom Chord System
Then, the third one is the Two Chord System, where both the chords are the having non flat
members or inclined members, as shown in Figure-9. These systems are used in the buildings
particularly in the auditoriums, airports or any large span structure like galleries. This type of
system is used to gain the advantage of wider spans in the buildings of structures. One of these
systems will be discussed in the next lecture.
Figure 9 : Two Chord System
The fourth type is Cambered System. In this, top members are flat and non-flat both the type, but
the bottom chord is elevated, the bottom chord is not flat. So that is called the Cambered System.
Refer Figure-10.
Figure 10 : Cambered System
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Transmitted Flat Truss System:
The next is Transmitted Flat Truss System. It has three subcategories, Linear System, Folded
System and Intersecting System.
In linear system you can see that it is a system with a parallel chord or may be pitched, but it is
linear. It is flows with a linear 2D plane. The same Truss can also be in zigzag or maybe any kind
of a profile; but those are one after another and linear in order. Refer Figure-11.
Figure 11 : Linear System
The next one is non-linear, but it is like a folded system. If you have one set of Truss and then
another one set of Truss and another set of Truss, if it goes like that; then it is linear. But if it is
intersecting, one with the next like shown in Figure-12, if it is intersecting in a line then it is a
folded system.
Figure 12 : Folded System
The third type under Transmitted Linear System is Intersecting System. It is intersecting in other
way around. In first case that is in folded system the intersecting manner is in a line and in this
case, the intersection of bodies; for example- one body intersects the another through its centre
point, and that is the intersecting system of the Truss, refer Figure-13. All these linear folded or
the intersecting Truss systems we use them for our built environment.
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Figure 13 : Intersecting System
Curved Truss System:

The third type of Truss System is Curved Truss System. It has four subcategories. They are Single
Curve, Saddle Curve, Dome Shape System and Spherical System. So, the details of these Saddle
shape or Dome shape and Spherical shape, we will be discussed thoroughly in our sixth week,
under different types of shell structures.
So first is Single Curve, then there is a Double curve, there is a Saddle shape, then Dome shape
and Spherical kind of Truss systems can also be thought of. So, these comes under the category of
the Curved Truss system.
Figure 14 : Single Curved Truss System
Figure 15 : Saddle Shape System
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Figure 16 : Dome Shape System
Figure 17 : Spherical System
Next, let us go to some numerical analysis of Truss. Here we want to see that, how the geometrical
pattern of a Truss and also the support system will influence the internal forces or we can say the
distribution of the forces in a Truss. From our earlier lecture we already know how to analyze a
Truss by virtue of section method and joint method. Now, we will take 2 or 3 types of Truss and
we will try to judge these 2 or 3 types of Truss and see how it behaves.
So, in the first case we are taking Truss-1 and Truss-2, Pratt Truss and Fan Truss respectively.
Both are having span of 6 meters, and rise of 2 meters. The loads are also very similar, 50 KN in
both the cases. Refer Figure-18.
Now, let us see which one behaves better or are they same in the nature?
Next, I have solved both the Truss by virtue of the joint method, and I found the forces and noted
down in each respective member which is shown in Figure-19.
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Figure 18 : two Truss for analysis
Figure 19 : two of the Truss with resolves forces of its members
Both the Truss are symmetrical, so the forces are also very much symmetrical. The two Truss
looks very confusing with all the numbers. Therefore, I have redrawn these two figures with the
help of color distinctions, where the tension members are shown in red and compression members
are in purple color, as shown in Figure-20.
Figure 20 : tension and compression forces in the Truss
So, here you can see that, this Truss is also behaving like a beam, as you know if you put the load
on the top to a beam, the beam bends and due to the bending of the beam the topmost portions
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comes under compression and the bottom part comes under the tension, and in Truss also it is
similar. The compression and the tension are purely created by the topmost portion and the bottom
most portion in both the Truss, which is completely similar behaviour to the beam. However, the
internal members, the post or the struts behave differently. If you look at Figure-20, you will see
the posts are mostly under tension, but in Fan Truss the two posts are under compression; their
behavior changes. On the other hand, in Pratt Truss the struts are under compression but in Fan
Truss they are under compression as well as under tension.
Here, one thing is very clear to us, that under the gravity load or downward load a Truss perfectly
behaves like a beam; that means the topmost portion, the rafters are in compression and the tie
beams are under tension; that is why it is called tie beam. But the internal members, the posts and
the struts behave differently because of the change in geometry and orientation. See, there is no
difference in the span, no difference in the rise, no difference in loading, the only difference is the
orientation of the internal members and its geometry. The actual triangles or the bigger triangles
or the outer profiles are same in both the Truss. The difference exists only in the orientation of
internal members.
The nature of forces in the internal members are bit confusing, because some orientation take
compression and sometimes the same post or strut of same height can take the tension.
Now, if we compare the Truss-1 and Truss-2 in a Tabular form then, we will see that they are
mostly same. There is no much difference in between them. Refer Table-1.
Table 1 : comparison of Truss-1 and Truss-2
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Here, I have computed the total length, for Truss-1 it is 24.4 meters, and for Truss-2 it is 23.54
meters. The difference in total length is less than 1 meter which is not an issue at all. Then if we
see the highest and the lowest forces in both the cases, then we see that the highest force in Truss-
1 is 45.45; and for Truss-2 also it is 4545 there is no difference. In case of lowest force, in Truss-
1, it is 5, and in Truss-2 it is 9.09; there no not very huge difference in between them. This much
of difference is very much comparable.
So, the design will be almost similar. The amount of steel required for both the cases will be almost
equal, the difference can be negligible. So, we can say that we cannot report one truss is more
advantageous than the other. There is no any kind of notable benefit we can get from one specific
Truss. If we use Truss-1 or Truss-2, both will give us mostly the same typical type of solutions.
Now, let us go to the another set of Truss. Truss-A and Truss-B as shown in Figure-21. If you
remember, in the last lecture we have solved this these Truss. In Truss-A, the span is 8 meters with
node to node distance of 2 meters, rise of the Truss is 1.5 meters. The bottom chord nodes are
marked as L1, L2, L3, L4, and L5; and top chord nodes are marked as U1, U2, U3, U4, and U5;
and all the forces on top chord are given to you. Total load on the top chord is 50 KN.
Figure 21 : Truss-A and Truss-B
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Truss-B is also having a span of 8 meters, with rise of 1.5 meters. The bottom chord nodes are
marked as L1, L2, L3, L4, and L5; and top chord nodes are marked as U1, U2, U3, and U4; and
simply supported at L1 and L5. All the forces on top chord are given to you. Total load on the top
chord is 50 KN. Refer Figure-21. We have solved this one too.
Now, I have taken these two Truss altogether, and let us see what all will be the differences. We
will look it in a tabular format, as shown in Table-2.
Table 2 : comparison of Truss-A and Truss-B
Here, if we go to the Top Chord, we will see that in both the cases it is always under compression
and the Bottom Chord is under tension. Hence, it is following the property of the beam the system
of the beam, that is good. Next, when we see the Post in Truss-A, we see that they are under
compression and the diagonals are under tension, whereas, in case of Truss-B there is no Post, it
only has diagonals; and in that there is a mixed variety of compression and tension in alternate
manner. Even in Truss-A where the Posts are under compression and diagonals are under tension,
it also occurs in alternate manner. It maintains a rhythm in both the Truss. We have noticed it in
previous example, in the Pitch Truss too, where the internal forces are either compression or
tension and there is a rhythm in it. If you go to go to the Truss-A, you see tension, tension and
tension. So, from these, we can say that Truss-A and Truss-B behaves similarly.
Now, if we see the forces, the highest and lowest forces then, we notice that in Truss-A the highest
force is 26.67 on Top Chord and lowest force is 0, but other than that it is 8.33. Whereas, in Truss-
B the highest force is 30 on diagonal and lowest force is 15. So, if we see the differences then, the
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difference in highest force is not much, that is comparable. But, the in case of lowest force, the
difference is very high; and Truss-B is a bit compacted. So, other than that there is nothing much
difference.
Next, let us go to another two set of Truss. Now, I have taken Truss-A1 and Truss-A2 which is a
typical variety of Truss A, and shown in Figure-22. Because if you see Truss-A is having an 8
meters span and 1.5 meters of the depth. Here I have kept the load and the span as same, but
increased the depth by 500 mm and made it 2 meters. The Truss is simply supported at L1 and L5.
So, the only change is the depth of the Truss. Therefore, we can say that definitely there will be
some changes in the forces.
Figure 22 : Truss-A1 and Truss-A2
In Truss-A2 what I did is that I have pushed the support to L2 and L4, it is no more at L1 and L5.
Hence the span of the Truss is reduced to 4 meters; and the portion L1 to L2 and L4 to L5 is now
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cantilevered. So, this Truss is now having two overhanging portions; and it is simply supported at
L2 and L4. The depth remains as 1.5 meters. I solved this Truss too.
After solving these two Truss I found one interesting change with respect to Truss-A. In Truss-A,
all forces on Top Chord is under compression where as in these cases it is changed.
Anyway, let us fist go to the analysis part this. Here we will compare Truss-A, Truss-A1, and
Truss-A2.
Table 3 : Truss-A, Truss-A1, and Truss-A2
Now, first if we see the Top Chord then in Truss-A, and Truss-A1, the forces are under
compression and Truss-A1 has two null forces (which is not an issue). On the other hand, Top
Chord of Truss-A2, the forces are under tension with two null forces. That means the cantilever
portion will have tensile force. Next, when we see the Bottom Chord, forces in Truss-A, and Truss
A-1 will be under tension (with two null forces). Whereas, in Truss-A2 the Bottom Chord will
have tensile forces.
Therefore, this has to be understood that in simply supported condition the forces on Top Chord
and Bottom Chord are similar, that is top compression and bottom tension. But when support
changes and the cantilever come, then it is top tension and bottom compression. This is the first
notable difference.
Then we will see the Posts and Diagonals. In Truss-A and Truss-A1, the simply supported
condition, the Posts are under compression and Diagonals are under tension. Whereas, in cantilever
Truss, Truss-A1, the Posts and Diagonals are under combination of tension and compression,
maintaining a rhythm.
So, based on nature of the force, first we have noted the differences.
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Next, let us see from magnitude point of view, that is what is the highest or lowest force in these
Truss.
In Truss-A, highest force is 26.67, in Truss-A1 it is 25, where the difference is more than 1. It
happened to because I have increased the depth of the Truss. So, the highest force is now lowered,
because the depth is increased to 2 meters. If I further increase the depth and again compute it,
definitely I can get much less than 25. It has to be because now increase in depth will lead you to
much more decrease in the load. Then, if we see the lowest force, other than 0, then in Truss-A it
is 8.33; and in Truss-A1 it is 3.53. So, in lowest also there is a variation.
Next, if you compare Truss-A with Truss-A2, then highest force in Truss-A is 26.67; and in Truss-
A2 it is 16.67 only. See, we are having the same depth, there is only a slight change in the support
location, which results into very, very lower force compared to Truss-A. Then the lowest force
remains as 8.33 in both the cases.
Hence, from all these comparisons we can say that, the Truss-A2 is very compact. Or I can say
that the highest force is reduced by a considerable amount by two way cantilevering of the Truss.
This is one of the very important things what we have understood from this particular analysis.
So, I have written over here that Truss with higher depth and 2-way overhang produces the better
result.
I have taken the reference of those books for to prepare this particular lecture:
Publisher
Publication
Publication
From the conclusion point of view, I must say that the suitable framing system is essential for any
Truss design and it is integral part of the Truss system. We have seen the different type of system
like purlins and diagonals are required to make an integrated system of Truss. Force distribution
in the Truss is based on the geometry and the support position what we have just now understood
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by virtue of two three typical types of geometrical variety, the depth variety and the support variety
etc. From that we can conclude that yes, the force distribution changes, pattern distribution
changes.
So that is all for this particular lecture.
In the next lecture we will go to “Application of Truss in Architecture” which will be the fourth
lecture in the module 5.
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Department of Architecture and regional Planning
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture – 24
Application of Truss in Architecture
Welcome students, to our NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in

Architecture. We are in module 5 and today is the 24th lecture of this series and this is the 4th
lecture in the module 5. The topic of this lecture is “Application of Truss in Architecture”.
The basic concepts to be covered are:
➢ Load Calculation Procedure for Truss
➢ Advantages of Steel Roof Trusses
➢ Application of Truss in Architecture
➢ Basic Construction of Roof Trusses
In the last 3 lecture we have discussed about all the all Truss systems and how they will be
provided, their different types, load calculations based on the point load method etc. But we will
see, in real time how the load calculations will occur. Today, we will start with load calculation
procedure of Truss, then we will discuss about the advantages of steel roof Truss and the
application of the Truss An architecture. Finally, we will just have some a glimpse, with some of
the photograph from a site, and we will try to understand the basic concept or the construction
concept of the roof Truss.
The intended learning objectives are to:
➢ Outline various steps of load calculation of Truss.
➢ Application of Truss in Architecture.
➢ Illustrate the construction process of Truss.
The learning objective of this particular lecture will include 3 bullets above. The first one is that,
we will outline the steps of load calculations, what we will see in a very brief format. The detailed
calculations are not in the scope of this particular course. Then we will go to the applications Truss
in Architecture. There are lot of applications and examples of modern buildings; but we will see
very few selective examples. and few applications are the applications. Then very briefly we will
see the construction process of Truss.
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into account. Finally, we have to take care of the third type of load, that is wind load; because
due to typical triangular pattern or the pitch roof pattern of the Truss it will experience sudden
change of the air pressure in the opposite sides of the slopes, and a heavy amount of load will be
contributed on the Truss.
So, to understand all these, we have considered a very simple Truss. The span of the Truss is 12
meters and divided into six panels of 2 meters each; and considering rise of the Truss is 3 meters.
So, we can say that first we have generated the 3m by 12m triangle; and then the 6 panels will
divide the hypotenuse or the inclined members of the triangle into the three equal segments on
each side. The divided segments will be of equal dimensions, which will be equal to 2.236 meters
each. It is shown in Figure-1.
This is one Truss that we have discussed. But this Truss will be placed one after another to serve
the purpose, may be the area you want to cover with roof for some activities. While placing the
Truss one after another, I have taken the spacing of the Truss as 3 meters, that means the distance
between one Truss to the next (may be Truss1 to Truss2) or the interval between the two successive
Truss is 3 meters. Refer Figure-1.
Figure 1 : considered Truss to understand its load calculation procedure
Next, again we will see one single Truss to understand about the influence area of the Truss. So,
what is influence area? Influence area is nothing but the extent of area up to which one single Truss
can tackle all kinds of loads whatever comes on it.
Here, in Figure-1, if I take the fourth Truss then influence area of this Truss will cover half of the
spacing of Truss on both sides. So, this will be 1.5 meters on each side and that gives me 3 meters
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which is also equal to the spacing of the Truss. Hence, the load contributory zone of one single
Truss (the fourth Truss) will be 3 × 12 = 36 𝑚2 , the red shaded area which is shown in Figure-
1. Because span of the Truss is 12 meters and distance of influence zone is 3 meters. So, whatever
may be the dead load, or live load, or wind load will be imposed here this area will be responsible
to tackle all those. Or we can say that all forms of loads, the dead load, live load, wind load etc.
are responsible to create deformations or the tension, compression etc. in this Truss. So, like that
we have found 36 𝑚2 is a contributory zone of a particular Truss.
Figure 2 : force contribution of Purlins with respect to influence area
Now, next we will see the force contribution of purlins of the Truss. In Figure-2, the red dots
represent the positions of the purlins. So, when we put a load on one of it then this will be
influenced by the contribution area of half the distance of two successive purlins, as shown in
Figure-2. Earlier we have calculated that the intermediate distance between two purlins or two
nodes is 2.236 meters. So, the contribution area of the purlin will half of 2.236 on both sides of the
purlin. So, altogether this length will be again 2.236 meters. We know that the distance of influence
area of the Truss is 3 meters. So, the contributory area of any intermediate purlin will be
2.236 × 3 = 6.708 𝑚2. But if we see the contributory area of the Eave purlin then we notice that
it is not extended further the red dot or towards downward or to the left side. So, the contributing
length is only half of 2.236 meters. half of 2.236 meter. So, the contributory area for the Eave
1
purlin becomes × 2.236 × 3 = 3.354 𝑚2 . After this if we see the ridge purlin, then similar to
2
the middle purlin, it will also cover length in both side and total will be 2.236. Therefore, the
contributory area of ridge purlin will be 2.236 × 3 = 6.708 𝑚2 , because the length of influence
area of the Truss remains same, that is 3 meters.
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Now, if we see, the nodal force contribution from one intermediate purlin and ridge purlin is of
same amount, that is 2.236 × 3 = 6.708 𝑚2; and of eave purlin is half of it, that mean
1
× 2.236 × 3 = 3.354 𝑚2
2
Next, we need to know some of the unit weights of the material that we will use. So, if you want
to put GI sheet, asbestos sheet, poly carbonate sheet or any material of the materials, the you have
to find out from the Indian Standard code or IS code. So, the IS code which is used for the dead
load unit weight of the building materials is IS : 875 (Part 1) – 1987, and Part-1 is for dead loads.
Refer Figure-3.
So, you can go through this particular IS code and find out the unit load of building materials.
Hence, if you know the contributory area, if you know the thickness of the material, then
multiplying by the density of the material you can find out how much is the load.
Figure 3 : IS code 857 Part-1 for dead loads
Similarly, to the dead load, the units of materials for the imposed load will be given by IS : 875
(Part-2) – 1987. Refer Figure-2. So, depending upon the activities the loads will vary. In case of
our roof, which is an inclined roof, this particular imposed load will depend upon the angle θ.
Because, if the angle θ increases that means the roof is very stiff, then the imposed load intensity
will be reduced. And if it is very flat the intensity of the imposed load will increase. Logically, if
the roof is very steep then nobody or no human being will generally climb into that, but if it is very
flat, the angle θ is very small the inclination is very small then there is a possibility that people
will go and on the top of the roof. So, these all depends upon the angle θ. Hence, this IS : 857 (Part
2) will give you the impose load.
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Figure 4 : IS code 857 Part-2 for imposed loads
Now, without considering these two codes, I have simply considered the intensity of the dead load
as 500 N/m2 (which is equal to 0.5KN) and intensity of the impulse load I have just for the time
being is taken 0 for the Truss what we have lately discusses, that is the Truss shown in Figure-2.
Here, instead of 0, even if you take some value, you can do it in the same way. So now as I have
discussed the influence area of the intermediate purlin is 6.708 𝑚2 . Then the load contribution for
different purlins will be:
Nodal Force contribution from one intermediate purlin of influence area of 6.708 𝑚2 =
0.5 × 6.708 = 3.354 KN
Nodal Force contribution from one Eave purlin of influence area of 3.354 𝑚2 = 0.5 × 3.354 =
1.677 KN
Nodal Force contribution from one Ridge purlin of influence area of 6.708 𝑚2 = 0.5 × 6.708 =
3.354 KN
Figure 5 : nodal force contribution of different purlins
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So, the forces on intermediate purlins and Ridge purlins remains same, because their influence
zone is spreading toward both side of the purlin, resulting to 2.236 meters (Refer Figure-2); and
nodal force contribution is 3.354 KN. Similar to the earlier case, the Eave purlin has the are only
on one side, it does not go beyond the purlin. So, influence zone is only half as 1.118 meters. So,
the nodal force is also half, that is 1.677 KN.
The details of the nodal force contribution are shown in Figure-5.
These computations can be done by hand, or can be analysed through some basic or advanced
software. Some people have their own programming ways to calculate the forces in all the Truss
member.
Now, next is the Wind pressure. Like the other loads, the wind load also has to be calculated. For
the wind load also we follow the IS Code; that is IS : 857 Part-3. IS : 857 Part-1 and Part-2 was
for dead and imposed loads.
If you go through this Part-3, you can find lot of parameters considered for wind load. I have listed
down some of the parameters, which are responsible for wind pressure on building roof. They are:
• Basic Wind Speed.
• Type of Building and Class of Structure (Risk Coefficient).
• Terrain Category, Height and Size of Structure.
• Local Topography.
Figure 6 : IS code 857 Part-3 for wind loads
If you see the Part-3 of the code, then you will find taha, India’s map is shown with intensities or
basic wind speed in different regions. The red colored zones experiences high speed or high
intensity wind speed. There are factors also like terrain factor, risk coefficient factor etc. that you
can go through. The PDF version of the code will be sent to you. These are basic ways to deal with
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this. For detailed and further understanding of load criteria, you can go through other NPTEL
programmes. You can have a look on programmes run by our civil engineering professors to know
the mathematical computations for all these.
However, for an architect, if you are not going to design in that much details, then please
understand that the basic wind speed is one of the criteria which is very important and it is different
in different parts of the country. There of the building class is also there, where the risk coefficient
factor also came. So, building class is like type A class, type B class etc. So, depending upon the
class you can have the risk coefficient. There is the terrain category, the height and size of the
building. Terrain category, if the building is situated in a very dense area, then definitely the wind
pressure is less. If it is placed in an area where very less number of buildings are there in the
neighbourhood; in that case the wind pressure will be higher, because obstruction will be less.
Another factor is local topography; that means, if there is an elevated area or hilly area where the
slope exists. If you are building in the hill slope or maybe in the top of the hill then it is going to
have some other calculation method. So, based on that also we can calculate the wind pressure.
However, for the time being let us consider an example. suppose the wind flowing from one
direction to other direction and it has wind pressure in the windward side is plus, suppose
+1.5KN/m2, and in the leeward side that is the other side of the wind flow, it is -0.9KN/m2, as
shown in Figure-7. Then, what is this plus and minus? Plus is the compressed pressure and the
minus is the suction pressure. Based on these values you can also calculate what will be the wind
load.
Figure 7 : wind pressure on a given truss
If it is +1.5 then it is compression and the forces are coming towards the roof and if it is minus
then it is going to going outward; that is the difference between this plus and minus, the suction
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and compressed pressure. Now, it is very simple because if I know the intensity of the loading,
then I can calculate the force, which is same as before, intensity will be multiplied with the area.
Figure 8 : wind pressure directions on a Truss
Therefore, the calculations will be

Wind pressure at windward side= +1.5 KN/m2
Intermediate purlin = 1.5 × 6.708 = 10 𝐾𝑁
Eave and Ridge purlin = 1.5 × 3.354 = 5 𝐾𝑁
Wind pressure at leeward side= -0.9 KN/m2
Intermediate purlin = 0.9 × 6.708 = 6 𝐾𝑁
Eave and Ridge purlin = 0.9 × 3.354 = 3 𝐾𝑁
Now ridge purlin will also be the half; why I will just tell you a little later. So, in case of the
leeward side is 0.9, minus of course, so minus gives me the direction outward.
So, finally, the forces will look like in Figure-9.
Figure 9 : wind pressure forces on a Truss
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Now, on windward side the ridge and eave both are 5KN. Because, here the load is not downward
imposed load. Both the sides of the Truss experiences different nature of pressure. So, the influence
of the ridge will be half on both side with respect to positive and negative pressures. The windward
side will face the positive pressure and the leeward side will face negative pressure. Therefore, on
windward side it is 5KN on eave and ridge where as 10 KN on intermediate purlins. Because
intermediate purlins have influence area half on both sides of the purlin. Similarly, for leeward
side, the eave and the ridge have 3 KN and the intermediate purlins are with 6 KN.
With this you can put the values and you can again go and do the calculations. Then you can
combine these, the first calculation and the second calculation, superimpose and see what the
resultant force in each member. So, these are the typical procedure of the wind load calculation on
a Truss.
Now, let us go to the advantage of the Truss. As you know the advantages are many and few of
them are:
• Steel trusses have good strength and may be economical to beams for large spans.
• Steel trusses are most suitable for long spans and can be made in various geometric shapes.
• Steel trusses can be fabricated easily.
• It is a clean and dry method of construction.
• Materials like angles, channels etc. can be easily available and transported from place to
place.
• Steel members are free from attack by white ants and dry rot. But have issues of corrosion,
which can be taken care by means of suitable paints.
• Steel members are fire resistive, and
• Steel trusses can be erected fast and easily.
Now, let us go for some of the application of the Truss. The Figure-10 shows a very ancient
building which was a grain store in UK, the Coggeshall Grange Barn (built around 1240AD). This
barn uses King Trusses to support the roof, and wooden Truss. One of Europe's oldest timber-
framed buildings, it has a cathedral-like interior. So, I have put this example for you, because it is
of very early time, built during the late Roman times, but here you need to see the how
geometrically they erected this Trusses. They are in different directions and different ways creating
the different elevations, creating some extra members to provide those arrays. So, this indicates
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that Truss is one of the structural systems that have enormous potential since ages and this kind of
a building, this kind of activity areas require a large column free space for movements of the grains
and other for other functions as well.
Figure 10 : the Coggeshall Grange Barn, UK
This is one of Europe's oldest timber-framed buildings, and it has a cathedral-like interior.
Next is one in one of the very important examples, an important building of modern history of
Architecture, the Crystal Palace London (1853). Again, you can see it is a historical building. Yes,
this building was built with glasses and Truss. You can see the ribs are created, this is simple arch
kind of it, and these ribs are supported by the flank Trusses. We can see that there are typical Truss
on the side of the arch ribs.
Figure 11 : Crystal Palace London (1853)
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There are also Truss with orthogonal direction, and cross bracings as well, and some of the posts
are also introduced to take care of various floors in both the sides of the arch. But nowadays it is
not the type of Truss which we look for.
The next example is a Truss bridge. You can see that; this is the Truss where the vertical members
are placed near to the support. Refer Figure-12. It is a tree track walkway at Kew Garden, London.
So, the vertical members are provided like web members. But in the intermediate portions, there
are lot of diagonal members, because the intermediate portions have to take the moments.
Figure 12 : Tree top Walkway at Kew Garden, London
Whereas in the vertical members in the flanks are introduced mainly near to the support because
this area has to take care of shear force; and in the central portion it is bending moment. So, that
is where it is vertical webs are there near to the supports and bracings at the central portion to take
care of the bending moment.
This not a very special example; but I have given this to you because this picture gives you a very
clear idea that even a Truss member can act as a beam. As well as in the design of this Truss, the
philosophy of designing a beam is also taken care of.
The last example is Padmanabhapuram Palace in Kerala. It is located in South Kerala. It is a
wonderful ancient building made up of timber. As you know, the Kerala Architecture follows steep
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sloping roofs to respond the extensive torrential rainfall, prolong monsoon and other climate
conditions.
This Palace made up of timber Trusses, and this is a wonderful timber structure, made by the
Kerala Kings. This building reflects the potential of timbers as a structural material, because the
timbers of those days are still in good condition. This is a wonderful building, and everybody must
visit this building to know about the potential and strength of timbers. In the Figure-13, the exterior
view of the building is shown. It is actually a small portion of the building, near the entry. From
the Figure it is not very much clear that how the Truss systems are there. I have some photographs
but they are very dull because of the very low light inside Palace.
Figure 13 : Padmanabhapuram Palace, Kerala
It has lot of folds, there are the eaves, valleys etc. with folds and a lot of connections; and each and
every connection are thoroughly taken care of by different Trusses.
Here, some of the Trusses are half Truss, some are quarter Truss, some are very thin and elongated
portion of the Truss, some of the Trusses are definitely very extensive and wide, some are typical
common Truss, some are very flat and some of the Trusses are very, very steep. So, there are
enormous examples of the wooden Trusses in this building.
The palace is very huge and every nook and corner of the palace is made up by the timber Truss.
Finally, let us go to some of the basic construction methods of roof Truss. As you know, if there
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is a Truss then it has to be provided with masonry structure. Beforehand you need to put some
anchor bolt and grout hole. Refer Figure-14. These pictures have been taken from when in a site
in Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, where they have constructed their open-air
auditorium to cover it with sloping roof.
Figure 14 : masonry structure for Truss
So, those are the grout hole and column support you have to provide.
Then you have to put a base plate, and the grout holes can take care of your anchor bolts which
holds the base plate. Refer Figure-15.
Figure 15 : anchor bolt, base plate and grout hole
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So, these pictures, if I go one after another it will be very easy foy you to understand how the
things are to be placed one after another.
In the next picture, the Figure-16, you can see how cement slurry has been provided to hold the
anchor bots in the grout hole.
Figure 16 : anchor bolt, grout hole and the base plate
Then finally additional gusset plate has been created and attached with the Tie beam.
Figure 17 : gusset plate, base plate and rafter
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By now, the base plate is very much settled without any gap. In the earlier image, Figure-16, there
were some gaps. Then gradually some loads will be kept on it and it will settle down after the
grouting, and then it is fixed.
Finally, the Truss is erected and it is a very huge Truss. The span of the Truss is almost about 30
to 40 meters; or at central span it is much more, maybe around 50 meters. Refer Figure-18. So,
those are the typical details of the Truss.
Figure 18 : the erected Truss
The Figure-18 shows the erected Truss for the auditorium. In this Truss the top members are
inclined and the bottom part of the Truss is flat that is the Tie beam.
I have taken some reference for this lecture and they are:
Publisher
Publication
In conclusion I must say that; It is important to understand and analysis of load in a truss. Due to
the inclined shape, truss is analyzed for the wind load. The Truss is having a wide application in
Architecture. It is used for cost effective long span structures.
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Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Lecture – 25
Space Frame Structures
Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture. This is
module 5, Truss and Space Frames; and this is the last lecture on this module. In serial this is
lecture number 25. The topic of today’s lecture is “Space Frame Structures”.
The concepts to be covered under this lecture are:
➢ Introduction.
➢ Formation of Space-Frame Structures.
➢ Support System of Space-Frame Structures.
➢ Classification of Space-Frame Structures.
➢ Advantages of Space-Frame Structures.
➢ Application of Space-Frame in Architecture.
First, we will start the introduction of the Space-Frame, then we will go to formation of the Space-
Frame structures, how it is going to form, what is the typical geometric pattern of formations of
the structures. Then we will discuss the support system of space frame structure, which is also very
important. Where we will try to understand how the Space-Frames can be supported. After that we
will see the classification of Space-Frames; and then advantages of Space-Frame structures and
finally, we will see some applications of Space-Frame structures in Architecture.
The intended learning objectives are to:
➢ Define and understand Structural Configuration of Space Frame Structure.
➢ Illustrate the geometric formation of Space Frame Structure.
➢ Know on Applications of Space Frame Structures in Architecture.
So, we will define and try to understand the structural configuration of Space-Frames. The
configuration of Space-Frame structure is one of the important criteria for selection and application
point of view, like how it can be applied if you know the total area and if you know what will be
the type of activities in that space, the you have to come back to the structural configuration of that
particular type of Space-Frame. Of course, there are other criterias are also involved, like cost,
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material availability etc. Next, we will illustrate some of the geometric formation of the Space-
Frame under the classification; and we will also discuss on application of Space-Frames in
Architecture.
Space-Frame are three-dimensional Truss system consists of Top and Bottom surface grids; and
they are mutually connected to each other by diagonal members or the links. The whole system of
three-dimensional network of struts and bars are connected via nodes. Refer Figure-1.
Figure 1 : three-dimensional Truss system or the Space-Frames
These two images in Figure-1 signifies the typical types of the Space-Frame structures that can be
thought of. It is three dimensional, and inclination of each elements are in a three-dimensional
plane. We can also say that it is one of the prominent vector active structure. In Figure-1, if you
see the images carefully then you will notice that there are small connection points, the red dots,
they are the nodes; and they are connected with some small, small straight members, the red
straight lines, and they are the links. In the images, those links seem to be of very lightweight.
Some of the typical characteristics of Space-Frame are:
• A Space-Frame or Space Structure is like a three-dimensional Truss system.
• The lightweight rigid links are interlocked to provide a geometric pattern.
• Tetrahedron, Cube and Octahedron are the commonly used geometrical forms that
creates the Space-Frame.
• It can be used to cover large areas with fewer column supports.
• These structures are strong because of the following:
o Inherent rigidity of the triangle.
o The external load is distributed over an area and control over the compressive
and tensile forces
The load distribution in Space-Frames are very smooth and uniform all over the structural systems.
So, this has wonderful applications in the Airports, stadiums and other large span structures.
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In Figure-2, there are some links, and they are in two-dimensional plane; and there are seven links
and tied at different points. But there are some open ends as well. Anyway, can you guess what
can be that element? Remember, this is a two-dimensional Truss and the links are in one plane.
Figure 2 : two-dimensional Truss with seven links
So, this can be the part of a bicycle. Right? Refer Figure-3. So, a by cycle made of those links. As
this is two-dimensional, no link is extended outward except the handle of the bicycle which is
missing in Figure-2.
Figure 3 : a bicycle with two-dimensional truss
In Figure-4, this is a Space Truss or three-dimensional Truss. Then, what can be the purpose of
this? This is for automobile car.
Figure 4 : a three-dimensional Truss
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So, if you see the skeleton of a car which is three dimensional in nature with links and nodes.
Those links and nodes creates the stability and the strength of the item. So that is how it is different
from a bicycle. In similar way we can compare the two-dimensional Truss and a Space-Frame.
Next, let us go to the formation of Space-Frame structures, which is very, very important. Here, I
have given some small units or modules that are used in Space-Frames. These modules can be
created by cubes or may be the Tetrahedron or the Octahedron etc. as shown in Figure-5.
Figure 5 : the small units or modules used in Space-Frames
Please remember that these forms can be created by links and nodes. Refer Figure-6.
Figure 6 : links and nodes in a Space-Frame unit
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Then what is the function of a link? The function of a link is to transmit the load from one point to
the other point, so it will transmit the load from the one node to the other. These transmissions will
result into either compressive or tensile forces on the links, depending upon the orientation and
nature of loads. From the Figure-6, it is clear that the nodes are like a ball. The nodes and links are
mainly made of aluminium or steel. So, this one of the simplest forms of the Space-Frame shown
in Figure-6.
Now, one such module can be repeated in the various points, and when you repeat those various
points, then it maybe in one layer or may be in multi-layers. In Figure-7, it is a very simple Space-
Frame block. In case A, there are four supports at the four corners; and on that there is a Space-
Frame. So, one maybe the lower grid, and one maybe the upper grid. And depending upon the
geometry or configuration of the modules, which may be small triangular light module or may be
a with heavy geometry, we have to decide the distance between the supports.
Figure 7 : Space-Frames
If it is a light module, we can have more distance in between the supports and if it is a heavy
geometry the distance between the supports will be reduced. If you see in case B, the supports are
nearer to each other compared to case A. That means case B with a heavy geometry. Hence, we
can say that, based on the geometry of the modules, you have to decide should be de the distance
between the supports. The support system can be the column or wall etc. If you see in Figure-5,
where the modules are numbered, there number 8 and 5 are very light modules whereas, number
2 and 9 are very congested or a compacted module. The compacted module can go for larger span
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and the light models can have a smaller span. Smaller span in general because the number of
elements are less in the less congested modules.
Now, if we see the details of a single unit of Space-Frame Module, let us consider a module like
as it is shown in Figure-8, then there are three layers, actually two layers and there is a binding
element. This red color topmost part is called the Top Chord. This Top Chord may be rectangular,
or squarish, or may be triangular, out of all these, squares and the triangles are very common and
popular type of formation. So, this Top Chords are connected by those small balls or the nodes.
Figure 8 : top chord, bottom chord and diagonals of a Space-Frame
There are Bottom Chords also. The diagonals connect the Top Chord and the Bottom chord. The
Bottom Chords sometimes follow the Top Chord; that means if the Top Chords are squarish or
rectangular or triangular Bottom Chord also follows the same pattern; or sometimes Bottom Chord
is little lighter with respect to the Top Chord. But there are maybe smaller variations in the Bottom
Chord. However, there has to be a Bottom Chord and a Top Chord which will be connected by the
diagonals. Refer Figure-8 for details.
Now, if you see from major classification point of view then Space-Frames have two types, one is
linear, beam like Space-Frame; and other is three-dimensional Space-Frame.
So instead you are providing any kind of a solid beam, solid steel beam or maybe a solid Truss,
you can go with a 2-dimensional Truss or those kind of the Space-Frame. In Figure-9, these are
linear, beam like Truss. In case A, it is a Space-Frame, with three Trusses, where two Trusses are
inclined and one Truss is the flat in the bottom. The second one, case B, there are 4 such Trusses,
two Trusses are parallel and vertical and other two Trusses are parallel, horizontal and flat. Hence,
in this way also you can create a linear Space-Frame which is very much authentic, whighly
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applicable and much practiced in Architecture or in our structural systems of buildings, especially
for airports, railway stations.
Figure 9 : linear beam like Space-Frame
In this type of linear beam like Space-Frame, we remove the heavy beams and create lighter
structure with a higher depth; so that we have the higher depth for moment of inertia to get better
stability. As you know, if you create a higher distribution of materials then moment of inertia will
definitely increase and when it will increase, it will give you better stability or better safety against
the bending moment and other forces.
Whereas, the second type of Space-Frame is three-dimensional in nature. It does not have the
linearity. It has a spreading over a particular area with those Bottom Chord, Top Chord and the
connecting diagonals.
Figure 10 : three-dimensional Space-Frame
Next, we will see the types of connections in a Space-Frame. We have already talked about the
nodes and the links. The links may be steel pipe or maybe aluminium links, which may be solid or
hollow in nature. There are n number of varieties of material and types. But the connectivity of
links to node or these node connections are of three types.
i. Welded connection
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ii. Bolted connection
iii. Threaded connection
Figure 11 : welded connection
First, we will see the welded connection. Here, we just weld it; the members can be weld together.
It looks like as shown in Figure-10. There is no question of any kind of a deformation. If there is
a we apply a slight dynamic kind of loads on the top of the frame, it will not give any displacement
or it will not deform. So, we can say that it is a very rigid system. For example, the body of a car,
body of an aircraft etc. are first made of Space-Frame structures with welded connections; and
then we put the other materials. For many buildings we go for welded connections, because it is
cheaper and easy to erect. If it is a smaller area, then I would definitely go with welded connections.
The second one is the bolted connection. When there are angles like T sections, we go for bolted
connections. We can create Space-Frames by virtue of the angle T or such sections. It is very
difficult bolting the circular pipes or members. But, even if it is difficult, with circular sections we
can create Space-Frames; with welded connection we can attach a Gusset plate and then we can
bolt the sections to it, in order to generate the Space-Frame.
Figure 12 : bolted connection
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Nowadays, there are very high strain friction grips bolts are available which can provide really
good stability. The bolts give you little bit of relaxation or flexibility on movements. It is not
exactly100% rigid like the welded connections.
The third one is the threaded connection. This is very popular and very easy to install. The threaded
connections have bolls as nodes, with required number of holes in it, to hold the links. So, the
holes also control the direction of the links. The number of holes on the ball depends upon the
design of the module. If it is a triangular unit, it will be different, if it is a square the design of
holes in the ball will be different, if it is a tetrahedron you have to go for different design of the
ball with different number of holes. Because, with change in the module, triable, or square, or
cube, or tetrahedron, the number of links in the module will be different. So, with respect to that
the ball will be oh different design. Refer Figure-13.
Figure 13 : threaded connection
So, as it is threaded, this gives you some degrees of flexibility, or we can say that this type of
connection gives you much better flexibility with respect to the bolted or welded connections.
So next is the support system of the Space-Frame. How the support can be thought of? The support
system of the Space-Frame can be of:
• Top Chord Support.
• Bottom Chord Support.
• Four Point Support.
• Frame Capital Support.
• Interior Wall Support.
• Exterior Wall Support.
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The Top Chord Support, as the its name suggest or name explains that it is supported on the Top
Chord of the Space-Frame structure. Similarly, next is Bottom Chord Support, and the support
rests on the Bottom Chord of Space-Frame structure. Refer Figure-14.
Figure 14 : Top Chord and Bottom Chord supports
Sometimes, it can be with wide supports, we give Four Point Support. In Four Point Support we
increase the bearing area. So, suppose you have a lot of expanded portions of the building that has
to be covered by the Space-Frame; and you want to reduce the number of columns. But reducing
number of columns may not be a problem; because the column can have the enormous strength,
and can take the load if we increase the bearing area as shown if Figure-15. If we do not do that
and put simple columns at wider distance, then load or the stress concentration may occur if you
just direct with the Top Chord or directly put it on the Bottom Chord. So instead of that we go for
extended plate on top of column support. So, Four Point, panel may be created below the Space-
Frame and that can be supported by columns.
Figure 15 : four-point support and frame capital support
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Sometimes it may be a gradual capital type of support. Where you create two or three layers of the
module, gradually narrowing towards the column top; then gradually the load can be transferred
to the column; and we can achieve good bearing from such supports.
Finally, we can have the walls as supports, so there will be a series of support, as shown in Figure-
16. These can be metal support, which rests on the interior wall. Sometimes it can also be the
exterior walls.
Figure 16 : interior wall support and exterior wall support
So, the extended portion of the exterior wall can also be used as the support of a Space-Frame
structure. But all these depends upon the different situation of the building and how the Space-
Frame that needs the support. You need to thought about the supports depending upon the layout
of the building and such other parameters of the building. And, based on that you have to select
the different type of support system.
Now, we will see about the span, the depth, the roof slope and ratio of overhangs in a Space-Frame.
Figure 17 : some details of a Space-Frame
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The span of a Space-Frame continue for 6 to 36 modules. For the column supports it is almost 30
to 80 meters. That means the center-to-center distance of the columns can be 9 to 24 meters. In
case of the wall supported frames, it may go further high. It can be of 30 feet to 130 feet which is
almost 9 to 39 meters. Therefore, we have to see that the number of modules and distance between
the supports changes depending upon different types of support system.
The depth of Space-Frame ranges from, span by 12, to span by 20. Suppose if the span is 24 meters
then depth can be 24/12=20; or 24/20=1.2 or 1.8 etc. Then comes the slope at the top. The top
portion either it can be camber for drainage. The slope or camber for drainage should be minimum
of 1/4 inch per foot or maybe 1 is to 50 is the recommended slope. Sometimes we may go little
higher, maybe 1 :75, or 1:80 also. In some cases, there will be extended roofs. The extended roof
or the overhanging part can go up to 15 to 25% of span of the Space-Frame. So, if you thought
about 10 meters of span, then overhang can be of about 1.5 meters to 3 meters. The voides the
module, or the web spaces which is triangular in Figure-17, can be used for mechanical service;
such as piping, conduit and ductwork. Non-combustible steel construction may be left exposed at
least 20' above the finish floor.
Next, we will see about arrangement of the support systems in Space-Frame structure. There are
three types of arrangement:
• Straight Column
• Pyramid Capital
• Tree Column
Figure 18 : types of support systems in Space-Frames
Most efficient are Pyramid Capital and Tree Column. Then, why Pyramid Capital or why Tree
Columns? Because it is going to increase the influence area that we have already discussed before,
that, the how the influence area can be increased by virtue of the geometrical changes of the
structure.
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So, if you want to reduce the number of supports then you can go for the Pyramid Capital column
or maybe the Tree type support system. They allow Space-Frame to be supported by a minimum
number of supports and ideal for exhibition halls, manufacturing plants etc. They also reduce the
effective span between the supports, the maximum vertical deflection, and member forces. It
results in cost-saving - especially for spans over 100 feet.
Now these are classification of the Space-Frame as given in Figure-19.
Figure 19 : classification of Space-Frames
If you want to classify; then there are three classifications. One is from the arrangement or the grid
layer point of view, next is on the number of the grid layers point of view and the third one is on
curvature point of view.
Then under arrangement of grid layers, it is two-way, three-way, diagonal and four-way grids.
Then based on number of grid layers it is single layered and the double layered grid. Next, based
on curvature, it can be flat covers, barrel vaults and spherical domes.
So those are the some of the examples or the figures of the grid layer arrangements shown in
Figure-20.
Figure 20 : arrangement of grid layers in Space-Frames
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The two-way grid is very much orthogonal, 90 degree to each other; and three-way grid will be
with an additional inclined layer to two-way grid. Hence, instead of squares you divide your
modules into triangles. The diagonal grid is of two layers only, but they are intersecting at 45⁰
angle. In four-way grid the layers are compact with introduction of a greater number of diagonal
members.
Then based on number of grid layer; it is single layered grid and the double layered grid. Single
layered grid is not that much common, but double layered grid system is widely used. Sometimes
we may go with the triple layered grid systems also.
Figure 21 : single layered and double layered grid system
Then depending on its curvature there are three types. First one is the flat covers, which is straight,
with no curvature. The next is Barrel Vault kind of fitting; and there may be a two sides curvature
like a dome shape. Refer Figure-22.
Figure 22 : flat covers, barrel vault and spherical dome shaped Space-Frame
Now, if we see the advantages of Space-Frame then we can say that:

• It is of very light weight.
• It is very elegant & economical.
• It carries load by three-dimensional action, so members are thin and slick.
• It has high inherent stiffness; due to the geometry of unit modules.
• It is easy to construct.
• It saves construction time & cost.
• Services (such as lighting and air conditioning) can be integrated easily with space frames.
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• Offers the architects an unrestricted freedom in locating supports and planning the
subdivision of the covered spaces.
The Space-Frame structures have well applicability in seismic zones. This one of the structural
systems that you can think of in seismic zones; because one of the things is that, it is made of steel
and aluminium which are highly ductile and it has a very good inherent property of the stiffness.
So, these two are very important criteria for the earthquake resistant structure.
Next is the joints. If you go with these threaded joints or may bolted joints, then these joints can
act as an energy-absorbing component for the structure. Since the aluminium is lighter than the
steel it is better to go with aluminium. Because if you go the aluminium Space-Frame then the
total amount of load, that means the dead load will be less and hence the total amount of earthquake
load will also decrease. Because the earthquake load is the type of load that comes from the overall
mass of the building. It is inertial load, so if you can reduce the total dead load of the building then
amount of earthquake load will also be less. So those are the positive points for Space-Frames that
can be used in the in the Seismic zones.
There are enormous examples of Space-frame structures. Here I have shown you a very few. The
first one is Dr. MGR Central Railway Station Chennai. If you have been there, then you must have
seen the Space-Frame, the tubular Space-Frame and that is of Two-layered. It is not flat; it is a
barrel vault kind of a Space-Frame. Refer Figure-23.
Figure 23 : Dr. MGR Central Railway Station Chennai
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The next is Hall of Nations, New Delhi. This building is no more; because this has been
demolished. This was designed by Raj Rewal in Pragati Maidan, New Delhi. This was one of the
wonderful examples of concrete Space-Frame structures. It is shown in Figure-24. If you see it
carefully, you will notice that the overall building is with 3D massing of Space-Frame Structures.
There are inclined ribs and inclined members, which and all together it creating an attractive and
extraordinary effect.
Figure 24 : Hall of Nations, Pragati Maidan, new Delhi
There is another example from Pragati Maidan, New Delhi. There are other halls also, those are
the curvilinear spaces. This is a dome shaped structure.
Figure 25 : dome shaped Space-Frame structure, Hall No. 18, Pragati Maidan, New Delhi
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This is another important example with single-layered grid; which is not so common in Space-
Frames. Because there are minimum of two layers or commonly Space-frames are with at least
double-layered grid.
This is another example in Figure-26. This is a park in Abu Dhabi, which is a very modern or
contemporary type of construction. I have put this photograph to show you that how less is the
number of columns in it. It is a huge area with roads, there are bridges, greeneries, trees and open
spaces. But it is covered with a roof, with Space-frames. This is almost equal to the size of 28
soccer fields or half of the Vatican City.
This is designed with minimum number of columns, because if we provide dense or congested
columns then this total the sense of beauty, the sense of openness will be destroyed. So, you need
to have very less amount of supportive column and there are very less number of columns in it. In
the Figure-26, you can see there are only 3 vertical supports, but definitely there are there are some
other supports at the central part of the area, which area merged with the Space-Frames on top.
Hence, this gives you a clear indication that huge areas can be covered by the Space-Frames with
very nominal amount of vertical supports.
The references which I have taken for this lecture and for this week’s is lectures are:
Publisher
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Publication
➢ Understanding Structures: An Introduction to Structural Analysis by Meta A.
In conclusion I must say that, the Space-Frames are vector active geometric forms and considered
to be a three-dimensional type of Truss system. It is generated by the links and the nodes. It is
widely applicable for long span structures like airports, exhibition halls, and stadiums.
In the next week we will go to “Arch, Shell and Dome” which is another important type of
structural systems.
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Lecture No -26
Introduction to Arch
Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture, we

are in the module 6 i.e., week 6, lecture 26.
Concepts Covered
 Definition and Concept of an Arch
 Historical Examples
 Parts of a Masonry Arch
 Types of Arch
 Masonry Arch: Geometric Forms
 Classification of Arch: Structural Behaviour
 Function of an Arch
Learning Objectives
• To outline the various parts of an Arch.
• Illustrating the geometric formation of masonry arch.
• To classify the Arches based on the structural behavior.
Definition
In Engineering and Architecture, a curved member that is used to span an opening and to
support loads from above is commonly known as an Arch.
In history of architecture, arches have been used as a main structural component. Due to its
unique compressive mechanism of resisting load, arches can be categorized as special class of
structural systems. They are capable of spanning long distances while supporting significant
1
weight, which makes them highly efficient and visually powerful structural systems.
424
Concept of an Arch
Historically arches were built with masonry and were commonly used to span large distances.
As stone is quite a durable material under compression. Many impressive examples of early
masonry arches exist to this day
Figure 1 Stone arch Figure 2 Brick arch
Historical Examples
Colosseum
The Colosseum (70-80AD), horseshoe-shaped

Roman Amphitheater is supported by a
sequence of radial-vaulted structures capable of
incorporating flights of steps for the incoming
and outgoing row of spectators.
Figure 3 Colosseum (70-80AD)
Pont du Gard
Figure 4 Pont du Gard (40-60AD) 2
Roman aqueduct Pont du Gard (40-60AD) shows the supporting system through three
vertical layers of circular arches.
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Roman Arch Gothic arch (1100-1400AD)
Figure 5 Roman Arch (semi-circular) Figure 6 Gothic Arch (pointed)
Parts of a Masonry Arch
Figure 7 Voussoirs
Voussoirs are the wedge-shaped stones used in the construction of an arch.
Figure 8 Extrados and Intrados
The lower or concave side of the voussoir is called the intrados whereas the upper or convex
3
side is called the extrados of the arch.
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Figure 9 Keystone, springers, springer line
The central voussoir is called the keystone. The lowest voussoirs are called springers. The
line between two opposite springers is known as the springing line.
Figure 10 Abutments and piers
The end supports to which the load is transferred by the arch are called piers or abutments.
4
Figure 11 Spandrel and impost
The projecting block resting on top of the piers and serving as the base for the springer or
427
lowest voussoir is called impost. A triangular space, usually found above the pairs of two
adjacent arches is called spandrel.
Figure 12 Rise, Span and Crown
The distance between the opposite springs is called the span of an arch. The height between
the highest point of intrados above the line connecting the springer is called the rise of an
arch. The highest point of the extrados is called the crown of the arch.
Types of Arch
Figure 13 Types of arch
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Masonry Arch: Geometric Forms

Rounded or Semi-circular
Stilted
Segmental
429
Horse-shoe
Pointed
Three-centered or Elliptical
430
Four-centered or Tudor
Ogee
Foiled Cusped
Flat
431
Masonry Arch: Geometric Forms
432
Classification of Arch as per Structural Behaviour

From the standpoint of the support conditions and structural behavior, arches are classified as
follows:
(1) Three-Hinged - Hinges at the crown and abutment
(2) Two-Hinged - Hinges at the abutments only
(3) Fixed Arch- No Hinges, firmly fixed at the abutments
Three-Hinged Arches
Figure 14 The Salginatobel Bridge, Schiers, Switzerland
Statistically Determinate structure: The elastic theory is not required for the analysis.
Analysis of bending moment is much simpler. Appropriate for structures under slight
horizontal movement. It is not affected by settlement or temperature changes. Mostly used in
Bridges.
Two-hinged Arches
Figure 15 The Rainbow Arch at Niagara Falls
Statically Indeterminate structure: The elastic theory is essential for the analysis. It is
10
indeterminate to the first degree. Interior stresses in the arch are dependent on its form and
acts differently upon its various parts. These type of arches are more stiff w.r.t. three hinged
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arches. It is not as rigid as a fixed arch; it is somewhat insensitive to settlement. Used in

Bridges.
Fixed Arch Statically Indeterminate structure: The

elastic theory is essential for the analysis.
It is indeterminate to the third degree.
Interior stresses in the arch are dependent in
part on its change of form.
These type of arches are more stiff w.r.t. two-hinged arches. It is very insensitive to
settlement. A fixed arch is often made from reinforced concrete. Used in Buildings.
Tied Arch
Figure 16 Toome Bypass, Northern Ireland
The springer level supports of two and three-hinged arches are tied. A tied arch allows the
structure to behave as a rigid unit. The tie rod carries the horizontal component of thrust at
the supports. It is also unaffected by relative settlement of the supports.
Functions of an Arch
 An arch is used to carry the weight of the portion of the structure above.
 The curvilinear arrangement of wedge-shaped masonry blocks mutually support each
other and are finally supported at the end piers.
 Each part of an arch comes under pure compressive stress and eliminates tensile
11
stress.
 It can span across a large area.
434
References
 Structure as Architecture By Andrew W. Charleson, Elsevier Publication
 Basic Structures for Engineers and Architects By Philip Garrison, Blackwell
Publisher
 Structure and Architecture By Meta Angus J. Macdonald, Elsevier Publication
Conclusion
 Arch is one of the simple structural forms that can provide long-span solution.
 In history arch had been used in different geometry to support an opening.
 Introduction of hinge and fixity in concrete and steel arch provides various structural
solutions.
Homework
Q1. Sketch a (i) Pointed Arch (ii) Segmental Arch (iii) Foiled Cusped Arch for a span 4 meter
and rise 2 meter, by geometric construction
12
435

Lecture No -27
Structural Principle and Application of Arch
Welcome to the NPTEL online course on Structural System in Architecture. We are in the
module number 6, i.e. the 6th week and today we will be discussing about the structural
principles and application of arch, which is the lecture number 27.
Concepts Covered
 Basic Structural Principles
 Arch Action
 Analysis of Arch
 Concept of Thrust Line
Learning Objective
 Illustrating the structural principle of arch.
 Analyzing the Arch circular and parabolic two hinged arch.
 To outline the arch stability through thrust line concept.
Basic Structural Principle
1
An external load creates tension in the sagging An external load creates compression in the
cable. hogging profile structure.
Figure 1 Basic structural principle in a cable (left) and an arch (right)
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In the left side of the Figure 1 we have a cable suspended from two supports at the ends.
Additionally, the cable is subjected to a load as shown in the figure. Clearly, the arrangement
creates a tensile force in the sagging cable. Conversely, the arrangement shown on the right
side is similar to the structural behaviour of an arch where the external load creates
compression in the hogging profile structure.
Triangular Arch
Figure 2 The Great Pyramid of Giza, 2560 BC
2
Figure 3 Queen’s Chamber Figure 4 King’s Chamber
The above figures show some of the examples of a triangular arch.

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Corbelled Arch
A corbelled arch is developed by regular corbelling of the horizontal courses of the wall
masonry. The horizontal corbel cantilever of 1/4th to 1/3rd of the block module is preferred.
Corbelled arches can be built without support. For building such an arch, it is essential to pay
attention to the balance of the masonry when courses rise. It is important to note that the
center of gravity should not go beyond the limit of stability.
Stone corbelled arches at Borobudur, Java, Entrance of Sun Temple, Konark

Indonesia
Figure 5 Examples of a corbelled arch
Post and Horizontal Lintel Corbelled Arch Semi-circular Arch

Figure 6 Formation of the various arches
438
Arch Action
So under the downward load the leg of the
arch is going to spread outward. So to
establish equilibrium along with the vertical
reactions the horizontal reactions also exist.
In other words, if there is external load in a
particular arch it will create a horizontal
Figure 7 Arch action reaction.
In the absence of the horizontal reaction the

arch will become unstable because its legs
will go apart. Besides, vertical reactions are
also there because VA + VB must be equal to
the external loading P.
Figure 8 Reaction forces in an arch
Each component of an
arch is in compression
under the action of gravity
load.
So, brittle materials can

be used in arch
construction.
Figure 9 Arch actions
Here the load P will break into two components C and C as shown in the Figure 9.
4
Additionally, the horizontal reaction H and the vertical reaction V will give rise to a resulting
force R. The forces C and R will be spread across the whole of the arch and due to their
439
directions being opposite, they will tend create compression zones throughout the arch.
Therefore, it is said that each component of an arch is in compression under the action of
gravity load.
Example of Arch Actions
Arch action on the thin shell of an egg

creates compression. As egg shell is a brittle
material it will resist the compressive stress.
Hence, it will not break easily and it’s tough

to break the egg by external loading.
Figure 10 Arch actions in an egg
However, in case of an internal upward load

arch action on the thin shell creates tension.
As egg shell is a brittle material it cannot
resist the tensile stress. It will break very
easily. Therefore, it’s easy to break the egg
by internal upward loading. Figure 11 Arch actions in an egg
Revision: Beam Subjected to a Point Load
In case of a beam there are no horizontal

reactions. So,
MBX = (VA × x) – P(x – d)
Figure 12 Flat arch subjected to a point load
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Arch Subjected to a Point Load
Horizontal reactions exist in case of

an arch.
So,
MAX = (VA × x) – P(x – d) - HA × y
i.e., MAX =[Beam Moment] - HA × y
Therefore,
Arch Moment < Beam Moment
Figure 13 Arch subjected to a point load
Since an arch creates lesser moment when compared to a beam, it requires lesser material as
well. Hence it is better to go for an arch as compared to a beam for a given span.
Analysis of Arch
Two-hinged Semi-circular Arch with Concentrated Load
Figure 14 Analysis of two-hinged semi-circular arch with concentrated load
𝑃
We have, 𝐻 = 𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
Taking Moment about A 6
2𝑅𝑉𝐵 = 𝑃 × 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑃 × 𝑅(1 − cos 𝛼) [AC = R (1-cosα)]
441
𝑃
i.e., 𝑉𝐵 = 2 (1 − cos 𝛼)
Taking Moment about B

2𝑅𝑉𝐴 = 𝑃 × 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑃 × 𝑅(1 + cos 𝛼) [BC = R (1 + cos α)]
𝑃
i.e., 𝑉𝐴 = 2 (1 + cos 𝛼)
Therefore in case of central concentrated load (P) [α = 90°]

𝑃 𝑃
H = and 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 =
𝜋 2
Case-2: Two-hinged Semi-circular Arch with Uniformly Distributed Load
Figure 15 Two-hinged semi-circular arch with uniformly distributed load
Profile Equation of a Parabolic Arch

Equation of the parabolic arch:
4𝐻
𝑦= (𝐿 − 𝑥)𝑥
𝐿2
At x = 0,L; y = 0
𝐿 4𝐻 𝐿 𝐿
At 𝑥 = 2 ; 𝑦 = (𝐿 − 2) 2 = 𝐻
𝐿2
7
Figure 16 Parabolic arch
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Case-3: Fixed Parabolic Arch with Concentrated Load
Figure 17 Analysis of fixed parabolic arch with concentrated load
𝑑 𝐿−𝑑 2 5𝑑
𝑀𝐴 = 𝑃𝐿 ( ) × ( ) × ( − 1)
𝐿 𝐿 2𝐿
𝑑 𝐿−𝑑 5(𝐿 − 𝑑)
𝑀𝐵 = 𝑃𝐿( )2 × ( )×( − 1)
𝐿 𝐿 2𝐿
2
𝑃𝐿 𝑑 2 5(𝐿 − 𝑑)
𝑀𝐶 = ( ) × [1 − { } ]
2 𝐿 2𝐿
𝐿−𝑑 2 𝑑 𝑑 𝐿−𝑑
𝑉𝐴 = ( ) × (1 + 2 𝐿 ) 𝑃 𝑉𝐵 = ( 𝐿 )2 × (1 + 2 ( )) 𝑃
𝐿 𝐿
15𝑃𝐿 𝑑 2 𝐿−𝑑 2
𝐻𝐴 = 𝐻𝐵 = ( ) ×( )
4𝐻 𝐿 𝐿
𝑃𝐿
𝑀𝐴 = 𝑀𝐵 =
32
3𝑃𝐿
𝑀𝐶 =
64
𝑃
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 =
2
15𝑃𝐿
𝐻𝐴 = 𝐻𝐵 =
16𝐻
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Case-4: Fixed Parabolic Arch with Uniformly Distributed Load

𝑤𝐿 𝑤𝑥 2 𝑤𝐿2
𝑀𝑥 = 𝑥− − 𝑦
2 2 8𝐻
𝑤𝐿 𝑤𝑥 2 𝑤𝐿2 4𝐻
i.e., 𝑀𝑥 = 𝑥− − × (𝐿 − 𝑥)𝑥
2 2 8𝐻 𝐿2
𝑤𝐿 𝑤𝑥 2 𝑤
i.e., 𝑀𝑥 = 𝑥− − (𝐿 − 𝑥)𝑥
2 2 2
𝒘𝑳 𝒘𝒙𝟐 𝒘𝑳 𝒘𝒙𝟐
i.e., 𝑴𝒙 = 𝒙− − 𝒙+ =𝟎
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
Figure 18 Fixed parabolic arch with UDL
Concept of Thrust Line

A Thrust is generated in the masonry Arches due to its profile.
The intensity and angle of the thrust may disturb the stability of
the arch as a whole.
The Thrust (T) is the resultant of two forces:

(i) the Weight of the Arch (W) and
(ii) the Horizontal Thrust (HT).
Intensity and Line of Action of Thrust depends on the profile of

Figure 19 Concept of thrust line
arch and the weight of voussoirs. Arches with greater depth
generate more horizontal thrust.
Each voussoir provides a Horizontal Thrust

(HT) and Weight (W). Finally, the resultant
of HT & W ends up in a Thrust (T). A line
tangential to all the Thrusts provided by the
voussoirs is called Line of Thrust (LT) 9
Figure 20 Thrust Line
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An arch is stable as long as Line of Thrust (LT) remains in the middle third of the arch
section.
When LT goes in the inner third of the arch, the arch will tend to burst outwards.
When LT goes in the outer third of the arch, the arch will tend to collapse inwards. 10
445
References
 Structure as Architecture By Andrew W. Charleson, Elsevier Publication
 Basic Structures for Engineers and Architects By Philip Garrison, Blackwell
Publisher
 Structure and Architecture By Meta Angus J. Macdonald, Elsevier Publication
 AVD Construction by Auroville Earth Institute
Conclusion
 Arch is a special type of structure. The curvilinear profile establishes a compression
character in its parts.
 It shows less bending moment compared to traditional flat beam and hence makes it
possible to be used as long span solutions.
 The stability of arch should be considered by the action of the line of thrust.
Homework
Q1. A fixed parabolic arch of span 12m and rise 3m is under a uniform distributed load of 10
KN/m. Find
(i) The Support reactions and
(ii) The bending moment at one-third span (i.e. a section 4m from any support)
Q2. A circular two hinged arch of radius ‘R’ is under a single concentrated load ‘P’ as per the
figure below. Find
(i) The Support reactions and
(ii) The bending moment at the crown of the arch, if P = 20KN & R = 5m
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Q3. Two circular two hinged arches are placed 10m apart and support three straight beams as
per the figure below. Each beam is carrying a UDL of 12 KN/m intensity. The three
beams are symmetrically placed on the arch. The central beam is at the crown. The other
two beams are connected to the arch radially at an angle 45°. Find
(i) The Support reactions and thrust at support
(ii) The bending moment at the crown and at the other two beam points.
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447

Lecture No -28
Shell Structures

We are in the module number 6 i.e., the week 6 and this is the 28th lecture in serial and the
lecture topic of today's half an hour will be on the shell structure.
Concepts Covered
 Introduction, Examples and Development of a Shell

 Stress in Shell
 Structural Advantages of Shell
 Classification of Shell
Learning Objective
 Outlining the structural behavior of a shell.

 To illustrate the classification of shell structures.
Introduction
Figure 1 Examples of shells found in nature
A shell is a thin curved surface functioned both as structure and roof coverings. The shell
1
structure is typically found in nature as well as in classical and modern architecture.
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Examples
Egg Pressure Vessel Human Skull
Silos Tyre Nuclear Reactor
Development of a Shell
A curved two-dimensional structure is called a shell.
Stress in Shell
A shell’s curvilinear profile produces the ability to resist the membrane stresses in the form
of tensile, compressive and shear forces. It transfers loads to its supports through its
membrane surface. Its efficiency is based on its curvature, which allows different
alternative stress paths. Most shells in the built forms are constructed by reinforced concrete
although other materials can be used, such as plywood, metal and glass-reinforced plastics.
2
The surface of the shell exhibits membrane stresses. It is generated in the shell thickness to
resist the external force and bending moment. The membrane stress corresponds to forces
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that are tangent to the surface defining the shell. The membrane stresses in a shell is
equivalent to axial stress (mainly compressive) in an arch. The thickness of the shell is
designed based on the developed membrane stress and material capacity.
The existence and nature of the membrane stress can be well understood by a loaded fabric
bag or hanging garden chair as shown in the following figures.
Figure 2 Examples for the existence of membrane stress
Notice the stretch in certain portions of the bag/chair due to the load, particularly towards
the downward portion. This is characteristic in a shell structure. This is true even if the
loading is reversed.
3
Figure 3 Taq-i Kisra or the Great arch of Ctesiphon, Iraq
The amount of membrane stress acting upon the arch (Figure 3) is different in top and bottom; hence
the variability in thickness.
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Structural Advantages of Shell

The structural advantages of a shell are listed below.
1. Due to its curve profile shell can be treated as a natural stable and strong structure.
2. It can give as a wonderful structural solution to long span applications.
3. For long span application is gives better strength to material consumption ratio as a
structural system.
4. Reinforced Concrete can be widely and efficiently used in shell structure.
5. As it is curve in profile, it can impart a better aesthetic look to the built environment.
6. Typical circular shell can be precast and used widely as prefabricated material.
Classification of Shell
In Differential geometry Gaussian curvature or Gauss curvature (K) of a surface at a point is
the product of the principal curvature (k1 and k2) at the same point.
Mathematically,
Gaussian curvature, K = k1 k2
The sign of the Gaussian curvature can be used to characterize the surface:
If both principal curvatures are of the same sign, i.e. same directional vector
curvature, then the Gaussian curvature become positive (K = k1k2 > 0). The surface is said to
dome like and to have an elliptic point.
For example, a sphere of radius r has Gaussian curvature 1/r2 everywhere.
If both principal curvatures are of the different sign, i.e. opposite directional vector
curvature, then the Gaussian curvature become negative (K = k1k2 < 0). The surface is said
to a hyperbolic and to have a saddle point.
If one of the principal curvatures is zero, i.e. any one direction the curvature does not
exist, then the Gaussian curvature is zero (K = 0). The surface is said to have a parabolic
point.
For example, a cylinder has Gaussian curvature zero everywhere.

4
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Figure 4 Classification of shells
Single Curvature Shells
The shell which is curved along one linear axis can be termed as single curvature shells.
Profile of curvature can be circular, elliptical or parabolic.
Singly curved shells are developable and their Gaussian curvature is zero (K = 0).
Figure 5 Examples of single curvature shells
Double Curvature Shells
The shell which is curved along both the axis can be termed as a double curvature shells.
They are either part of a sphere, or a hyperboloid.
The doubly curved shells are non-developable. The Gaussian curvature of these kind of shells
is not zero; it is either positive or negative (K > 0 or K < 0).
5
Synclastic Shells
In synclastic shells, the centers of curvature of both the surfaces are on the same side.
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Gaussian curvature is positive (K > 0) for all synclastic shells.
Figure 6 Examples of double curvature, synclastic shells
Anticlastic Shells
In Anticlastic shells, the center of curvature of both the surfaces are located on the opposite
sides.
Gaussian curvature is Negative (K < 0) for all anticlastic shells.
Figure 7 Examples of Double curvature, Anticlastic shells
Synform
A convex-downward fold is a synform which dips inward toward a central point. It is also
termed as a basin.
6
Antiform
A convex-upward fold is an antiform whose surface dips outward from a central point. It is
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also is termed as a dome.

Table 1 Synform and Antiform
Synform Antiform
Synclastic Anticlastic Synclastic Anticlastic
Classification of shell
Surface Translation /
Surface Revolution
Ruled Surface
Surface Revolution
These shapes are formed when a particular two-dimensional shape or a
generator is rotated about an axis. E.g., a dome can be formed by rotating a
semi-circle about an axis. The following figure shows some of the examples of
surface revolution shells.
Figure 8 Surface revolution shells
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Surface Translation / Ruled Surface

Elliptic Paraboloid Cylindrical Paraboloid Hyperbolic Paraboloid
A parabolic profile line runs A parabolic profile line runs A parabolic profile line
over two elliptical edge lines. over two straight edge lines runs over two hyperbolic
edge lines
The following figure shows some examples of the surface translation/ ruled surface shells.
Figure 9 Examples of Surface Translation/ Ruled Surface
Barrel shell
1. Roof in the multiple bays in each

direction is covered with Barrel
shell.
2. One single unit is composed with

two circular elements.
8
3. Shell roof system is rested over a
roof tie beam and column.
The barrel shell was first used by the US structural engineer Milo Ketchum.
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Hyperbolic Paraboloid Roof
About 185 by 185 ft. square roof is

supported on steel tripod elements.
The structure has eight sides in plan

(not square).
The length of the top rib is roughly the

same length as the sloping side ribs.
Figure 10 Hyperbolic Paraboloid Roof The roof thickness is 3 inches, except

for the ribs.
Shopping Centre Dome
An area unit of 40 by 40 feet square is covered by each translation dome. One such
translation dome creates four segmental arch at the end. There are no interior ties at the
springing of the domes and thrusts are carried by diagonal braces at the exterior.
Figure 11 Shopping Centre Dome
Hanger for Small Aircraft
This structure is a square in plan. The side ribs are converged to the two diagonally opposite
abutments. The central rib acts as an additional stiffening member and act as a perfect arch. It
is a shell constructed by pre-stress concrete. 9
456
Figure 12 Hanger for small aircraft
References
 Structure as Architecture by Andrew W. Charleson, Elsevier Publication

 Basic Structures for Engineers and Architects by Philip Garrison, Blackwell
Publisher
 Structure and Architecture by Meta Angus J. Macdonald, Elsevier Publication
 AVD Construction by Auroville Earth Institute
Conclusion
Shell structure is the two dimensional derivative of arch. It generates membrane stress in its
both the orthogonal surface directions. Shell structure can be classified based on curvatures
and surface revolution / surface translation.
10
457

Lecture No -29
Application of Arch and Shell in Architecture
Concepts Covered
 Thrust Line: Application in the Gothic Cathedrals
 Application of Arch in Architecture
 Application of Shell in Architecture
 Design Exercise with Shell Structure
Learning Objectives
 To learn the application of Arch and Shell in Architecture
 Designing the Shell roof for a given space
Thrust Line: Application in the Gothic Cathedrals

If the thrust line is too inclined and goes beyond the width of the support, the system becomes
unstable.
1
Figure 1 Inclined thrust line
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For stability of the structural system, two alterations may be suggested:

Wider Pier absorbs the inclined Thrust Additional gravity Load neatly
line within it. supports and changes the line of
action of Thrust Line (From Incline
to vertical)
Figure 2 Wider pier

Figure 3 Additional gravity load
If you recall this theory was explained with the help of a short video wherein a few matchboxes
were piled one above the other at first with the shorter side facing front and the with the longer
side facing front as shown in the following figures. In both the cases the pile of matchboxes were
pushed with the help of a mechanical pencil repeatedly.
Before After
Figure 4 Thrust action in case of shorter side facing front
The Figure 4 shows the before and after push screenshots of the pile when the shorted side was 2
facing front. And as a matter of fact, the pile crumbled just after a couple of jolts.
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Before After
Figure 5 Thrust action in case of wider side
Before After
Figure 6 Thrust action in case of wider side facing front and additional gravity load
In both of the above cases the pile had to be pushed repeatedly as it ceased to crumble even after
repeated jolts.
Additionally, the following examples from the historical buildings also combat the thrust actions.
Figure 7 Flying buttresses
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Figure 7 shows the flying buttresses. These are usually found in the buildings of ancient Gothic
Architecture. The flying buttresses act as a member conducting the lateral thrust. Additionally,
Figure 8 shows the pinnacle which adds the vertical weight and provides more vertical thrust.
Figure 8 Pinnacles
Application of Arch in Architecture

Calgary Saddledome, Canada (1983)
Hyperbolic paraboloid shell roof and approximately elliptic in plan.
The central point of the roof is
located 14 m below the highest point
of the edge ring and 6 m above the
lowest point of the edge ring.
Figure 9 Calgary Saddledome, Canada (1983)
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Kunming Airport, China

Light weight roof profile supported by series of arches is the main structural attraction of this
airport. The roof profile is inspired from the traditional Chinese Architecture, which is extremely
light in weight and is a suspended kind of a ceiling which is further supported by the series of
parabolic arches as evident from the figures below.
Figure 10 Kunming Airport, China
Padre Pio Pilgrim Church, San Giovanni Rotondo, Italy (2004)
Figure 11 Padre Pio Pilgrim Church, San Giovanni Rotondo, Italy (2004)
Similarly, this masterpiece of the architect Renzo Piano also follows a similar principle wherein 5
a lightweight roof was supported by a series of arches as the primary support which are again
connected to the ceiling with the help of metal tripods which are also visible in the elevation.
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Athens Olympic Sports Complex (2004)
Figure 12 Athens Olympic Sports Complex (2004)
The roof was constructed over an already existing stadium by the architect Santiago Calatrava, in
the form of two bent leaves enabling ample natural light within the building. Besides the most
stark feature of the roof is that it is supported by two huge parabolic arches. Next, if you notice 6
carefully in the figures you’ll see that the arches are thicker towards the bottom and are anchored
to the ground with the help of massive columns. Additionally, there are diagonal bracings joining
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the base of the roof to that of the arches to take care of the thrust actions. And most importantly,
the whole roof is suspended from these arches with the help of suspension cables.
Application of Shell in Architecture

Brin Station, Genoa, Italy: Use of Elliptical Arch
1. Elliptical Arch Ribs used as a long span supporting structure. Ribs are 2. Ribs bent back and
fabricated as Mild Steel Castellated Beams. supported on a Pre-stressed
Deck Floor.
3. Pre-stressed deck floor is
finally supported by deep
Cross Girder. The girder
also supports the central
railway track.
Each deep girder is supported by two Columns.

Figure 13 Brin Station, Genoa, Italy
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Santa Justa Train Station, Seville, Spain: Use of Parabolic Arch

1. Parabolic arch profile is subjected to
uniform load.
2. A funicular form minimizes the
bending action.
3. Arches are supported by a deep side
beam.
4. Beams are supported by circular mega
columns.
Figure 14 Santa Justa Train Station, Seville, Spain
L'umbracle, City of the Art & Sciences, Valencia, Spain : Use of Catenary
Arch
The Umbracle is a 17,500 sq. m open to sky, landscaped and elevated exhibition zone designed
by Santiago Calatrava.
8
Figure 15 L'umbracle, City of the Art & Sciences, Valencia, Spain
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Figure 16 L'umbracle, City of the Art and Sciences, Valencia, Spain
Bilbao Airport, Spain (1990-2000)

The aerodynamics building form looks as if lifting upwards and trying to take off. The airport
has a popular nickname of "The Dove“.
Figure 17 Bilbao Airport, Spain
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Tenerief Auditorium
The building is composed with platforms at various level, rapped by the curved shells; a curved
concrete cupola 60m high, crowned by a curving roof like a breaking wave.
Figure 18 Tenerief Auditorium
City of Arts and Sciences and Opera House in Valencia (2006)
Figure 19 City of Arts and Sciences and Opera House in Valencia
Design Exercise
1. Suppose you are provided with a given area

as shown in the figure here, whose roof has 10
to be designed. How would you do it?
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Solution:
Firstly, you can either cover the span with barrel vaults. This might give the
roof a very monotonous and boring look. To break that monotony you can also
try varying the spans of each of the vaults and creating a symmetrical pattern
eventually.
Secondly, the given area can be divided into various smaller

modules. Every corner of each of the modules have to be supported
over a column of varying height. Now each of these modules can be
covered with ruled hyperboloid kind of surface as show in the
figure here. This can either be a stell and glass structure above
which you can have trailies to give it a very pleasant look or an
RCC construction. The ariable height throughout the space will
create an interesting profile.
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468
Another interesting form can be achieved where instead of the barrel vault you go for the
conoids. The possible arrangements with a conoid are shown in the previous figures. It is
important to note here that even with the help of simple shapes you can create a very beautiful
structure with interesting arrangements.
Sydney Opera House (1973)

The Sydney opera house is one such example as discussed in the aforementioned section. The
pink and yellow coloured structures shown in the figure below are the arrangement of shells
covering the auditoriums. The former face in one direction whereas the latter face in the opposite
direction.
Figure 20 Sydney Opera House
Lotus Temple, New Delhi (1986)
12
Figure 21 Lotus Temple, New Delhi
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The lotus temple is a very beautiful example of a shell structure from our country.
References
 Structure as Architecture By Andrew W. Charleson, Elsevier Publication
 Structure Systems By Heino Enge, Hatje Cantz Publisher
 Structure and Architecture By Meta Angus J. Macdonald, Elsevier Publication
 The Structural Basis of Architecture by Bjørn N. Sandaker, Arne P. Eggen, Mark R.
Cruvellier, Routledge
 Building Structure Illustrated by Francis D.K. Ching, Willy
Conclusion
Finally, I’d like to conclude by stating:
Arch is a very elementary structural system, widely used in cathedrals and modern
building. In contemporary architecture various types of shell structures are used by Architects in
different buildings.
Homework
Q1. Develop profile, type and structural foot-print of a shell roof over the given hall complex
layouts. Explain your solution through sketches of schematic Plan, Elevation and Section.
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Lecture No -30
Structural Concept and Application of Dome in Architecture
Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on structural systems in architecture. This is
the 30th lecture and this is the last lecture of the module 6 or the week 6. And this lecture’s topic
is Structural Concept and Application of Dome in Architecture.
Concepts Covered
 Definition and Historic Examples
 Support System of Dome
 Structural Concept
 Types of Dome
 Geodesic Dome
 Case Studies
Learning Objectives
 Outlining the parts and types of dome.
 Illustrating the structural action of dome.
 To understand the application of dome in modern buildings.
Definition
Dome is the simplest type of synclastic shell. It has Gaussian curvature as Positive (K > 0). It is
used as a roof and ceiling. From the architectural element point of view dome resembles the
hollow hemisphere. Dome has been used in various ways in Classical European Architecture,
Islamic Architecture and in the Modern Architecture as well.
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471
Historical Examples
Figure 1 Pantheon, Rome (120AD) Figure 2 St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City (1626)
Figure 3 Hagia Sophia, Istanbul (537 AD) Figure 4 Taj Mahal, Agra (1632 AD)
Figure 5 Gol Gumbaz, Bijapur (1653) Figure 6 Matri Mandir, Auroville (2008)
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Support System of Dome
Figure 7 Structural system of dome
Sometimes these domes which are circular in shape have to be built over rooms or spaces which
are square in shape. This was done with the help of two techniques viz., pendentive and squinch.
Pendentive
Smooth and gradual filling of a hemispherical dome over a square or octagonal base in the
external side is termed as pendentive.
Figure 8 Pendentive
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Squinch
Smooth and gradual filling of a square base to a hemispherical dome in the internal side to make
a continuity to receive the dome is known as a squinch.
Figure 9 Squinch
When two similar elongated arches are criss-crossed together, a vault is formed. Given below are
two such examples namely, the groin vault and the rib vault. Clearly, the former is formed when
two elongated semi-circular arches are criss-crossed together while the latter is formed criss-
crossing two elongated pointed arches.
4
Figure 10 Groin Vault Figure 11 Rib Vault
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More Examples of Domes

Hagia Sofia
Figure 12 Thrust action in Hagia Sofia
Rashtrapati Bhawan
Here the thrust action present in the central larger

dome is balanced mini domes surrounding it. This can
be observed in all of the given drawings such as the
plan, elevation and the section.
Figure 13 Rashtrapati Bhawan 5
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Structural Concept
Under downward gravity loading a dome shows stresses in two mutually perpendicularly
direction (Figure 14). Additionally, a dome shows a complete arch action wherein the top portion
sinks down and the bottom portion bulges out (Figure 15).
Figure 14 Meridional and Hoop stresses in a dome Figure 15 Arch action in a dome
Figure 16 Structural phenomena in a dome
Hoop stress:
𝑤𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1)
𝐹𝑘 =
(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
Meridional stress:
𝑤𝑟
𝐹𝑚 =
(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
Where,
6
w = loading intensity in KN/m2
Figure 17 Structural phenomena in a dome r = radius
The hoop forces are compressive in zone-I and tensile in zone-II. Hence the latter would require
476
more reinforcement as compared to the former. Also, it is important to note that the meridional
stress will be positive always whereas the hoop stress will vary. The graph below shows this
clearly.
Meridional Stress is always Compressive Hoop Stress become Tensile at 500
Figure 18 Graphical representation of Hoop and Meridional stresses
Types of Domes
Radial/Ribbed Dome: Schwedler Dome:
Rings and Radials Rings and Radials + one Diagonal
Figure 19 Radial and Schwedler domes
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Lattice/ Lamella Dome: Geodesic Dome:

Rings but No Radials + two Diagonal Spherical Equilateral Triangle
Figure 20 Lattice and Geodesic domes
Geodesic Dome
Geodesic domes are formed by a combination of many spherical equilateral triangles. And three
circles intersecting each other and form a spherical equilateral triangle. The following figure
shows an architectural marvel by the architect Richard Buckminster Fuller wherein a giant
geodesic dome has been used as the building envelope.
Figure 21 US Pavilion at expo 67, Montreal, Architect: Richard Buckminster Fuller 8

Another example has been shown in the Figure 22 where a geodesic dome has been constructed
by the students of the Department of Architecture and Regional Planning in IIT Kharagpur as a
478
part of their construction lab exercise.
Figure 22 Geodesic dome at IIT Kharagpur
Geodesic dome frequency

An icosahedron, as most geodesic domes are based on this basic form. Icosahedrons have 20
equilateral triangle faces that form very roughly a sphere. Each triangular face if divided into
further triangles then a smoother sphere can be obtained.
Figure 23 Icosahedron
Figure 24 Frequency of geodesic dome
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Variation in Onion Dome

As you already know that a dome is formed by rotating a generator about an axis. Hence,
changing the shape of the generator multiple types in different ways will give that many
variations in an onion dome.
Case Studies
Bacardí Factory in Cuautitlán, Mexico
The factory roof consisted of three adjacent hyperbolic paraboloid groined vaults 4cm. thick and
26 m. square in plan with 2.5 m. overhangs on each side.
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480
Figure 25 Bacardí Factory in Cuautitlán, Mexico
Sometimes an interesting profile can be created by using only a portion of the dome and not the
whole of it. The following example is that of one such building wherein the roof profile is
created by using only the half portion of the dome and not the whole of it.
Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya, Bhopal
Figure 26 Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya, Bhopal
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481
References
Conclusion
In conclusion I’d like to state the following:
 Dome is the simples type of double curvature shell.
 Hoop and Meridional stress are predominate in the dome.
 Domes are classified into mainly four types.
Homework
1. Sketch a dome over a square hall. Name the various parts.
2. A hemispherical dome of 12m diameter is under 10KN/m2 loading. Find the Hoop and
Meridional stress at θ = 0⁰,45⁰ and 90⁰.
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Lecture No -31
Cable Supported Structures
Hello everyone, welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in
Architecture. Today we will start the module 7, that is the week 7 and here will discuss about
tensile and the plate structures. The first three lectures will be on the tensile structures and the last
two lectures will be on plate structures. Today we will start the first lecture of the week 7, that is
the module 7 and the topic of this lecture 31 is Cable Supported Structure.
In this lecture four concepts will be covered. First, I will start with the tensile structure, the
structural concept and the principles and then we will solve some numerical problems on the basis
of the funicular polygon; and after that we will discuss some of the curvature of single and double
curvature cable systems and their applications; and finally, we will end this particular lecture with
the multiple cable supported system.
The two learning objectives of this particular lecture 31 will be:
➢ Outline the Structural concept of Cable Supported Structures.
➢ Illustrate the parts and functions of Cable Supported Structures.
When we think of any kind of tensile structure, which is a system made up of flexible and non-
rigid matter, the tensile structure actually is going to form in such a way that it will try to stabilize
the overall forces in that particular system. When the stabilization of the forces will occur, it will
develop a particular subjective, a typical kind of a normal force or normal stress called tension.
So, through the tension or the tensile stress, a total system of the structural system will stabilize
the action; and this is one kind of the form active structural systems.
To begin with a small introduction of the cable structure, I have taken a very simple or the simplest
type of cable structure where a cable is hanged from two supports and those cables are inclined in
nature. As you can see in Figure-1, it is a symmetrical case under a load P and this inclination is
angle theta to horizontal. So, by virtue of the suppose if I draw some freebody of this particular
part, it has actually three forces applied on it, and they are the two tensions of equal in nature and
opposite in direction inclined at theta degree with the horizontal and a downward force P.
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Figure 1 : the simplest cable structure
Under this particular three forces I can divide the result of force, this is the unknown force T and
this T cos theta and this T cos theta of the two sides will cancel each other. So, I am left with the
2T sin theta which must be equal to this downward force P. So, I can write that-
𝑃
𝑇=
2𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
From this equation there are some interesting conclusions that may be drawn. The first conclusion
is that, if we can have the same span that is L is fixed and when the sag is higher, sag means the
portion shown as S, is higher, the angle theta will be higher. Because the tan of theta will be higher,
as the theta is higher the sin theta is also higher and the T will be lower. So, more the sagging of
the cable, the lower value of the cable tension will appear. This is one of the most fundamental
points that we should know before we start with.
With reference to the earlier one, the span and the sag was defined as the support-to-support
distance, is the span and the sag is the lowermost tip of the cable to the particular line of the span,
I mean line of the support that is the span. Generally, we keep this particular sag to span ratio is
almost about 1 is to 8 to 1 is to 10, that means if the sag is 1, 8 to 10 times will be the span of that
particular cable structure to make the tensile or the tensile force in a limiting order.
Now what we have discussed in the last example is one typical external force applied in a cable.
If I increase the number of forces, suppose there are two such forces, sometimes there are three or
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maybe more. When we increase the number of forces, the triangle developed between forces will
start moving and finally result in to a polygonal shape. There will be small breaks in the cable and
this particular shape that exists because of the different loading in the different points of the cable
and that particular shape is called the funicular shape. Refer Figure-2.
Figure 2 : the funicular shape of a cable
And this is one of the extremely important shapes in case of a cable supported structure and again
each and every part of this cable, suppose if you take maybe any kind of cable, I mean any cable
in any position of that funicular polygon will be under pure tension.
Figure 3 : Catenary shape

And now, if instead of that particular external force if I now put that particular cable with its own
weight, that means it is not under any kind of external force, but its own weight, then this particular
shape will take a mathematical kind of a shape or that shape can be represent by mathematically
with a high parabolic function. We will discuss in the next class in that or next lecture; and that
shape is called catenary. Suppose you just hang a metallic chain which is shown in the right-side
485
image of Figure-3, the shape it will be created for its own weight. See, no any kind of load is given
over there, by its own weight and under gravity it will give a very smooth kind of a shape which
is a catenary. But please remember that this catenary is not parabola. Parabola can be drawn in this
funicular polygon, if you increase the number of loading and each load is equal to each other and
very congested one to next, and that external load is too high compared to the self-weight of the
cable, then only it will lead to a parabola.
Let us solve some numerical problems. Here I have taken a funicular polygon with two such forces
P and the supports are at A and B. There are supports and as you know these supports will have
reactions, vertical reactions V A and V B, and the horizontal directions H A and H B. This H A
and H B will be equal because otherwise there will be imbalance in the X-axis direction. Refer
Figure-4. So here we can have some unknowns or the support on reactions may be unknown or the
tensile forces are unknown.
Figure 4 : Funicular Polygon; problem-1
From the symmetry we can say the VA and VB is equal to P because the forces are twice P
downward and it is symmetrical; and if I take the free body diagram at that particular point C, this
is the free body diagram and if I take the left part then I can equate and at point C, the moment
equal to 0 and I equate it and can find out how much is the H. Because if you see the Hdc is the
moment created by the H because this is separated by a distance dc from C.
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And it must be equal to the moment generated by the force VA, this A and that is at a distance L1.
From that I can find out the value of H. So, VA, VB and H can be computed and similarly from
the free body at C. Refer Figure-5, and we can easily find out the tensile forces in the cable, that
is written over as TCA that is the cable CA, the tensile force in the TCD the cable CD we can find
out.
Figure 5 : free body diagram
If I now take the same problem with the values that P equal to 15 kilo Newton, L1 is 3 meters, L2
is 4 meters and then we can easily solve the equations. From the symmetry I can understand that
these reactions will be the 15 kilo Newton and suppose if I take the moment about the HA into 1
meter, this dc is equal to 1 meter, L1 is equal to 3 and VA is equal to already I noticed 15.
Figure 6 : numerical problem
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So, the HA can be computed as 45 kilo Newton. Similarly, I can find out all the forces by the free
body at particular point C. I have computed all the tan theta, tan theta is 18.4 degree. So, this is the
tan of theta will be 1 by 3. So, I also find out the corresponding value of the sine and cos theta and
with this equation if I try to find out the values, TCA is 46 and TCD is 44.53. Of course, one thing
is very important that the tension at AC must be equal to the tension at BD; because of the
symmetry.
Figure 7 : The Free body diagram
Let us take another problem where this polygon is in different order, different order in the sense
the two forces are now different, 20 and 10 kilonewton. There are equal distances apart; 3 meter
each but the supports are not in the same level, one support B is almost 1.5 meter above the support
A. This sag length is 1 meter at that particular point it is given. Refer Figure – 8.
Figure 8 : with asymmetric loads
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So now I need to find out what are the tensile forces in the cable and also first I have to find out
what is the sag at D, that is also unknown.
If I take moment at B and put it equal to 0, from that point of view all the forces are coming to my
picture in this moment equation, this VA is at a distance of 9 meter. So, VA into 9 that gives the
moment in clock-wise direction; and this 1.5 into H at this point, the HA will again create a moment
in the same direction (clock-wise) which is HA and distance between the point B to this line is 1.5
meter and must be equal to the moment generated by this points, load at C and load at D, that is
20 into 6 plus 10 into 3, so this is the first equation.
Moment at B = 0
9VA +1.5H=6X20 + 3X10
9VA +1.5H = 150 ------------- Eq.1
Taking FBD at left side of C & put Moment at C =0

3VA = 1XH
H = 3VA --------------- Eq.2
Solving Eq.1 & Eq.2

VA = 11.11 KN, H = 33.33 KN
Hence, VB = (30-11.11) = 18.89 KN
And if I take the free body at C and I can find out what is the relation between the VA and H, then
1 into H because 1 is distance into H, so that this moment and VA into 3 which will give me the
equation 2, and this equation 2 is now used to find out the values, will help the equation 1 and then
I can substitute and find out those two values of the VA and VB and gradually I can find out how
much is the value of H and finally I can find all the value of dC by taking the free body at D. So
the dC you see is three times into VB, so this particular moment must be equal to moment
generated by H into 1.5 plus dC. Why 1.5 dC? Because from point D this H is separated at a
distance dD plus 1.5, out of that 1.5 is known, so I can easily find out the dD at 0.2 meter and we
can now go to each joint, join C and join D.
Taking FBD at right side of D & put Moment at D =0
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3VB = H (1.5 + dD )(1.5 + dD ) = (3 X 18.89)/33.33 = 1.7
dD = 0.2m
TCA Cosα = TCD Cosβ

TCA = (0.97/0.95) TCD = 1.02 TCD
TCA Sinα + TCD Sinβ = 20
1.02 TCD X 0.32 + 0.26 TCD =20
TCD = 34 KN
TCA = 34.8 KN
You can calculate the angles cos and sine component and find out the forces CD and CA in this 2
beam and also you can go to the joint D and to the free body diagram and find out the angles beta
and gamma.
TDC Cosβ = TDB Cosγ

34 X 0.97 = TDB X 0.87
TDB = 37.9KN
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So, those angles and from the geometry everything I can find out, including the tension at DB.
The funicular polygon problems can be solved by virtue of the rest force balance and the moment
which we have known from our beam calculations and the analysis of beams and it is very simple
also.
Now let us discuss the single and the double cable curvature also. Refer Figure-9. In this particular
cable if we see there are three such components, the first one is called the suspension cable which
is the long cable, which is going to suspend and take the load by virtue of some other support
reactions.
Figure 9 : single cable structure
There are guy cables which is also called stay cables which are actually connected with the
suspension cable and a neutralizing kind of a force is acting towards the ground. The third
component is the central column which is called mast and this mast are should be in compression,
the cables will be in tension, both the stay or guy cable or maybe the suspension cable are in the
tension and the mast will be definitely under compression.
But when you design the single cable, a particular roof can be over laid; or the bottom portion (the
brown line) can be the roof; and we can take support from the suspension cable. If I take the support
from the suspension cable, it will create a funicular polygon. That is the interesting thing,
suspension cable sometimes can have a catenary because if you just leave it with its own weight,
and put the roof over there or sometimes it may go with a funicular polygon, then we are taking
the pointed load from beam. But the problem with this particular single cable is that it will be very
prone to uplift when there is a wind generated and that will be a creating a serious kind of a concern
if it is a very lightweight structure. This kind of tensile structure basically is a lightweight structure
and the problem will occur in that cases. The guy cable will absorb the horizontal thrust, transfer
the load to the ground and the mast is under the compressive force: designed for buckling and all
those as you know it is a column remember.
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Now, here you see the guy cable, as shown in Figure-10, if I put the mast perpendicular, you know
the guy cable and the suspension cable, the forces will be in typically in the directions of two blue
arrows, so the resultant will be like the red color arrow. So, what happened in this red color arrow
with respect to the mast? It will invite a bending, because you can see that the red color arrow (the
reaction) is not along with the axis of the mast. So, definitely this indicates that it will invite some
bending.
Figure 10 : reaction forces and position of the mast
But if I go with inclined mast, the inclination in such a way that, because of the tension in the
cables that is a suspension cable and the guy cable, the reaction passes through the axis of the mast
(refer bottom image of Figure-10), then this reaction will be axial. So, no bending will occur here
and you can have a very economical or the slender design for the mast. It is one of the fundamentals
that is why the mast sometimes is kept inclined, not perpendicular or perfectly vertical.
Figure 11 : the members and types of forces in a simple cable structure
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I have already talked about the cable members, what is under compression and what is under
tension. The Figure-11 will give you a broad illustrated idea and details about it.
In case of the double curvature the benefit is that the upper curvature will take care of the gravity
and lower curvature will take care of your wind kind of scenario as shown in Figure 12. This
structural system is more rigid to take care of the wind flutter.
Figure 12 : double curvature cable structure
In this case sometimes or many times we have to link these two cables when there is a double
curvature cable and those links are called separated or stirred because those also come under
compression. Here we have two cables, we have two names also, the primary cables are cables
which are taking care of your gravity so these two are the primary cables, this is secondary which
is taken care of the wind.
Figure 13 : types of cables in double curvature cable structure
In Figure-14, you can see how the particular roof have been supported by the supporting cables.
The back-stay cables take care of the resolving or the neutralizing the forces and also this is having
some of the supporting cables and finally there are mast, that is the central pillar which is actually
taken care of the compression. In a particular system, other than the tensile material system will
have some component which has to take the compression. So, mast actually takes care of the
compression and there is Anchor also at the end of the stay cable.
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Figure 14 : types of cables in a structure
Then, there are multi-cable supported systems. Here, instead of one cable we have multiple cables.
As reference you can see the Figure-14, where there are multi cable systems. But multi cable in
the sense we will discuss now, there are types of multi cable which are there because of the
different types of the deck and pylon that support both. It is applicable in the bridges where there
is a cable stay bridge. But, instead of the bridges we can use it for stadiums, airports, arenas etc.
where we need column free constructions. The multi cable system has four types:
i. Radial
ii. Harp
iii. Fan
iv. Star
The first one is radial. In radial system, there is a deck and there is a pylon. The cables connected
evenly throughout the deck, but converges on the top of the pier, as shown in Figure below.
Figure 15 : multi-cable support system - Radial
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The deck has to be supported and the deck is cantilevered out. It has to be supported by even cables
which are actually connected in the deck at a uniform distribution, but they are actually pointed or
connected at the top single point and converge from the deck to the pylon or the pier. This is called
the radial system.
Another system is, the Harp system. The basic difference is that here the cables are parallel and
evenly spaced along the deck and pier. They are again equally distributed and it is connected in
different heights in the pier.
Figure 16 : multi-cable support system - Harp
In the lecture number 33 we will discuss about how the system generates forces and what will be
the economic way to handle the forces for any kind of the architectural applications.
The next system is Fan system. It is the Combination of Radial and Harp, converges towards the
top of the pier and evenly spaced at deck
Next one is a fan system, where you see it is something like a combination of the radial and harp
where it has taken from the various points of the deck uniformly distributed.
Figure 17 : multi-cable support system - Fan
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But also, it is attached in the different point in the pylon in a vertical level but converged towards
the top. It is exactly not going to converge in the same point but it is converged towards the top.
See from one-point distance, the next distance is smaller or the nest distance is smaller.
The last one is the star. The star is just another reverse kind of a scenario, till now what we have
seen is that we put the deck, there are a lot of points or the divisions in the deck. But here we take
the load of the deck from a single point but we distribute the connectivity at the pier level in various
or equal spacing different vertical levels and that creates another convergence not in the pylon but
in the two extremities at the deck, as shown in Figure-18.
Figure 18 : multi-cable support system - Star
We can say that the star is almost the reverse of the radial kind of a thing.
So, these are the references I have took for this particular lecture.
➢ Structure Systems by Heino Enge, Hatje Cantz Publisher
➢ The Structural Basis of Architecture by Bjørn N. Sandaker, Arne P. Eggen, Mark R.
➢ Building Structure Illustrated by Francis D.K. Ching, Willy
The conclusion of this today's lecture is that the cable supported structure is one of the structures
that we can use for large arena. It is the extremely effective kind of a structural system and it is
actually the way to support the building roof and this particular cable supported system can be
analyzed by through this funicular polygon approach. The load path mechanism shows that the
structure element of this cable supported system mostly tensile except for one or two.
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Mast is always going to be in compression but other cables definitely will be under tension, so this
tension has to be taken into account how much tension that particular cable can be according to its
permissible stress also. We have some homework for you.
There are two home works for you.
That is all for this lecture number 31.

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Lecture No -32
Membrane Structures
Hello everybody, welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in
Architecture. So, we are in the module 7 and the module 7 is all about the tensile and the plate
structure; and this is the second lecture on the tensile structure. Today we will discuss the
lecture number 32, and this is on membrane structure.
The basic concepts to covered here are:
➢ Introduction
➢ Numerical Problems on Catenary
➢ Basic Forms of Membrane Structures
➢ Support System of Membrane Structure
The major learning objectives of this lecture are:
➢ Outline the Structural concept of Membrane Structures
➢ Illustrate the types, parts and functions of Membrane Structures
Membrane structure are very common since history. The left-hand side image in Figure-1 is a
membrane structure made of animal skin. It is called as Tipi, the traditional house we can find
in North America. As you know the animal skins is nothing but a membrane; and that kind of
a tent can be done through that.
Figure 1 : the membrane structures
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The next picture, the right-hand side image is a very recent picture. It is of Jaisalmer the desert
of Rajasthan. The tents for the tourists are made by the membranes. It is a kind of canvas or
cloth, basically a thick cloth. Hence, we can say that the membranes can be used well for
structures which have been in use since early human civilizations.
So, our goal will be to understand how we will provide or use the cables, because the membrane
alone cannot stay stable. Therefore, you need cable to make them support, keep it, straight and
stretch it properly; and with that we can create the roof or maybe some form or structure out of
membranes. Another fundamental goal is to minimize the number of internal columns or masts
in a particular structure. We also have to see the profiles and strengths of both the membranes
and the cables, so that they do not cross their permissible limits.
Now if you see in the nature, there are membrane structures do exist naturally. One such
example is the net that is formed by the spiders or the cobweb. Refer Figure-2. In the Figure if
you observe very minutely, then you can see that there are there of primary cables which are
actually supporting it.
Figure 2 : the membrane structures in nature - the cobweb
It is also having the secondary cables, the radial one, which are connected to the primary one
to increase the stiffness. Finally, there is a spiral member also in it, those are act as a membrane,
so those cables are actually creating this kind of a membrane structures. See how beautifully
they create this particular cable formations or the total structural formation based on the two
set of cable and one set of the spiral membrane.
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Next is catenary, we have already discussed that a catenary curve can be as presume or that can
be assumed to be a curve which is created by its own weight. So, a membrane structure when
it is a thin membrane, it is supported by the cable and it has to be very flexible and it will
actually sag because of it is own weight.
Figure 3 : Catenary
A chain can act as a catenary, because of its own weight it will sag, where no external weight
actually has been introduced. Let’s consider a gold chain which can form a catenary shape.
Another very interesting thing is that in this catenary if you see, the load is going to densify as
you go to the support. Assume that your one hand is one support and another hand is another
support. So, if you go towards the support the loading intensity will be magnifying. Another
very important thing is that, suppose, if I increase the span, then the sag is smaller and when
the span is smaller the depth of sag will be very large.
Now let us go to the some of the numerical examples on catenary.
We know that the catenary shape can be mathematically established with some equation forms.
In a catenary, suppose ‘O’ is the origin that is the zero-zero point, with x-axis and y-axis. There
are two supports, A and B and both the supports are in the same level. Refer Figure-4. I have
taken one point in the cable which is point x, y and which is at a curved distance ‘s’.
Figure 4 : example catenary
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This is the distance of the particular arc or this particular point or the portion of the chain ‘s’
that is the curve length. This length is under loading, if you take the uniform each weight of
each millimetre or each centimetre this uniform distributed loaded are now gradually densify
towards the end; and because of that the shape is going to form. The equation of the catenary
it can be given like:
This is the equation where ‘y’ equal to a cosh means the hyperbolic cos x
The other relationship is:
‘s’ is the curved / actual length of cable from bottom most point (C) to the point of interest.
This a is a very tricky thing the ‘a’ is actually is the distance from the tip of this catenary to the
origin and thus ‘a’ has to be defined or the measured by above mentioned equation.
Now next is, you can also find out the tension in the cable with the formula given below. If you
take the free body of this cable, then you will see that there are three loads acting on it.
Figure 5 : the tension on a part of the cable
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T = Tensile force at any point on cable (Variable)
θ = Slope of the cable where the tensile force is measured
One is the horizontal tension; another is the tension in the inclined portion of the cable and the
third one is at the end portion of the cable. Refer Figure – 5. Here ‘w’ is the loading intensity
and ‘s’ is length. So, it is the total weight of the cable of that particular part.
So that comes in a triangular the force geometry and from that force geometry I can find out
what will be the tension of cable at any particular point. any particular point can be determined
either by ‘s’ or by ‘y’ because ‘y’ changes as for the coordinate changes and ‘s’ changes also
the distance changes so the length of s is also going to change.
Now the hyperbolic sine and cosine functions can be given with this particular two formula:
But in the calculator also we can find out. There is a hyperbolic button and from that if you
start with that hyperbolic button first and then go to sign it goes in the hyperbolic sign and then
put the actual whatever maybe the angle and then equal to gives you the value. Refer Figure-
6.
Figure 6 : the hyperbolic function in calculator
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So, you take the first on switch on and then you go to this hyperbolic and then go to the sine or
cosine whatever and then put the values and then equal to, so here you get the sine hyperbolic.
You clear it, and then you go to the hyperbolic suppose you want to do the cos, now give the
values and then equal to then cos h. Then if you want to do inverse, then you go to hyperbolic,
then to shift, then give the sin inverse then give the value (eg: 1.2) then equal to; this will give
the value. Similarly, if you want to do the cos inverse, the go to hyperbolic then go to their cos
inverse and then put the values and then put is equal to and then you get the values. So, like
that you can use the calculator also in the hyperbolic function mode. For more details, please
refer the video lecture, time 00:12:08 to 00:12:58
So, from here let us go to solve some problem.
Given:
Cable Length = 120m
Support distance / Span = 100m
Cable material density = 7800 Kg/m3
Cable Cross section area = 0.01m2
Find: Sag, TMax and TMin
So here I first find out how much is the Omega that is the intensity of the loading.
ρ = 7800 Kg/m3 , A = 0.01 m2 g = 9.81 m/s2
ω = ρAg = 7800 X 0.01 X 9.81 = 765.18 N/m
ω = 0.8 KN/m
What I do next is, I first use this first use this equation:
𝑥
𝑠 = 𝑎 sinh ( )
𝑎
Half Span (x= 50m) is equal to half curve length (s = 60m)
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So put the s equal to 60 and x equal to 50. Now we have to solve this particular equation by hit
and trial method, that means you put some values of a, and just try whether it is coming 60 or
not.
50
60= 𝑎 sinh ( )
𝑎
For: a=55, s = 57.17

For: a=45, s = 60.9
For: a=47, s = 59.97…. Close to answer
By solving with hit and trial method, if I go for 47, ‘a’ = 47, I got 59.97 which is very close to
60 so I say that ‘a’ = 47.
Now as I got the a =47, now I use the second equation,
𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑠 2
𝑦 2 = 472 + 602
𝑦 = 76.216𝑚
Sag (h) = (y-a) = 76.216 – 47 = 29.216m
So, the sag will be of 29.216 meter.
Similarly, I can find out the TMax and TMin:
TMax = ωyMax = 0.8 X 76.126 = 60.973KN
TMin = ωa = 0.8 X 47 = 37.6KN
Now let us take another example. It is given that:
Cable Length = 150m
Loading Intensity = 1.2 KN/m
Sag = 22m
Find: Support distance / Span, Tmax and TMin
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Now solving this with the equation,
𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑠 2
(22 + 𝑎)2 = 𝑎2 + 752
484 +44a + a2 = a2 + 5625
a = 116.84
Then,
𝑥
𝑠 = 𝑎 sinh ( )
𝑎
𝑠 75
𝑥 = 𝑎 sinh−1 ( ) = 116.84 sinh−1 ( )
𝑎 116.84
x = 70.62
So, Span is
2 X 70.62 = 141.24m
Then
TMax = ωyMax = 1.2 X (116.84+22) = 166.6KN
TMin = ωa = 1.2 X 116.84 = 140.2KN
So, now let us go to the some of the basic forms of membrane structure. In the basic forms of
membrane structure there are five such forms. There may be some the hybrid type of forms,
which can be made. But in general, there are five forms:
i. Hyper
ii. Conical
iii. Wave
iv. Arch
v. Cushion
Figure 7 : basic forms of membrane structures
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The Hyper form is anticlastic. There are two different curvatures and the terminating point
should be placed in different levels.
Figure 8 : The Hyper form
See in the Figure-8, there are two in down and these two just next are in the top so that kind of
a formation can be made.
Then the conical form, it is Synclastic form where both the curvature in the same side and the
Gaussian the curvature is positive and in this case you see what happened is the terminating
points are placed at the bottom level and there is a ring and it will be connected to points.
Figure 9 : The Conical form
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The next one is the wave. Wave is basically an array of the some units or shell kind of a thing
and it is not hyper. It is looks like a hyper because the levels are in different positions.
Figure 10 : The Wave form
The next one is the arch form where an arch has created by stiffened members. Sometimes the
arch has been created one after another arch but those arches are truss or the steel truss. Those
steel truss creates a stiffening attribute to the overall structural systems and then over that you
create a membrane. So, it will be now considered to be anarch. Sometimes it can be
composition of middle arches too.
Figure 11 : The Arch form
It can be synclastic or sometimes it can also be anticlastic kind of a profile.
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And the last one is called the cushion. The cushion is mostly used in the air inflated or
pneumatic kind of a structure where the membrane is thick and there are less number of
supports. As they are inflated, it is actually very light and it can retain that particular shape by
the air pressure itself.
Figure 12 : The Cushion form
Now, if I take a flat panel membrane, suppose it is a handkerchief. Then raising the two-
opposite corner of it can create a hyper and raising the middle part of that particular the
handkerchief and placing the outer perimeter below a certain level with respect to that central
level is going to give you a conical form. Then introducing a series of curvature and clamping
edges or series of those in a symmetrical order can create the arch form or the wave form.
Figure 13 : The forms from a flat panel membrane
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So, let us now discuss about some support systems for member structures. See in Figure-14,
that is a typical sketch of a tensile structure. Membranes always need support; therefore, we
need cables or some rigid truss members to support it. Within this supports also we have
primary and secondary subgroups.
Figure 14 : the supporting members of a membrane structure
So, the mast -ring is the main member which is actually ground the force. There may be some
more masts, which helps in anchoring the other sets of cables. As we have already discussed,
the mast is always under compression.
The next set is the cables. Suspension cables and splice cables act as primary one and there
may be other secondary cables like stabilizing cable and ridge cable which takes care of the
formation. The ridge cables give the effect of a ridge and the splice cable actually changes the
typical slope of one part of the membrane to another part by virtue of wide-angle change. We
also need dome stabilizing cable because only the splice cable may not be sufficient to stabilize
the structure. The cable must be connected to the main mast or to the edge mast to maintain the
stability and the form. The stabilizing cable gives an additional support to the structure.
Figure 15 : examples of membrane structure
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There are some of the photographs of different buildings that I have taken from internet, which
are membrane structures. See Figure-15 carefully to know details of the members.
So, there are some more small examples. In the Figure-16, the left-hand side image is of a bus-
stop which is composition of tubular truss and membrane, resulting into an interesting
membrane structure. In between the tubular truss the membranes are stretched.
Figure 16 : examples of membrane structure, a parking lot and a bus stop
The right-hand side image in Figure-16 is another very interesting structure. There is a column
or you can say flying beam from the ground and then go with a parabolic way or non-linear
way converting from column to a beam and they are placed with respect to some standard
distance. Then, the membrane is stretched over it, covering them all. So, these are typical
examples on use of membrane structures.
The next example we see is in Figure-17. The left-hand side image of Figure-17 is of reverse
conical form or we can say it as inverted conical form where the ring is downward, supported
by the suspension cables from the ground and flying upward supporting the membrane. The
structure results in to a beautiful aesthetic of trees covering a huge area.
The right-hand side image in Figure-17 is another of membrane structure covering a large
space. But here the membrane is supported by the edge support system, by a three-dimensional
truss structure; where the mast is not touching the ground. The very interesting fact here is that,
the mast is hanging and the hanging mast is then connected to the primary truss members
through some supporting or connecting cables. As the mast is hanging, the total load of the
structure is grounded by the inclined truss embers which are connected to the columns, and
those columns which are touching the ground, finally transfers the load to the ground.
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Figure 17 : examples of membrane structure exhibition grounds
So, I have taken the following reference for this lecture.

Publication
➢ The Structural Basis of Architecture by Bjørn N. Sandaker, Arne P.
Eggen, Mark R. Cruvellier, Routledge
In conclusion I must say that:

• Membrane structure acts as a skin to a building.
• The cables are hanged freely and rapped with the tensile fabrics.
• It provides strong built forms with excellent solutions for long span Architectural
spaces.
It is definitely an excellent solution for the long span architecture. So, in the next lecture we
will go to the last part of the tensile structure. That we will do some more numerical problems
and also the application part form of numericals on tensile structure in architecture; and we will
also discuss some of the real-life examples of the tensile structure by some famous architects.
So, now I have one homework for you:
Q. A cable of length 100m is fixed at two supports at same level. The load intensity of the cable
is .5KN/m
Find the Span, Tmax and Tmin if the sag is
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(i) 10m,
(ii) 20m,
(iii) 30m
Draw a graph showing the changes the respective values w.r.t. the sag and draw a conclusion.
Thank you very much that is the end of the lecture number 32.
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Lecture No -33
Application of Tensile Structures in Architecture
Hello everyone, welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in
Architecture. Today we are in the module 7 and this is the seventh week and this is the third lecture
on the seventh week. Today we will discuss about the applications of tensile structure in
Architecture.
The following concepts to covered in today’s lecture:
➢ Types of Cable Suspended System
➢ Numerical Problems on Suspension Cable
➢ Membrane and Cable Materials
➢ Case Studies of Tensile Structures
➢ Numerical Problems on Multi Cable Structures
The major learning objectives are:
➢ Outline the types of Suspended Cable Structure
➢ Apply the tensile structural concept in the Architectural projects
➢ Develop the numerical understanding of suspended and multi-cable structure
So, the types of cable suspended system if I see there are four typical types. The first one is called
the Parallel Span System.
Figure 1 : Parallel Span System
In the parallel span system as you see in Figure-1, there are cables running parallel and those cables
may be of sagging kind hogging or maybe the multi or the two cable systems. Those cables are
simply suspended in form and they are pre-tensioned in either both the ways of maybe in the
concave or convex way.
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The second system is called the Biaxial Span System. In Figure-2 you can see that there are four
images where through the cables the surface has been created. Towards the end or the edges of the
surfaces there exists some rigid beam members. In between the beam members the cables are
placed in different directions to make a surface or to result into a single surface and that surface as
you know it can be synclastic or be anticlastic.
Figure 2 : Biaxial Span System
The third system is called the Radial System, where the surfaces are created by suspended cables;
but here the suspended cables are placed in radial manner. There will be two compression rings,
inner and the outer. In radial fashion when you place, it will be tied up in the compression rings.
Sometimes there may be inner post and a compression ring outside. Those compression rings will
take the final load and that that will be discharged to the various peripheral columns and the
intermediate portion of the circular portion will be column free.
Figure 3 : Radial System
The final one is called the Cable Trusses or Cable Truss System.
Figure 4 : Cable Truss System
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This system is very similar to the first one where series of cables were placed; but instead of the
single cable they can go for the multi cable system with some internal strut members which will
act as compression member and overall, it will look like or it will behave like a truss. However, in
this cable truss system primary and the secondary cables will be placed together and that will be
separated by the internal trusses. This cable trusses system may be employed in the ring radial
systems or may be in some other forms too.
Now, let us discuss some numerical problems on the suspension cables.
Now if you see, we have discussed a bit in the very first lecture on this particular week is that when
you hang a cable if it is hanged by its own weight it is the catenary, it will give you a catenary
shape. But in case of suspended cables, sometimes it may not be hanged by its own weight.
Sometimes there may be some other link members, which are then connected to the primary cable.
Therefore, the primary cable will have a series of pointed loads. In Figure-5, the green color
downward arrows are the series of pointed load separated by some distance.
Figure 5 : suspended cable with catenary shape
Here if the total load is very much higher compared to the self-weight of the cable, then this cable
will form a parabolic shape. The equation of this cable profile will be:
𝑞0 𝑥 2
𝑦=
2𝐻
q0 = Uniform distributed load KN/m
H = the horizontal thrust or reaction which is equal all over the cable
Tension in the cable at any point ‘x’ is given by:
𝑇 = √𝑞02 𝑥 2 + 𝐻 2
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Please always remember that in such formation we keep the origin in the most downward point or
highest sag point. From the origin, right-hand side is the +ve X axis, left-hand side is the -ve X
axis, upward is the +ve Y axis and downward from origin in -ve Y axis. In this case it is
symmetrical, the amount of span in +ve X axis and -ve X axis is equal. But if it is not a symmetrical
suspension cable like this, even than the segment’s lowermost point will be the origin, and then
the span on -ve X axis side and span on +ve X axis side will not be equal. However, our origin
will be at that particular point itself. So, the value of x and y has to be given where we want to find
out the tension or maybe any other parameters. Hence the tension will not be equal in this the
whole cable from one support to the other support. The maximum tension will be where? The Tmax
It will be at the point where the value of ‘x’ is higher. In that case the highest tension will occur at
the end A or end B where there are supports and we can easily replace the value of x = L/ 2.
Tmax will be given as:
𝑞𝐿 2
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 =√( 2 ) + 𝐻 2 = √𝑉𝐴2 + 𝐻 2 = √𝑉𝐵2 + 𝐻 2
Whereas the Tmin will occur for the minimum value of x, that is at x =0; and if i put x =0 , then
𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐻
So, now let us solve a problem. Suppose there is a suspended cable with supports at distance of 20
meter apart and the sag is 2 meters. Now I have to find out the support reaction and this particular
suspension cable is actually taking care of a roof whose weight is given as 300 kilo Newton and
then we have to find out the support reaction. So, from here I have to actually find out what is the
uniform distributed load.
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So, I know that this is the total 20 meter of the span and then the load is 30, so then I can assume
that a 15 kilo Newton per meter uniform distributed load is acting on the primary cable. So, the q0
is 15 kilo Newton per meter and I know the length of this is 10 meter and the sag is 2 meters.
So, I can now easily compute the reactions and the tension in the cable. This is a symmetrical case,
so left and right span will be equal.
VA = VB =0.5 (q0 L) = 0.5(15X20) = 150KN
Then taking the FBD
Taking FBD of left side of C &
Equation moment about C = 0
VA X 10 = H X 2 + 15 X 10 X 5
H = (1500-750)/2
H = 375 KN
Then the tensions will be:
Tmax = TA = TB = √𝑉𝐴2 + 𝐻 2 = √1502 + 3752 = 403.8𝐾𝑁
Tmin = H = 375KN
Next I have given another problem. Here the situation of cable is asymmetric. Where I have kept
the distance of the span as 35 meter and out of 35 meters 10 meters left hand side and the 25 meters
towards right hand side from the origin point.
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I have also mentioned that the intensity of load is here 20 and the vertical separation of the two
support is 2 meters. Now I have to find out what is the sag? The I have to find out the tension. So,
to do that, I know that this is my origin, as I told before that this the lower most point will be my
origin. Now solving this by using the respective formulas. The equation of the cable profile is
𝑞0 𝑥 2
𝑦=
2𝐻
Now for point A
For Point-A, y = d, x = -10 gives
d = (20 x 100) /2H
then for point B
For Point-B, y = 2+d, x = 25 gives
2+d = (20 x 625) /2H
So I have two unknowns, the ‘d’ and ‘H’
Then solving the above two equations we get:
d = 0.38m
and hence
H = 2631.57KN
So, as I know sag and horizontal thrust, I can easily come back and then find out what is my VA
and VB. Solving this:
Taking moment about A and equation to Zero:
35VB = 20X35X17.5 + 2X2631.57
VB = 500.4KN
Taking moment about A and equation to Zero:
35VA = 20X35X17.5 - 2X2631.57
VB = 199.6KN
Then, computing the Tension at A and tension at B
𝑇𝐴 = √𝑉𝐴2 + 𝐻 2 = √199.62 + 2631.572 = 2639.12KN
𝑇𝐵 = √𝑉𝐵2 + 𝐻 2 = √500.42 + 2631.572 = 2678.72KN
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So next let us go to the cable and membrane material. As you all know, the primary material of
the tensile structure is either a cable which is going to take care of the internal load from one
compression ring to the other mast or maybe from one mast to the other mast, and then it is the
membrane material that is the tensile fabric material. So, there are some property I have listed
down on the requirements, being an enclosure element, it needs to be airtight, waterproof, fire
resistant and durable. As a daily-use element, it requires to transmit daylight, reflect heat, control
sound, and be easy to keep clean.
So, in that particular perspective, broadly we have three type of material.

The first is PVC coated polystyrene fabrics. They are very old type of material and this material
is in use since last 20 years. Some key features of this material are:
• This is made with woven high tenacity polyester base fabric and a flexible plasticised PVC
coating.
• These fabrics are durable, translucent and waterproof.
• It can withstand extreme environmental conditions, humidity and UV-radiation.
• Wide range of colours, most economic, useful life phase in excess of 20 years can be
expected.
• These fabrics are suitable for retractable roofs, membrane façades and tensile fabric
structures.
So, the next material is a bit new in the sense, that it has developed a lot. I mean initially it has
started in 1950’s probably for some other purpose but it has developed a lot and this is called
PTFE. Polytetrafluoroethylene it is full name, but it is popularly known as the PTFE. This is a
fiber glass coated material and it is straight name is Teflon which is very commonly used. The
teflon sheet is nothing but this polytetrafluoroethylene. It is extremely durable and weather
resistance indeed. It has a translucency of the 7% to a 15% and reflects almost about the 68 to 75%
of the incident rays. So that means almost about 7 to 15% heat due to the radiation direct solar
radiation can penetrate through this material and definitely whenever that particular percentage is
penetrating the daylight is diffused and glare free.
The other material is called ETFE, it is ETFE it is ethylene tetrafluoroethylene. Some of the
properties are:
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• ETFE foil systems - a mechanically pre-tensioned single layer system or a multi-layered
“air-pressured” ETFE foil cushion system.
• It does not degrade, discolour or turn yellowish under extreme environmental conditions
or UV radiation.
• It has high degree of transparency or translucency.
• The rapid advancement of these fluoropolymer foils enables architects to design ground-
breaking structures that are worlds apart from conventional façade and roof construction.
These three materials are quite common in the field of our membrane material application in the
architectural structures.
Now we will see some other materials which are used for cables. The cables mostly are of high
strength steel cable that will strain lot of stress, may be more than 500 N/mm2. So those cables are
actually put in bundles and in a spiral form. Sometimes there are cables available which are in a
form. Refer Figure-6.
Figure 6 : the cable materials
But the spiral cables are definitely good and that will give you more durability and due to the
friction, it can take care of some excess amount of load. Cables serves a number of functions in
tensile structure applications:
• Reinforcement of the fabric where the spans and stresses get too large.
• Linear tension support elements along edges.
• Stays to stabilize rigid support elements.
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If we see the types of cables, then a cable may be composed of one or more structural ropes,
structural strands, locked coil strands or parallel wire strands. A strand is an assembly of wires
formed helically around a central wire in one or more symmetrical layers.
Now let us see some case studies. At first, let us discuss about the National Gymnasium at Tokyo.
The Architect is Kenzo Tange. The profile of the building is shown in Figure-7. If you see from
Architectural perspective, the you can see that it is the fusion between Japanese Architecture and
the modern structural expression that two has been fused together. It is an enormous, huge structure
and that has been tackled very, wonderfully by the architect.
Figure 7 : National Gymnasium at Tokyo by Kenzo Tange
If you see in this particular figure, then it has a central the spine, from the central spine the roof is
originated. But this central spine was actually nothing but the two very large steel cables which is
actually going to support it at the end; which is can be treated as a pillar or maybe the mast. Then
the tent like structure or tent like material or the flexible membrane material can now act as a
roofing material. It is internally supported. The black lines are actually those internal supporting
secondary membrane which is following the profile of catenary. Those are pre stressed cables
which goes or merges with the profile of a hanging tensile membrane.
The second one, this is two bridges, both the bridges from our country. One is in Mumbai which
is Bandra-Worli Sea Link. This is a cable supported bridge. there are lot of such examples of the
cable supported bridges. Another one from Calcutta; it is the Vidyasagar Setu or we also called is
as a second Hooghly bridge.
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Figure 8 : cable supported bridges
In industrial architecture you will see lot of structures which are cable hanging or the cable
supported. This is a cable hanging kind of a structure you may say, you see this particular the
industrial building which is a warehouse in UK. Very wonderfully they have used the mast and
they are placed at regular intervals and the roof is supported by hanging cables.
Figure 9 : warehouse in UK
The next example is Jawaharlal Nehru stadium, New Delhi. This was renovated during the time of
the last commonwealth games, and now featured as Asia's largest tensile group structure. It has
the total coverage of 54,000 square meter of the area, and that is treated with 88 segmental
membranes. It spans over the 240 meters. The cable net system features 443 tons of pre-stretched
cables with a length of 2,220 km in varying diameters from 40 mm to 95 mm
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Figure 10 : Jawaharlal Nehru stadium, New Delhi
Now if you see the anatomy of this particular stadium, it has a stadium stands where the people
sits. Then there is a steel this is the second one this is a steel compression ring, which just now we
have discussed about this is 8500 tons of steel has been used and this red color is the ramp. This
ramp is required for the vertical circulations or the different layer circulations from one layer to
another layer of the spectators sitting area.
Figure 11 : anatomy of Jawaharlal Nehru stadium, New Delhi
And over this particular steel compression ring this PTFE sheer fill panel, which is also very energy
efficient panel has been placed. Those are the panels of 88 segments, supported by the cables.
Finally, at the end there is at the internal position. And at the end edge the compression rings have
been placed., and that ring has thoroughly taken account of all different parts of the structural
forms. It is a tensile structure, it has a membrane, it has three-dimensional truss that is the space
frame systems.
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Let us do some numerical problems on multi cable structure. We can use multi cable structure in
stadiums, or bridges etc. If you remember, in our very first lecture we have discussed about four
types of multi cable structures. Here in the first example, we have taken a radial shape multi-cable
structure. It is actually supported at the top, in a single point and there are various equidistance
points on the deck where it is connected. On the deck we are considering a load of 90 KN and
assuming that the cables are placed equidistantly. So, there will be 30 KN load on each part, see
Figure-12. But the thing is that, the A, B and C the three cables is going to provide TA, TB and
TC those three tensile force. But those forces are not going to be equal because the angle of
inclination with the vertical post or mast is changing.
Figure 12 : the radial multi cable system
In the right-hand side image, you can see that how will it happen. So, if P is the downward force
then due to that the tensile force T has to be there. Hence, I can find out what is the relation between
T and P. That T and P is having this kind of relation:
𝑃
𝑇=
sin 𝜃
If that is so and I can now find out the tan 𝜃 that is the tan−1 𝜃 ; from there I can find out the 45
degree. See the table below.
Table 1: the three points of cables
If I know the angle theta, then we can use the T and P relation and find out the value of load. It is
given in Table-2.
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Table 2 : the loads at TA, TB and TC
From here we see that the intensity of load is decreasing from point TA to TC
So, we see that if the angle is higher, suppose the angle is 45⁰ for A and the tension is 42.4 KN,
whereas for C the angle is higher 71.6⁰, the load is lower, it is 31.6 KN. Hence, we can say that, in
case of the radial system as the sin increases the load decreases.
The next example we see with the harp shape. In harp shape instead of one point I put the cables
in the three points in the vertical support; and now the inclination for each is same; that means all
are at 45⁰, so the T A, T B and T C will be the same and that is 42.4. So, each cable will have to
have taken care of same quantum of loads; but definitely the length of the cables is different.
Figure 13 : the harp multi cable system
Here, TA = TB = TC = 30/Sin 45° = 30/0.707 = 42.4KN

So, from this point of view of both are stable. Either radial or may be the harp we can go for. But
I can have a kind of comparative analysis chart on both the system. Where I found out all the forces
as I have explained earlier. Then I based on Pythagoras Theorem can find out the lengths of the
cable, because I know the base and height. When the permissible tensile stress of the cable is given,
let’s say here we are taking it as 500 Mpa and the density of the cable is assumed as 7800 Kg/m3,
then we can find out the cable c/s area and then multiplying it with the density I can find out the
total weight of the cables. Hence I can analyze which is more economical.
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Here, if I compare radial and harp system, then I found that radial is more economical than the
harp. For the above-mentioned examples, the cable length required for radial is 33.03 meters, and
total weight is 191.70 tons. Whereas, in case of harp system, the total cable length is 25.46 meters,
and total weight is 168.38 tons. Hence, we can conclude that among the two examples considered
above, the harp system is more economical compared to radial system. Refer Table-3.
Table 3: Comparative Analysis of Radial & Harp system (based on previous two examples)
Here, for this lecture I have taken the reference of these books.
➢ Fabric Architecture: Issue: January/February 2008 by IFAI Publication
In conclusion we can say that:
Tension fabric is still a relatively new building material, despite its more extensive use over the
past decade or so, in architectural applications. Tensile structures are the excellent option for
architects and engineers for designing sustainable structures. Especially over large areas, it is an
incredibly lightweight, material saving, and energy conserving solution for roofing systems.
There are two homework for you,
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That’s all for this lecture.
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Lecture No -34
Flat Plate and Flate Slab Structures

are in the week number 7 that is the module 7 on Tensile and Plate Structure. This is the 4th
lecture on this module. Today our topic is the Flat Plate and Flat Slab Structure.
The basic concepts to be covered under this lecture are:
➢ Introduction to Plate Structures
➢ Major Classification of Plate Structures
➢ Flat Plate Structures: Structural concept, Failure mechanism
➢ Flat Plate Structures Advantages and Disadvantages
➢ Application of Flat Plate Structures
➢ Introduction to Flat Slab Structure
➢ Advantages of Flat Slab Structures
➢ Applications of Flat Slab Structures
The tentative learning objectives are:
➢ To outline the structural concept of plate structure.
➢ To differentiate between Flat Plate and Flat Slab.
➢ To illustrate the types and parts of Flat Slab.
So, let us introduce the plate structures. Plates are thin flat members. Any three-dimensional
object has the width, the length and the thickness. So, the thickness is very, very minimum
compared to the other two dimensions; that is the plate, or we can say that this kind of a
geometry is called as plate structure. Structural stiffness of the plate structures is much higher
than that of usual RCC slab. The plates are designed to resist the bending moment and shear
stress. By changing the geometrical layout of the plates, can design to make the more moments.
This is one of the very, very important structural concept of the plates. We change the
geometrical shape, geometrical layout of the plate intentionally to increase the stiffness values
so that way it can be take more moments. It is also used as a solution for long spans. The last
point is very interesting and very important; unlike the shell and tensile structure, which just
now we have discussed, plates are flat and the floor above it can be habitable.
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Figure 1 : about flat plates
The Plate Structures comes under Surface Active structure systems. The resistance against
bending moment develops: Compressive, Tensile Stresses in addition to Shear Stresses. There
are two different mechanisms and their combinations are set according to the direction of the
acting forces:
• Slab Mechanism: If the acting force is directed at right angles to the surface.
• Plate Mechanism: If the acting force is directed parallel to the surface.
Now, if we see the classification of plate structures, then broadly it can be classified into four
type. However, some books say it is to be of three types. Any way we will see here where is
the confusion or difference of this confusion.
The first one is called the flat plate structure; flat plate structure a system of flat plate and
column only; there is no beam. The second one is called a flat slab structure. It is almost alike
and some of the books some of the literature says that both these two are same.
Here if we see it in details, the flat slab structure has only plate and the column; there is no
beam. Whereas, in case of flat plate, there will be the plate and column with capital, here also
there is no beam. The third one is the waffle slab or the grid slab structure; it is also called as a
coffered slab structure. This is a system of slab and closely spaced beams. So, there are columns
but basically the slab and very closely spaced beams are there in both the direction or maybe
sometimes in one direction. The fourth and last one is called the folded plate structure. It is a
system of plates with different geometrical shapes and folds.
Figure 2 : classification of plate structures
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In this particular lecture we will discuss about the first two; the flat plate and the flat slab
structure. We will discuss the folded plate and the waffle slab structure in the next lecture.
Now, what is a flat plate structure? As I now understand it is a beamless construction or
beamless system, where a plate is directly supported by the column or a pillar. It is used for the
short or medium or moderate kind of a spans, which can be almost about 6 to 8 (15 feet to 25
feet) in the limiting value of this span. The live load is most normal kind of a live load of 3 to
5 kilo Newton meter. As you know, the 3 kilo Newton to 5 kilo Newton meter is almost like a
residential live load, not very heavy. So, it is very simple to construct. It requires very easy
layout of form or column, that is why it can gain a speedy construction. It is suitable for the
apartment buildings and for moderate spans and loads are relatively low.
Figure 3 : a flat plate
In Figure-3, it is a schematic diagram of a flat plate. There is no beam; columns are actually
strike directly to the slab or plate.
So, there are some photograph taken from internet, as shown in Figure-4.
Figure 4 : the flat plate structures
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If you see these photographs, you have columns, you have a very thick plate but with respect
to the other dimension this thickness is very simple that is why this is called a plate structure;
and there is no beam, no column capital, just the column is flushed with the slab.
But if I do so, it is nice to see a flat plate structure; because it is same beamless it is very, very
I mean it is a very clean kind of a construction or maybe it is aesthetically also very clean but
there are some problem of the serviceability limit or serviceability and also due to some kind
of structural problems. Flat plates are prone to shear failure and this kind of shear failure will
going to occur pyramidal wedge-shaped kind of a failure will going to occur. See Figure-5.
Figure 5 : shear failure in flat plate structure
This particular shear is called either one directional shear or a multi or two directional shear.
The punching shear is the typical problem of the flat slab, punching shear is something like, if
you put a very heavy load in a very small area of a material or an object which is thin, then it
will punch because of the heavy load on a very small area. That portion of the other object with
a thin object will be punch out. Punching Shear is a typical problem in flat plates. The shear
stress near the columns may be very high, requiring the use of special forms of slab
reinforcement. At exterior columns, where shear and moment transfer may cause difficulty, the
design can be improved by extending the slab past the column in short cantilever.
So, as we understand this failure of the flat plate is because of the shear and shear is potentially
very high in stress in the connection between the flat plate and the column. So, this shear failure
is one way or sometimes it is two way. If you see one-way shear failure, almost 45⁰ inclined
cracks will be appear in two opposite sides of the column. This kind of failure of slab is uniaxial
direction and it is called as a beam type shear failure. But there is two-way shear failure also.
Inclined crack occurs across the entire width of the slab in all the four sides of the column. It
involves a truncated cone or pyramid-shape surface around the column due to biaxial shear.
The angle of inclined face or pyramid shape surface varies 20⁰ to 45⁰. It is also called Punching
Shear Failure.
Those are the failures; but definitely there are some advantages of Flat Plate Structures. Some
of them are:
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• Easy workmanship, formwork installation and Reinforcement placement is easier.
• Flexibility in room layout: freedom in placing partitions, flexibility in gaining room
sizes, the false ceiling can be omitted.
• Controlled building height can be achieved through minimizing structural depth and
reduced floor to floor height.
• Prefabricated welded mesh can be used as reinforcement.
• Speedy construction.
Some disadvantages of Flat Plate Structures are:
• Span length is medium, not applicable for very long span, of more than 25’.
• Critical middle strip deflection beyond the serviceability limit.
• Higher slab thickness to control shear stress within limit.
• Not be suitable for heavy loads, leads to punching shear failure.
If we see the applications, the it is used in: Warehouses, offices, then the small parking lots,
auditoriums, residential buildings, industrial buildings and of course the industrial buildings
too.
In Figure-6, you can see one example of application of Flat Plate System. It is the parking lot,
Terminal-2, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport, Mumbai.
Figure 6 : parking lot, Terminal-2, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport, Mumbai
So, next let us discuss about the flat slab structure. The flat slab structures are as you know is
another type of beamless structure; but in this type we have a capital on the column, and
sometimes we can also go with the drop slab or sometimes the both. Now, the things change.
The span increases to, 20 to 30 feet instead of 10; and the overall a little bit of increment in the
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live load 4 to 7. Here, also we can go with that very simple formwork. As capital is introduced,
it will be definitely going in to increase the shear strain capacity, also give you a lot of
protection against the punching shear. Widely used for storage warehouses, parking space,
below grade structures, theatres, factories, mills and shopping complexes.
So, flat slab structure is of three types:
Figure 7 : the three types of Flat Slab Structure
One is called drop panel slab, in this the column capital is of square pad like shape. The next
is column capital slab, where the column is with a pyramidal shape capital. The third one is
drop panel and column capital slab; where the column capital is a combination of square pad
and pyramidal column capital.
The flat plate has some problem of punching shear; so, that there are three improvements with
the supports or capitals on top.
Figure 8 : images of the three types of flat slab structures
So, the flat slabs sections with the drop panel is something like that a square pad which is called
a drop panel is introduced in between the column and just below the slab which essentially
going to increase the effective thickness of the slab at that particular area. Where there will be
a load transfer, if there is a stress concentration that punching shear or the beam shear will
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destroy your thickness on the overall portion. So, as it is now thicker definitely the stress will
be less as you know that when the effective area is going to be high.
Figure 9 : flat slab with drop panel
So, in this case we can think of a 300 by 300 column with that 1500 that is mean that means
1.5 meter by 1.5 meter of drop.
So, in case of the flat slab with the column capital, so instead of the flat drop panel we can go
with a pyramidal capital. Based on intensity of shear stress developed at the slab-column
junction the size and shape of column capital is designed. It increases the shear strength of
the slab and reduces moment in the slab
Figure 10 : flat slab with a column capital
The overall influencing area is reduced a bit instead of the 1.5 meter, we can go with the 900
by 900 capital and column size remain suppose the same 300 by 300. Again, the same effective
increment in the slab thickness will occur near to the stress concentration area.
The third one is the drop panel with the column capital, if both are taken into account. This is
some of the hybrid kind, where we have a drop, we have a column capital.
Figure 11 : flat slab with column capital
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This increases the strength of the slab.
So, if this is a particular section in Figure- 12, then the slab thickness is almost about 200 mm,
which is a little thicker then with our normal RCC slab and this drop area which thickness is
again going to be additional 100 to 150 mm and there is a column capital whose width is almost
equal to 1500.
Figure 12 : section of flat slab with column capital
So, in this suppose the column spacing is 6 meter and this column strip will be of 3meters, 3
meter and 3 meters. On this this column strip portion, the portion of the slab will be governed
by the shear and this part again 3 meters in between the column, the middle strip 3 meters will
be under bending. We have to actually see that, if I want to increase the spacing of column up
to say 10 meters of this span, so we have to see that there is an increment of course all these
things. I mean, if the spacing is too wider, then the bending will be too high. So, I have to
increase the column strip and moderately reduce the amount of the middle strip such a way that
both the bending and the shear comes under control.
To do that, while we will bring that from 6 meters to 8 meters; 8 meters to 10 meters 10 meters
or to maybe 11, or 12 meters, you may go maximum and then you cannot actually be able to
adjust that particular column strips and middle strip. Because, if it is more than 10 or 12 meter
or so then the overall geometry of your this drop and column capital will be uneconomical, and
secondly it may not result to be very useful or may not be that much functional as it will have
huge drops in peripheral areas of the column.
The advantages of flat slab structure:
• The general and punching shear can be totally eliminated in flat slab structures.
• A wide span structural system can be achieved with higher floor to floor clear height.
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• Architectural design flexibility can be adopted.
• Building height can be controlled by eliminating the beam.
• Easier and economically viable shuttering can reduce the construction cost and time.
If we see the application part, then it is more useful because it does not have the beams. It os
mostly used in parking lots or multi layered or multi-level parking spaces, where beam
sometimes is a problem. If you remove beams, so you may actually introduce one more level
car parking over here. There are some images of parking spaces:
Figure 13 : Multi-level car parking at Chandigarh, with drop panels
Figure 14 : Parking, Palma de Mallorca City Centre, Spain
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Figure 15 : Millennium Lakeside Garage in Chicago
The flat slab structures can mostly be used for parking, railway stations, bus stands etc.
The references for this lecture have been taken from:
Publication
➢ Structure as architecture: A source book for architects and structural
engineers by Charleson, A. Elsevier/Architectural Press.
In conclusion I must say that:

• Flat Plate and Flat Slabs are the two types of Column- Slab combination,
generally adopted for functional and architectural need of the interior.
• The system is beam less and gives clean interior.
• Adding drop and capital flat slab increases its relative stiffness w.r.t flat plate.
This is the end of this lecture and in the next lecture we will go to the waffle slab and the
folded plate structural system. Thank you very much.
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Lecture No -35
Waffle Slab and Folded Plate Structures
Welcome to the online NPTEL certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture. Today
we are on the verge of module 7, the week 7 that is on the tensile and the plate structure and today
we will discuss lecture number 35 that is the last lecture on module 7, waffle slab and the folded
plate structure. If you remember in the last lecture. We introduced the plate and in that plate we
have also introduced the two typical variety of the plate and that is called a flat plate structure and
the flat slab structure. Today we will initially discuss on the waffle slab and then the folded plate.
So, the basic concepts to be covered are:
➢ Introduction to Waffle Slab
➢ Classification of Waffle Slab
➢ Grid Geometry of Waffle Slab
➢ Advantages of Waffle Slab
➢ Applications of Waffle Slab in Architecture
➢ Introduction to Folded Plate Structure
➢ Folded Plate Action
➢ Types of Folded Plate Structure
➢ Applications of Folded Plate Structure in Architecture
➢ Outline the Structural Concept of Waffle Slab and Folded Plate Structure.
➢ Illustrate the types, parts and functions of Waffle Slab and Folded Plate
Structure.
So, let us start with the introduction of a waffle slab. the waffle slab is one typical type of slab, or
we can say it as a plate, which are eventually made with the consistent monolithic beams.
Monolithic beams are regular and very common for all the slab. But in this case, it will be very
closely spaced concrete and the joist or the beams are monolithically casted with the slab. So, it is
a totally integrated system with the casting.
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When we cast a slab, there are two directional or maybe unidirectional, the members of the ribs or
that joist come together in action of that structural system. The waffle slab is also known as the
coffer slab. In Figure-1, a typical waffle slab is shown.
Figure 1 : waffle slab
So, what happened in the waffle slab, in case of this particular structural system of the waffle slab,
those densified beams or the ribs will actually effectively increase the depth of the structure. So,
what is actually mentioned over here, the depth of the structure will be increased effectively. The
geometry of the ribs will be governed by the total dead load, and overall span of the loading. As it
is a long span beams, because of that the deflection is too much and that is why the beams are
heavily reinforced. The ribs are kept as minimum of 125 mm wide and 900mm grid separation
distance. However, that can vary for different types of span and different type of loading criterias.
Now let us discuss about the type of waffle slab.
Figure 2 : types of waffle slab
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From structural point of view or the load action point of view, the waffle slabs can be divided
into two types. The first one is called the one-way joist system and the second one is the called
two-way joist system, as shown in Figure-2. The joists are nothing but those ribs or the densified
beams which are spaced very closely to each other to create a heavy deck.
In case of one-way joist system, the beam spanning is only in one direction, the ribs are very
slender in that case and this will actually support the slab. This is suitable for long span
applications. In case of long span application; economical range is almost about 30 to 50 feet and
those voids which creates as I told in the earlier slide, it will increase the effective depth or in other
way around if you see it will actually reduce the dead load. The electrical and the mechanical
services can be passed through the voids.
Figure 3 : the one-way joist system of waffle slab
In the right-hand side image of Figue-3, I have drawn the spacing, the spacing is almost about 900
mm, and the depth of the ribs will be like 225, 325, 425 mm like that; depending upon the amount
of loading and span. The beams are tapered or sometimes it may be rectangular, and that depends
upon the necessity of or demand of the interior. In general, on an average the ribs are around 125
millimeter wide. Whenever we have to transfer the load or discharge the load through a column,
we give a beam crossing the direction of one-way joists and the beam on top of columns will
actually bind the one-way joists.
Similarly, when the load is raised or span is increased; instead of going with the one-way system
we can go for two-way system. Here, the ribs are in both directions, and it is also suitable for long
span application. The economical range is almost 40 feet to 250 feet easily it can accommodate.
The voids, those grids can be used to reduce the deadload of the structure and it will give you a
very attractive ceiling appearance. Because those voids square or rectangular voids can create by
the virtue of the two way joist system and those voids can be utilize for interior decorations, better
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ceiling lighting etc. In case of one-way void system or one way a ribs system, what we have seen
is, through the long voids the service conduits (electrical, plumbing etc.) can be adjusted.
Figure 4 : two-way joist system
But in two-way system it is a bit difficult, and all such services either has to put below the slab or
else place it inside.
Now let us go to the grid geometry of the waffle slab. The grids of a two-way slab can be of
various types. Depending on the plan it can be classified as: Square grid, Rectangular grid, Skew
grid and Diagonal grid. The choice of grid pattern is decided based on the overall dimension of the
space and stiffness criteria. The square grids are easy to handle. The ribs intersect each other at an
angle of 90⁰. As it is square, the x dimension and y dimension of the grid is equal.
Figure 5 : grid geometry of two-way waffle slab
In skew grid system, the ribs do not intersect each other at 90⁰, resulting into skewed voids.
Sometimes we can go for diagonal square grids in which the grid is square grid but they are in 45⁰
orientation.
The waffle slab design is associated with three major parameters.
i. Geometry of Beam Pattern
ii. Grid Relationship to Lateral Space Enclosure
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iii. Consistency of Beam Grid Structure
The first one, the geometry of beam pattern is important while we are going to design the two-way
slab. Whether it will be a square grid, or rectangular grid, or oblique grid and what should be the
depth etc. should be a major concern.
The geometry of the beam pattern that we have just discussed that it may be oblique it may be
biaxial kind of a load transfer. The geometrical pattern of the ribs are considered for the load
transfer mechanism. For that, if we want to have a equal amount of area almost equal amount of
edges or equal amount of dimension for a particular area to be covered with the coffered slab, then
we go for either rectangular or square grid, which will transfer the load in the perimeter beam in a
biaxial action.
Figure 6 : the load transfer mechanism of two-way waffle slab
But the same area of the equal dimensions, or is more or less equal dimensions can be thought of
in a diagonal grid or oblique grid too. Then it will actually be going to give a two way of opposite
side two-way load share or it is also known as the one-dimensional load share. Sometimes we can
go with a hexagonal kind of an area which can actually come under the coffered slab with a
triangular grid pattern, in this case it transfers will be formed in that triangular load transfer as
shown in Figure-6. So, this geometry of the beam pattern which depends upon the grids or the
amount of area or the dimensions you have.
The grid relationship to the lateral space enclosure is another criteria where we can go for any kind
of a grid or we can choose any type of grid. As I have also discussed earlier that the enclosure area
if it is square you can go for any kind of rectangular or maybe oblique diagonal geometry. But if
the enclosure area is circular or maybe a kind of a hexagonal shape or if it is a narrow rectangular
shape, then we have to decide that which type of grid is required.
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Figure 7 : grid relationship to the lateral space enclosure
Next is the consistency of the grid of the structure, consistency of the grid of the structure is
something like that if we go further 1 degree ahead of thinking how the ribs dimensions will be,
so the first can be thought of a homogeneous grid where the ribs dimensions or spacing’s are all
equal absolutely there is no change. But next is a graded grid separator or primary grade or the
secondary grid also can be thought of. In the middle image of Figure-8, so if you see, there are
lines which are having the primary locations of the grid and those primary locations of the grid are
further subdivided to the smaller grids with the thinner ribs.
Figure 8 : consistency of beam grid structure
Finally, we can go for the concentric grid or centralized kind of a concentric grid. In that case, the
ribs are not in a perfectly oriented 90⁰. They are oriented in different shapes and finally the
dimensions or the length of the grid is gradually going to reduce and then finally go into the central
location or to the center.
Let us go to the advantage of the waffle slab. The advantages are:
• It is flexible.
• Speedy construction can be gained.
• Easy for services integration.
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• Gives good ceiling appearance.
• Robust and Durable.
• Fire-resistant.
• Cost effective for long spans.
The major applications are in:

• Airport
• Auditorium
• Large Halls: Gallery, Banquette
• Hotels
Now let us go to the application of the waffle slab in architecture. The master architect Louis khan,
one of his works if you see, it is in the Yale University art gallery, shown in Figure-9. Where he
has designed the waffle slab as exposed ceiling playing with the lighting for wonderful interior
design.
Figure 9 : the Yale University Art Gallery
The next one is from history of architecture, we have seen in the Pantheon, Rome which waffle
slab grid structure with a dome. The Chatrapati Shivaji International airport, Mumbai If you have
gone to that particular the airport, the columns are merged with coffered slab structure, looks very
interesting, and from a circular column the grids or the coffered slab is blooming out like
mushroom. Refer Figure-10.
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Figure 10 : examples of waffle slab structures
Now, we will go to the folded plate structure.

A folded plate is an example of a 3-dimensional or space structure made by composition of strips
of plates. The assemblies of flat plate components are rigidly connected together along their edges.
The geometrical profile of folded plate adds additional stiffness to the structural system. Also
called as form-resistant structure. Folded plate action is combination of transverse and longitudinal
beam action.
So, if you see the folded plate action, suppose there is a paper and there are two supports on two
ends, as shown in Figure-11. In the first case, the left-hand side image, the paper will bend because
of its own weight or self-weight.
Figure 11 : the folded plate action - I
But if you can just make the paper into multiple folds, then you put some weight on it then it will
be able to take its own weight and the additional weight. This kind of experiment you can do by
yourself.
Then, if you increase the load on it; if you just compare the Figure-11 and Figure-12, we see that
if you increase the load instead of the one if there are two such bars the whole system will fail
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because of the additional load on it. But if at the transverse direction or at the edges if you increase
the stiffness by the edge stiffener then it will become stronger. If you can add to such stiffener to
the folded the papers, it will again give you more rigidity.
Figure 12 : the folded plate action - II
Basically, if you go through these two figures, Figure11 and Figure-12, then you will see that the
same material almost with same span can take better load if it is folded. So that is why a folded
plate can be applied in longer spans instead of a flat plate.
So, what happened in this folded plate is if you see very carefully in Figure-13, the left-hand image,
those are the single plates and they are oriented in some angles, creating a triangular kind of a
folder trait. So, the bends and its corner are actually the stiffener, because of this bend you have a
stiffening effect and overall, the load carrying capacity of the system will increase.
Figure 13 : concept of folded plates
Why is it going to increase? Because it will act as a single slab and the effective depth of the slab
is virtually going to increase. Even if you not physically increase the slab depth but it will increase,
because of the folds in ups and down directions or the crest or the valleys. Those are the
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fundamental structural concept, where from the folded plate has been derived and it increases the
virtual depth of the structure. There are many applications of folded plates in architecture. There
are many examples in the nature also. The one of the things we will now going to discuss is the
coconut leaf.
Figure 14 : the folded plate example in nature-the coconut leaf
If you see very minutely a coconut leaf as shown in Figure-14, the right hand side image marked
as 1 and 2. If you see the section 1 it is a dense fold because it is very near to the end; and if you
take the section 2, it is a very flattered fold which is along the other free end of that coconut leaf
or the palm leaf. Now I have drawn a particular thematic diagram, the left-hand side image, where
those lines are actually going to represent the folds. The stem and the leaf joint is also shown
schematically, and it will have a cantilever action. So, it will have the fixed point, the support and
the free end; which is also shown schematically. Under the wind or any kind of the external loading
on the cantilever beam or this particular leaf, the bending moment diagram is like that. The bending
moment diagram is heavy near to the support or near to this particular Junction where the leaf is
actually started. Because of that, near this the support point is having a very high moment and at
the end it will have less moment. Now if you compare this flatter fold and the dense fold of this
particular leaf, the it has condensed folds near support, densely folded, more rigid and counter high
moment. Whereas towards the flatter end, it is tending flat, it is less rigid and counter less moment
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So, see the nature has also created the folded plate by virtue of the densified fold it can actually
resist high amount of moment, where as in the case of the flatter case, it is not that much capable.
Figure 15 : the actions on folded plates
In the folds, if you see a fold, the folds are actually having either a slab action or maybe a plate
action or maybe a truss action which I have described in the Figure-15.
Figure 16 : the typical load path of a folded plate
So, in the folds where there are truss actions, what happens is that at first the external forces which
is shown in red color arrows in Figure-16, will generate the membrane force, which as we have
discussed in membrane structure. The flow of the forces will generate the truss action on the
inclined plate and finally if you see those trust actions membrane forces are given in the blue color
arrows. Then finally from such plates those forces are accumulated in the lower most point lower
most point of the junctions and the black color arrows are generated, the forces are generated and
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finally they transmit the load to the structure. So, this is the typical load path of the folded plate.
The load path has been shared by the different plates and finally to the columns.
When we see the types of folded plates, there are three main types.
i. Folded Plate Surfaces
ii. Folded Plate Frames
iii. Spatial Folded Plate Structures
Folded Plate Surfaces:
So, this is the folded plate surfaces where it is only the roof surface or may be only typical one
surface is created by the folded plate, which is very common in case of any kind of industrial
structure may be a kind of a the bus stand or maybe sometimes in the railway stations also. In this
Figure-17 you can see that a roof has been generated by a triangular folded plate. If you see the
other surfaces like the other walls and all they are completely like straight forward walls.
Figure 17 : the folded plate surfaces
Folded Plate Frames:

Folded Plate Frame structures are formed by combining different shapes of plates in three planes
to represent a series of structural portal.
where there is not only the roof but also a frame that is the side members; the columns or maybe
the wall members are also generated with the folded plate. The geometry of the roof, the geometry
of the walls are clubbed together as a monolithic construction. The Figure-18 suggests that, the top
roof structure and the wall structure comes under the different folds having an integrated
geometrical pattern and this photograph is also of that type. The folded plates act as a wall and the
continuous folded plates also act as a roof.
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Figure 18 : folded plate frames
Spatial Folded Plate Structures:

Spatial Folded Plate Structures are formed by combining different shapes of plates in various
orientation to create a spatial form.
Here, it is designed with total space or total volumetric point of view a folded plate has been
designed. So, this particular Figure-19 is showing that so you can have a geometrical shape which
comes from the surface development of typical solid and we can use the different folds as a kind
of roof and also merging to the wall.
Figure 19 : Spatial Folded Plate Structures
If we see the application of the folded plate, it is most commonly used in:
• Industries
• Stadiums
• Airports
• Auditoriums
• Hotels
Now, let us go to some of the applications. The first example is the Delft Polytechnic, Netherland.
If you see the section view, as shown in Figure-20, its roof is made of typical folded plate resulting
to very high thickness. Here it needs a large span without columns. So, it has only in the peripheral
area where we can have the columns. But interestingly this particular auditorium is lifted from the
original ground level, and hence it is a race floor; and the raised floor is under action of a cantilever
beam merging out from the respective 2 or 4 columns in the four typical point.
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Figure 20 : Delft Polytechnic, Netherland
The 2 columns which are actually taking the cantilever box beam is also connected to each other
by a box structure. So, what we have discussed in the earlier presentation is that the balancing
moment or balancing kind of a structural system is also present over here.
The next example is a sports center of the Switzerland, where the folded plate is acting as a wall
also and also for the roof.
Figure 21 : The Sports Centre, Mulimatt, Switzerland
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Another example is of United States, Air Force Academy Chapel, where an overall space, whole
space is designed as a folded plate and those plates are interestingly designed. It is designed such
a way that there are some typical triangular openings and those openings are generated by virtue
of the different folded plate actions or the geometrical placement of the folded plate. Those
openings are finally dealt with the glass and those allows the natural light source.
Figure 22 : The United States Air Force Academy Chapel in Colorado, USA
The next example is of an airport. As I told you folded plates have applications in airports also
This is an airport from Russia, with mega columns. The columns are very huge and white cross-
sections are supporting the folded plate in and the folded plate is acting as a roof structure.
Figure 23 : Pullkovo Airport, Russia
So, this is Yokohama International Passenger Terminal, where a three-dimensional folded plate
has been used and the next one is the Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Stadium, Ahmedabad this is also
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very interesting. The seating gallery is camouflaged with the inclined folded plates and those ribs
if you see minutely observe, the ribs actually acts as column but it is designed as folded with plates.
Figure 24 : the folded plate structure
So, these are the reference of this particular lecture:

Thereby in conclusion I must say that:

Waffle Slab and Folded Plates are two unique types of plate structure. The load distribution and
transmission depend on the close association of beam and slab. It can be used as long span
structural system.
So, in the next lecture we will go to the module number eight and that will be our last module. In
that we will deal with the spatial structures.
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Prof.ShankhaPratim Bhattacharya
Indian Institute of Technology,Kharagpur
Lecture No -36
Special Structures
the 36th lecture and this is the first lecture of the module 8 or the week 8. And this lecture’s topic
is Temporary Structures.
Concepts Covered
 Tensigrity
 Pneumatic Structures
 Floating Structures
 Folding Structures
 Cost Effective Building Technology: Filler Slab
Learning Objectives
 Discussing the structural principles and application of various temporary structures.
 To outline the filler slab technology applicable as cost effective building technology.
Tensegrity
 Tensegrity is a special type of structural system comprising of elements subjected to
tensile and compressive forces. The word ‘Tensegrity’ can be break into Tension +
Integrity.
 It is one of the fundamental kind of structures, which was introduced in 1960s by the
master Architect Buckminster Fuller.
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 Tensegrity is a special kind of arrangement where the tensile and the compressive forces
are actually neutralize with each other.
 The structural principle of Tensegrity is based on the following two simple criteria:
i. A system of isolated compression members or discrete compression members.
ii. A continuous network of tension.
Figure 1 Tensegrity Concept
 Kenneth Snelson, a contemporary artist who was also a disciple of Buckminster Fuller
had created so many structural elements and demonstrated the tensegrity structural forms
through his constructive art form. His artwork is installed in various public buildings and
parks.
Figure 2The Needle Tower, Washington, USA

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Structural Examples
Kurilpa Bridge, Brisbane
 Kurilpa Bridge is the world’s largest hybrid tensegrity bridge.
 Only the horizontal spars conform to tensegrity principles.
 The Kurilpa Bridge is a multiple-mast, cable-stay structure based on principles of
tensegrity producing a synergy between balanced tension and compression components to
create a light structure which is incredibly strong.
 Members are loaded either in pure compression or pure tension.
 Pre-stressed tension cables allow the whole system to maintain the structural integrity.
 The structure becomes stronger as it is loaded.
 Due to the configuration of the structural elements, no member experiences bending
moment and shear force.
Figure 3Kurilpa Bridge
Photo Source:https://www.arup.com/projects/kurilpa-bridge
Pneumatic Structures
 Pneumatic Structure is a type of tensile membrane structure.
 The system component of Pneumatic Structure is supported by air, in the same manner
that of a balloon.
 The tensile stress in the membrane is executed by internal air pressure.
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Structural Principle
 Air higher than the atmospheric pressure support the envelope.
 Air locks or special types of doors help maintaining the internal pressure.
 A support system is required to maintain the continuous air pressure
 The structure is anchored to the ground.
 Every precaution is taken to stop any air leakage.
Classification of Pneumatic Structure

Pneumatic structures on the basis of nature of support system by high air pressurecan be
majorly classified into two types:
 Air Supported Pneumatic Structure
 Air Inflated Pneumatic Structure
Pneumatic structures on the basis of Profile can be classified into two types:
 High Profile Pneumatic Structure
 Low Profile Pneumatic Structure
Air Supported Pneumatic Structure

 Air is introduced inside the single layer flexible membrane profile higher the
atmospheric pressure.
 Under the high air pressure flexible membrane inflated to the given shape.
 The membrane produce tensile stress.
 Supporting cable system stabilizes the tensile stress created by the membrane.
 Finally the cable system is attached to the foundation to transmit the loading.
Internal Air Pressure

Single Layer Membrane
Foundation System
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Figure 4Single Layer Pneumatic Structure
Air Inflated Pneumatic Structure

 Air is introduced inside the double layer flexible membrane profile higher the
atmospheric pressure.
 The stiffener members (metallic plate) are also attached to specific locations.
 Under the high air pressure flexible membrane and stiffener positions are inflated to
achieve the given shape.
 The double layer membrane produce tensile stress.
 The double layer system can be used as roof covering directly.
 Otherwise supporting cable system stabilized the tensile stress created by the membrane.
Double Layer Membrane Air pressure between

two membranes
Foundation System
 Finally the cable system is attached to the foundation to transmit the loading.
Figure 5 Double Layer Pneumatic Structure
High Profile Pneumatic Structure

 It is a freestanding structure.
 The cover membrane is connected to a foundation system.
 It is mall in size.
 Whole system integrate to a bulky voluminous individual building form.
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Single Layer Double Layer
Figure 6Pneumatic Structure
Low Profile Pneumatic Structure

 It is mostly used as roof covering only.
 It is used for greater span and to cover large arenas like sports complex.
 Large in size.
 It is connected to other structural system to distribute the load.
 It is not connected directly to the foundation.
Figure 7 Low Profile Pneumatic Structure
Component of Pneumatic Structure

 Cover Membrane: Which generates the roof form and decides the shape of building.
 Supporting Cable: It stabilized the tensile action and transfers the load.
 Ground Anchorage System: It transmits the load to the foundation and ground.
 Air Pressure and ventilation Control System: It maintains the internal air-pressure in
order to keep the basic shape intact.
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Figure 8 Component of Pneumatic Structure
Advantages of Pneumatic Structures

 Pneumatic Structure is light weight.
 It can support a wide span.
 The cost of construction is low.
 The erection and dismantling operation can be executed rapidly.
 The pneumatic roof can allow good amount of daylight penetration.
 The structure is safe.
 Pneumatic structures are best for short term use.
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Disadvantages of Pneumatic Structures
 Pneumatic Structure cannot take live loads.
 The profile of Pneumatic roof is mostly curvilinear.
 It can be used for only single floor application.
 It can't withstand high wind load.
 It has relatively short life.
Application of Pneumatic Structure:

There are various applications of pneumatic structures some of them are listed below
i. Sports arena
ii. Recreational centres
iii. Military structures
iv. Emergency Disaster Management application
v. Storage of food and medicine
vi. Green houses and Horticulture
vii. Botanical Gardens
viii. Zoological Parks
ix. Exhibitions
x. Convention centres
xi. Survey Camps
Floating Structures
 Floating Structures are applicable in some special areas having specific requirement.
 This type of structures are constructed in marine environment.
 The special structural system allows the structure to float as per the level of water.
Structural Principle
 It should have a floating foundation system.
 The super structure load is balanced by buoyancy.
 The super structure should be light weight.
 Reduction in live load.
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 Float control adjustable mechanism should be adopted in the structure.
Figure 9 Floating structure where water level is steady
Figure 10 Floating structure where water level varies
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Figure 11 Change in water level
Application of Floating Structure

 Housing in the water logged area.
 Housing in the flood prone area.
 Water sports and recreation.
 Military structures.
 Emergency Disaster Management application.
Folding Structures
 Folding Structures are applicable for specific requirements.
 Folding structures are mostly mobile.
 This type of structures are constructed in small scale.
Structural Principle:
 The structural system adopts mechanical arrangements.
 The super structure should be light weight.
 It should be of modular type.
 Special design consideration should take for transportation of the structures.
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Working Principle:
 The entire structure is divided into various identical modules and these modules have
designed in a way that it can be folded into a very lesser form.These forms now can be
transported in trucks and lorry to the desired destinations.
 At the destination these forms now can be expanded to the designed shape and form.
Figure 12 Folding wall structures
Applications of Folding Structures

 Road side shops
 Medical assistance in rural areas
 Temporary structures in fair and public gatherings
 Movable toilets
 Emergency Disaster Management application
Cost Effective Building Technology: Filler Slab

 The filler slab a technology developed by the Architect Laurie Baker, and widely
practiced in Kerala, and then other parts of the country.
 This technology is based on the principle that for roofs which are simply supported, the
upper part of the slab is subjected to compressive forces and the lower part of the slab
experience tensile forces.
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 Concrete is very good in withstanding compressive forces and steel bears the load due to
tensile forces. Thus the lower tensile region of the slab does not need any concrete except
for holding the steel reinforcements together. Therefore in a conventional RCC slab lot of
concrete is wasted and it needs extra reinforcement due to added load of the concrete
which can otherwise be replaced by low-cost and light weight filler materials, which will
reduce the dead weight as well as the cost of the slab to 25% (as 40% less steel is used
and 30% less concrete).
 The filler slabs also result in fewer loads getting transferred to the load-bearing walls and
the foundations.
 The air gap in between the tiles makes it a good heat insulator and the ceiling looks
attractive as well.
Figure 3 Working Principle of Filler Slab
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Figure 14 Examples of Filler Slab
References
 Structure Systems By HeinoEnge, HatjeCantz Publisher
Conclusion
In conclusion I’d like to state the following:
 Pneumatic, floating and folding structures are essential and applicable in various
requirements.
 They are designated as a temporary type of structure.
 Filler slab can provide cost effective solution.
566

Lecture No -37
Building Foundaion
the 37thlecture and this is the second lecture of the module 8 or the week 8. And this lecture’s
topic is Building Foundation.
Concepts Covered
 Introduction of foundation
 Soil Bearing Capacity
 Types of Foundation
 Shallow Foundation
 Deep Foundation
 Reasons for Foundation Failure
Learning Objectives
 To discuss the fundamentals of soil Bearing Capacity.
 Outlining the shallow and deep foundation for building.
 Discussing the reasons for foundation failure.
Introduction of foundation
A specific field in Civil Engineering deals with building foundation and its design. It involves
two major area of study:
i. Soil Mechanics
ii. Foundation Engineering
1
Soil Mechanics deals with properties and parameters of soil to investigate the safe bearing
capacity, settlement analysis, consolidation etc.
567
Foundation Engineering deals with the design of different types of foundation system of
building and structures.
Soil Bearing Capacity

 The Bearing Capacity is defined as the capacity of the soil to support the imposed load.
 It is the maximum contact pressure that the soil can bear before it fails due to shear.
 It is expressed in t/m2 or KN/m2
Figure 1 Concept of load transfer in foundaion
The design of foundation is based on the fundamental of load transfer, in which the load which in
transferred from superstructure to the ground and from ground it is transferred to the foundation
where it follows the Newton’s Third Law of motion in order to balance out the contact pressure.
Hence to lower the intensity of the pressure the area of the pad is increased to provide stability to
the foundation.
Factors affecting the Bearing Capacity of Soil

 Type of Soil and its properties
a. Cohesive soils : Clay
2
b. Non-cohesive Soils: Sand
 Depth of water table
 Depth of Foundation
568
 Type of Foundation
Category Types of rocks and soils Presumed bearing value
Dense gravel or dense sand and gravel >600 kN/m²

Non-cohesive
Medium dense gravel, or medium dense
soils <200 to 600 kN/m²
sand and gravel
Loose gravel, or loose sand and gravel <200 kN/m²
Compact sand >300 kN/m²
Medium dense sand 100 to 300 kN/m²
Loose sand <100 kN/m²
Cohesive Very stiff bolder clays & hard clays 300 to 600 kN/m²
soils Stiff clays 150 to 300 kN/m²
Firm clay 75 to 150 kN/m²
Soft clays and silts < 75 kN/m²
Very soft clay Not applicable
Table 1 Soils types and their Bearing Capacities
Classification of foundation
Foundation can be basically classified into two types:
i. Shallow Foundation
 When depth (D) of the foundation is less than or equals to the width of the foundation
than it is classified into the shallow foundation.
 Wall footings, Isolated Column Footing, Combine Footing (Rectangular Footing, Strap
Footing, Grid Footing and Raft Foundation) are the general types. 3
ii. Deep Foundation
569
 When depth (D) of the foundation is very much high than the width of the foundation
than it is classified into the deep foundation.
 Pile Foundation, Well Foundation and Pier Foundation are its general types.
Figure 2 Classification of Foundation
Shallow Foundation
In general, the depth of a shallow foundation is less than its width. Shallow foundations are
commonly used as they are the most economical foundation system and are relatively easy to
construct.
Isolated Foundation
 Single foundation dedicated to a single column.
 Square or Rectangular in shape.
 Area of foundation should be such that the load should be safely distributed over the soil.
Column Load
Area of Foundation 
Soil Bearing Capacity
Example- If a column have a loading of 270KN and he soil has the bearing capacity of 90KN/m,
the area of the foundation can be given by further calculation.
570
 For a span of 4.5m these columns can be arranged in such a manner that, the gapbetween
the Foundation is (4.5-1.73) = 2.77m
If loading of the column is increased so in that case:

 Area of the foundation = 800/ 90 = 8.89 sq. m and the gap between the Foundation =
(4.5-3.0) = 1.5m.
 Which is too narrow Gap or there may be a case where foundations may overlap.
 So in such cases combined footing is created.
Combine Foundation or Rectangular Footing
 Combine Foundation or combined footing is provided when two columns are very close
enough to each other such that their footing overlap.
 When the load-bearing capacity of the soil is low, the requirement of more area under the 5
individual footing.
571
Example: Rectangular Foundation with two columns having differential loads and the soil
Bearing Capacity = 75KN/m2
So, 600x = 360 X2.5; x = 1.5m.

And,
Area of Foundation:
(600/75) = 8 m2
Keeping L: B=2:1
2B2= 8
B=2m, L=4m
And we also know that CG of the loading should coincide with CG of the footing. Therefore,
572
In another case,
If there is a limit of property line in the foundation, so there combined footings can be casted
withthe cantilever beam.
 And when the strata is uneven and there are so many undulations on site, so at that place 7
we can use an array of combined footings which are called Combine Foundation Grid
Footing.
573
Raft Foundation
Raft foundations or Mat foundations are basically slabs of concrete that sit on a firm, level bed of
soil and extend across the largest part or even the entire footprint of the build. Whilst these are
shallow foundations, they can provide much better stress distribution than conventional trench
footings. Because the weight of the building is spread across a much larger surface area than
with traditional trench footings or pile footings, the stress acting on the soil below is greatly
reduced.
574
Deep Foundation
When depth (D) of the foundation is very much high than the width of the foundation than it is
classified into the deep foundation. Pile Foundation, Well Foundation and Pier Foundation are its
general types.
Pile Foundation
 Pile is the common type of deep foundation.
 It is narrower in cross section and longer in length.
 It is inserted into the soil strata up to a required depth to transmit the load of the super
structure to soil.
 Pile foundations are also capable of providing stability against upliftment.
Pile foundation is proposed for the following conditions:

 Top soil having low bearing capacity.
 Foundation subjected to very high concentrated load.
 Building over marshy land.
 When raft foundation is not economical.
Types of Pile Foundations

There are various classifications of pile foundation.
Based on primary load transmission

i. End Bearing Pile
ii. Friction Pile
Based on Material
i. Concrete Pile
9
ii. Sand Pile
iii. Steel Pile
iv. Timber Pile
575
v. Composite Pile
Based on Function
i. Load Bearing Pile
ii. Sheet Pile
iii. Compaction Pile
iv. Anchor Pile
Based on Construction Method

i. Pre-cast Pile
ii. Cast-in-situ Pile
Parts of Pile Foundation
Pile consist of four main parts
i. Column – The member which transfer the load from superstructure to the ground.
ii. Pile Cap – It houses numbers of pile and connect the pile with the columns to the pile.
iii. Group of Pile – These are the group of pile (min. 3) which transfers he load to the
ground.
iv. Pile Shoe – It is the end of the pile which is sharp in nature.
10
End Bearing Pile
576
 The tip of the pile reaches to the hard strata and load transfer occurs at the tip of the pile
only.
Friction Pile
 The friction generated between the pile surface and the surrounding soil transfers the
load.
.Calculation
To calculate the depth of penetration ‘H’ in the bottom layer of a pile.
Given,
 Column Load 1200KN (4nos of Pile Group)
 Skin Friction (above layer): 20KN/m2
 Depth of the above layer of the soil – 5m
 Depth of the above layer of the soil – H (unknown)
 Skin Friction: 25KN/m2
Since there are 4 no. of pile so:
 Design load of One pile = 1200/4 = 300KN
 Let Diameter (d) of pile be 300mm
Formula
 Support load = 𝝅dL X Skin Friction 11
For top soil
 Support load = (𝝅×𝟎.𝟑×𝟓) X 20 = 94.5 KN
577
For bottom soil

Support load = (𝝅×𝟎.𝟑×H) X 𝟐5 = (300 – 94.5)
H=8.7m
Reasons for Foundation Failure

 Unequal Settlement
 Presence of Expansive Soil
 Rising of Water table
 Foundation damage by tree roots
 Foundation damage by rat holes
 Soil liquefaction due to earthquake
12
578
References
 Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering by K.R. Arora, Standard Publisher
Conclusion
 Bearing capacity of soil plays a key role about the foundation system of any structure.
 Shallow and deep are the two types of foundations generally used in buildings.
13
579

Lecture No -38
Structural System for High-rise Buildings-I
the 38th lecture and this is the third lecture of the module 8 or the week 8. And this lecture’s
topic is Structural System for High-rise Buildings-I.
Concepts Covered
 Introduction
 Interior System
 Rigid Frame System
 Vertical Shear Wall System
 Frame Shear Interaction System
 Outrigger Structures
Learning Objectives
 To discuss the fundamentals of High-rise building structural systems.
 Outlining the structural concept of Interior System.
Introduction
Till mid 1800’s the maximum height for the buildings was 4-6 stories due to several factors:
1. Too many steps to climb up & down daily
2. Masonry wall thickness is too high at base, eating up floor space
3. Framing could go up so high before become unstable in wind
1
Traditionally the function of tall buildings has been as commercial office buildings. Other usages
include residential, mixed-use, and hotel tower. Tall building development involves various
580
complex factors such as Economics, Aesthetics, Technology, Municipal Regulations, and

Politics. Among these, economics has been the primary governing factor.
The Bessemer Process was the first industrial

process for the mass-production of Steel from
molten pig iron. The inventor Henry Bessemer
took out a patent on the process in 1855.
Figure 1 Henry Bessemer
In 1857, Elisha Otis and the Otis Elevator

Company began manufacturing passenger
elevators. Invention of Elevator allowed
vertical transportation of people and goods
without stair.
Figure 2 Elisha Otis
The Early Skyscrapers

Chicago is the birthplace of the skyscraper. The Home
Insurance building (1885) in Chicago, (ten storied with 42
meter in height) is generally referred as the first high rise
building (Architect: William Jenney). The Home Insurance
Building was built followed by the Great Chicago Fire, 1871.
The physical envelope of construction was traditional load-

bearing system. Thick masonry external walls creates
comfortable indoor thermal environment. Large window and
2
high ceiling was provided to allow the daylight to the
Figure 3 The early skyscrapers
interiors. Maximizing the financial return over a fixed plot
581
size, initiates the development of modern high rise building in North America during mid-
nineteenth century.
Classification of Structural System of High-rise Building

The structural system of a high-rise building can be classified into the following categories:
 Interior System
The Interior system is categorized as an interior structure when the major part of the
lateral load resisting system is located within the interior of the building.
 Exterior System
If the major part of the lateral load-resisting system is located at the building perimeter, a
system is categorized as an exterior structure.
Interior System
The interior system can be further classified into the following categories:
 Rigid Frames System
 Vertical Shear Wall (or Shear Truss) System
 Frame Shear Interaction System
 Outrigger Structures
Rigid Frames System

Rigid Frame or moment-resisting frames (MRF) are consists of horizontal (girder) and vertical
(column) members rigidly connected together in a planar grid form. Such frames resist load
primarily through the flexural stiffness of the members. The size of the columns is mainly
controlled by the gravity loads. Progressively column sizes increases towards the base. The size
of the girders is controlled by stiffness of the frame to ensure acceptable lateral sway of the
building.
582
860 & 880 Lake Shore Drive Seagram Building (1958)

Apartments (1949) Manhattan, New York, 157 m, 38 Storied
Chicago, 82 m, 26 stories, Mies van der Rohe
Mies van der Rohe
Figure 4 Rigid Frames System 4
583
Vertical Shear Wall (or Shear Truss) System

In this system the structure of the whole building is structurally conceptualized as vertical steel
trusses, also called shear trusses. This system introduce braced frames for lateral support, which
resist lateral loads primarily through axial stiffness of the members.Vertical Shear Truss System
(RC coupled shear wall) can effectively resist lateral forces caused by wind and earthquakes.
They are treated as vertical cantilevers fixed at the base.
Figure 5 Vertical Shear Wall (or Shear Truss) System
584
Frame Shear Interaction System

Rigid Frame is not efficient for buildings over 30 storeys because the sway caused by the
bending of columns is excessive.
Vertical Shear Trusses alone provide

resistance up to 35 stories.
Figure 6 Rigid Frame System Vs Vertical Shear Truss System
When vertical Shear Trusses are combined with Rigid Frame, the intermediate system results in
a common deflected shape of the structure.
Figure 7 Frame Shear Interaction
585
Figure 8 Structural details
If the frame shear interaction structure were to be compared with a human body then the inner
shear truss would be the spinal cord and the outer rigid frame would be the rib-cage.
Figure 9 Comparison with the human body
586
The Empire State Building (1931) 311 South Wacker Drive (1949)
New York, 381m, 102 Storied Chicago, 293 m, 65 storied
Figure 10 Examples
Outrigger Structures
The outriggers are generally in the form of horizontal trusses in steel structures, or walls in
concrete structures. Outriggers serve to reduce the overturning moment in the building core that
would otherwise act as pure cantilever.
Figure 11 Outrigger structures
587
Figure 12 Structural Details
Figure 13 With and without outrigger bracing
Outrigger systems have been historically used by sailing ships to help resist the wind forces in
their sails.
9
588
Figure 14 Historical use of outriggers
Taipei 101(2004) Jin Mao Building (1999)

Taiwan, 509 m, 101 Storied Shanghai, China, 421 m ,88 Stories
Figure 15 Examples
10
589
References
 Structural Developments in Tall Buildings: Current Trends and Future Prospects
by Ali, M.M., Moon K.S. (2007) Architectural Science Review.
 Architecture of Tall Buildings, Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat
Monograph by Ali, M.M., Armstrong,(1995),McGraw-Hill.
 Tall Buildings, Structural Systems and Aerodynamics Form by Gunel. M.H., Ilgin.
H.M., Routledge.
 Structural Analysis and Design of Tall Building, Steel and Composite construction,
Taranath. B. S., CRC Press.
Conclusions
Finally, I’d like to conclude by stating that the structural system of high-rise building is
developed and based on gravity and lateral load resisting concept. The high-rise structural system
is classified into two ways: Interior and exterior system type. Interior system of structure mainly
depends upon rigid frame and shear core.
11
590

Lecture No -39
Structural System for High-rise Buildings-II
the 39th lecture and this is the pen-ultimate lecture of the module 8 or the week 8 and also the
course per se. And this lecture’s topic is Structural System for High-rise Buildings-II.
Concepts Covered
 Introduction
 Exterior System
 Frame Tube System
 Braced Tube System
 Tube-in-tube System
 Bundle tube system
Learning Objectives
• Outlining the structural concept of Exterior System.
• To discuss the development of tubular structural system.
Introduction
Fazlur Rahman Khan (1929 -1982) born in

Dhaka, a Bangladeshi-American Structural
engineer is regarded as Father of Modern
Skyscrapers. 1
Figure 1 Fazlur Rahman Khan (1929-1982)
591
According to Khan, the relation between the height of the building, loading and the average
weight of structural steel can be given by the following graph.
Figure 2 Graph showing the relation between height of building, loading and the average weight of structural
steel
Exterior System
If the major part of the lateral load-resisting system is located at the building perimeter, a system
is categorized as an exterior structure.
It is desirable to provide lateral load-resisting system components as far as possible on the

perimeter of tall buildings to increase their structural depth. Tubes are known as basic exterior
structures. It can be defined as a three-dimensional structural system utilizing the entire building
perimeter to resist lateral loads.
592
Classification of Exterior System
Figure 3 Classification of exterior system
Frame Tube System

In a frame tube system a building has closely spaced columns and deep spandrel beams rigidly
connected together throughout the exterior frames. Depending upon the structural geometry and
proportions, exterior column spacing should be from 5 to 15ft (1.5 to 4.5m). Practical spandrel
beam depths should vary from 24 to 48in (600 to 1200mm). Resulting structural organization is
the lateral load resisted by the whole tube.
Figure 4 Frame Tube System
593
Water Tower Place (1975), Aon Center (1973) WTC(1971) New York,
Chicago, 262 m, 74 stories Chicago, 346 m, 83 stories 417m, 110 storied
Figure 5 Examples of Frame Tube System
Braced Tube System

It is possible to stiffen the building Structure by introducing diagonal braces. Introduction of
Diagonals also increases the spacing of columns in frame tube. The diagonals participate in dual
role action as it collects gravity loads from floors as inclined columns also act as a stiffener in
case of lateral loads.
4
Figure 6 Impact of load action on bracing
594
Figure 7 Braced Tube System
John Hancock Center (1970), Chicago, Onterie Center (1986), Chicago, 5

344 m ,100 stories 174 m ,58 stories
Figure 8 Examples of Braced Tube Structure
595
Tube in Tube System

The stiffness of a Framed Tube can be further enhanced by using a core tube to resist part of the
lateral load resulting in a tube-in-tube system. The floor diaphragm connecting the core and the
outer tube transfer the lateral loads to both the systems. It is also possible to introduce more than
one tube inside the perimeter tube.
Figure 9 Tube in tube system
6
181 West Madison Street (1990)
Chicago, 207 m , 50 stories
Figure 10 Example of Tube in Tube System
596
Bundled Tube System

In tall buildings with larger floor areas, simple frame tube system becomes a very uneconomical
structural solution. To overcome this, many frame tubes are symmetrically grouped together to
create larger floor space. Further, these grouping of frame tubes (called bundled tubes) actively
participate to transmit the super-structure load to the ground as well as provide the lateral
stability against the transverse loading.
PLAN SECTION VIEW

Figure 11 Bundled Tube System
7
Sears Tower (1973), Chicago, Burj Khalifa (2010), Dubai, 828m, 163
442 m,108 Stories habitable floors plus 46 maintenance levels
Figure 12 Examples of Bundled Tube System
597
Diagrid
Almost all the conventional vertical columns

are eliminated. This is possible because the
diagonal members in diagrid can carry gravity
loads as well as lateral forces. The distribution
of load is possible in uniform manner due to
the triangulated configuration.
Figure 13 Diagrid
Hearst Building (2006), New York, Swiss Re Building (2004), London,

182m, 46 Stories 181m, 41 Stories 8
Figure 14 Examples of Diagrid
598
Exo-skeleton
In exoskeleton structures, lateral load-resisting

systems are placed outside the building lines
away from their facades. The system is
associated with other conventional types. Due
to the system’s compositional characteristics, it
acts as a primary building identifier.
Figure 15 Exo-skeleton
Hotel de las Artes, Barcelona, Spain Burj Al Arab, Dubai

9
Figure 16 Examples of Exo-skeleton
599
Super Frames
A super-frame is composed of mega columns comprising of braced frames of large dimensions at
the corners of the building. Like Exo-skeleton, the system is also associated with other
conventional types. The mega columns are usually linked by multi-storey trusses at about every
15 to 20 storeys.
Parque Central Tower (1979)

Caracas, Venezuela, 221 m ,56 stories
Figure 17 Super Frames
References
 Structural Developments in Tall Buildings: Current Trends and Future Prospects
by Ali, M.M., Moon K.S. (2007) Architectural Science Review.
 Architecture of Tall Buildings, Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat
Monograph by Ali, M.M., Armstrong,(1995),McGraw-Hill.
10
 Tall Buildings, Structural Systems and Aerodynamics Form by Gunel. M.H., Ilgin.
H.M., Routledge.
600
 Structural Analysis and Design of Tall Building, Steel and Composite construction,
Taranath. B. S., CRC Press.
Conclusions
In conclusion, I’d like to state that in a high-rise building structural system, structural intensity in
terms of material use is increased with the increase in its height. Exterior system of structure is
mainly dependent upon tubes.
11
601

Lecture No -40
Structural Detailing
Welcome to the NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture. This
is the 40th lecture and this is the last lecture of the module 8 or the week 8 and also the course
per se. And this lecture’s topic is Structural Detailing.
Concepts Covered
 Introduction
 Detailing of Beam
 Detailing of Column
 Detailing of Foundation
 Detailing of Slab
Learning Objectives
 Introducing the needs for detailing.
 Outlining the general details of common structural elements.
Introduction
Detailing is the final stage that comes after the structural design. It incorporates the standard
rules and procedure needed to be followed after the design of any structural element is
completed.
The detail of reinforcement or rebar depends upon the following important factors:
• Strength of concrete and steel
1
• Condition of support system
• Types of loading types (static or dynamic)
602
• Bonding and development length

• Curtailment of reinforcement
• Standard of ductility in structural element
In India the “Handbook on Concrete Reinforcement and Detailing” (SP-34) is followed for RCC
structures.
Necessity of Structural Detailing

 It provides a common benchmark to apply the design findings.
 It provides a common uniformity across a nation (region) to specify the design output in a
standard form.
 It can bypass many more in depth calculations in design stage and reduce the effort of the
design process.
 The details are printed in drawing sheets and send for execution.
 It is not possible to quantify the exact amount and cost of steel and concrete in the project
without detailing of structural items.
Detailing of Beam
Spacing Between Main Reinforcement
Longitudinal Reinforcement
The following rule shall apply for the minimum distance between individual bars:
 The horizontal distance between two parallel bars shall be usually not less than the following:
 Diameter of the bar, if the diameters are equal;
 Diameter of the larger bar, if the diameters are unequal; and
 5mm more than the nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate.
 Where there are two or more rows of bars, the bars shall be vertically in line and the
minimum vertical distance between bars shall be 15 mm or two-thirds the nominal maximum
size of aggregate or the maximum size of the bar, whichever is greater. 2
603
Figure 1 Spacing of reinforcements
Side Face Reinforcement

Where the depth of the web in a beam exceeds 750 mm side face reinforcement shall be provided
along the two faces. The total area of such reinforcement shall be not less than 0.1 percent of the
web area and shall be distributed equally on two faces at a spacing not exceeding 300 mm or web
thickness whichever is less.
Figure 2 Side face reinforcement
Shear Reinforcement: Stirrups

 Use Of Multi-Legged Stirrups: Multi-legged stirrups are required from the
consideration of shear stresses in the beam, or where restraint against the buckling of bars
in compression is needed. The rules for stirrups reinforcing steel in compression are the
3
same as those for columns. The vertical stirrups may be provided as two-legged stirrups,
four-legged stirrups or six-legged stirrups at the same section according to actual
604
requirements. Open type stirrups may be used for beam-slab construction where the
width of rib is more than 450 mm.
 Maximum Spacing: The maximum spacing of shear reinforcement measured along the
axis of the member shall not exceed 0.75d for vertical stirrups and d for inclined stirrups
at 45°, where d is the effective depth of the section under consideration. In no case shall
it exceed 450 mm.
Figure 3 Different shapes of stirrups
Anchoring of Stirrups
A stirrup in the reinforced concrete beam shall pass around or be otherwise adequately secured to
the outermost tension and compression reinforcement, and such stirrups should have both its
ends anchored properly in any one of the fashion detailed in the following figure. In T-beams
and I-beams, such reinforcement shall pass around longitudinal bars located close to the outer
face of the flange.
605
Figure 4 Different ways of anchoring ends of stirrups
Requirement of Reinforcement
Figure 5 Reinforcement requirements for beams 5
606
Reinforcement Curtailment Rule
Figure 6 Simplified curtailment rules for continuous beams
Detailing of Column
Reinforcement Spacing Requirement
Longitudinal Reinforcement
In a reinforced column, the area of longitudinal reinforcement shall not be less than 0.8% nor
more than 6% of the gross cross-sectional area of the columns.
The area of longitudinal reinforcement should normally not exceed 4% of the gross cross-
sectional area of the column. This percentage can be considered as the maximum from practical
considerations.
However, where bars from one column have to be lapped with those of another column above,
the total maximum percentage of 6% may be allowed at the lapping. Proper placing and
compacting of concrete should be ensured at the place of lapping.
A minimum number of four bars shall be provided in a column and six bars in a circular column
with helical reinforcement. 6
607
The bars shall be not less than 12 mm in diameter and spacing of the bars along the periphery of
the column shall not exceed 300 mm.
Arrangement of Ties
Pitch and Diameter of Lateral Ties
Pitch: The pitch of the transverse reinforcement shall not be more than the least of the following
distances:
 The least lateral dimension of the compression member.
 Sixteen times the smallest diameter of the longitudinal reinforcing bar to be tied, and
 48 times the diameter of the transverse reinforcement.
Diameter: The diameter of the polygonal links or lateral ties shall not be less than one-fourth of
diameter of the largest longitudinal bar, and in no case less than 5mm.
608
Figure 7 Pitch and diameter of lateral ties
Detailing of Foundation
Typical Detail of Isolated Footing
Figure 8 Typical detail of isolated footing
609
Detailing of Slab
Typical Detail of One way Slab
Figure 9 Typical detail of one-way slab
610
Typical Detail of Two-way Slab
Figure 10 Typical detail of a two-way slab
References
 Handbook on Concrete Reinforcement and Detailing” (SP-34), BIS
Conclusion
Finally, I’d like to conclude with the following statements.
Detailing of structure is considered as the final stage of design process. It links the design
output and the actual application at site. It is a very important stage; a structure may collapse due
to good design but poor detailing. 10
611
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IS NOT FOR
SALE
NOR COMMERCIAL USE
(044) 2257 5905/08

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INDEX

3 Moment, Couple & Static Equilibrium 31

4 Supports and Reactions 48

5 Structural Loading and Support Reactions 65

7 Theory of Elasticity-2 100

8 Shear Force Diagram 121

9 Bending Moment Diagram 147

11 Bending Stress in Beam -I 181

12 Bending Stress in Beam -II 198

13 Bending Stress in Beam -III 214

14 Shear Stress in Beam 230

16 Deflection of Beams 263

17 Indeterminate Beams 282

20 Structural Design 325

21 Introduction to Truss 342

22 Analysis of Truss-1 355

23 Analysis of Truss-2 373

26 Introduction to Arch 424

27 Structural Principle and Application of Arch 436

28 Shell Structures 448

30 Structural Concept and Application of Dome in Architecture 471

31 Cable Supported Structures 483

32 Membrane Structures 498

34 Flat Plate and Flate Slab Structures 528

35 Waffle Slab and Folded Plate Structures 538

36 Temporary Structures 554

38 Structural System for High-rise Buildings-I 580

39 Structural System for High-rise Buildings-II 591

40 Structural Detailing 602

The tentative course outline is as follows:

Figure 1: the structural system

Figure 3: towers and bridges

Figure 4: structural configuration

Figure 5: structural configuration and behaviour

Figure 7: frames and trusses

Figure 8: space frames

Figure 9: arch and vault

Figure 11: domes

Figure 13: plate structure

Figure 15: stability

Figure 16: serviceability

Figure 17: durability

Figure 18: the aesthetics

Figure 19: about the course

So welcome to this NPTEL online certification course on Structural Systems in Architecture.

Figure 1: classification of mechanics

Figure 2: relation of mechanics with structural engineering

Figure 3: application of force

Figure 4: force systems

Figure 5: classification of force system

Figure 6: forces and line of action

Figure 7: concurrent forces

Figure 8: coplanar forces

They are called as coplanar forces, coplanar forces of non-concurrent type.

Figure 10: concurrent but non-coplanar force

Figure 12: non-coplanar parallel force

Good morning students. Welcome to NPTEL online course on Structural Systems in

Figure 1: force, distance, and moment

Figure 4: resultant of force system in coplanar force

Figure 6:the forces and the resultant

Figure 7: forces perpendicular to each other and its resultant

Figure 8: resultant of two perpendicular forces

Figure 10: resultant force: coplanar parallel forces

Figure 11: resultant of force: cos and sin component