Aircraft Structure-Anup Ghosh PDF

INDEX
S. No Topic Page No
Week 1
1 Introduction 1
2 Introduction (Cont'd) 14
3 Introduction (Cont'd) 26
4 Load Encountered by a Typical Aircraft 45
5 Conceptual Structural Details of a Typical Aircraft 54
6 Airworthiness of An Aircraft 69
7 Aerodynamic Loads and Load Factors 88
8 Loads From A Symmetric Manoeuvre Of An Aircraft " 104
9 Shear and Moment on Wing An Aircraft 118
10 Distribution Of Load On The Fuselage 130
Week 2
11 Unit Load Analysis Of Fuselage 148
12 Truss System 162
13 Truss System (Contd.) 175
14 Space Structures 189
Week 3
15 Space Structures (Contd.) 203
16 Wing Truss System " 217
17 Introduction to Energy Methods 224
18 Dummy and Unit Load Method 242
19 Dummy and Unit Load Method - Examples 258
Week 4
20 Castigliano's Theorems 271
21 Rayleigh - Ritz Method 279
22 Statically Indeterminate Structures 290
23 Theory of Elasticity - Stress 302
24 Theory of Elasticity - Equilibrium 314
Week 5
25 Stress Transformation and Principal Stress 329
26 Theory of Elasticity - Principal Stress Boundary Condition 347
27 Shear Stresses 356
28 Introduction of Strain 368
Week 6
29 "Introduction of strain - Equations of compatibility" 380
30 Formulation of Elasticity Problems 394
31 Inverse Method of Solution 403
32 Semi-Inverse Method of Solution 415
Week 7
33 Equilibrium Equation in Polar Coordinate System 429
34 Compatibility Condition in Polar Cordinate System 441
35 Effects of Circular Hole on Stress Distributions in a Plate 451
Week 8
36 Effects of Circular Hole on Stress Distributions in a Plate 462
37 "Effects of Circular Hole on Stress Distributions in a Plate " 473
38 Theory of Elasticity - Torsion Problems 485
39 Theory of Elasticity - Torsion Problems (Contd.) 494
40 Torsion of an Elliptical Bar 505
41 Membrane Analogy for Torsion Problem 519
42 Membrane Analogy for Torsion Problem (Contd.) 531
Aircraft Structures - I
Prof. Anup Ghosh
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Kharagpur
Module – 1
Lecture – 1
Introduction
Welcome to aircraft structures one course. Myself professor Anup Ghosh from the aerospace
engineering department of IIT Kharagpur. This is the first lecture in that series to introduce
with you the aircraft structures, better we look into some video. (Video Starts: 00:46) video
options like this though it may not look good to bring the detail of aircraft structure at the first
slide, but this is the other way I feel better because it gives us the insight of the structure.
In a general sense, if we talk about structures, this is an assembly of elements which has load
externally applied loads or and a self-load of weight also or the weight which it is having on
its own. This particular example if we look at, this example is actually a double-decker
aircraft fuselage cross-section. This may not match exactly with any commercial aircraft, but
these aircraft fuselage section has been created in CAD software and it is created to give a
better feeling before we start the aircraft structures course.
If you look at it, the most predominant thing is that the structure is no way solid in nature.
This is build up thin sections and there are two decks. Below portion, if you look at, this
portion where generally cargo goods those things are placed. This portion and as well as this
portion if you look at, this and this usually really passengers are carried, that is why windows
are provided here, even doors are also provided here and this is the normal way it is done.
(Video Ends: 02:43)
So another video I would like to show you in this regard that is again a representative wing
structure. In this, we will see different sections of the wing like the ribs, the spars. (Video
Starts: 03:04) In this, what we see is that these shapes which are we say airfoil shape, these
maintain the shape of the wing. These sections are known as spars and that way, these are all
built from thin work sections.
These are the aim of our study how each and every part is designed or analyzed. (Video
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Ends: 03:33) But before we start into that analysis and design, we would like to go to the
basics of the solids mechanics.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:40)
So in that concern to go through the basics of solid mechanics, it is better to go through the
evolution of solid mechanics on the other way we may say that it is the history of solid
mechanics and since we cannot disassociate aircraft structure from solid mechanics, so it is
also the history of aircraft structures as well.
This is a very interesting one. I really feel encouraged looking at this one. This may be the
first point or noted point in the history while someone did some experiment to find out
properties of a material. So if you look at the slide, this is an introduction to flight vehicle
structures. Definitely, it is a common title for this portion, but basically now what we will do
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we will consider a brief history of structural mechanics and or solid mechanics as we said.
The history of structural mechanics or solid mechanics is as old as civilization. So this

statement I have put at first because you know anything we do even if we sleep on a cot that
is a structure. So whatever we do, even if we think of the invention of the wheel that is also a
structure, anything, we can imagine anything. If we think of an axe that axe is also a
structure, that handle of the axe has somebody thought of its strength, somebody thought of
its size, and then he designed it.
So if you think of a spear that is also a structure, so looking at that point of view, it is really
as old as the civilization is but the similar way if we look at the noted down history or the fast
documented investigation that is done by Leonardo da Vinci though Leonardo da Vinci is
much more famous with arts and sculptures and paintings all those things, we are familiar
with Mona Lisa, but see he is the person who did experiments with these things also.
If we look at the setup, this is a very nice interesting setup. This is a bag c, c is a bag full of
sand, b is a bucket and the string ab which is connected or from the horizontal bar is going to
be tested. So what is happening? From the bucket c, sands are coming to the bucket b and at
some point of time slowly as the load will increase as the amount of sand will increase, it will
exert more force on the string and we can find out, we can estimate a measure of how much is
the strength of the string ab.
So this may be considered that the string or wire whatever, we say the wire ab how much is
the strength. So this is the first noted point. We can say that this is the first tensile testing of
material. So this is a really notable thing, we should honour him with giving him credit, but
after this, we will go to the other portions, other portions like the history how we have come
across all these analysis design and other aspects of solid mechanics and analysis of aircraft
structures.
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So we have segmented this lecture. I have planned the lecture in 3 segments. We were first
considering the elasticity, stress and strain. So if we look at it if you go to the previous slide,
please note the time it is something in the mid of or late of 15th century. Then what happens,
we denoted scientist or physicist, when we say that time everyone was physicists, so Galileo
Galilei may introduce the concept of stress.
Concept of stress through the experimental observation of tensile testing of bar breaking is
independent of length and dependent on the cross section. So it is something considered that
Galileo Galilei is the person who first established the correlation between the length and cross
section with respect to their breaking load. So he concluded that breaking is independent of
length and it is dependent on the cross section.
Various experiments on stone beams also he did. He did a lot of experiments on stone beams.
Next, if we look at it is say maybe in the 17th century, mathematical and physical studies are
first carried out by Isaac Newton with the introduction of laws of motion. This is very
famous, we have heard anyways, three famous laws, we would not spend much time on that.
These are quite available in books, and we are very aware of it. Next, if we look at Robert
Hooke, now we always say it is Hook’s law.
So what did Robert Hooke said? Robert Hooke and E Mariotte in 1680 observed that
displacement is proportional to the applied load for many materials. So this is a very very
common observation for us nowadays, but they first noted down this observation. About
James Bernoulli, he is one of the famous Bernoulli family physicists. James Bernoulli noted
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down in his last publication in the year 1705 that proper way of describing deformation was
to give force per unit area or stress.
As a function of the elongation per unit length or strain of a material fiber under tension. It is
something he is the person first said that there might be two terms or two way we can define,
one is with respect to the force per unit area, and the other is with respect to the material fiber
under tension, so elongation per unit length.
Then it comes about Leonhard Euler, proposed the linear relationship between stress and
strain in 1727 sigma is equal to E epsilon ( E )and this may be noted at this point of
time that it may be noted that constant E is named after Thomas Young as Young's modulus
in 1807. So if we see what we generally say stress-strain relation sigma is equal to E epsilon
for that only there is the contribution of Leonhard Euler, there is the contribution of
Bernoulli, there are contributions from Robert Hooke and Mariotte.
So later if we look at the internal tension acting across surfaces in a deformed solid was
expressed by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1684 and James Bernoulli in 1691. Now with
probably you have come across the mechanics course in your first year, maybe in your first or
second semester this is quite familiar to us that there are something internal stresses, internal
tension acting across the surface, there are stresses which acts internally within a body but see
that was first noted down by Leibniz Ian Bernoulli in 1691.
Bernoulli and Euler introduced the idea that at a given section along the length of a beam
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there were internal tensions amounting to a net force and a net torque. So, they tried to make
some correlation between the net force and torque and internal tensions. Euler introduced the
idea of compressive normal stress as the pressure in a fluid. He again did further calculations
for that proposition and he said that there is something compressive normal stresses also.
It is compressive in nature and that may be considered may be said as the pressure in case of
fluid. Charles-Augustine Coulomb more popularly known as Coulomb was apparently the
first to relate the theory of beam as a bent elastic line to stress and strain in an actual beam.
So he is the person who first assumed that, he proposed that the bent elastic line has a relation
with the stress-strain of the actual beam.
My
He developed the famous expression sigma is equal to M cross y by I ( ). This
I
expression is really very very good and we use it, you have done in your mechanics course all
problems with this but it got introduced sometime in the late 18th century. He developed the
famous expression sigma equals to M by I multiplied by y for the stress due to pure bending
of a homogeneous linear elastic beam.
So this formula holds for pure bending and he established this. Shear stress, the concept of
shear stress probably you have now but it was a say concept by Parent, later implemented in
soil mechanics by Coulomb in 1773.
Then we say a lot of contribution is done from Augustin Cauchy. Augustin Louis cost
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Cauchy in 1822 formalized the stress concept in the context of a general 3-dimensional
theory, and he showed that its properties as consisting of 3 by 3 symmetric array of numbers
that transform as a tensor, derived the equation of motion for continuum in terms of
components of stresses and gave the specific development of the theory of linear elastic
response for isotropic solids. This is really a big sentence for us to study now.
There are terms which are probably we are not familiar with like the continuum, equation of
motion for a continuum, 3 by 3, symmetric area of numbers which is actually a tensor, so but
see it is better to get introduced with these things because we will be using in our later
courses or maybe in a very brief way in this present course. As part of this work, Cauchy also
introduced the equation which expresses the six components of strain, three extensional and
three shear.
In terms of derivatives of displacements for the case when all these derivatives are much
smaller than unity. So this is del u del x equals to ɛ of x that is what he said.
He is in the year 1822 or in the close year he proposed that and it was continuing. So this is
something we will come back again about the further development of this continuum
equation, who did what, but before that, we better get introduced with these things which are
related to the beams, columns, plates and shells development.
Development in the sense analysis development, how those analyses were being slowly
developed by the famous physicist.
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James Bernoulli if you look at proposed in his final paper in the year 1705 that curvature of a
beam is proportional to the bending moment. This we know that M by EI is equalled to 1 by
rho and we can also see that Euler in 1744 and Daniel Bernoulli, he is also from that
Bernoulli family in 1751 used the theory to address the transverse vibration of beam.
Transverse vibration of beam is if we have in interest to look at the response of a vibrating
structure.
The first thing we generally study is a single degree freedom system, but invariably it goes to
the beam vibration. That means if it is under dynamic load or it is vibrating because of its
inertia how the response is, all those things were first introduced in 1751. Euler gave in 1757
his famous analysis of buckling or buckling of an initially straight beam subjected to
compressive loading. This Euler buckling formula already we are introduced with.
Buckling is a kind of instability and we need to understand it, we need to find out the critical
load so that structure does not go to any unstable region and it serves its purpose of carrying a
load. Daniel Bernoulli and Euler in 1742 and in 44 introduced the strain energy per unit
length for a beam proportional to the square of its curvature and regarded the total strain
energy as the quantity analogous to the potential energy of a discrete mechanical system.
So if we look at this statement, this is a very important development, this may be the
fundamental of today's numerical analysis. He said that the strain energy per unit length is
analogous to the potential energy. So this may be considered as the first statement for the
analysis with respect to the energy we will see, many more other things are also developed
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and that slowly has invented the process of numerical methods like finite element methods.
Following from the principle of virtual work as introduced by John Bernoulli, Euler rendered
the energy stationary and in this way developed the calculus of variations as an approach to
the equations of equilibrium and motion of elastic structures. So this energy stationary and
the calculus of variation, these are the two fundamental mathematical tools which further laid
down the process of invention of finite element analysis or other numerical methods and
approximate methods what we generally learn.
So we were talking about the variational approach. Variational approach played really a
major role in the development of the theory of small transverse displacements and variations
of elastic plates and this point of time it is better to get introduced with the plates in structural
analysis or in structures, and we generally call a structure plate while the anyone of the
dimension is very very thin compared to its other two-dimension.
So if we see if we consider a rectangle like this and say if the thickness of this rectangle is
very small with respect to its other two dimensions, say this is a this is b, we call this as a
plate and curvature we say it is of an infinite radius of curvature, while it is having some
curvature that case we call that structure as a shell. So predominantly, we have much use of
plates and shells in our aircraft structures, so this is an important structure in our case and we
will see how we will analyze those things slowly.
So this theory was developed in preliminary form by Sophie Germain and partly improved
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upon by Simeon Daniel Poisson in the year 1810. They considered a flat plate as an elastic
plate which resists curvature, that means probably they try to mean the bending. Navier gave
a definitive development of correct energy expression and governing differential equation a
few years later.
So if you see already, we have come across with respect to the energy, with respect to the
variational calculus, many names like Navier, like Poisson, like that name Sophie Germain.
Before that, we have already heard about Bernoulli, Euler and many more. So let us go
further. Problems related to the definition of twisting moment and shear force was finally
resolved in 1850 by German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff.
Kirchhoff also has done many works in relation to plate in some advanced stage, we
generally say Kirchhoff’s plate, but those things are much later stage, but he first did a
distinguished work in relation to the twisting moment and shear force. So the application of
virtual work he did and variational calculus procedures also he established for that, in the
framework of simplifying kinematic assumptions, fibers initially perpendicular to the plate
middle surface remains so after deformation of that surface.
This statement has become very famous with respect to Kirchhoff and this has led down the
analysis of many more bigger structures, simplified way of analysis this assumption in your
later stage of study you will understand and you will learn. The first step in the theory of thin
shell was in the year 1770’s by Euler. As we have just now got introduced what is the shell
and what is the plate, the shell is a structure where the third dimension is very small
compared to the other two dimensions and it is having a curvature.
Also analysis wise, shells are also in two different ways it is generally categorized deep shell
and shallow cell, but we would not go into those details at present. So for a thin shell, it was
first introduced by Euler. He addressed the deformation of an initially curved beam as an
elastic line and provided a simplified analysis of vibration of an elastic bell. This is related to
a famous for his analysis of a big charge bell. It was further modified after a long time in the
year 1873 by H. Aaron.
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Acceptable thin--shell theories for general situations, appropriate for cases of small
deformations were developed by A. E. H. Love. He also did a lot of work for thin shell
formulation and later it got further extended by Lamb in 1890. Later many improvements are
suggested for thin shell modelling by W. T. Koiter and Novozhilov made the most significant
contribution in the year 1950’s. With this, let us try to conclude this part of the introduction.
More elastic general theories in relation to the detailed description in tensor were formed by
Cauchy and then later by Poisson, by Wilhelm Leibniz descriptions, Green described in more
detailed way anisotropy, those things may be considered later and it may be noted that it is
not much earlier this history ends, it is something around 1950. If we look at this slide, the
linear elasticity as a general 3-dimensional theory was first proposed by Cauchy, Navier and
Poisson.
These term in this sentence linear elasticity is very important, and our discussion will be
related to linear elasticity only. There is a huge domain of nonlinear elasticity also, we would
not go into that. General 3-dimensional theory, this general 3-dimensional theory will get
introduced in this course at some advanced stage, maybe in the last few lectures and these
things were introduced in the year 1820 to 1830.
In the isotropic case, it predicts that there is only one elastic constant and that the Poisson’s
ratio has the universal value of one-fourth. See this is we know now it is not true, but at that
point of time it got proved and people started believing that and later it was changed and got
introduced in a different way. Now, this is related to some introduction with the non-isotropic
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material which has a predominant use in aircraft structural analysis.
In case of laminated composite we have many application related to that, so a maximum

possible number of independent elastic moduli in the most general anisotropic solid was
established by George Green in 1837. Existence of elastic strain energy required that the 36
elastic constants relating the 6 stress components to the 6 strains, at most 21 could be
independent. So this is a famous conclusion drawn by Green, 36 to 21.
Then we will see later for orthotropic it reduces much more and use considering orthotropic
material we can analyze many of the applications in the aerospace industry, for example, the
composite structures. With this history, let us conclude today's lecture, the first session of the
lecture.
We will start further in our forthcoming session, but before we finish it, it is better to pay our
gratitude to these famous scientists. I have tabulated with their birth and year and the duration
they were on the earth to facilitate human civilization and without their contribution probably
we cannot imagine anything under the earth. So it starts with Leonardo da Vinci and I have
noted here as the last person has W. T. Koiter, but it is not that there it ends, history is a
continuing process and goes further.
So you may also look at that contribution is not from any one region of the earth, it is from
various places like Italy, France, England, Switzerland, France, Scotland, Germany and
Soviet Union and Netherland also. So to show them the gratitude, to end with let me name
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them for once Leonardo da Vinci from Italy, Galileo Galilei from Italy, E. Mariotte from
France, Robert Hooke from England, Isaac Newton from England, G Wilhelm Leibniz from
Germany.
James Bernoulli from Switzerland, John Bernoulli from Switzerland, Daniel Bernoulli from
Switzerland, they are of the same family, and this is very surprising. Leonardo Euler from
Switzerland, Charles-Augustin Coulomb from France, George Green from England, Thomas
Young from England, Sophie Germain from France, S. D. Poisson from France, Claude-
Louis Navier from France, Augustin Louie Cauchy from France, G. Piola from Italy, Barre de
Saint-Venant from France, Lord Kelvin from Scotland.
Gustav Kirchhoff from Germany, L. Pochhammer from Germany, J. V. Boussinesq from

France, H. Lamb from England, V. Cerruti from Italy, H. R. Hertz on whose name the
frequency Hertz unit is there from Germany, he also gave theories related to impact. Love, he
is A. E. H. Love, his books are also there nowadays on publication, you can find out, we call
he is the father of shell theory, he is from England, Novozhilov from the Soviet Union, and
Koiter from Netherland. So with that, let us end today's session. Thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Module – 1
Lecture – 2
Introduction Continued
Welcome back to structures 1. We are in the process of introduction. We are already

introduced with the history of solid mechanics. We have seen there are many contributors in
that from different parts of the world in our last lecture and this lecture we will concentrate
more on things like the development of aircraft. It is a kind of timeline view and we will see
how industry considers the development and fabrication of aircraft. So with that part, let us
proceed.
So as concepts covered slide if we look at in this the first controllable human flight, we will
see the Wright Brother’s flight, and it is a nice photograph, that time video was not there, we
will see that and basic developments of aircraft structures. As we have said that this we will
see in the two different way from the very lower end of the structural capability to the higher
end of the structural capability as well as we will see the timeline view how it is progressing.
It has progressed till date. Importance of structural design and analysis. So let us see, let us
proceed step by step.
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So to bring back really, I always remember and always try to appreciate the work of
Leonardo da Vinci. He is not only famous for his art related works, but he is also famous for
his engineering contribution also. In the last lecture also we have seen, in this lecture also we
see there are two photographs, first is for a fixed-wing we may say, probably it was a
flapping wing, I do not have much information about it and the right hand side if we look at,
this right hand side one this one is a kind of helicopter design if we look at.
So with that one, let us proceed further. It was proposed in the year 1488. This one was
proposed in 1488, and this was proposed in 1489. So with this, let us proceed.
This is the most famous photograph in the aircraft industry or aircraft development
engineering whatever way we say. In this, we will definitely cover the historical trend, we
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will cover the historical trend here, but we will definitely also start with the concept first
flight which is on December 17, 1903, at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, Wright brothers or the
Orville Wright, one of the Wright brothers Orville Wright was able to fly it for 20 seconds.
It was for 120 feet that is the initiation and after that probably the development is endless, it
is going continuing till date, so we will see.
We will see in this page what we have noted down is development in terms of a few key
parameters, as we have said that we will also again look back from the Wright brothers plane
where we are at present. First, if we talk about range and endurance, that means how much it
can fly and how long it can fly. So in that sense that that limit is 120 feet, it was the first
flight and 20 second was the endurance.
From there we have aircraft which is solar-powered, developed by some commercial

company Zephyr which also comes in the category of HALE or in the full form we say high
altitude long endurance aircraft. This aircraft is able to probably fly endlessly. So one of the
example the highest flight record is noted down here that is 336 hours 22 minutes and 8
seconds. So we can easily imagine a flight which is almost endless.
From the payload point of view if we see one of the Wright brothers was the first pilot for the
first aircraft, so we say it is for one person and it is on 380, on passenger capacity if we look
at airbus 380. Airbus 380 has a capability of 525 passengers that in terms of how many
people an aircraft can fly, but if we look at in other sense it is very surprising to note the
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capacity of Antonov or AN225 model which has a capacity of 250 tons or 1100 meter cube of
space.
So either it has to fit, it can carry this much volume which may weigh less than 250 ton, or it
may carry 250 ton, maybe having a volume less than this capacity. Now if you talk about the
speed another key parameter, the first Wright Flyer was something about 10.98 kilometres
per hour to now we have the highest record holder from Lockheed, Lockheed and Martin SR
71 Blackbird.
It is advisable that it is not possible for me to cover each and every content with detail from
the internet or from other references, better you, please look at the open resource or on the
internet and have a look that gives a different feeling. So Lockheed and Martin Blackbird is
3529.6 kilometre per hour is its speed, that is about aircraft, but if you look at the speed of
any flying vehicle that comes about 28,000 kilometres per hour, the Space Shuttle Columbia.
So that is many jumps in may be in terms of hundreds and thousands. Now if you look at the
wingspan, this is a very surprising point here wingspan. Wright brother’s plane was about 12
meter in wingspan and at present, if you look at the longest wingspan civil aircraft that is 79.8
meter A380. There is what I say the known story about it that airbus has tried to keep it
within 80 meters. Their first design, initial design, a preliminary design was much more than
that.
Then they have improved their design with additional lifting devices and many other things.
They have limited it to 79.8 well within 80 meters to which makes the A380 to be usable in
many of the airports throughout the world, and if we look at the other one AN225 that is
having 88.4 meters, it is slightly more and about 8.4 meters more than the allowed one, so it
is not able to land everywhere, it needs some special attention.
About the weight, if we look at the super heavy one, the lift launch vehicle of Saturn V that is
height is 110.6meter, diameter 10.1 metres, mass 2970000 kg. It is a problem of English and
Indian system. Suppose we look at in different way 29 lakh 70,000 kg. So the other way also
we may say about 2,970,000 kg. Anyway, this gives us a fair idea from where from120 feet
to how long it has progressed. So let us have a look in a different way with a slow timeline
view of this progress in a different frame.
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This is with courtesy to Wikipedia. So we have segmented development in different slides

one after another. If you look at it in flying vehicle, history of aviation in that it is the balloon
which starts it's maybe in 1783 and then it continues. It continues slowly and then it
bifurcates again to Zeppelin. Zeppelin is a very popular tool in around the year 1900 to 1935
or 36 where it ended the journey with Lindbergh. Lindbergh journey is a famous disaster
which took place.
After that nobody builds Zeppelin, but our aim is not to discuss Zeppelin in this particular
context. Our aim is particularly to discuss about aircraft, but since aircraft cannot be
considered as a separate one from the flying vehicles, please look at this notation here or
nomenclature or annotations which we can use to understand our progress. This one is about
20 meter wingspan, 40 meter, 60 meter, 80 meter and 100 meter and similarly, whichever is
darkened, it shows that group.
If we look at this one the Wright Flyer, Wright Flyer in the wingspan less than 20 or within
the 20 and it has one seat. If it is that one seat shows that it is 1 to 5 passenger to carry or
including pilot to carry, so that is the reason Wright Flyer has one seat and within this 20
meter wingspan. So slowly it is difficult to name each and every one, one after another if we
look back after in 1905 it is mentioned. Actually, it was in 1903.
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So after that, there is quite good progress and from there it goes to a notable point we come
across about the Fokker, more popularly known as Fokker aircraft or Red Baron’s Fokker. It
has three lifting surfaces and it looks very good, but though now it is not being used because
of many other technical disadvantages. It also comes within the 20 meter wingspan and also
within the 1 to 5 seating capacity and then slowly after that the development of helicopter
starts in the year around saying it is 1923.
The first successful rotorcraft was conceptualized, was built on laboratory and then if you
look at this that a Spirit of St. Louis is the next fixed wing aircraft. So, in general, we
categorize the aircraft in 2 groups. One we say fixed wing and the other we say the rotary
wing and one more mixed thing is there, but there are not many aircraft. The last successful
one we will come across about V-22 Osprey.
But there are difficulties in control management, controller design, so that is not much
popular. So if we look at the progress, the notable point here it is mentioned as St. Louis as
Spirit of St. Louis which is having a capacity of within 5 and wingspan of 20 meter. Then this
Cierva C.30 is the first rotary-wing aircraft which was flown and it was a kind of autogyro
consideration, was considered their design based on autogyro it was having.
Though it is not very wise to compare the blade span of a rotary-wing aircraft with the fixed
wing aircraft wingspan, but just for comparison, it is noted here that it is about 15 meter span.
Next notable point is about B-314. Before that, I think it is worth to mention this Boeing 247
also. Boeing 247 which is in the year if we look at about 1933 is the first aircraft where we
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saw that it is all metal body, retractable landing gear fast aircraft and that was very
successful.
Means it has been used in second world war in many ways many times, but again anyway if
we look at if we go further, Boeing 314 which we have some data here which is about
wingspan in the range of 60 meter and its capacity is I think within 100. This one is 21 to 100
and then if we go further, we have the Sikorsky series. Sikorsky series is famous for its
helicopter mostly from the Russian side. So Sikorsky S-55 which is having a blade or
rotorcraft span of about 15 meter.
Then if we move further, it is the notable point we come across is about piper. This is another
piper or more popularly known as Cherokee. Piper is very famous for its mass production and
popularity, and now still it is being used for the robotic purpose for different clubs by
different clubs. So Piper pa PA-28 or Cherokee comes within the wingspan of 20 meter and it
has a capacity of within 10, 10 passengers including the pilot. So next if we look at that is this
Bristol 192.
Bristol 192 is having is a rotorcraft having two contra rotating, sorry I am not very sure about
whether contra rotating or not, two rotary wing helicopter and it is from Boeing, this
reference is for Boeing CH-47, CH-47 may be traced here, I am not able to trace it here at
this point but more popularly known as a Chinook series which is still continuing. So with
that, we move forward with the big jumbo jet that is Boeing 747.
It is most popular for its wide body design and it has a huge capacity, more than 500
passenger capacity and a wingspan of about 80 meter and it has a capacity as I mentioned
already it is more than 100. Definitely, it is more than 100, and it is having a capacity of
around 500. Then if we look at to the further development F-16. F-16is a fighter aircraft,
definitely it does not have much seating capacity, but it is famous for its agile nature, most
advanced control and its flexibility in maneuvering.
Then if we go for that Avanti Piaggio P.180 that is also within the 150, but these two are two
different class if we look at, all the three if you look at, this is the biggest aircraft till some
date and then this is the most agile aircraft at that time and this is in the group of business jet
that is coming there and then if we go further business jet category is much popular in the
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business community nowadays and if we go further, this is the most famous cargo aircraft.
We will see more photographs in our next lecture. An-225, then another Stealth aircraft that
is B2 Stealth. This is having a wingspan of about 60 meter and definitely, it is fighter one, so
it is within the 1 to 5 pilots or passengers or co-pilots including everyone and then another
recent milestone we see is about A380 which is having about 525 passenger capacity and
well within the airport requirement, we have already mentioned here.
Then this is a worth mention aircraft recent one developed in the year 2010 that is Cessna
350. Engine wise it is a different engine aircraft based on engine aircraft, but it has a very
good utility or purpose in a small range and with a lower capacity of passenger, its 2 to 4
seater designs are available.
Now these are the huge range of aircraft available or have been developed in our industry we
have seen, but if we look at this slide, this slide predominantly considers, this slides displays
the engineering departments of an aerospace company. So the development can be divided in
many ways, but the design process if we look at the first and foremost design process is the
preliminary design section.
So each and every aircraft according to the requirement of the client, according to the
requirement for which it is to be served. Preliminary design section designs it in a preliminary
way what should be the configuration, what type of engine it should be or what should be the
wing position but where the engine should be mounted, all those things are decided by
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preliminary design section. Then it goes for the technical analysis group.
Technical analysis groups consist of aerodynamic groups, structures group, weight and
balance control group, power plant analysis group, materials and process group, controls
analysis group. Then one more big section is there that is known as component design
section, laboratory test section, flight test section, engineering field service section. So it is a
kind of chronology followed.
If we look at the preliminary design section gives it to the technical analysis section and
which consists of as I said aerodynamic structures, weight balance, power plant, materials,
controls. So these are the basic subcategories on which the design is carried out and then each
and every detailed design phase, we say the component design section. That means this goes
the overall design and then the component level design group like in structures design group.
They design each and every part of the wing, will see how much detail is required to design,
body and control surfaces, system design group, all mechanical, hydraulic, electrical and
thermal installations it designs and depending on all these detailed designs, things are get
assembled and then it goes to the laboratory test section. So in the wind tunnel, these are
tested. Wind tunnel and fluid mechanics test labs, they test each and every after assembly all
these aircraft and parts.
In structural test group test for its structural strength, propulsion test lab test it for propulsion
capability, electronic test lab test the part of electronics, electromechanical test groups also is
involved in this process. Weapons and control groups test the weapons portion separately and
then after all these tests carried out in the laboratory, it goes to the flight test section. In the
flight test section, in flight, all these components are again tested, then again engineering
field service section which looks at the service conditions required for an aircraft.
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Now see those are the sections and parts which are involved in the development of aircraft in
an industry, but we are in the structures course and we are supposed to look at the structure
side how it takes care about the design. So before we go for any design, it is necessary to look
at what load it encounters. So that is the first thing, the applied loads. Once the loads are
determined, it goes to the stress analysis and then definitely it has to come across the dynamic
analysis.
There is one more research group which always think of the new concepts. So let us try to see
more in detail. The applied load calculation groups are the group which calculates loads from
aerodynamics forces, power plants, aircraft inertia, control system actuator, launching and
recovery gear and armaments. So if we go in very brief in this sense, the aerodynamic force is
definitely the lift force on the wing and on other surfaces for stability.
The power plant, yes this power plant is important, this thrust only makes it fly. So that total
thrust has to be transferred to the fuselage, there should not be any anomalies. The aircraft
inertia, for any movement in any dynamic condition the inertia becomes much very
important, so that has to be calculated inertial force. Control system actuator that means while
any control surface is deflected say for banking ailerons are deflected that creates differential
stress on the total aircraft, or if a rudder is applied, it also creates that.
So launching and recovery gear, this is some kind of special gears in navy versions we
usually use it, instead of that, in general, the landing gear is used and the armament.
Armament really is a thing we generally do not visualize, just think about the missile which is
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getting detached from the wing of an aircraft. As soon as the missile is detached, it creates an
asymmetry of load and that has to be encountered by the total aircraft.
Now all these things are how the loads are coming on the aircraft that has to be analyzed. So
the stress analysis group or the stress analysis and strength group, they design each and
individual part. They think of the material and its thickness, size and cross-section of every
structural member, joints and connections of such members. So these are some of the
important things they decide, they analyze, they fix it.
Dynamics analysis group takes care of the vibration and shock, flutter, probably you are not
very introduced with it but scope in this course is also not much. Flutter is something say
couple phenomena with aerodynamic load and the structure and inertia and we have to have a
flutter clearance for each and every aircraft and the establishment of design requirements or
change for its control or correction.
So dynamics group look at the establishment of design requirements and change for its
control or correction. Special projects and research groups, these usually look for new
material use like the advanced laminated composite materials. Advanced laminated
composite material has become very popular because of its high specific strength, and it
reduces weight but as well as it gives us the required strength to provide all requirements
from a structural point of view.
Analysis of new concept that means how new materials or a new way of fabrication or design
can be carried out the research group takes care of that, replacement of components with new
technology, this is really going on now. Most of the aircraft components wherever possible
are getting replaced from metal to plastic composite.
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This today's lecture has been taken or prepared from materials from Wikipedia, materials
from Megson, materials from Bruhn, Donaldson, Rivello or Wesley, Peery Azar.
So if we look at the conclusion slide, what we have learned in today's lecture that is the
history of aircraft development and how does the development or fabrication of aircraft is
taken care in the industry, history of a flying vehicle with the timeline we have seen in a very
brief way, a payload from 1 passenger to 250 ton that is the notable point we should look at,
range and endurance from 120 feet or 20 seconds to endless as we have mentioned in your
first or second slide thus I feel, how an aircraft industry works.
With these things, I would like to conclude today's lecture. Thank you for attending today's
lecture and wish to meet you again with our next phase of the lecture. Thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Module – 1
Lecture – 3
Introduction Continued
Welcome back. I am back again with the structures 1 course. Myself Anup Ghosh from
Aerospace Engineering Department, IIT Kharagpur. We were in the process of introduction
to the course. We have already covered 2 things in the first few minutes or say about half an
hour. We have observed how the theory has progressed, not only the theory. We started with
an example, an example of Leonardo da Vinci.
How he did his first experiment to find out the strength of wire and gradually, we have seen
how Newton played his role in the study. Then there are many other scientists like Bernoulli,
like Euler and then Hodge, Crandall. They have laid the path of the theory of elasticity. Then
we ended with the discussion of the recent day's work in the shell with Donnell’s work and
then the lecture following that was consisting of the history of how the aircraft or aviation
industry has come into the present day.
The first controllable flight was on 17th December 1903 at Kitty Hawk by Wright brothers.
Then from there, we have aircraft to carry more than 600, probably more than 800 passengers
and we have an aircraft to carry probably anything, maybe a few wagons of the railway. So
those who have seen how the slow progress has come up, in between how rotorcraft has come
in and then today what we will do, we will be again discussing a few aspects related to
aircraft structures in consideration to the existing structures.
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Before we go for any analysis or understanding of any structure, I think it is better to
understand what it is, how it is. So we that will have to some extent discussed about any
structure, load-bearing structure which beers load and in case of aircraft how big it is, it can
be and how small it can be, how much payload it is supposed to carry, all those things that are
the reason we have said here that where, how, what of the aircraft structure. So if we see
these things we will discuss.
We will also discuss about the concept of construction as a structure, these things will
discuss. So better, we take a few examples of aircraft and try to discuss how the structure is
important and where we need to pay more attention as a structure.
So the first example what we will consider is really a huge aircraft that is the Antonov 225,
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An-225 is also known as. In this lecture, we will cover an overview of the existing aircrafts
from its size consideration, structures consideration, from an external way. We would not go
into detail about internal structures. So a photograph, unless we have a comparison, it is very
difficult to understand how big it is.
So from here also that is missing, probably we have on the farce a few aircraft, so we have
the runway scene, but that also is not very good observation to imagine the size of the
aircraft.
Here the gross takeoff weight if we look at that gross takeoff weight is about 640000 kg and
empty weight is about 280000 kg and a wingspan that is very important, wingspan is about
88.4 meter. This gives you some idea of how big it is. If you look at how big it is, it is better
to notice that a standard soccer field, a football field, is about 100 meter to 120 meter. So an
aircraft, if we can imagine, is standing on that field its wingspan from here to here is covering
almost the length of the football field.
Probably if somebody wants to play here, a small soccer game probably maybe played on this
portion, that gives us how big the aircraft is, okay, that is about the span. We understand it is
so big at about the height of 18.1 meter. 18.1 meter in the standard way if we look at in our
surrounding if we see, we generally compare with our known objects as generally, we
consider that a single storey of a house is about 3 meters, sometimes it is less, sometimes it is
more, but it is about 3 meter.
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So if I divide it, this number it comes about 6 storey building. So you just try to imagine you
are just at the foot of a multi-storied building and the height of this aircraft is about six storey,
so it is so huge inside, some other ideas if we have all these views will come into slowly
cargo-hold capacity. This is particularly a cargo aircraft. So cargo hold capacity if we look at
it is 1,300 meter cube, sorry for this mistake or say 46,000 cubic feet and its width is about
6.4 meter.
Again 6.4 meter means about how much, about say two table tennis board if you keep side by
side it is little more than that. So it may be about the width of your classroom generally where
you sit for a class and the height is about 4.4 meter. That means inside it is about one and half
storey height and long it is about 43.35 meters that means almost about half of the football
field. So it is better to notice it is so huge.
If it is so huge, it has to be light also to carry all those cargo. Cargo weight is not directly a
subtraction from the gross weight to empty weight because this includes also the weight of
the fuel and that determines the range of the aircraft. So it is generally a compromise between
the range and the payload. So accordingly according to the assignment, generally this aircraft
is hired.
According to the payload capacity the range is decided according to the requirement of range
in general, the fuel is filled and it is used for that particular range.
This is another view, this is the top view if we say, not top that way it is a kind of skew view
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from top, it is a skew view from bottom if we look at. There are 6 engines, this particular type
of configuration of the aircraft is known as 2 vertical tail and high wing configuration with
bogie type of landing here, you see these are the 2 bogie type of landing here and because this
tail has come on this side.
The vertical tail has come on this side that increases the load on the structure because see it is
increasing the air load which is coming horizontally on this vertical tail plane as a moment
component on this horizontal tail plane. So that increases the size sectional dimensions or
weight of the horizontal tail plane, but because of some other design requirements probably
they have used this type of configuration.
Generally all cargo aircrafts are high wing configuration because the most important thing to
remember in cargo aircraft is that how to load the cargo. In this case generally, the front
portion gets lifted, there is a hinge here, you can find many videos in website in YouTube to
see how the cargo is loaded from front. This bogie type of landing gear we need many
landing gear to distribute the weight while it is landing.
Because it has to be very soft landing because it carries sensitive things, probably it was used
to carry a few space shuttle. So, all those things are sensitive things, so a shock is not at all
desirable. It is not at all desirable in another view also, other requirements are also there. So
keeping in mind all these things generally a bogie type of landing gear and a high wing
configuration is considered.
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This is another view of that particular aircraft to give you the size. So probably if we stand
beside this aircraft, our height will be somewhere here, up to this much, so one human height,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, up to this probably, human height is much less than the height of a storey,
so our height probably will be something like this.
So with this let us move to some smaller aircraft. Basically the structures requirement
remains same in smaller aircraft also. This is also a very famous aircraft Breezer B600 which
is having a gross takeoff weight of 600 kg and empty weight of 384 kg. So this is one thing to
notice here. We will discuss many other things, but weight is very important parameter while
we talk about aircraft structure. So this is about 400 kg, so just to give you some comparison
about weight of a general car.
A 5 seater car which is the most popular in our society that comes with thousand CC capacity
that comes about 1000 kg around, but this particular at its takeoff weight is about 600 kg and
this 384 kg this weight is probably equal to some big bikes, nowadays that has become a
fashion. So it is probably equivalent almost same to that those big bikes, weight of those big
bikes, but this is able to carry about 4 people including pilot.
So there is the mileage, there is the advantage, there is the efficiency required for aircraft
structure design, so that is what we need to study, we will have to study, and the wingspan
wise if we look at about it is about 9 meter. Again this is here if you see it is 9 meter, this is
about the span of your classroom maybe. So if we try if you open one wall of your classroom,
probably we can fit in one such aircraft, it would not be much difficult.
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So, from here to here if we look at, it will come into your classroom and height is definitely
less than a storey height, it is 2.14. So just try to imagine you are in a classroom and just
beside that there is an aircraft by which you can fly for a few 100 kilometers, so it is so small.
So these type of aircrafts are generally built abroad in US and Europe at home these are
known as a kind of home-built aircraft also, but we do not have.
Our government does not give that type of permission, so we cannot build it. Anyway, let us
progress probably in future government will permit, so it is your scope you learn it and
probably you will be able to fabricate in flight on your own.
Next it is a different view. About the configuration if we look at, this engine is something
different. The previous engine was a mainly turbofan engine, this is a piston prop engine.
Piston prop engine means it is similar to the engine what you use in your car or in your
motorbike, only it has a different configuration inside, its orientation is different so that it can
exert that much power.
Engine capacity is also probably more than those and this is a low wing configuration. This
also gives us that this is a semi-monocoque type configuration. That means it is not only the
skin which is bearing the load, there are some frames like this, like these frames which also
bears load.
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This has 3 landing gears and these landing gears are fixed, these are not retractable landing
gear. Retractable landing gears increase the weight because that needs hydraulics to do, so
these types of aircrafts are generally does not come with retractable landing gear. So along
with this concept, we will see, we will go forward.
This is another view, it is almost from the front and this type of tail plane configuration is
very common. Tail plane also withstands the load to control the aircraft. The wing is on
which the total portion hangs while it is on air. So the wing root is very important structure in
that sense. There is a wing box structure, wing joining structure inside which joins the wing
with the fuselage and while it is on the ground, the load comes from the landing gear and that
landing gear has to be.
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This is another view. We see here there is a dihedral, this is the wing root and it goes up, so
this much is the dihedral. On the other view also you can see, but where the tail plane is not
having any dihedral, the 3 landing gears we see. This is the portion of rudder.
This is the top view. From this view we see a different way how does it look like. So let us go
move forward to some other aircraft.
34
Okay before we move forward to some other aircrafts, see getting details of internal
structures is a really difficult task because nobody gives it because they are doing business
and they do not want somebody else to do it to create competition. Fortunately, this drawing I
got it from some open forum shows in a very hybrid mode the internals also. Here we see the
ribs, here we see frames.
These frames work as kind of bulkhead and then those total fuselage is fabricated on that and
landing gear is fixed. All other components and equipments are inside and this construction,
please notice that construction of wing and the tail plane and the vertical tail plane is almost
same. The basic thing is that there are ribs, there are spars. We will come into detail in the
next lecture how does a rib is constructed, how does a spar is constructed and those details
will come.
So, internally there are so many structural components and on that there is a skin which gives
the aerodynamics shape and it transfers the loads to internal structures and as a result we fly.
It has to be very smooth to reduce the drag that these transitions are made as smooth as
possible. This is as I told you it is a kind of home built that portion is not that smooth, but if
you look at the commercial aircrafts or the previous in Antonov also you have seen.
In the future aircraft whatever we will see there also you will see those are made very small
to reduce the drag.
35
This is another wonder of aviation industry A380. So one point I would like to mention here
that if you remember in case of An-225 or Antonov 225, this was 88.4 I think, yes it is 88.4
and here it is 79.75. This point is very noticeable because the cargo aircrafts are not always
used in all international airports runways because it depends on the requirement, but all
international runways are generally permitted to fly aircraft with 80 meter wing span.
That is the reason I know from some reliable source that it was a big challenge for Airbus to
keep this design within that 80 meter wing span limitation. You see this is very important
point to notice that it is certified for up to 868 passengers. Just try to imagine this is a huge
number, 868 passengers. There are 2 decks, there is division her, we will see that type of
fuselage. We will get introduced to that and the gross takeoff weight is 575,000 kg.
Empty weight is 277,000 kg and wingspan is about 80 meter, height 24 meter approximately,
24.09, 24 meter means again if we bring to our comparison parameter that is the height of a
storey, height of house, height of our buildings, so it is 3 meter if we get, it is about six storey
building. So height wise probably it is almost same as I think this is more, point better to note
that that was 18 point something this is 24 point something.
So it is about 8 storey, not 6 storey. So the height is much more than the Antonov. There the
big difference comes because from the landing gear because here the landing gear is not that
type of landing, unfortunately landing gear is not in the figure what I have included. Please
refer to the open forum, open Internet documents you will find that it is because of the
landing gear, landing gear plays a big role in this height increment.
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So here the retractable landing gear, not the bogie type landing gear that requires some space.
Another difference is the engine. There are 4 engines because the weight wise the payload is
small here, not only that there is a progress in between on engine capacity also, so that is
being utilized by Airbus.
Another dream machine they say is Dreamliner 787 Boeing. So the wingspan is noticeable as
60 meter height is about 17 meter and typical capacity is about 242 passengers. So this is
again having engine is reduced here. Again number of engine reduces because of the advance
in the or progress in the engine technology, size of the engine, more latest engines are used
and that way it gets reduced.
So engine thrust has to be transferred to the structure from this to the wing and then it is to
push forward the aircraft, so that portion is also to be designed.
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One more segment of aircraft if we see I am putting you stress on the height and the
wingspan because it is better to notice here the size what we are going to design, how big it
is. So the wingspan is 22.5 meter, height is 6 meter, so it is about two storey building and
span is 22 meter . This is generally a private Cessna Citation latitude, these are known as
business jet aircrafts. These 2 engines, general turbofan engines are mounted at aft portion
and that forces to make it a T-tail configuration.
Since it is a T-tail configuration again as we have discussed in case of Antonov that increases
load in the vertical tail plane. So there the vertical tail plane was increasing load on the
horizontal tail plane and here the horizontal plane is increasing load on the vertical tail plane.
So that structure size as increases that increases weight, but this is a different type of
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requirement this is a low wing, aircraft configuration is also different because it has to be
very, height is supposed to be kept very low because it operates in small aircrafts also where
not always the provision of ladder or staircase is present. So keeping in mind all those things,
this configuration is different.
Keeping in mind the ground clearance distance also it has been made at the low wing
configuration and with 22 meter wingspan and height of 6.4 meter it is able to probably fly
about 20 to passengers, but it is inside is generally configured according to the requirement of
business requirement.
Now we come to some extent bit detail of the structure. So wing to some extent we have seen
in the previous aircraft. Here is this portion, this portion is known as the cargo hold and these
circular rings are the bulkheads which joins one to the other. These are the window gaps and
this deck on which we generally sit. Chairs are put here from front to the back and depending
on the requirement of these things, a fuselage is constructed. This is a door cut out.
This drawing is not very good, but again it is collected from some open forum. These
supports are to support the deck. This is the deck beam on which the total sitting arrangement
is supported. We will come at again details of those constructions, so that is why we do not
want to spend much time here.
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Again this is the fuselage of that A380 type of fuselage one. These cutouts are for door. There
2 decks as I mentioned and this is the cargo hold in a different view. All these things are
bulkheads, circular type of semi elliptical, this is semi elliptical cross section type of things
and then this is different view of that fuselage construction and we will see in detail how
these things are done.
We will try to understand analysis criteria how this particular type of structure is analyzed,
how torsion comes into effect for an aircraft structures, how deflection of each and every
member and stress bending moments are developed in each and every member and on which
how we can design a member. All those things will slowly come in our course. So before that
it is better to keep in mind this type of structures we are going to design.
The examples what we will be solving are probably not exactly matching with this type of
structure, but if we look at simple aircrafts, those will definitely match those examples and
for more complicated aircraft like this, the advanced things are introduced and accordingly it
has been carried out .
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This is another view, another SolidWorks drawing or CAD drawing I must say, previous also
is a CAD drawing. This view is different. In this view, these bulkheads are quite clear. This is
the beam. We always put holes in the beams to reduce weight. In this structure also you see
there are holes to reduce weight and we will see why this window shape has come, what was
the reason why stress is important around this hole.
Then we come to the picture of a conventional wing structure. Here this is the spar, these two
and these are the ribs. This is the leading edge cover, this is the trailing edge cover where we
do not show the control surfaces. Those details are really not available. I would suggest you
please go to the internet or in the book of Peery, in the book of Bruhn, in the book of Megson
there are figures. We cannot reproduce directly those figures.
41
So this is the kind of CAD drawing. This is a CAD drawing of ideological CAD drawing,
drawing which I am showing you as a representation. For more detail, I would suggest please
refer those books as I mentioned. There are few photographs in the new edition. In the book
of Peery you will find lot of photographs, in the book of Bruhn also you will find lot of
photographs, in the book of Megson also you will find lot of photographs.
Not only that now internet is very open and there you may get many photographs and details
of the structural construction.
This is a different view from bottom. These are the rib construction. Skin is supposed to be
put. Skin is removed here, we see the internal. Again let me mention this is an ideal
construction, this is not exactly the way it is followed. We will see some more detail later
how the fabrication is done.
42
If we look at the references, this content is covered from some portion from Wikipedia, some
portion from the Applied Elasticity by Chi-teh Wang, by Donaldson, book by Bruhn, book by
Rivello, book by Megson and Peery Azar that book.
So what we have learned today is that it is to notice that there is a huge variation of the size
of the structure what we are going to design, we are going to fabricate, we are going to
understand, we are going to make. So in that the wing span whatever the aircraft we have
discussed there it ranges from an aircraft which fits in our classroom to an aircraft which is
probably as wide as a football field. So it is about 10 times probably.
So please keep in mind that it depends on how it is being operated on that the load is
dependant, which it is supposed to carry and how it is supposed to carry on that the load is
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dependant and on that load we are supposed to design the structure. Height is predominantly
governed from the other requirements with a narrow bodied or wide bodied, it depends also
on the aerodynamic considerations.
They sometimes govern decide what should be the size and how the cross-section should look
like and depending upon that we try to fabricate, but point to note again that it is the
approximate diameter we say, we cannot say diameter because in none of the case what we
have discussed it is the section is circular, but again we say diameter because if we
approximate to a circular it is the diameter of say 2.2 meter to 24 meter. So this is really huge,
huge variation is there.
Depending upon the load we are carrying, we need to find out, we need to fabricate those
section, find out the dimensions of those section. Gross takeoff weight varies from as I told
you 600 kg may be equal to a big motorbike to something which is not imaginable at all
640,000 kg and empty weight varies from 384 to 285,000 kg. So with this, better we conclude
today's lecture keeping in mind that the structure what we are going to design.
Structure what we are going to analyze is not a small one, it is huge structure. So it is as big
as a football field. So if we learn the process to design the small one, we will definitely be
able to design bigger one also. So with this note, let us conclude today's lecture. We will
come back with the next phase of lecture again. Thank you.
44
Prof. Anup Ghosh
Module – 1
Lecture – 4
Load Encountered by a Typical Aircraft
Welcome back to structures 1 course. Myself Anup Ghosh from Aerospace Engineering
Department, IIT Kharagpur. We are in the lecture series of the first week. This is the fourth
part of the week. So we will be covering today the load encountered by a typical aircraft. So
what we have covered so far?
We have covered so far is important to keep a track on it. We have already done a historical
background of aerospace structural analysis. We have seen the contribution of a physicist,
scientist starting from Leonardo da Vinci to maybe Koiter, Sanders and in between Leibniz,
Euler, Kirchhoff, Mindlin, Hooke; there are many, it is an endless list. With their
contribution, we are able to fly today. Definitely, we should not forget the contribution of
Wright brothers on the day of 17th December 1903 the first controlled aircraft flight at Kitty
Hawk.
Then from there in the second lecture, we have covered the development of aircraft. In this
lecture, we have seen how the aircraft development has taken place from the first one and
then we have got a fair idea of how big an aircraft can be or whether how small it can be and
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what is the basic structural difference between the aircrafts. It is almost same. We have seen
aircrafts in size range of a football field to the size range of like a car and configuration.
There are many configurations high wing, mid wing, low wing, tail configuration different,
landing gear configuration different and depending on that how the structures changes. So let
us move to today's lecture.
Today's lecture is mainly two things we will be covering, and most of the lecture is on
various types of external loads encountered by an aircraft and concepts of stressed skin
structure. This we will you just introduce, we will cover in the next lecture in more detail, but
our main stress will be on these various types of external loads.
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So if we see an aircraft structure is designed from thin, load bearing skins, frames and
stiffeners. So this is the most important difference between the other structures and aircraft
structures. It is thin and there are frames, stiffeners, it bears loads definitely, skins also bear a
small amount of load. These are fabricated from lightweight, high strength materials. The
lightweight, high strength materials, the most popular material was the different alloys of
aluminium.
Presently there are different laminated composites are available, those are being used.
Forming of metal sheets as I told you is the basic process, for aluminium alloys generally
forming process is used to fabricate different shapes and then using those shapes the aircraft
is generally built. High specific stiffness of a material is desirable. Specific stiffness is a
quantity by which we generally define with respect to its weight how stiff it is.
Then different aluminium alloy and laminated composite materials are most widely used in
this type of structures, for example. So details of this will come later, let us move to the
different types of loads encountered by structure.
So loads on structural components mainly or the total overall aircraft is mainly divided into
two groups. First is the ground loads and the next is the air loads. There are some other
subdivisions from an engineering point of view, but these are from the source from where it
is coming on that at the ground while it is airborne or it is flying. From ground load, if you
talk about ground loads include all loads encountered by the aircraft during movement on
transportation on the ground such as taxi, landing loads, towing and hoisting.
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We need to taxi in the airport to come to the takeoff point and during that, an aircraft is
hugely loaded by the fuel. Fuel is generally stored in the wing in all civil aircrafts and during
that any small bump in taxiing generally creates a lot of disturbances, a lot of loads in the
wing fuselage junction that becomes very important. So landing load is definitely coming
through the landing gear to the fuselage, it bears the impact.
Towing we need too, while it is at the airport we need to tow it from one place to the other,
we need to move it back to steer. For steering requirement also we need to tow it. Hoisting,
for maintenance purposes we need to hoist it, where to hoist and how to hoist that is very
important. There are specific positions for hoisting to prevent damage and if we look at the
air loads, air loads come in the form of it comprises loads imposed on the structure during
flight by manoeuvres and gust.
Carrier borne aircrafts are subjected to catapult takeoff and arrested landing loads. This is
another important specific type of requirement, aircraft carriers usually use catapult takeoff
system and arrested landing system. So during that, it has to bear the loads on the fuselage
through that catapult. So those loads also have to be carried by the fuselage. Most large civil
and military aircrafts have the pressurized cabin for high altitude flight.
This is another important thing. We generally have a huge pressure difference at the altitude
we fly and altitude at sea level, so to compensate that pressure difference. Generally, the
cabins are pressurized and that introduces a load on the fuselage. So we need to take care of
that. Not only these where from the loads are coming, but it is also dependent on other
engineering aspects, further classification we may do.
Surface forces which act upon the surface of the structure, in general the dynamics and
hydrostatic pressure, it comes on the wing. Body forces which act upon the entire volume of
the structure and are produced by gravitational and inertial effects. So during flight, this
inertial effect is very important and these effects create extra load on the structure and
gravitational force is always there to act. So combining all these things, these are the basic
classifications of aircraft loads.
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So basically, all these loads are the result of the pressure distribution over the surface of the
skin produced by steady flight, manoeuvre or gust conditions. Generally, these loads cause
direct loads, bending loads, shear loads, shear and torsion in all parts of the structure in
addition to local normal pressure loads imposed on the skin. So this is some of the loads what
is generally encountered by an aircraft while from the flight condition that is why it is said as
basic aerodynamic loads on an aircraft.
So if we see for different manoeuvre as well as for flying, we have different types of loads to
fly. We generally need the lift that acts on the wing and that carries the total fuselage
structure, inside that the cargo or other payloads are there, but during flight for control
purpose to take off and to land the main control surfaces that is horizontal tail plane, these
two horizontal tail planes. These two also experiences aerodynamic loads for pitching
stability and this is for the lateral stability.
The vertical tail plane, directional control and lateral stability. For yaw movement control,
this the forces coming on that, this is generally used and the other forces generally created by
the rudder or the elevator portion and rolling moment if we took at is generally acted by the
aileron portion. So all these the rolling moments create the partial difference between the lift
of these two wings and due to that rolling moment it rolls and we need to do the drag is also
acting on the aircraft that has to be encountered.
As I told a few minutes back, the pitching moment is very important. Characteristics aircraft
weight acts through the CG or center of gravity point of it. So as a combined manner, it
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experiences in general these loads, but we will see further specifications for the differences
between these loads, okay.
So the force on an aerodynamic surface wing, vertical or horizontal tail results from a
differential pressure distribution caused by incidence, camber or combination. So we will not
go into detail of how these pressure profiles is created, why camber or other things assist in
increasing lift and in flying the aircraft easily, but as a result, we have lift, we have drag, we
have a pitching moment. So these things have to be encountered by a wing that we need to
see.
So another important thing is the distribution of the load. The distribution of the load is
important. The lift is distributed not uniformly on the wing, if we look at along the span,
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along the span it is followed it has a distribution similar to this and along the cord, if you look
at that also has a different type of distribution. So as a whole region are sometimes simplify
the total effect in this form, chordwise and spanwise lift distribution.
Sometimes wherever possible we consider the spanwise distribution in this form and we need
to find out this load along with the other loads like if we have an engine here that engine load
has to be considered, loads coming from that engine. So that will come later in our
discussion.
So if we look at the possible design conditions of parts of an aircraft from the aerodynamic
loads, if we look at, there are many positions and which are governed by different types of
loads. Let us try to see which part is governed by which type of load. So as we have seen, so
the design of this portion of the wing is generally governed by the positive dynamic gust.
This portion of the wing we need to fix the aileron with the ribs or with the wing structure.
Aileron comes this way so that has to be fixed with the wing and we need to design that
portion that aileron load has to be transferred here. If we look at the root section, that is
positive manoeuvre and static gust. If we look at the front portion of the fuselage that is
negative manoeuvre and breaking. This is also designed for the gust governs this portions
design, positive dynamic gust and lateral gust governs the design of this portion.
Landing gear, taxiing, jacking and towing from the front landing gear all these operations are
generally done. So those things the design of landing gear is governed by those loads. This
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portion of the fuselage is governed by the loads coming from the positive manoeuvre. This
portion the lower portion is from the negative gust. This for taxiing, as I told you this is very
important in general. The fuel tanks are located as the box in this portion, and different boxes
are there.
So if we look at the different boxes on this and while it is taxiing this, this wing is completely
full of fuel and this portion while taxiing is very important because the fuel weight affects the
design of this root junction portion. During flight during landing, most of the fuels get
burned, so that problem is not encountered. So if we look at the aft portion of the fuselage
that is the lateral manoeuvre is the governing load, lateral load due to the lateral manoeuvre.
This portion is due to the Buffett or the force induced by the Buffett or the trailing wind
vibration whatever comes on the horizontal tailplane that governs the design of this portion.
As a whole, though the structure of the fuselage remains almost the same from the tip to the
tail, but different portions are designed for different loads. Like that wing construction
basically is similar from the root to the tail, but there are different requirements which govern
the design of that particular portion.
So if we see what the reference we have considered for this is, the references are Wang, a
book of Wang, Donaldson, Bruhn, Rivello, Megson, and Peery and Azar.
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So if we come to a conclusion, this conclusion slide consists of a few bullets which are thin
lightweight metallic or laminated composites with high specific stiffness are used for aircraft
structures. In general, two types of loads are experienced by aircraft structures, aerodynamic
load and ground load. Conceptual details of the loads as encountered by an aircraft has been
discussed. So with this, we will conclude this load portion and we will move forward for
more detail or conceptual detail of structures of an aircraft.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Module – 1
Lecture – 5
Conceptual Structural Details of a Typical Aircraft
Welcome back to aircraft structures 1 course. Myself Anup Ghosh from Aerospace
Engineering Department, IIT Kharagpur. We are in the last lecture of week 1. This is the fifth
lecture. In this lecture, we will cover the conceptual structural detail of a typical aircraft and
we will continue further for more analysis in the forthcoming week.
So with this week's lecture, we will complete the introduction of aircraft structures, .how does
it look like, how the loads come to the aircraft and how does it internally look like, what is
the principle of fabrication and construction of aircraft structures and with those things we
will conclude, but before we conclude or go forward for today's lecture what we have done
this week in our last 4 lectures are as follows.
We have covered the historical background of aerospace structural analysis that is basically
the history of solid mechanics starting from the experiment of Leonardo da Vinci to maybe
Koiter, Donnell shell theories, in between various others like Bernoulli, Timoshenko, Hooke,
many others are there to contribute. We have learned the first flight and a brief history of
aviation.
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We have come across how big the structures are, what difference, do we have any difference
between the construction of a huge aircraft and a small aircraft. We have seen there is no such
difference in construction, only size changes according to the requirement, definitely
structural details and design changes depending on the configuration.
In the last lecture, we have seen various types of external loads encountered by an aircraft
and today we will cover other concepts covering the principles of stressed skin structure,
external loads again will come, basic structural components of an aircraft. Basically, we will
be giving stress today on this.
So functions of structural components if we look at those are basic aircraft structures. The
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basic functions of an aircraft structures are to transmit and resist the applied load. This is true
as well for any structure, so it is covered that way. To provide an aerodynamic shape, this is
something important, some nowadays in buildings also it is followed to reduce drag, but here
it is having a different purpose that is the aerodynamic shape that is the important shape
which provides the lift and an aircraft fly.
To protect passengers, payload, systems, etc from environmental conditions encountered

during a flight. This is another very important thing. Anything we put inside an aircraft that
generally comes unless we create some artificial pressurized cabin and air-conditioned cabin,
it is supposed to experience probably minus 55 degree centigrade of temperature, minus 55
degree centigrade of temperature is really a very cool environment.
So we need to think about those while we design structure, we need to think about all other
avionics and other components while we design those things. Not only that pressure also
reduces, so depending on those environmental conditions, we need to design the components
or the structural components has to withstand those types of environmental loads and it also
needs to protect the payloads, say it is carrying passenger it needs to protect the passengers.
Passengers cannot fly at minus 55 degree centigrade or minus 60 degree centigrade

temperature, so it has to be protected from that environment. The requirements in most of the
aircraft resulting in a shell structure. The shell cell structure is as I have said in our first
lecture, shell structure is something which is curved structure and say if I have a panel which
is having some curvature and this thickness is small with respect to other two dimensions.
Say this is a this is b and say if this is t, so if t is very very small with respect to a and b, we
call that plate, but while it has a curvature, while it has a radius of curvature, it is carved in
nature we generally call that as a shell structure. So if we look at the aircraft structures, most
of the structures are shell structures. So we need to design those shell structures. So the outer
surface of the skin of a shell is usually supported by longitudinal stiffening members and
transverse frames to enable it to resist.
So what is there inside? We have seen the photographs many times, but we also need to see
in more detail what is there inside. There are longitudinal stiffening members, and there are
transverse frames. So this is some bulkhead in case of the fuselage, this is ribs in case of the
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wing, but all these structures as I said, this transverse frame or the longitudinal stiffening
members are supposed to encounter bending, compression and torsional loads.
Bending, compression and torsional loads you are already introduced in your first year
courses in your mechanics courses, so I do not need to talk about much. You are already also
introduced with the buckling, and we have introduced with the column buckling. Euler
column formula already you have studied, but here we need to consider buckling of the plate
as well as shells. So if this is the plate and there are forces like this, this plate may buckle.
So we need to consider the buckling load of the skin and local buckling really creates a
problem that is a very governing criteria to design skin. Such structures are known as semi-
monocoque. So by such structures, what do you want to mean? Thus by such structures
which you want to mean the structures which consist of these longitudinal stiffening
members, which consists of transverse frames are the structures known as semi-monocoque
structures.
So as if we look at all aircraft structures nowadays are semi-monocoque structures, while thin
shells which rely entirely on their skin for their capacity to resist load are referred to as
monocoque structures. So these structures whatever we have seen those are same monocoque
structures and shell which rely entirely on skins for their capacity to resist loads are referred
to as monocoque structures. Monocoque structures are nowadays not used okay. So let us
move to the next slide.
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Okay in this slide, we will see the typical structural arrangement of a wing and that structural
arrangement is drawn here. In this structural arrangement, whatever we see is this is the rib
portion. This is already okay pointed out. This is the rib, rib if we look at okay, one portion is
missing, not missing, it would not be visible, but say rib is from here it is inside, like that
there are ribs also inside and if we look at this spar, this spar continues this way with the spar
flanges and this is the longitudinal stiffeners.
These are the stiffeners, this also continues, this is inside. So if we look at the wing structure,
there are many such stiffeners and to mention that this is not that easy structure as we see
here because sometimes there are aileron here, aileron comes this way, this is the portion of
the aileron. We need to separate it out from here. There are hinges which attach to it. The
shape of the cross-section is governed by the aerodynamic considerations and clearly must be
maintained for all combination of loads.
So this shape, the rib shape governs the shape of the rib if we look at, this is the rib shape,
that is the airfoil section shape and that produces the lift, we need to maintain that for every
situation.
So again if we look at the wing rib construction that is to some extent more prominent here
how all those ribs come. If you notice a number of ribs increases here in the root section and
it reduces at the tip sections. The interval between the consecutive rib is less on the tip section
whereas in the root section it is more and you can also notice that the basic construction detail
of wing, horizontal tailplane and vertical tailplane are similar.
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So construction detail of this, this and this is similar, only size and other loads govern the
design okay.
So the transverse frame or ribs more details on that. So these follow and maintain the
aerodynamic shape. They also act with the skin in resisting the distributed aerodynamic
pressure loads, whatever pressure loads come on the skin that gets transferred through the rib.
They distribute any concentrated load, for example, undercarriage load, additional wing store
loads. So if we go back to the previous slide, we will see that in this particular case, there is
no undercarriage load.
Additional wing store loads are also not there, but in case of military aircraft or say an
agricultural aircraft needs to carry additional store load about the undercarriage load while
the landing gear is attached to the wing that time it requires to carry those to the structure and
distribute this. All these loads are carried to the structure and redistribute stresses around
discontinuities. So redistribution of stresses around discontinuities is another important part.
Ribs increase the column buckling stress of longitudinal stiffeners by providing end restraint,
establishing or reducing the column length. So if we look at this if we increase the number of
ribs, the panel size here is this much, whereas panel size in the root section is this, here also it
is big, the skin panel it is big. So this reduces or increases the size of the panel thereby it
enhances the buckling property of the skin.
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So buckling stresses of the longitudinal stiffeners by end restraint, so it provides end
restraints, establishing or reducing their column length. So this is not only for skin, as I told
you if we look at the stiffeners, these stiffeners also are attached to the skin, so that length
here column is some member which carries the axial load, this length is reduced with a
number of ribs. In a similar manner, they increase the plate buckling stress of the skin panels,
plate or shell buckling stress of the skin panels.
So the ribs not only distribute loads coming from the undercarriage, from wing store, not only
provides the aerodynamic shape. It also enhances the capability of the other members like as
it is said the plate and shell buckling parameter it enhances. It also enhances the column
length of the stiffeners. So ribs have various properties and it serves that way.
So this is one-two views of an aircraft to have a better understanding. As I told you this
undercarriage load is coming directly to the wing and number of ribs required here are more.
Wherever the engine is attached that portion also has to be designed those ribs, a number of
ribs here are more whereas the number of ribs probably are less on the wing tip side. So
depending on those things, this view assists us to know where and how the ribs are used.
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More on ribs, let us see. The outer portion of the wing, ribs in the outer portion of the wing
ribs act primarily as formers for the airfoil shape since it is a low load carrying section. As I
told you in the previous slide, there the interval between the consecutive ribs it is much or
density is low. It only maintains the shape and extremely lightweight structure is sufficient
for the purpose. So that is the reason for the weight reduction number of ribs are reduced.
Near or the root section ribs are required to absorb and transmit large concentrated applied
loads. Where from the large concentrated applied loads come, from the undercarriage as well
as from engine as well as stores. So wing stores means if we look at if a military aircraft is
carrying some warhead on the wing that is known as a store, deployable stores. So those
while it is carrying it that there must be some provisions to carry the load.
That provision is taken care of by the ribs from the undercarriage, engine thrust, fuselage
attachment points reactions, etc. In the middle of the wing, ribs support hinge reactions from
aileron, flaps and other control surfaces. So mid-portion it is important for attaching the
control surfaces. If we go back to the previous slide if we look at various control surfaces,
these are all leading edge control surfaces, trailing edge control surfaces.
All these control surfaces have to be attached to the wing very efficient manner and that
requires a lot of arrangement inside the wing and those are done.
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Wing skins if we look at, it is an impermeable surface for supporting the aerodynamic
pressure distribution. From there, the wing lift is generated. These aerodynamic forces are
transmitted to the ribs and stiffeners by the skin. So it is to transfer the loads to the ribs as
well as to the stiffeners through plate and membrane action. Shear and torsional loads are
carried by the skin and spar webs.
While axial and bending loads are reacted by the combined action of the skin and
longitudinal stiffeners. Longitudinal stiffeners if you talk about this is what the longitudinal
stiffener is. These are attached to the skin and ribs thereby dividing the skin into small panels
and increasing the buckling and failing stress of the skin. So these longitudinal stiffeners act
to reduce the effective length of panels as well as columns.
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Spar webs, this is what the spar web is. This portion is the spar web. These resist shear and
torsional loads, and they perform a secondary but significant function in stabilization with the
skin. Spar flanges, the spar flanges is this. This is generally consisting of 3 sections from this
view if you look at and there are rivets. So this portion is known as the flange as you see here.
Spar flanges or caps are capable of supporting large compressive loads.
So while the wing is deflecting, say this is the wing if it is deflecting this way while flying or
while taxiing due to the other loads it is this way. So this portion will act to encounter
compressive loads from axial and bending effects. So abovementioned structural functions
are applicable for wings, horizontal and vertical tailplanes. So all these descriptions whatever
we have done these are applicable equally for horizontal and vertical tails okay.
This slide gives us some introduction to the nomenclature or the portions, so quickly we will
go through. This is radome, static port on both sides, pitot tubes on both sides, here also static
ports are there. This is engine intake. This is wing tip portion, Aileron is this, trailing edge
flaps, auxiliary power unit inlet, this is also an auxiliary power unit outlet. This is an elevator,
horizontal stabilizer, rudder, vertical stabilizer, upper fuselage, spoilers, wing upper surface,
leading edge slats, angle of airflow sensors.
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If we come to the fuselage, aerodynamic forces on this fuselage skin are relatively low. This
generally protects the cargo as well as this is the cargo hold where this is the place where
passengers seat. In case of cargo aircraft, all this portion is converted for carrying cargo.
Fuselage supports large concentrated loads such as wing reactions. So total lift comes to the
fuselage in a wing fuselage junctions, those wing reactions it has to carry.
Tailplane reactions for pitching moment, whatever pitching moment is coming from the
horizontal tailplane that is carried by the fuselage. Undercarriage reactions and carries a
payload of different size and weight, whatever undercarriage reaction comes whenever it is
within the fuselage, it is for a cargo aircraft whatever we have seen AN-225, all those landing
gears were attached to the fuselage.
It was not on the wing like the previous schematic diagram we have seen in the last slid,
which may cause large inertia forces because of the huge mass carried by the fuselage, it will
definitely create inertia forces and the aircraft design for high altitude flight must withstand
internal pressure. This is another important thing, internal pressure. Internal pressure is
something which it has to be there to fly at that high altitude 11 kilometer from our surface at
minus 55 degree or low pressure.
The most efficient sectional shape of the pressurized fuselage is circular, but it is not limited
to circular, it sometimes comes as elliptical surface also or a combination of circular
elements.
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Some more details of the fuselage. The basic fuselage structure is essentially a single cell
thin-walled tube. This is what the thin wall, outside wall is there that is the fuselage thin
single cell comprises of skin, that outside skin. Transverse frame, these are the frames if I say
this is the frame here, transverse frame 1, 2, 3, 4 like that there are many frames inside.
Stiffeners, these are the stiffeners, there are many that reduce the effective length of the skin,
this is the skin actually.
The buckling of the skin is prevented by reducing the effective length by stiffeners as well as
bulkheads. Longitudinal stiffeners. The transverse members in the fuselage are termed as
rings or frames or if they extend across the complete cross section as bulkheads. So
depending on that type of things, it is either ring or frame or bulkhead.
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Some more detail about the spar. Present days the aircrafts have a wing loading of about 4800
Newton per meter square and the structural weight is around 22 to 25%. So construction is
really very important and efficient. Fabrication is indeed a difficult job. So if we look at it the
spar, this is the junction inside or in some cases inside the fuselage, in some cases this
junction is not present, in small aircraft this type of junctions is present inside the aircraft.
If we look at a cross-section as I was drawing in the previous slide, this is the stiffener. This
is the same stiffener we will see that is attached there with these rivets, these are the rivets
and this is the spar flange portions. It changes from one section to the other and it continues
to the tip. So this is the fuselage if we look at and this continues up to the tip if any winglet is
there something, maybe something like this.
This is further detail of the rib section. This is really consisting of many parts. This is the spar
what we have seen the last slide and this is the portion created for passing the spar flange.
This cutout in the rib, this is the cutout, this is actually a cutout in the rib through which the
stiffener passes for the skin. All these z sections are stiffeners. We usually put more number
of holes depending upon the requirement.
There are two rings because the holes are stiffened the edges that reduce the weight and not
only that these holes are required for passing control wires, control rods as well as for fuel
tanks, different other purposes the holes are used. These are the reef stiffener, since the
section size is increasing to stiffen this portion these in-between stiffeners are used. This
portion is curved because there are control surfaces will come here, so all these things a
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typical wing rim assembly.
So with this, we come to the conclusion of today's lecture, maybe this week's lecture. All
these are the standard references where from all these details are taken. Details are taken from
Bruhn, details are taken from Megson and many other books.
So at the end, we conclude that thin lightweight metallic or laminated composites with high
specific stiffness are used for aircraft structures. In general, 2 types of loads are experienced
by an aircraft structure, aerodynamic load and ground load. Basics of wing and fuselage
constructions we have seen which is common for all types of aircrafts. Name and functions of
basic structural parts of an aircraft we have seen.
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Construction details of the wing, rib and spar we have seen. So with this, let us end today's
lecture and we will go forward further for analysis in the coming week. Thank you for
attending today's lecture. We will meet again in our next.
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Aircraft Structures - 1
Prof. Anup Ghosh
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Module No - 02
Lecture No - 06
Airworthiness of an Aircraft
Welcome back to aircraft structures one course this is Anup Ghosh from aerospace engineering
department IIT Kharagpur. This is the first lecture of the second week we will learn about
airworthiness of an aircraft. So before we go into the topic in detail today we will let us see what
we have covered.
So far we have covered so far historical background of aerospace structural analysis

development of aircraft. The first point if we look at first point is basically the history of solid
mechanics we have seen and that is what leads the path for analysis of structures. And then in the
next lecture, we have covered development of aircraft since 17 December 1903 from the Kitty
Hawk flight till date whatever we have seen and then where how what of aircraft with respect to
size and configuration.
We have seen various sizes from small to big and but we have also observed that from structures
point of view there is not much change but according to configuration we need to have some
change in the structural design. Various types of external loads you have seen where from the
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external loads come how does it come? The loads are the basic thing which we need to withstand
so loads will come in our discussion again and again today also we will discuss about loads.
So that was an introduction to the external loads and we will do more detail about loads
conceptual structural detail of a typical aircraft in this we have a seen in articulated fashion what
is there inside a wing what is there fuselage how does it look like what are the structural
components called and all those things nomenclatures all those things we have already covered.
And in today’s lecture what we will do we will cover the airworthiness will cover load factor
source of different loads flight maneuvers and loading conditions. So flight according to flight
maneuvers how the loading condition changes that we will see. So let us have some before we go
to the airworthiness.
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Let us see some basic considerations on loads again if we look at this slide the load conditions
govern the dimensions of a member that is always true under load we generally change the
dimension, we need to change the material we need to because we need to withstand the load it
has to support the load to serve its purpose. External loads encountered while in flight and in the
ground in general in aircraft in 2 tier in these are the 2 conditions in flight and in the ground with
different types of loads come in ground towing, wasting, pulling all those loads come even
taxing or those load in during flight different maneuver loads will generally come.
So all those things we need to encounter instead of looking for all load condition aircraft
components are designed for critical load conditions. For each and every structural member so
this is important critical load conditions see previously also we have discussed different loading
conditions and the picture if we look at this picture we see that there are different loads indicated
and those loads are on which it is designed the aircraft and which for those loads which section is
more vulnerable that is indicated there.
But here the critical load condition that we need to find out and those critical load conditions are
specified by licensing agencies. Licensing agencies mean there are agencies; who certifies the
design who certifies the fabrication who certifies the flight testing. So these licensing agencies;
certifies everything then only it is allowed to fly that is the reason flight is so safe than any other
journey.
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So depending on the past investigation and experience so the licensing agencies improve their
experience they are critical conditions load conditions and accordingly we continue for design.
So let us come back to the topic of airworthiness where from it comes if you look a discussion
here a kind of definition the airworthiness of an aircraft is concerned with the standards of safety
incorporated in all aspects of its construction it is concerned about the safety incorporation while
it is being constructed while it is being designed in all cases. This range from structural strength
to the provision of certain safeguards in the event of a crash landing and include design
requirement relating the aerodynamics performance and electrical and hydraulic systems.
So it looks into everything it looks into the overall design of aircraft in with respect to
aerodynamics with respect to electrical and hydraulic design every aspect. But from our point of
view we will be considering we will be looking into the airworthiness requirements in our
structural point of view a brief is all given here in a diagram form. We define that capability of
an aircraft to perform such satisfactorily.
The airworthiness actually looks into the safety capability of an aircraft to perform satisfactorily
with safety how does it perform satisfactorily that is the aim of airworthiness criteria. To fulfill
mission requirements every flight has a mission requirement in civil aviation as a mission
requirement to carry passengers from one airport to the other. Like that mission requirements
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varies recent days we see lot of jungle fires or forest fires are coming up for that there are
specific aircrafts to fight those.
So that remains requirement of that particular mission is to fight against the fire like that there
are agricultural aircrafts the agricultural aircrafts mission is in general is to spray required
amount of maybe pesticide may be nutrients to the field like that depending on the mission it as
different type of requirements or say a fighter aircraft has a different type of requirement. So all
those requirements depending on the requirements generally airworthiness criteria come and
accordingly it has to be satisfied.
Throughout the specified life this is another important thing this is not only to satisfy the
requirement whether it is able to satisfy it throughout the life that is also important. So it tries to
ensure that it needs to be tested after certain flight hour all those requirements are specified in
these safety guideline. In a defined envelope so that is what we were discussing this defined
envelope some of you probably have some idea what is envelope flight envelope but if you do
not have any idea of flight envelope means how much force how long it can fly all those things
are defined in a flight envelope.
Whether how much G load it can sustain how much angle of attack it can sustain all those things
are defined by this flight envelope. Whether how much roll or pitching rate it can achieve all
those things are defined here with acceptable level of safety and reliability. So this governing
with respect to these points the airworthiness defines the criteria and we need to follow it so for
structural point of view let us see how these things come into our consideration.
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Airworthiness requirement in case of structures handbook of official requirements with mention
of minimum standards of safety, incorporated in all aspects of its constructions structural
strength safeguards in case of crash landing design requirement relating to the aerodynamic
performance electrical and hydraulic systems. Limit load so this is something new we have not
discussed a limit load is the maximum load that the aircraft is expected to experience in normal
operation proof load is the product of the limit load and the proof factor which generally ranges
in between 1 to 1.25.
And ultimate load is the product of the limit load and the ultimate factor that is usually 1.5 so
generally we find out depending on the flight envelope depending on the performance we find
out the limit load and then with respect to whatever we need to find out proof load or the limit
load we generally find it out and accordingly we do. These the aircraft structure must withstand
the proof load without detrimental distortion and should not fail until the ultimate load has been
achieved.
And this is where the proof load comes in United Kingdom has a different guideline for
airworthiness that is AP 970 for military and DCAR for civil aircrafts USA has its own guideline
that is FAR for civil and MIL for military aircraft. Like that almost all countries have their own
guidelines these 2 countries come first because they initiated it first.
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So if we so airworthiness agencies are there in all countries here is the small list of airworthiness
agencies in USA, in UK already we have said and which organization acts to implement those
regulations are listed on the right hand side table right hand side column. So in case of USA
Federal Aviation requirements or Federal Aviation agency Washington is the responsible agency
for the civil aircraft and department of defense and military specifications sorry.
For in UK civil Aviation authority CAA in 1972 became air registration board uses British Civil
Aviation regulation. MOD procurement executive Def-Stan-00 970 is the military aircraft
organization like that similarly we have different organization. For France we have different
organization for Germany we have different organizations for Russia like that we have different
organization in India also.
Aircraft act 1934 director general of civil aviation more popularly known as DGCA is the agency
which governs everything. If he were aware of the recent development DGCA has come out with
some regulation with respect to the small UAV’s. Like that they time to time improve their
guidelines they revise their guidelines and design requirements implement those regulations like
that for military aircraft design approvals CEMILAC is the organization quality and assurance
DGAQA is the organization.
For design approval the CEMILAC is the organization who approves the design like the LCA
aircraft light combat aircraft or the ALH advanced light helicopter what we have already
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developed our country have already developed. So in that case the CEMILAC is the organization
who approves the design and for quality and other DGAQA is the organization who takes care of
this.
So okay we are more to the requirement with respect to the structures so with respect to the
structures has we have seen where from the load comes, how those load come to the aircraft
those are some of the important points why we think of designing of aircraft we need to think
where from it may come. So that is the reason this table groups different sources of aircraft load
so if we look at the sources first is the air load then during landing then other loads are definitely
we will come other loads include other loads category inertia land category, takeoff, taxing,
power plant.
So let us start with the air load maneuver is the certain type of movement of aircraft due to which
what are the types of load comes it may come to mind if to move what are the load structure may
experience. Actually for different change of acceleration different type of loads inertia loads
comes to aircraft and that becomes a predominant criteria for design. During gust or the sudden
change of wind velocity and direction that creates a sudden again finally it gives the change of
acceleration and that gets creates inertia load.
Not only that sometimes it leads to the sudden loss of lift and if it losses the lift suddenly it acts
like and impact to the total aircraft. Control deflection for maneuvering for certain direction
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change we always need to have a control deflection and that control deflection induces load and
that load we need to take care component interaction. Different components interact this is very
interesting criteria we say different components interact means it is difficult with the
understanding you have to describe now.
Component interaction may be the highest example we may say the fluttering or maybe
interaction between a controls 2 different controls surfaces. Now we go to the buffeting is a
certain type of aerodynamics phenomena due to which a periodic oscillation comes and that is
experienced generally by the tail plane and that has to be taken care. During landing vertical load
factor we will work out this thing in our in some example later on.
Spin up if it spins up that means after touching down if it spins up sorry it is not that it is the spin
up of the wheel springing back it is also related to the spinning back of the wheel that it produces
inertia. Crabbed landing this is very important things there are in many videos available in
internet you may look at it crabbed landing is very interesting and really a beautiful example of
how the control system has developed in case of aircraft control.
So while in aircraft lands with angular fashion in an airport so that is what the crabbed landing is
and then one wheel sometimes during crabbed landing or some other condition also one wheel
touches down and that creates huge impact that that has to be taken care. Arrested landing and
breaking these are 2 special cases arrested landing is that in case of aircraft carrier landing they
are arresting hooks are there and that arrest the landing will solve example with respect to this.
Other landing loads coming from the towing we need tow an aircraft we need to jack an aircraft
pressurization the fuselage is pressurized bird strike this is very bad unwanted incidents but we
need to take care of it. Unfortunately bird strike and we need to have a safe design for that
actuation of different control surfaces and crash which is not at all a desired condition but we
need to have some kind of safety for crash.
So inertia loads due to acceleration as I told you all this maneuvers also finally goes to the
acceleration change of acceleration. But this is a inertia load talks about a regulation acceleration
of the aircraft rotation regular, rotation dynamics load because of the various other dynamics
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criteria involved in during flight. Vibration and flatter all these things in introduces the inertia
loads and that those loads we need to talk about.
During takeoff catapult take off like the arrested landing in carriers aircraft carriers we need to
have catapult takeoff system and that catapult is generally attacked to some fuselage junction. So
those has to be designed properly aborted takeoff if it is for some reason aborted what are the
forces come and when it is getting aborted all those things we need to take care bumps and
turning these are as I told you during taxing the aircraft is full of fuel even a small bump creates
a huge load on the wing fuselage junction.
Power plant from their only the total thrust comes and that gets transferred to the wing and to the
total air craft. For partial failure it creates a huge torque to the total system it also creates
gyroscopic effect because of it is rotation. Vibration due to its own source of vibration duct
pressure is another source of loads we from the power plant we need to take care.
Okay this is a kind of a repetition slide from the previous one this slide let us skip.
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So this is very important slide this is phenomena is very important as I was discussing that the
flight envelope is the important thing. So what is flight envelop in one sense this is flight angle
of what is this is let us try to learn. This is a plot of n the load factor with respect to the V.
Various loading conditions for an airplane are usually represented on a graph of a limit load
factor n plotted against the indicated airspeed V.
This diagram is often called V-n diagram or a flight envelope or a V-n diagram V-g diagram
sorry. Since the load factor n is related to that acceleration of the gravity g it justifies this now let
us see how this diagram is developed and why do we need to have this diagram for different type
of aircraft this flight and envelope is fixed. Say for a civil aviation generally this n values
maximum values are fixed in minimum values are fixed and V max is also fixed so all this things
are fixed.
So these things are generally this part of the plot is generally found out from the high positive
high angle of attack and these portion low positive low angle of attack from here to here and
whenever there the limit of speed air speed comes their it comes suddenly down we should not
cross that and that crossing may lead to some other failure other problems different values of n
and this portion is generally governed by the negative low angle of attack and this is again this
actually this total portion is not very intentional portion.
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For a certain desired manoeuver but this portion is generally encountered negative lower angle of
attack negative high angle of attack. So these 2 portions are generally during the stall it happens
and it is generally kept as the value 1.25 times the general value obtain for n. And in case of
negative we generally do not compromise we do not keep margin that of 0.25. So let us see how
do we do considering situation in which a manoeuver is undertaken such that the angle of
incident is increased to a value corresponding to the maximum lift coefficient that is CL max that
can be obtained.
Lift force will be so this is a formula we need to memorize now lift force is half rho V square CL
max and S. What is rho? Rho is the density of air V is the velocity of the aircraft here it is mixed
actually this is airspeed so this is the air speed and then CL max is the maximum lift coefficient
and S is the surface area of V. So n this is the definition of n if we say n = lift / W so if lift is this,
whatever we have said this becomes something W comes in the denominator.
So that is what is given here you see only instead of CL max here it has been said as CZ max that
actually is the component, which is considered for indetermination not the lift in the direction of
Z what is the coefficient lift in the direction upward what is the coefficient that and 1.25 that. So
this is the highest point curve it should be maintained that means it is having a high angle of
attack slowly while it is increasing the velocity the n value increases, and there is a limit up to
which it can increase this portion is called the stall portion and this is positive stall and this is the
negative stall portion.
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Typical values of limit load factors these are some from the guidelines available so for general
aviation normally it is 2.5 to 3.8 for n negative is -1 to -1.5. For general aviation utility aircraft it
is little bit more in positive that is 4.4 general aviation aerobatic it is 6 it needs to go for a
different type of maneuver and that maneuver needs a high G requirement and we need to follow
that and negative also it does because some times for aerobatic reasons its flies even inverted.
So home build aircrafts are generally allowed up to 5g and in negative -2g for transport aircraft it
is 3 to 4g. And -1 to -2g strategic bombers that is 3 is the general limit -1 like that for tactical
bomber we have some limits for fighter aircrafts this is also very high like the aerobatic aircraft
because it needs to go through different type of maneuvers critical maneuvers to fight.
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The limit loads used by civil agencies are applied loads used by military agencies are the
maximum anticipated loads in the inter service life span of the vehicle the ultimate loads
commonly referred to the design loads refer to as the design loads are the limit load multiplied
by a factor of safety. As an example for a military aircraft the limit loads on the wing occurs
during a 8-g maneuver we with factor of 1.5 of the design load for aircraft wing becomes 12-g.
So for an military aircraft 8-g becomes 12-g with a factor of safety 1.5 for missile structure the
factor of safety is 1.25 for other aircraft structure the factor of safety is 1.5. So limit load and
ultimate loads are 2 loads which we need to find out limit load is the load experienced and
ultimate load is with factor of safety what we used for design.
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Okay so this is some typical conditions at different angle of attack for design purpose what we
have seen in the flight envelope. So if you look at the positive high angle of attack condition it is
obtained in a pull out at the highest possible angle of attack on the wing. The positive high angle
of attack condition will be critical for compressive stresses in the upper forward region of the
wing upper forward region of the wing across section and for tensile stresses in the lower aft
region of the wing that is this portion.
Now if we understand try to understand one, others also will be much easier if we try to high
angle of attack as I told you it happens in general during positive stall. So if we look at an to an
aircraft with a line diagram if we say this is starboard and this is port side and if we look at this
section as this section at the tip what is happening for positive high angle of attack actually the
air fall is something like this.
Not only this because of positive high angle of attack if we look at this if this is the fuselage and
if this is the wing it deflects like this. So what is happen at route this portion definitely the top
portion is definitely under compression and the bottom portion is definitely under tension
because it is deflecting this way. Now it says that highest possible angle of attack on the positive
high angle of attack condition will be critical for compressive stresses in the upper forward
region why it is saying the upper forward region will be more critical?
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Because with respect to the fuselage this angle is not same throughout the along the wing, so
because of that they are always will be some moment acting this way and that will increase the
compression on this region more in comparison to this region. And similarly since it is deflecting
in this manner that will equally increase tension in this region that is the region it says for
positive high angle of attack condition it is obtained this is why when do we get in case of
pullout maneuver we get it.
The highest possible angle of attack on the wing in the upper forward section the positive high
angle of attack condition will be critical for compressive stresses in upper forward region of the
wing across section. And for tensile stresses in the lower act region of the wing across section so
accordingly as we have just now discussed because of this 2, 3 dimensional phenomena the port
side trailing tip if we look at it will reflect something like this way, and we will have to will we
can easily understand why compression is more important in this region why the maximum
tension is more important in this region. So let us go further for other condition and cases.
So this is another positive low angle of attack during generally cruise condition it happens the
wing has the smallest possible angle of attack at which lift corresponding to the limit load factor
may be developed. The wing bending moment in this condition produces the maximum
compressive stress on the upper rear flange and adjacent stringer and maximum tensile stresses
on the lower front spar flanges and adjacent stringers.
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So this time the most important portions sections are those for compression and this for tensile
see it is similar but since the it is not high angle of attack, that is the reason the this section does
not remain so important whereas this section becomes more important for design. So similarly
but the phenomena remains almost same only thing it may happen that what we have seen since
it is low angle of attack probably the angle of attack we absorbed may be something like this.
And this will definitely not produce much load on this region whereas it will produce much load
compressive load in this region.
Similar manner we may see other 2 important conditions that is negative high angle of attack
condition it occurs in intentional flight maneuvers as I were discussing in which the air loads on
the wing are down or when the airplane strikes sudden downdrafts while on flight. The wing
bending moment in the negative high angle of attack condition produce the highest compressive
stresses in the lower forward region of the wing cross section, and the highest tensile stresses in
the upper aft region of the wing cross section.
So similar way if we consider this as the poor side tip of the wing what will happen? It will
happen that there will be a huge moment like this and it will be something like this.
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So similar way we can see that incase of the last possible case that is negative low angle of attack
these are the 2 regions tension are important this region this and these are important it occurs at
the diving speed limit of the airplane. This condition may occur in an international sorry
intentional maneuver producing a negative load factor or in a negative gust condition. The
compressive bending stresses have a maximum value in the lower act region of the wing cross
section and the tensile bending stresses have a maximum value in the upper forward region of the
wing cross sections.
So with respect to the flight maneuver and different condition with respect to the load factor
flight envelope we now have a certain idea how which section the critical condition occurs and
we need to continue our design procedure or fixing dimensions of different section to with stand
the load we do.
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References are standard it is always a mixed not that always all the books are put into but many
time more than 1 books are consulted and prepared the notice prepared.
(Refer Slide Time: 41:32
Following that if we go to the conclusions slide from this lecture today what we have done the
typical loading condition governing design of aircraft parts. We have learned what is
airworthiness we have got some fair idea about it what is load factor? So stress of different loads
flight maneuvers and loading conditions how in case of different flight maneuvers different
loading conditions appear and with that let me conclude today’s lecture this lecture thank you
will meet again with our next lecture.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Indian Institute of Technology - Kharagpur
Module No - 02
Lecture No - 07
Aerodynamic Loads and Load Factors
Welcome back to aircraft structures one course this is Professor Anup Ghosh from aerospace
engineering IIT Kharagpur. This is the seventh lecture in the series in this lecture what we will
cover is aerodynamics loads and load factor.
(Refer Slide Time 00:47)
So what are the concepts we will be covering is flight vehicle aerodynamic loads that is not in
details. It is a very small brief or maybe we must say in a very brief way how the load comes.
And then the calculation of load factor at different flight conditions how do we calculate it one
example and then we will see the bending moment and shear force calculation for with some
example of an aircraft. But before we go into those it is with better to have a recapitulation in the
recapitulation, we can say that.
We have already learned in our previous lecture that what is flight envelope is and how does that
flight envelope govern the design of an aircraft. How air worthiness criteria and regulations
come and we need to follow those and how we need to take care of all those requirements. And
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previous to that we have learned in various way how different loads are encountered by an
aircraft.
And we have also learned the history of aviation, history of aircraft. We have also had look in
into the history of solid mechanics which actually lays the path of structural analysis with respect
to aircraft structures. So let us start today’s class with a note of aerodynamic loads and then a
few examples or considerations to calculate load factors and bending moment shear forces.
So if we see flight vehicle aerodynamic loads if we think of finding out how the load comes in it
is the simplified approach we will be following, as we have seen that we have denoted that C
coefficient here as Cz. So we are not worried about in which exact direction the is acting but we
are talking about the component of it which is acting in the Z direction. We are also talking about
the component as Cx.
So let us see what are the things we do after reading out this small description we will see
generally the thrust line is considered as the axis? The first aerodynamic data required for the
structural analysis are the lift drag and pitching moment. So unless we have these data we cannot
design any aircraft. So then on that the load factor or the flight envelope gives us the maximum
load. That is we need to multiply by in. Unless we have the lift we cannot find out the maximum
lift or design lift or ultimate lift.
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We need to find out drag, we need to pitching moment. We need to prepare this curve with
respect to the alpha or angle of attack for the complete airplane with horizontal tail plane
removed. This is important this is the general criteria generally the structural design starts
through the range of angle of attack from negative stalling angle to the positive stall angle.
Negative stalling angle and positive stalling angle already you have talked about stall angle
stalling is the phenomena when aircraft losses its lift probably you are already introduced to it
negative and positive is that while it is in positive angle of attack or while it is in negative angle
of attack. Wind tunnel test of a model aircraft with the horizontal tail plan removed will provide
values of the lift, drag and pitching moment for all angles of attack.
Components of the lift and drag with respect to airplane reference axes are then obtained. The
airplane reference axes are usually chosen parallel and perpendicular to the thrust line as shown
by the X and Z axis. That is what I mention in a brief the thrust line this line is the thrust line
which is generally consider as X and perpendicular to that is the Z axis. The, forces along the
axes CzqS and CxqS where q is the dynamic pressure equals to half Rho V square and S is the
wing area.
So 2 force coming from the lift is this is the total force CzqS in vertical direction and in the
horizontal direction is this much.
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Now what do we do we have that Cz curve and Cx curve from experiment and now it is probably
before the experiment numerical studies are done and similar condition we find out those data.
We simulate and find out those data here our angle of attack alpha is theta + I is the incidence
angle and theta is the thrust angle with the flight path. And definitely a simple with respective to
this diagram if you see this we get the Cz as CL Cos theta + CD sin theta and Cx as Cx Cos theta
-CL sin theta
Where CL and CD are the coefficient of lift and drag without the tail plane. Similarly Cx and Cz
are the excuse me Cx and Cz are the non-dimensional force coefficient without the tail plane.
The pitching moment about the airplane Cg is obtained from wind tunnel data which is M
generally given as that Cm alpha c bar qS. Cm alpha is the dimensionless pitching moment
coefficient of the airplane without tail plane and C bar is the main aerodynamic chord.
So this data we need to need for our structural design we generally many times refer to this for
this reason these parameters are shown here to some extended explained and we will see how
this data will use for our structural purpose.
Ok those who have found out but there is something more for different flight condition there is a
contribution of the tale of how the balancing tail load comes. So balancing tail load comes this
way as we learn balancing tail load on the horizontal tail CtqS is obtained from the assumption
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that there is no angular acceleration on the airplane. So there is nothing like no angular
acceleration and no pitching movement is there or pitching acceleration is there.
Ct is a dimensionless tail force coefficient expressed in terms of wing area and Lt. Please note
expressed in terms of wing area and Lt. What is Lt? Lt is distance from the Cg to the point
reference point in the tail plane. So due to various pressure load and horizontal Lt is the distance
from the airplane center of gravity to the resultant load on the horizontal tail plane. Due to the
variation of pressure load on horizontal tail plane Lt theoretically varies for different loading
condition.
Lt’s varies but anyway we may consider this as fix and we may start our calculation. So moment
of the forces; about the center of gravity are in equilibrium. So that is what with respect to this
point the moment is considered. So with CM alpha c bar qS that is this one is equals to CtqSLt
and that is what is done and then from there Ct is equal to c bar Cm is divided by Lt. And the
aerodynamic force on the aircraft in the Z direction comes as the sum of these both these 2 forces
which is a equals to scissors Z we considered as Cz + Ct.
Flight vehicle inertia loads this I was bringing in repeatedly in our previous discussion. Let us
see in a methodical way what it is? How it is comes and will let us solve a few example; with
that. The maximum load on any part of a flight vehicle structure occurs when the vehicle is being
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accelerated. The acceleration may be forward may be upward. So let us see how this acceleration
may come with example will learn.
The loads produced by landing impact, manufacturing gusts, boost and staging operations,
launching and docking are always greater than the loads occurring when all the forces on the
vehicle are in equilibrium. So whenever there is a sudden change there is the maximum load
encountered by an aircraft that is what is said that is learning impact, manufacturing, gusts and
boost gusts, boost and staging, launching and docking all these things.
Before any structural component can be designed it is necessary to determine the inertial forces
acting on the vehicle. So we need to find out that is what it says the inertial forces and in general
in 3 dimensional point of view we have defined the inertial forces in this form. But for simplicity
we will solve problem in a separate manner not in 3 dimensional form. 3 dimensional form is
really bit complicated will learn later.
So load factor for translational acceleration for flight landing conditions in which the vehicles for
flight landing conditions in which the vehicle has only translational acceleration every part of the
vehicle is acted on by parallel inertial forces which are proportional to the weight of the part. So
this is a very good example we always see while we experience the breaking of a car. That is
what we all have experience.
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What happens we fetch we go forward or for a sudden acceleration what happens we push more
pressure on the back of the chair. So that is because of our body inertia we are pushing it back
and there is a hinge at in our wrist so that is what it is either pushes back while it accelerates or
we come forward while it decelerates. But that is a visible movement our muscle system
accommodates that is very slowly it is not that slowly happens in all other structures.
In case of aircraft this is very predominant because change of velocity is huge in range. It is not
like a car where the in general it varies from 10, 20, 30 kilometer maybe within 2 or 3 seconds.
So it becomes more in case of flight vehicles or aircrafts. So that is what is discussed here. When
vehicle is being accelerated upward this that is the condition we will be considering now. One
point let us consider very carefully that it is accelerating upward. This is what up these direction
it is acting.
Now which way the inertia force is acting this is the mass W / g multiplied a this comes from the
D’ Alembert’s principle in the opposite direction. So if it goes up the in a positive acceleration in
the goes up it acts in the opposite direction of it. So that is what the inertia load acts on the
system. Let n the load factor and from the load factor definition whatever we know that L = nW
and that is what is equated with W + W a/g. So lift has to balance both these forces that is what
lift is = W + W a/g.
And that is equated with nW and we get the n. And in a very simple algebraic way we get that n
= 1 + a/g. For downward acceleration what happens the inertia acts upward. And since the
inertial is acting upward this is negative and it is becoming 1- a/g. n is defined as the number of
g’s of acceleration in the vertical direction. For straight and level flight n = 1. There is no
acceleration we say level flight aircraft model in wind tunnel is also 1.
It is equivalent to the level flight aircraft standing on the ground is also equals to 1. So these are
the 3 typical condition where what we generally encounter.
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Ok when the flight vehicle has horizontal acceleration this is the case we see we have since it is
going this way accelerating is this way ax component. So the aw ax / g is the inertia force acting
following the D’ Alembert’s principle. And that is what is equated in this equation it is very
easy. n W = n W / g multiplies by ax which is equals to thrust minus drag. Drag is not shown
here actually drag is acting in these direction. So what we do we get from the balance of this is
that W ax / g = T - D and nx = T - D / W.
So a more general case if we look at while it is in a different condition and this is the Z axis this
is the thrust line, this is x axis this is Z axis W is acting this way. And if we look at the
component this is the component in the Z direction is the acceleration acting assuming that it is
moving upward so the dummy force, inertial force following the Alembert’s principle is acting
this way and one more component is acting in this direction. So in the Z direction if you consider
the lift is definitely is balancing the component of it.
So this is balances as W Cos theta plus this amount W az / g and if you consider summation of
forces in the Z direction which leads to that nW is equals to this amount and n is equals to this
nZ = az / g + Cos theta. In the x direction if you look at we have a similar equation T and D is
here indicated T is acting this way Dz is acting this way and we finally get nx equals to the same
equation what we have here.
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In the case of aircraft landing the landing load factor is defined as the vertical ground reaction
divided by the aircraft weight. This is what the ground reaction whatever we get. Please note that
inertia force is acting downward. The load factor in the horizontal direction is similarly defined
as the horizontal ground reaction divided by the aircraft weight. So whatever the Rx value is that
is divided by the weight shown nz is this one and nx is corresponding to this one.
So if you example of different conditions and how do we find out the load factor we have
covered and let us try to solve a few examples 1 or 2 examples.
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Example 1 when loading on an aircraft carrier sorry when landing on an aircraft carrier a 5000
kg aircraft is given a deceleration of 3g by means of a cable engaged by an arresting hook as
shown. Here cable is not shown but the tension by the cable is shown here. This is the tension by
the cable and it is given a 3g deceleration weight of the aircraft is 5000 kg. So let us see what are
the things we are supposed to find out?
Find the tension in the cable so T what is T? That is first question. The wheel reaction R this is
the second question the distance e this distance e from c g to the line of action of the cable. So
we assume that this is the line of action of the cable and from cg it is e distance apart. So we
need to find out what is that. Another question we have find the tension in the fuselage at vertical
section AA and BB in the portion of the aircraft forward section AA.
If the portion of the aircraft forward section AA has a mass of 1500 kg and the portion aft of
section BB has a mass of 500 kg. This needs some additional figure that figure we will see later
we will come back and do. This portion AA this portion if we separate it out and this portion if
we separate it out this portion A has 1500 kg mass. This portion is having 1500 kg mass and this
portion is having 500 kg mass ok. Let us try to solve the first portion. Need to clean.
The problem is very simple 10 degrees is given and acceleration is also given. So that is what for
the x direction is equation is drawn this type of problem you have solved many times. So there is
not much important given on it importance given on it where acceleration is 3G this is important
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3 into 9.81 this is the total acceleration and T = ma / Cos theta T is equals to this I do not think
there is explanation required. Please note that we are not considering any friction.
Fy is equal to for the reaction we wish consider some of the forces in the vertical direction there
are also comes the T portion that Sin theta portion of it and if we solve this simple equation we
get R = 74946 newton. Considering the moment about cg this point this is the point what we
have we get the value of e as 25 cm. I think you can solve it so the next portion.
Consider the aft portion or the rear portion of the fuselage section BB which is having mass of
500 kg with respective to multiply by g this is the total force acting here. And this is the
acceleration acting at this point. So if we again consider summation of in the x direction what we
have this is the force that is what is aft asked. The force in this direction and thus that T1
becomes 132434, newton.
We take this component are this is the component for 147149 this this already you have found
out so that is why this diagram have put it here. In the vertical direction if we consider we can
find out the shear force acting in this particular cross section. Similar manner if we consider the
section left to the AA section the this is coming from the 1500 kg load that is multiplied not
shown here with g this is also multiplied not shown here with g and solving similar equations we
get that T2 and V2.
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But thing one thing by solving this example it is better to note that while it is arrested on a carrier
for landing an aircraft is arrested by hook it experiences a huge load that is in the range of say T2
of say 44 kilo newton or here it is maybe 132 kilo newton. So this is not a very small amount of
force and accordingly there are shear forces acting on it on the fuselage. So unless these things
are designed properly aircrafts are designed properly it may lead to catastrophic failure.
If you search internet nowadays internet is a big resource and that resource is really you may use
it properly there are example videos of failure in this way it is arrested and front portion there is
a vertical crack in the fuselage and the front portions goes to accident it is very bad type of
failure. Ok let us go for the next example 2.
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Ok as I mentioned the acceleration following the Alembert’s the previous example also before
we do anything these example talks about landing impact and important part of in this example is
the D Alembert’s following the D Alembert’s principle what is acting on ma. So it is the
deceleration and on depending on the direction. It is though the displacement in this direction’s
since it is deceleration the inertial load will be acting downwards.
So this point if you keep it in mind. Let us go to the problem now. A 15000 kg aircraft is shown
at the time of landing impact, when the ground reaction on each main wheel is 22.5000g newton
or 22500g newton. If one wheel and tyre has a mass of 250 kg find the compression C and
bending moment M in the oleo strut if the strut is vertical and is 15 cm from the centerline of the
wheel.
To understand this language what is oleo strut? Oleo strut is the compression system axial
compression shock absorbing system instead of compress system it is better to say shock
absorbing system. We absorb in your motorbike probably all of you are introduced to motorbike
if you look at the motor bike from of the suspension that is the kind of oleo strut suspension.
That type of suspension, are also used to in aircraft that is known as oleo strut.
It is in vertical and 15 cm from the center line of the wheel. So these portion if we look at I think
this is the oleo strut portion. This portion compresses to absorb the shock as well as since there is
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a distance between this and the reaction that reactions will introduce some bending movement
and that bending movement M we need to find out.
We have discussed in our last slide what the problem is and we have also discussed about why
ma here it is acting downward and with respect to that first we need to find out the acceleration a
which is not stated here. To do that we consider the equilibrium in the vertical direction
considering the y is the vertical direction if we write the equilibrium equation it is something like
this and from there we get that a is equal to twice g.
Once we get the value of a is equal to twice g we can find out the forces in the landing gear oleo
strut. Oleo strut is the vertical forces here if you draw the free body diagram of the landing gear
will this is the oleo strut as we have discussed it is the axial shock absorbing member. So, the
axial force we have given as C and the moment encountered here as M. So here for this from
your mechanics knowledge we can easily go for 2 equilibrium condition that is at the vertical
equilibrium condition.
And considering the vertical equilibrium condition we get that the value of C = 213150 newton.
Here this is a 500 g ma because 2G is getting multiplied with the 250 and that there is the reason.
For the moment what do we do we consider moment about this point if we consider the moment
about this point what happens that this is acting in the same direction that is in 22500 g
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multiplied by 15 is positive and the other negative portion that is 750, 500 + 250 is considered
here and that gives us the moment this way. So let us move to the next part of the problem.
Next part of the problems is that find the shear and bending moment at section AA of the wing if
the wing outboard of this section has a mass of 750 kg. So this portion is having a mass of 750
kg so this 750 kg is acting at 300 kg and has its cg 300 cm outboard of section AA. So from here
it is acting 750 g is the total force.
So this is a simple same mechanics knowledge we are supposed to use the vertical equilibrium
equation is drawn 71500 g is acting downward, and then 750 g this is the inertia force this is the
inertia force and this is a weight acting downward, and that altogether makes the shear force in
this section for moment we are considering moment about this point and we write the moment
equation and we get this value. So we will move forward for the next slide and we will see what
we have.
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So standard reference we have used what we have learnt from this lecture is that a concept of
finding out flight vehicle aerodynamic loads process of calculation of load factor at different
flight condition. Bending moment and shear force calculation while it is landing or it may be in
different flight condition with example of landing we have learned how to find out how to
consider the effect of inertia while we are finding out bending moment and shear force.
And with this let us end todays lecture. Thank you for attending this lecture. We will meet again
in our next lecture.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Module No - 02
Lecture No - 08
Loads from a symmetric Maneuver of an Aircraft
engineering department IIT Kharagpur. Today is the eighth lecture we will be following that title
of the lecture is said as loads from a symmetric maneuver of an aircraft.
What we will learn today is what is maneuver is but before we go into details better to have some
recapitulation. Recapitulation includes as we have already discussed history of solid mechanics
or the structural analysis applicable to aerospace engineering different sizes and ways the
structures are in different configuration in case of aircraft structures then we have seen the
development of aircraft structures since the beginning by Wright brothers then flight envelope
and load factor for various status we have already learnt.
So today what we will learn is that we will learn what is a; flight maneuver and we will learn
symmetric flight maneuver.
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Along with that we will solve one problem to find out loads in that case. So today’s lecture we
will cover symmetric maneuver loads from a symmetric maneuver equations we will form and
then we will solve one example.
Before we will solve one example before we go into detail it is time to have some understanding
of symmetric maneuver. So, on the right hand side if you look at air this is an aircraft it is in
pullout maneuver before we look into the diagram on the right hand side better we read these
bullets and along with that we follow it. So in a rapid pullout from a dive a downward load is
applied to the tail plane causing the aircraft to pitch nose upward.
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So what happens if an aircraft if we draw these way I get better I remove things here what it says
that causing effort for aircraft to pitch up to pitch nose upwards. So elevator is going upward if
we look at the section these way this is the way this elevator comes in this is the tail plane and
the rapid pull out from a dive a downward load is applied to the tail plane. So that applies the
downward load in the total tail plane and causing the aircraft to pitch nose upward that means it
is moving this way that is what the V diagram is shown this way that is what is explained in the
first topic.
So next if we look at the downward load is achieved by backward movement of the control
column thereby applying negative incidence to the elevator. So that is what just now we have
drawn but control column moving backward this terminology is used with respect to the pilot
and control what happens there is a control rod something like this and then that is moved this
way so to give it a pitch up movement that is what is said here achieved by backward movement
of the control column is moved back.
Thereby applying negative incidence to the elevator this way the elevator will move and negative
incidence to the elevator or horizontal tail if the latter is all moving. So this is one case elevator
is if it is not then the total tail plane moves like this in normal case it is like this but for pitching
up movement it its rotates this way. So next if you talk about the maneuver is carried out rapidly.
The forward speed of the aircraft remains practically constant so that increase in the lift and drag
result from the increase in wing incidence only.
So it is a kind of assumption this is a kind of way we follow it that means we assume the forward
speed practically constant and we assume also that the lift and drag result from the increase in
the wing incidence only. Since the lift is now greater than the required to balance the aircraft
weight. The aircraft experiences an upward acceleration normal to its flight path so the total
aircraft moves upward that is what is saved since the lift is now greater than that required to
balance the aircraft weight the craft experiences an upward acceleration normal to its flight path.
This normal acceleration combined with the aircraft speed in the dive results in the chord flight
path shown in the figure. So what is happening while it is coming down an aircraft is coming
down then the pitch up movement is given and then it is following this way. Here only this
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potion is shown in this case how it is going on. So if we look at the other parameters let us go to
the next slide.
As the drag load builds up with an increase of incidence forward speed of the aircraft falls since
the thrust is assume to remain constant during the maneuver. So if the thrust is assumed constant
the forward speed is definitely supposed to fall so that is what is stated it is usually it is usual as
we are you observed in the discussion of the flight envelope to describe the maneuvers of an
aircraft in terms of the maneuvering load factor n.
So we supposed to find out the maneuvering load factor in terms of ways it is generally talked
about the maneuver of how much g are depending on that the design is carried out for steady
level flight n = 1. This is simply to compare the n values giving 1 g flight although in fact the
acceleration is 0. So this is a very important understanding you may do there is no acceleration
that is the reason it is saying that n = 1 and it giving 1 g.
What is implied in this method of discussion is that the inertia force on the aircraft in the level
flight condition is 1 times its weight. It follows that the vertical inertia from force on an aircraft
carrying out and ng maneuver is nW.
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We may therefore replace the dynamic conditions of the accelerated motion by an equivalent set
of static condition in which the applied loads are in equilibrium with the inertia forces. So we
have expressed in terms of n how does it affect or affect the flight. So that is what we say that the
dynamic condition is replaced equivalent set of static condition thus in figure n is the maneuver
load factor while f is the similar factor giving the horizontal inertia force.
Here we see what the f comes this portion this is because of the maneuver in the vertical
direction this is in the horizontal direction. Note that the actual normal acceleration in this
particular case is n – 1 please note that this is because while there is no state and level flight it is
under 1g. But while it is in ng maneuver actually the normal acceleration is n -1g for vertical
equilibrium of the aircraft we have referring to figures, where the aircraft is shown at the lowest
point of the pullout, this is considered as the lowest point of the pull out if it is moving this way
the figure is shown for this position.
So we are supposed to consider the static condition and we are supposed to find out the equation
that is what is shown here. Before we go into the equation better we have some discussion on the
drive as we have already mentioned. If we look at this is the aerodynamic center about which the
moment is acting aerodynamics moment m0 is acting. Thrust is acting along this line which is a
at a distance C perpendicular distance C from the cg.
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Drag is acting along the AC in this for direction backward thrust is definitely acting in this line
and the distance between the drag and the cg is D and fW is as I said but what we have
mentioned about the fW the horizontal inertia force that is acting in this direction. So P is the lift
acting on that the tail plane so with respect to that if we consider the vertical equilibrium
equation is L PTLP T Sin gamma I think there is a mismatch with the symbol here it is gamma
here it is lambda.
Please consider that gamma is equals to lambda otherwise again there will be some problem,
please consider this. So let L + P + T sin lambda = this the sin thrust sin component acting
vertical and then nW is acting downward. Now for the horizontal equilibrium as we have seen
the thrust component will come the thrust component has come this is the horizontal inertia force
fW –d drag is acting on the others equation.
So this is for vertical this is for horizontal equilibrium now about taking the moment and the
pitching moment equilibrium about the aircraft cg is L into A this is the distance this I missed
from figure it is quite clear lift multiplied by A drag multiplied by b it is acting this way it is
acting the other way tC is also acting in this direction rotation direction. So this and this both are
acting in this direction and M0 is definitely in the same direction Pl P multiplied by L lift is
acting and we get the moment equation.
Here one thing point we should note that effect of pitching acceleration is assumed to be
negligible. So please note that we are not considering the pitching acceleration these pitching
accelerations are generally considered for other aspects other study for control consideration but
here our consideration is not critical. So we have neglected that point so with this understanding
with a symmetric maneuver now we understand what is a general symmetric maneuver is and in
that generic symmetric maneuver.
What are the force components act this is the flight path followed it is at the bottom position of
the flight and what are the forces acting on it lift acting on the wing P force acting on the tail
plane forward inertia force fW particle inertia force nW is acting on it thrust is acting with an
angle lambda or gamma. So with that consideration we have got 3 equations this is the moment
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equation vertical and horizontal equation. Let us try to solve a problem and try to see how we
can find out the force components lift track okay.
How to solve method of successive approximate approximation is most convenient for solution
of these equations. Successive approximation we will follow we will see how do we get one after
another the values and we will solve those it may be noted that there are a few difference with
respect to the steady level flight cases. So that successive approximation method has some
difference it depends on what type of case? What how many data are available depending on that
we need to change the scheme of approximation the engine thrust is no longer directly related to
the drag as the letter changes during the maneuver.
So drag changes during the maneuver because of it is orientation at different position the drag
changes and it is not directly related to the T the steady level flight it is related to T but whereas
in this particular case it is not related it changes. Generally the thrust is regarded as remaining
constant and equal to the value appropriate to condition before the maneuver began. So with this
understanding we consider the thrust and in some specific case we also assume some other way
let us say for a particular problem how do you solve do we solve problem.
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This is one example in this example this is CL let us see what the example says the curves CD
alpha and CMCG CD alpha CMCG for a light aircraft are shown in the figure these 3 values are
given with respect to CL. The aircraft weight is 8000 Newton its wing area is 14.5 meter square
and its mean chord is 1.35 meter. Determine the lift drag tail load and forward inertia force for a
symmetric maneuver corresponding to n =4.5 is a maneuver required for that this type of general
symmetric maneuver.
And a speed of 60 meter per second, assuming that engine of condition apply and that the air
density is 1.223 kg per meter cube. So for this particular problem it is also specified that the
engine is off density is given. So we will use that relevant aircraft dimensions are shown in the
separate figure. So this is the figure for the relevant aircraft dimensions. In this figure there is a
small correction please note that this is the point sorry on which it acts not this point so keeping a
note with that this in the diagram let us try to follow or solve the problem.
The cg distance from the center of pressure of tail plane is 4.18 meter wing chord line is this one
the angle between the fuselage datum is 2 degree this is the flight path, this is the angle alpha
between chord and flight path. And we need to find the alpha from the diagram depending on
some iterative process this angle is given and let us see how can we find out the solution?
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So before we go into the detailed solution let us try to note the procedure followed there are 3
equations vertical equilibrium, horizontal equilibrium and moment. We need to follow an
iterative method because as we seen in the last slide that the alpha CMCG CD alpha and CMCG
these are dependent on CL coefficient of lift. So with confirming value with respect to the CL
will have to consider these values and will have to solve the problem.
So let us see first we will assume that in this particular case that P = 0 and if you consider the
first equation if you use P = 0 T is stated to be 0. So the equation boils down to L = nW and then
from the L=nW from the detailed expression of L that is Q half rho V square CL into S we will
find out the value of CL and that will be our first value of CL. Now using this first value of CL
from the plot described in the previous page we can find out the value of alpha as well as CMCG
and if we have the alpha and CMCG these alpha will result in some L parameter the length
calculation and as well as the CMCG will be used to find out CL again.
But before that we will need the value of P so let us try to see what we can do the moment
equation may be approximated to find out P. Now from the first equation using new value of P
we get the modified CL.
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So let us see for this particular case how do you solve it fast approximation as it is said we
neglect the tail load P this is the first approximation as it is mentioned, we use the equation we
get a L = nW as I mentioned it that L with its detail formula that is half rho V square CL S is the
wing area, CL is the lift coefficient n omega equals to n omega. So following this equation we
get the value of CL n omega W value n is 4.5 and W is already given.
And putting the other value as given 1.223 density of air the speed and 14.5 is the wing area here
was not there. So please note S is there that value of s is equals to 14.5 yes it is 14.5 meter
square. So with that value of S we calculate the CL the first as a calculated value of CL and now
using this CL value from this plot say for 1.113 somewhere here we drop and we find out the
value of alpha corresponding to that alpha value we get around 13.75 we get the CMCg 0.75
CMCg is this is alpha this CMcg.
So these values we get and the tail arm L from first figure we need to find out is that L = 4.18
this alpha is the new alpha we are supposed to put here again this is the point and this component
is and this small component whatever is this component. So this is this component and this is this
component so Cos and Sin part alpha / 2 all these 2.31 that is the reason we have the length
corresponding to the tail arm and using this equation let us see how do we.
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So we have the value of L calculated that is L = 4.123 meter and from the moment equation if we
look at we can consider that this is total La Db M0 is equivalent to the aircraft pitching moment
that is MCG and if you rewrite the equation in that form that is MCG – Pl=0 and the detail
expression or expression of MCG which consists of half Rho V square Sc CMCG where c is the
wing mean chord.
Now substituting so from here we will get the value of P and that P value can be substituted from
to the vertical equilibrium equation where initially we assume P = 0 and that we have put here P
is put divided by L this expression divided by L is put which is equals to nWT is 0 in our
problem.
Now again to make it in the coefficient form we divide it by half Rho V square S and we get the
expression for CL which is equal to CL+ C the main aerodynamic chord divided by L and then
CMCG this CMCG with respect to the CL the previous CL value that is previous CL value was
1.113 with that value this value is the previous CL value we can we have got the CMCG value
and substituting those value we can have the new CL value.
Note that the right hand side is nothing but the old CL value this is what is written here the old
CL value 1.113 and this portion is nothing but this one. So we get a new value of CL so one
iteration is done so this iteration we can repeat to get a refined value of CL so with this CL value
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with this new CL value from the plot, we can find out again alpha we can again find the value of
CMCG.
And with help of alpha and CMCG, we can find out the new modified L we can find out the new
value this D we can use this new CMCG value and we can have the new value of CL. So that is
what the iteration goes on so let us see in our next slide how the iteration takes place.
So in this we see the new value of CL will give alpha = 13.3 degree CMCG = 0.073 from the
plot. Substituting these values of alpha into equation b gives a second approximation of l namely
l = 4.161. This will modify the value of P and as we have described the new CL value we have
equals to 1.099. Since the 3 calculated value of CL are all extremely close further approximation
will note give values of CL very much different to those above.
Therefore we shall take CL equals to 1.099 and from the figure we calculate the value of CD that
will give us the drag here it gives us the drag the value of lift tail load drag and forward inertia
force then as follows. L is calculated from the standard formula all these values are put tail load
P = nW-L those values are put and we have found that it is equals to 1000 newton drag is also
put from the value half Rho V square a CD and 2790.
And the forward inertia force which is equals to the drag is 2790 so considering T = 0 so with
this what we conclude that for a symmetric general maneuver how the maneuver is what are the
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forces act on that aircraft we have learnt and we have considering a standard plots how to solve a
problem how to find out lift drag tail plane load forward inertia force all those things we have
talked out.
So references are standard reference what we had followed in the previous slides.
And at the conclusion slide if we see a symmetric maneuver is we have learnt how a symmetric
maneuver takes place what are the condition loads from symmetric maneuver we have to solve
and with that we have got a fear understanding at different flight scenario flight maneuver how
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do we find out loads experienced by an aircraft? So with this slide we move to our end of today’s
lecture thank you for attending this lecture.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Module No - 02
Lecture No - 09
Shear and Moment on wing an Aircraft
Welcome back to aircraft structures 1 this is Professor Anup Ghosh from aerospace engineering
department IIT Kharagpur. We are in the second week lectures this is the fourth lecture of
second week. So before we go into what we will be learning which is there in the first as a
lecture topic shear and moment on wing of an aircraft.
So recapitulation if you talk about history already you have done for structural analysis to some
extent on aircraft development. Conceptual details of typical aircraft we have done flight
envelopes and load factors what is load factor how from flight envelope a load factor is
determined during design various parts of aircraft. How do we maintain a flight envelope? All
those things we have learnt loads from symmetric maneuver in the last class we have learnt we
have seen how can we calculate loads for a symmetric maneuver.
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And today what we will see that the shear and moment on wing how is it calculated how do, we
find out due to the aerodynamic load and unit load analysis for wing, shear and moments. So we
will better we go for the unit load analysis first and then we will solve one problem to understand
how do, we find out shear and moments on wing?
So as we have already seen that we have discussed the air load on the wing and the equilibrium
of the airplane as a whole in flight. It is customary to replace the distributed air forces on an
airfoil by 2 resultant forces lift and drag acting through the aerodynamic center of the airfoil plus
a wing moment. So for a structural engineer what finally we get the 2 lift and drag forces and 1
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moment and that we need to consider and we will have to find out a stresses build in component
members and will have to design.
The flow around the wing is not uniform in span wise direction thus the airfoil force coefficient
CL, CD and CM vary span wise along the wing. This already we have seen with some diagram
CL varies, lift varies, CD varies, drag varies and moment also varies from root to the tip along
the span. Any particular type of airplane is design to carry out a certain job or duty and to do that
job requires a certain maximum airplane velocity.
So from the flight envelope already we have introduced with this we are repeating just to keep in
mind that is a major factor for an airplane design with the maneuvering limited to certain
maximum acceleration. So that flight envelope gives us the maximum acceleration so if we why
we are talking about? If we do unit analysis then from that unit analysis we can easily go for any
acceleration level.
And the velocity from the velocity we can find out the acceleration from the, envelop these
limiting accelerations are usually specified with reference to the XYZ axis of the airplane. Since
the directions of the lift and drag forces change with angle of attack it is simpler and convenient
in stress analysis to resolve all forces. So since it is changes as it is mentioned it is resolved and
it reference to the XYZ axis which remain fixed in direction relative to the airplane. So it is
generally kept fixed and it is resolved and that way we generally continue.
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So as a time saving element in the wing stress analysis it is customary to make unit load analysis
for wing shears and moments. So we are repeatedly saying we need to do usually do time saving
for time saving unit loads but what is unit loads? These are the following steps by which we
describe it to some extent but it is difficult to understand simply going through this texts that is
the reason we will solve 1 problem in 1 direction here it is talked about many more direction
more than 1 direction and we will see how that it is carried out?
So let us try to understand as far the text written here that as to assume a total arbitrary unit load
acting on the wing in the Z direction. This arbitrary unit load please keep it mind it is not load 1
unit load does not mean that it is under unit magnitude 1 magnitude of load acting on the wing in
the Z direction through the aerodynamic center of the airfoil section and distributed span wise
according to the to that of CL or lift coefficient.
So what we are saying that it is distributed along the lift position just to remember if we think of
we have learnt this is the fuselage generally this is the distribution along the wing followed. So
accordingly CL is supposed to be distributed. Axial a similar total load; as in one but acting in
the X direction that is the reason to understand this reason. So this is nothing but what we are
talking about this CL is as we said that acts from the through the aerodynamics center so we can
say this is the force acting okay this CL is acting here in this direction.
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Then the next it says that the similar total load as in 1 but acting in X direction in this direction
and then to assume a total unit wing load acting in the Z direction through the aerodynamic
center and distributed span wise according to that of CD it was distributed according to CL next
it is distributed along CD. So that same CD is acting here and we are supposed to do the analysis.
Similarly it is also acting this way.
Then to assume unit wing moment which may be acting not this way acting this way and we
have to solve that also. But it appears from this discussion that we need to solve 5 unit problems
and will need to keep that solution for a particular set of wing. So for time we cannot solve all
the 5 problems what we will have to solve we will solve only one type of problem we will see
how do we solve the problem and we will the same process we can apply for others and solve it.
So here is the problem what we will be solving today figure below shows the half wing plan
form this is this figure we are talking about plan form of a cantilever wing. Next figure shows a
wing section at station 0 this is this figure makes a less next figure we are talking about it says at
station 0 means we are talking saying that this is a station second station third, fourth and
consecutive stations numbered in this according to this length from this axis.
So this is this way this is the leading edge this is the trailing edge. The reference Y axis has been
taken as 40% chord line from here to here it is 40% chord line this and this are the same
representation which happens to be a straight line in this particular case it is straight line. But
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usually it is not because of complicated geometry and requirement or various section types of
aerodynamics files.
Airfoils used at different sections in normal modern days aircraft never this section airfoil is
name same as this section airfoil section changes the shape also changes. So depending upon that
it is not a straight line that is why emphasis is given on that it is a straight line in this particular
wing layout. The total wing area is 11760 square inch for convenience a total unit distribution
load of 17760 pound is taken. This is what we said I have mentioned while we were discuss in
the last slide.
It is not 1 pound it is 17760 pound to keep the make the analysis convenient it is not 1 load will
be assumed acting on the half wing and acting upward in the Z direction and through the airfoil
aerodynamic center. So along this line it is acting upward okay so this is the simple problem
what we have there is a aerodynamic load acting upward this way. We are supposed to find out
shear and moment it is as simple as that we have some dimensions.
Let us see how do we do how do we find out those the span wise distribution of this load will be
according to the CL lift coefficient span wise distribution for simplicity in this example it is it
will be assumed constant. So CL is assumed to be constant along the length of the wing.
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So here we come with some additional figure just to understand the problem first and then the
modern tools computer tools with excel sheet we will solve the problem. So let us see look at the
problem first how it is already we have understood how what is this problem is this is a half wing
this is this portion is fuselage, this is the wing, this is root section, this is leading edge, this is
trailing edge. Already we know 17760 equals to the area of the wing force is acting we are
assumed element on the aerodynamic center line and this figure will help us in understanding let
us see how it is acting.
We will also assume that the distribution of lift along chord is also unity so it is only one set of
arrow is shown here it is not like that we are assuming that the distribution is uniform on this
section. And for understanding we can start with this section actually this is this section we are
trying to understand so this total force is acting upward this is a trapezoidal portion that is why
this trapezoidal is drawn here.
We need the centroid how much far it is from this because we need to find out the moment so
that distance and multiply it by the sum of resultant of the force acting there we will give us the
moment equals to M1. The sum of all those forces will give us the shear V1 once we have shear
and moment in this section we are considering the next section here this is this section if we
understand the calculation up to this it is very simple we are assuming distribution in this
direction also uniform this direction also you have considered already uniform.
So that load calculation point of view it has become easy in this section for equilibrium
consideration this V should act upward and this M1 should act in the opposite direction. So what
do we need to consider that similar way we are calculating one more resultant here we are again
finding out the distance as at which the resultant is acting from this figure. So along with that to
find out shear we need to add this also along with plus this will give us the V2.
Similarly this M1 plus this V1 multiplied by this distance say d plus say this is V prime + V
prime multiplied this say centroid distance C prime will give us the M2. So this is what we need t
consider to find out M2 because M1 remains this also will act and then all 3 component will give
us the M2. So once we understand this properly we can easily understand the remain table so this
calculation will carry out for moment about X.
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So this in case this is the moment we are talking about we need to calculate the other moment
also in the Y direction that how can we calculate? We have assumed that the force is acting along
this direction. So this lever arm will act for moment around this Y axis so this force multiplied
by this lever arm will give us the section wise this section, wise moments and then we will add
up all those moments.
So actually it is acting on this aerodynamic center so this is the 15% and that 15% is here that
will be acting and giving us the My moment. So keeping mind all this data we will go to the next
slide or if possible if it supports will go to the axial set and will try to find out we will try to
check the calculation how do we carry out? The basic understanding should be clear here.
Okay so as we have seen we are starting with this station 240 we are starting with station 240
that is what 240 is given here. Chord length C is 48 inch as it is shown here and here lies as we
assume that ratio of the span wise variation to the lift coefficient in terms of a unit distribution
along the chord that is C bar L. So that we are assuming to be unity we are not considering any
variation.
So with respect to that there is no modification of running load per inch of wing that remains
same 48. Now average running load from this section and this section we are simply taking an
arithmetic average and finding out the load. Distance of station between these 2 station 240 and
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235 is 5 and here all if you see this is 220 and 205 which is 15 accordingly we have noted down
all those points.
Before we go to distance of average load for all the station also calculated strip load is as it is
mentioned column 5 multiplied by column 6 that is column 5 multiplied by column 6. So
average running load is this distance is this so the strip load acting on that particular strip is total
this much 242 in this particular segment it is this segment if you talk about this segment it is
242.73.
Now amount of centroid sorry arm to centroid of strip load here comes the trapezoidal centroid
formula because as you look into it the chord is changing 48 49. We use that formula and we find
out that arm length as 2.49. We have the load strip load we have the amount of arm length and
accordingly we see that this shear remains same this will require to calculate the moment. So this
is the moment from previous section means as we were talking about this is similar to that M1
from if well why we are calculating for M2.
So for M2 while we are calculating this is moment from previous session is that moment due to
the distributed load this is multiplication of this arm and this so this we are talking about this is
column 9 and column 6 that is strip load and distance between stations so this is it says moment
from the previous section it is actually the multiplication at the junction of previous section the
shear multiplied by the distance.
So this is this shear multiplied by this distance so that is what we get here while will see the
excel sheet will again understand it properly. And this is the moment due to the strip load so this
is as I mentioned this arm length multiplied by the strip load we are getting and column 12 this is
the Mx that is previous one the previous M, M1 or the previous section load moment due to the
shear this one that is the column 10, and then the column 11 this one.
So all this 4 are making it to here it is column 12 the previous one section and then column 10
that is column 10 is because of the previous section shear and the distance and this is from the
strip load and the centroid whatever we multiplied that is yes this 2 we are summing up and we
are getting the moment. So this is what we get for the Mx and then if we look for the Y axis the
X distance from the aerodynamics center to the Y reference axis.
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So this is nothing but the 15% of that particular chord always this is 15% of that particular chord
and then average is considered and then once we have the average then it is simply the strip load
as we have in column 7 this is the strict and that average of distance is multiplied we get the
moment Y and this is the sum with respect to the pervious one and this one. So some column
some of this so accordingly we if we continue calculation following this process it become easy.
Now a days with help of excel sheet we can easily modify we can easily carry out this type of
calculation and one check is better to note here is that the shear or the sum of the strip load is
coming equals to 17760 which is exactly the amount of load applied and that is the result unit
load per unit square inch is applied on the wing and the calculation is carried out.
So with respect to this let us before we finish let us look at the excel sheet what we have learned
how can we carry out with help of the excel sheet. Here in this diagram we see assisting figures
are also there complete table is also there. So as were mentioning this is simple average so that
excel sheet formula is used here it is divided by 2 and if we see this multiplication is carried
simple way.
And we also carry out the other operation as described this is the sum of previous and this new
one and then we are getting the sum value. Like that we calculate the Mx moment we calculate
the My moment as well as the shear acting on the section.
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So this diagram helps a lot for understanding and if we plot this excel is generally not used for
plotting this type of diagram but in this particular presentation it is easier to show using excel
that is why excuse me. Column values are Mx value is plotted with respect to the root section to
the tip section. Here the shear force is plotted which is not a straight line if you look it carefully
and this is the moment y which is also a curve and we can have a feeling how the moment
various along the span for only lift we consider.
So with conclusion of today’s lecture the reference is a standard reference is taken.

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And what we have learnt this week is that shear and moment on wing unit load analysis for wing
shears and moments. And similarly for other 4 components as we have discussed in the unit load
case we can have some analysis we can keep the solution and we can use those solutions for in
future design purpose thank you for attending this lecture with that let us conclude today’s
lecture we will meet again in the next lecture.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Module No - 02
Lecture No - 10
Distribution of Load on the Fuselage
Welcome back to aircraft structures one course. This is Professor Anup Ghosh from aerospace
engineering department IIT Kharagpur we are at the tenth lecture today. We have already learned
the wing moment and shear calculation due to external loads. Today we will be covering
distribution of loads on fuselage. Present lecture will cover only how do we need to preprocess
we need to prepare the loads properly to find out shear our bending moment in fuselage that we
will do.
To do that let us proceed before we proceed as I have mentioned in brief that in past class we
have done shear and moment and wing of an aircraft. And before that loads and other things we
have done. So with that consideration let us move forward for the fuselage load.
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So distribution of distribution of loads and moments along the fuselage is our aim. How the loads
come where from what are the components, we need to take care and from there how do we
distribute it. Not only distribution it also needs to be rearranged rearrangement of load for
analysis.
So before we go for the arrangement earlier (()) (02:07) or the fuselage we need to definitely
learn a little bit about what exactly we are going to do shear and moment on airplane body that is
our aim. The body of an airplane acts essentially as a beam. So complete aircraft we are
considering as a beam and is in some condition of flight or landing as a beam column which
maybe also subjected to twisting or torsional forces.
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So it may have some axial force that is why beam column because of acceleration in the forward
direction or retardation. It may have twist say for a case while 2 engine craft not the type of
aircraft we have considered in our last example or the example what we will solving. If it is a 2
engine aircraft amounted on wing and because of some reason there is a failure on the failure of
1 engine that will create huge bending as well as torsional moment not only that because of
rolling there could be a torsional moment.
So to design an airplane body it requires a complete picture of the shearing, bending, twisting
and axial forces which may be encountered in flight or landing. So during flight or landing all
these shearing bending twisting or axial forces may occur. Keeping in mind that for 1g
consideration or unit load consideration we will try to solve the problem. In the load analysis for
wings, the direct air forces are the major forces.
For the body load analysis the direct air pressures are secondary. So this is a major differences
difference between the being load analysis and the body loaded fuselage load analysis direct air
pressures are secondary. The major forces being of a concentrated nature in the form of loads or
reactions from the units attached to the body as the power plant as I just now mentioned the
engines wing, landing gear, tail etc.,
So all these wings will produce some or the other shear or bending moment on the fuselage. In
addition since the body usually serves as the load carrying medium important forces are
produced on the body in resisting the inertial forces of the weight of the interior equipment,
installation, payloads etc., So it also whatever internal things are there like the equipment and
other installations or payloads that also it needs to carry. So that has also to be considered.
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Design condition and design weight the airplane body must be designed to withstand all loads for
specified flight conditions for both maneuver and gust conditions. Since acceleration due to air
gusts vary inversely as the airplane weight it is customary to analyze or check the body for a
flight load condition. This why it is inversely unless how the gusts acts we want to spend time on
that but let us consider that happens in general the design weights are specified by the govern
sorry government agencies.
So this design weights are specified by government agencies as we have discussed the air
ordinance agencies are certification agencies they provide the critical conditions and from there
we try to put. For landing conditions however the normal gross weight is used since it would be
more critical than other load conditions and landing condition is a very critical condition of
fuselage load analysis.
For this reason we will see how many landing conditions may exist and we may need to take
care. The general design conditions which are usually investigated in the design of the body are
as follows. The general design condition except landing what is generally followed already we
have discussed how a wing which section of wing gets most stressed because of high angle of
attack.
Positive high angle of attack or negative high angle of attack, low angle of attack positive or
negative inverted low angle that is the negative one that is why I is there and the inverted high
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angle of attack. So all the 4 conditions as we have already considered in case of wing structures
that we need also to be considered here. But in real design we need to consider but here in the
example we probably you would not do.
The body is usually equipped sorry body is usually required to withstand special tail loads both
symmetrical and asymmetrical which may be produced by air gusts, engine forces, etc., Also the
body should be checked for forces due to unsymmetrical air loads on the wing. So what are the
gust engine loads, unsymmetrical air loads? All these things already we have discussed but to
remember to study these are all noted down as a specific case.
Landing condition as I told you landing condition is very critical condition. In landing condition
in general the body is investigated airplane body is investigated for the following landing
conditions. The detailed requirements for each condition are given in the government
specification for both military and commercial airplanes. So certifying agencies generally give
this different; certifying agencies for different condition for land planes.
Level landing with side load, 3 point landing with ground loop, Nose over or turn over condition,
arresting usually this is not a normal condition as it is mentioned it is usually for navy or carrier
based airplanes. So all these critical cases we are supposed to consider for during landing and for
land planes for seaplanes or boats. Step landing with and without angular acceleration, bow
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landing, stern landing, 2 wave landing, beaching conditions, catapulting conditions again this is
not usual case.
For special conditions these are landing conditions for special conditions you also need to
consider the fuselage or body shear force and moment and 2 of the more most important things
are in listed here that is towing of an airplane or jacking and hoisting of aircraft. These are
required towing is required almost every day for every flight but jacking and hoisting are
required for maintenance.
Body weight and balance distribution so this is where a special group of engineers come in they
prepare the body weight and balance distribution. Let us see how it is prepared and how that uses
that is used for the analysis. The resting sorry the resisting inertia force due to the dead weight of
the body and it is content plays an important part in the load analysis of the airplane body. So
inertia forces and dead weight we need to consider.
When the initial aerodynamic and the general layout and arrangement of the airplane is made it is
necessary that a complete weight balance estimate. I repeat weight and balance estimate of the
airplane is made. This estimate which is presented in report form gives the weights and c.g.
locations of all major airplane units or installations as well as for many of the minor units. So
whatever they are inside all components weight and their cg locations are put in weight and
balance estimation sheet.
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Which makes up this major airplane assemblies or installations load analysis or unit analysis. So
unless we have the weight balance estimation sheet for a certain aircraft we cannot do that those
light weight analysis here and want the moment distribution. Load analysis unit analysis this
already are to some extent have got the idea what is unit analysis is due to many design condition
such as those listed in the previous discussion the general procedure in the load analysis of an
airplane body is to base it on a series of unit analysis.
So we will see in future classes that we will consider unit analysis in the transverse direction in
Z direction we will consider unit analysis in the forward direction will also consider unit analysis
because of the tail load. That is what is mentioned here for different design conditions we need to
carry out the unit analysis. The loads for any particular design condition then; follows as a
certain combination of the unit results with the proper multiplying factors.
So once we have these different load conditions as unit analysis depending upon the particular
design criteria we need have a combination of those in unit analysis and we need to find out the
final load coming shear force bending moment coming on the fuselage.
So our example is this aircraft this is a text book problem we have already solved the wing for
bending moment and shear force. Example problem illustrates the calculation of shear and
moments on fuselage due to unit load condition. Will cover the shear and moment in future class
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but that starts here that is why it is stated here. We will only do in this lecture that distribution
and re distribution of the loads coming on the fuselage and how do we need to carry out that for
unit load analysis.
Figure below shows a layout of the airplane body to be used in this example problem. It happens
to be the body of an actual airplane and the wing used in the previous example problem was the
wing that went with the airplane. So important things we should notice here that we are
considering the reference axis we are considering the reference axis 5 inch forward the tip of the
propeller this one.
We are considering the X axis this is the Z axis we are considering we are considering the X axis
here going passing through the center of the propeller the tail height is the tail plane height tip
height is about 11 feet 2 inch and the total length is about 27 width 2 inch. This is the thrust line
we are considering cg is little bit below the first line and the wing though we would not be using
for this analysis the dimension is given here it is 20 feet and the distance to the landing gear is
47.5 inch.
This is what the airplane weight and balance sheet is unless we have the airplane weight balance
sheet it is difficult to go forward for the shear and bending moment calculation of fuselage or the
airplane body. First table gives the weight and balance estimation estimate for the total airplane.
This table is usually formulated by the weight and balance section. As I told you a group of
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engineering; are dedicated for this of the engineering department and it is necessary to have this
information before the airplane load analysis can be made.
So let us try to look at the points what is there in this power plant weight is 1100 pound. Before
that the vertical Z arm measures from the thrust line positive is upward. Horizontal X arms
measures from Z axis 5 inch forward of prop Z axis situated 5 inch forward of prop center
positive is aft that means towards the tail plane. So power plant location is 9 inch on X at the
thrust line that is why it is 0 vertical moment is 0.
Whereas because of it is 19 inch away the moment about the Z axis is simple multiplication of
these 2 quantity we are getting this. So this column is nothing but multiplication of these 2. This
column is nothing but multiplication of these 2 instead of that like considering it that way we
may consider it something like that what is the moment produced about the axis we have
considered. These are the moment this is about Z axis this is about X axis.
What are the other components there in the weight balance sheet fuselage group, wing group, tail
group, surface control, electrical system, chassis front, tail wheel group, furnishing, radio. All
these consist of the empty weight that is why these are summed up here pilot, student, fuel
system here the student is written but it may be considered as passenger. Fuel system and the
total gross weight considering the payload and pilot portion, payload portion as 4300 pound and
the horizontal moment is coming at 376615 pound inch.
Whereas the vertical moment what we have that means, about the X axis is minus of 40320
pound inch. CG location from easy calculation you can find out the CG location that is 87.58 in
aft of reference axis that means from the tip of the reference axis and in Z it is -9.38 that means
below the thrust line that is the reason if we go to back or forward we will go because all these
things are put on a nice drawing in the ok.
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This is the drawing of each and every part ok CG is not showed here is the CG. So CG is below
the x line that is what it is we were discussing so it is there. So let us go to the next slide.
So in the next slide in the table we will see some components are not consider for the fuselage or
your body shear and moment analysis. What are those conditions? If you look at it item 3 7 13
are not there. What are the items? Item 3 wing group is not considered. Item 7 chassis front is not
considered. Item 13 fuel system is not considered. So wing group if we go further back wing
group is actually this portion this is the fuel inside and what is the other one and the fuel?
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Fuel inside, chassis front and wing group consisting of the portion as we have shown so these
three items are not considered as the load carried by the fuselage why will because we assume
that in practical consideration we see that load is directly carried by the landing gear not the
fuselage. So that is the reason it would not come for the fuselage load analysis. So this table is
further prepared for that and we have re return those parameters we have calculated the CG again
considering gross weight as well as only empty weight.
So both CG we see that it is 86.02 while there is a change because of the payload that change and
the fuel bond need to be adjusted during flight that is a different consideration of flight
mechanics we would not discuss much about that. But in the Z direction there is not much
change but we also need to consider that during flight. So weight and balance of body items
weight distribution we are continuing.
Second table gives the weight and balance calculation for all items attached to the fuselage or
carried in the fuselage except the wing group and items attached to the wing as the front landing
gear and the fuel.
So here all those items are shown with plus sign as item number 1, 2, 3 is missing 4 is here 5 is
here, 6 is here like that all the items whatever listed I the word balance shape those things
whatever required for fuselage load analysis that is even shown here for a close approximation of
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the shear and moments where moments weights of the various items as given in the table is
distributed.
The figure shows a side view of the airplane with the center of gravity locations of the weights
weight items of the second table indicated by plus signs. In the various design conditions, the
directions of the weight inertia force changes thus it is convenient and customary to resolve the
inertial forces into X and Z components. So from these point we will go for the resolving the
forces in X and Z components.
So this is for vertical Z component weight items of table acting in Z direction in this figure the
weights as given in the second table are assumed acting in the Z direction through their cg
location. The loads as shown would not give a true picture as to the shears and moments along
the fuselage, thus these leads loads sorry these loads should be distributed in a manner which
should simulate the actual weight distribution.
So this is important which should simulate the actual weight distribution. Particularly these 350
load the fuselage load we will see we will come to that point in most weight and balance reports
the weight items are broken down into considerable more detail than that shown in the second
table which makes the weight distribution more evident. So if it is given in the weight balance
table we need to use that otherwise the weight is given we will have to use it.
The study of inward profile drawing of the airplane which shows the general arrangement of all
the installations and equipment is required. So that study we need to do unless we have the
profile drawing it is difficult to distribute those loads furthermore the overall structural
arrangement and its possible influence on fuselage weight distribution to be considered. So
depending on the structural arrangement we need to distribute the fuselage weight that is most
important and we need to carry that thing we need to do that thing.
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In order to obtain reasonable accuracy the fuselage or body is divided into a series of stations or
sections. Better we go back these are the stations 0, 11, 55, 88, 120 like that these stations are
generally divided and depending on the stations we need to carry out the load analysis. In this
figure the sections selected are designed as station’s which represents the distance from the Z
reference axis. The general problem is to distribute the concentrated loads as shown in the
second figure into an, equivalent system acting at the various fuselage station points.
This is the most important point in our discussion today. So we need to distribute the
concentrated loads as shown in the second figure into an, equivalent system acting at the various
fuselage station points. A weight item from the second table represents a concentrated load such
as a pilot, student, radio, etc., The weight can be distributed to adjacent station points inversely
as the distance of the weight from these adjacent stations.
A weight item such as the fuselage structure item 2 of the second table whose cg location causes
it to fall between stations 80 and 120 of the second figure, it would obviously be wrong to
distribute this weight only to the 2 adjacent stations since the weight 350 pound is for the entire
fuselage. So we need to distribute this 350 pound along the length of the fuselage such that it
represents for properly in those stations the fuselage weights.
These weight items of 350 pounds should thus be distributed to all station points. The controlling
requirement on this distribution is that the moment of the distributed system about the reference
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access must be equal to the moment of the original weight about the same axis. The third figure
shows how the dead weight of the 350 pound was distributed to the various station points
considering the weights to be acting in the Z direction.
Let see the controlling requirement on this distribution is that the moment this already we have
read so I am not going to read again thus for reference to this slide it is put down there. The third
figure shows how the dead weight of this how the dead weight is distributed. All this mainly the
350 load this load is distributed at station 11 as 19 pound 80 pound 78, 65 all this way this has
been done.
This is the iterative process not only iterative process this also requires a concept as well as
drawing of similar aircraft for this distribution. Otherwise it will be very difficult to distribute the
loads. Pleas look at the distribution this region is the highest load concentration. Because this
region is the most load bearing section of the fuselage. And other section the load are not much
those sections may carry a small amount of load and required loads whatever coming on the
fuselage.
So depending on that concept it is not a easy task it cannot be distributed the way the this criteria
match it is not only depending on this criteria it is also dependent on the practical consideration
and experience of an engineer how to distribute the load.
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This is a table to carry out that distribution as I mention it is iterative process that iterative
process is difficult to solve people used to do it with big charts and slide rules and calculator
previously. But now it is people have the facility of the computer and it is generally tried using
computer to distribute the load. This table is a very important table in our today’s discussion. If
you look at the previous 2, 3 slide discussion that 2, 3 slides discussion is completely given here
in this row whatever is given.
So it is it look like a simple row but it is the result of the all calculations and experience. What is
given? That 19 load if we take for example is at station 11 from the horizontal direction at X axis
but it is also upward 1 inch from the thrust line, the other part 80 that is below 4 inch the thrust
line. So it is not only that in only with respective to the Z axis the equilibrium is considered it is
also that it is about the X axis also the equilibrium is considered.
And if we look at the other all distributions this is 20914 is coming from the power plant the
horizontal moment and we are summing up all this horizontal moment to this value and if we
sum up these horizontal moment also this will give us this value. How do we get this horizontal
moment weight at station is the addition of these 2 and that is multiplied by this 11 gives us the
horizontal moment here?
So from the both sides we get the summation equal and we have the similarly the vertical
moment, if we look at here this is multiply by 0 but 19 is multiplied by 1 that is the reason it is
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having the value of 19 and similarly the vertical moments sums up to this 5920. If you carry out
this in a excel sheet you can easily select this row and check that this is summing to this 5920.
That could be a small error with respect to the previous table what we have seen but those errors
are neglected to estimate the overall moment overall distribution of the weights along the Z and
X axis. But this table shows the results of this station point where distribution for the weight
items of the second table the values in the horizontal rows opposite each weight items show the
distribution to the various fuselage station.
The summation of the weights in each vertical column at each station point as given in the third
horizontal row from the bottom of the table gives the final station point weight final weight
distribution to station.
So this is what were from do we get this let us go back. 893, 388, 307, 407, 893, 388, 307, 407
and 409 as I told you there could be a small mismatch between this figure and the calculation
one. So please ignore that it is close 311, 76, 10, 21, 311, 76, 10, 21, 118 and 22. So all these are
shown here the redistributed loads combine with all other internal as well as fuselage load and
with this load distribution only we will carry out our shear force bending moment calculation.
These weights are shown in the fourth figure acting in the Z direction. The moment of each total
station loads about Z axis is given in the second horizontal row from the bottom of the third table
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that means the previous table. The summation of the moments in this row must equal to the total
wx moment of the second table or 219843 pounds inch or inch pound. This check is shown in the
last vertical column of the third table.
Ok this is we have concepts in how it is distributed in in the vertical direction. This figure shows
in the horizontal way how it is distributed 80 is acting here. This is the mistake the corresponding
values is not put there you may please refer to the table. 65 is acting above the X line 52 is acting
above the X line, and similar way on the X direction where the loads are acting all those things
are shown here.
And the fuselage weight distribution to the X axis plus couple. So because of this distance a
couple will be created that couple is shown here 80 and 320 is the couple 80 is the force 234 is
the couple and I think this is 130 is the load here. Here the 65 is the load and 520 is the couple.
And finally the final weight distribution, in X direction refer to X axis plus proper couples gives
us this figure.
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And with this we will end today’s this lecture and what we have learnt is that with respect to the
vertical Z axis as well as X axis how the loads and moments are distributed to distribute the loads
coming in the fuselage that has been discussed here. And along with that we will thank you for
attending this lecture we will meet again with in the next lecture. Thank you.
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Aircraft Structure - 1
Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture-11
Unit Load Analysis of Fuselage
Welcome back to aircraft structures one this is professor Anup Ghosh from aerospace
engineering department, IIT Kharagpur. This is the last lecture of second week lecture 11, Unit
Load Analysis of Fuselage.
In the last lecture we have we have completed the load distribution and this lecture will continue
from there before that as it is just now I have mentioned we have learned what we have learned
that as a quick recapitulation. You can say we have learned some history from solid mechanics
view or structural analysis view to the development of aircraft, conceptual detail of aircraft. How
big small variation of wing positions all those we have done.
Flight envelope, please excuse me for that flight envelope and load factors for various status and
then loads from symmetric maneuver of any aircraft. So, these load factor how does it vary
where that is very important part how does it, where you; where it is taking; which value? Those
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things we have discussed. Then on an aircraft we have considered the wing load and then using
the wing load we have found out the bending moment shear force acting on the wing.
And then in the last class we have started the fuselage bending moment shear force diagram and
bending moment shear force analysis but since fuselage is a different type of structure than wing
and it causes of different other category loads including loads coming from its own weight the
fuselage weight that we have seen that how that own weight is distributed throughout the length
of the fuselage.
And how that balance is maintained about an axis z axis the vertical axis or the first line axis or
about the x axis then accordingly we have distributed the fuselage weight, total weight that is
distributed along the length x as well as along the length z. So, maintaining the total moment of
that. So, with that concept we have already come across a table and that table shows us the final
distribution of the loads it is not only the loads coming from the fuselage.
It is also the loads coming from other payloads like the pilot like other radio equipments say or
other passengers whoever it is those things are distributed on the fuselage various station points.
Like the wing analysis here also we have considered station points and windows station points
how it gets converted as a concentrated load or a moment that we have seen in our last lecture
with figures with good explanation in the figures and for any kind of clarification I would
suggest carefully you look at the figure and the description you will come to know how it is?
Where it is?
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So with that load we will start today unit load analysis we will start today unit load analysis for
fuselage will consider three load conditions Loads In Vertical Direction, Loads In Horizontal
Direction, Loads From Tail Plane. So, in each and every case as a unit load analysis will be
considering unit acceleration and then we will continue our study.
So, following that same line the unit analysis of fuselage shears and moments since there are
many flight and landing conditions considerable time can be saved if a unit analysis is made for
the fuselage shears, shears and bending forces. This is actually the purpose of unit analysis we
have already discussed it is a repeat, no problem in that I guess the design values in general then
follow as a summation of the values in the unit analysis times a proper multiplication factor that
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means if the direction Z is more that many times you need to multiply it with it and then you will
have to add it.
The loads on the fuselage in general consists of tail loads, engine loads, wing reactions, landing
gear reactions if attached to fuselage and inertia forces due to the airplane acceleration which
may be due to do both translational angular acceleration of the airplane. For simplicity these
loads can be resolved into components parallel to Z and X axis that we have already resolved in
our previous class we will continue solving that same problem.
To illustrate the unit analysis procedure a unit analysis for our example problem will be carried
out for the following in condition. Unit acceleration or load factor in Z direction as I mentioned
already, unit acceleration or load factor in X Direction. Unit tail load normal to X-axis acting
downward. So, these 3 conditions will be conspire we will be solving today. Let us see how do
we proceed in the first case.
Solution for unit load factor in Z direction, figure shows the deadweight loads acting in the Z
direction as taken from table. This values it is talking about all these values 893 pound at station
11, 388 pound at station 50, 307 pound at station 80, 120 at station 120, 407 at station 170, 311
at station 200, 176 pound at 230 station 230 it is 10 pound 260, 21 pound at station 290 it is 118
pound at station 315 it is 22 pound.
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The wing is attached to the fuselage at station 73 and 116 as shown. So, here the wing is attached
the fittings at these points are assumed as designed to cause all the drag or reaction in the X
direction to be taken off entirely at the front fitting of 73, at station 73. Let us repeat the fittings
at this point are assumed as designed to cause all the drag or reaction in the X direction to taken
off entirely at the front fitting that means whatever coming the horizontal force that is taken by
this one at station 73 that is what is mentioned here.
Let us try to find out the reaction components at the wing fitting? To place the fuselage in
equilibrium the wing reaction will be calculated that is the weighing reaction is a very small easy
calculation we need to do summation of x equals to 0 that is R H gives us the R H equals to 0
summation of MO about point O about this point it is 0 and this has to be subscript and that we
considered a 219775 - 116 or this 116 this data 116 is coming from the distance here it is 73
station 73 and this is station 116.
This O is about this point that is the reason 116 is coming here and 73 is also coming there, so
that gives us one equation the other Z because two in vertical direction if we consider equals to 0
that gives us the moment sorry that gives us -255 plus this is from the table this is also from the
table the total moment and then R F and R R this total moment we know that is the reason the
movement is considered about this point, about O.
And then it is it goes to 0 and then we solve these two equations and we get that R F is equal to
1780, R R equals to 775 pound. Here I would like to mention that because calculations may not
match exactly digit by digit because in the table if you look at there; because of the
rearrangement of the loads there are small changes and to accommodate those small changes
sometimes the digit may not match digit by digits, results may not match digit by digit.
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So what we are doing in the next slide? In the next slide we are doing we are bringing in those
stations and the left side column and on that station what do we bring at 315 this is that when
load 22, -22 before why it is -22? Let us have a value of reaction is approximated for a value of
77 this is this note will come need later we will do it this is with relation to this. So, minus is
because we are considering Z up.
Up on lift and down on right side of a section is positive shear. This is please ignore this Z a
positive shear actually this is Z axis that jade has come here, please consider this as a Z axis that
mistake and then tension in upper fuselage portion is negative bending moment positive refers to
the half side of station negative side refers to forward side of station. So, M is equals to M star
this one at previous section this column we are talking about at previous station in column 6 plus
the incremental moment of column 5 it is talking about M star is this column.
So this is this loads all are considered negative because it is coming down only if we look at that
R F 1780 and 775 at 116 station at and at 73 station where wings are at us those are on the acting
vertically upward. So, all those loads are put in this column then the shear; shear between these
two is definitely the 22 and between these two it is increases on the left of 29 to 90 station here it
will come this plus this is coming here and that gives us 140.
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And if we go across after the 260 definitely these three gets added up so after 260 sorry after 260
so that gets added up and that becomes 100 161 this plus this plus this so accordingly we add it
and we find it that immediately after 50th station 50 if we look at immediately after station 50 it
is -388 because this is acting upward these two are acting upward and here it is sorry I should say
here at station 73 you see it changes sign at station 73 what is happening this one seven eight
zero is acting upward that's get added up and then it is on the other direction.
This sign convention is described here as we have said up on the left and down on the right side
of the section is positive shear following that this sign convention is given. Distance to the next
station this is simply a subtraction of these two point this is 25 and definitely moment we are
getting from there this multiplied by this we are getting this value this multiplied by this we are
getting this value and this multiplied by this we are getting this value.
What is happening here the moment is equals to this 22 multiplied by the difference between this
station here it comes that moment. But again the other moment is this concentrated force
multiplied by this distance this distance is multiplied by this and that gives us this value this, this
while get multiplied gives this value. And similarly if we look at other points also we get the
moments accordingly and that gets increased increases the value depends on the on the shear
acting and the distance between those.
And what we get on the on the sixth column this is fifth column on the sixth column what do we
get we get it added that means the moment produced here that plus the moment produced by
these two is getting added. So, that is the reason this plus this is this value and then this plus this
is getting this value and accordingly we are getting the moment on the fuselage. So, if this
moments will have got and we plot it I have again used some spreadsheet utility to plot it.
It is not advisable to plot with spreadsheet you may use some other utility since it is negative in
sign that that is not it has plotted on the bottom side. So, it is showing that it at the free ends this
is also free and this is also free end that moment 0 is maintained. And the first line as I was
telling you that 775.028 it makes this value 0 but we have considered here is that if this is 775
this value is 775.
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But if you look at the table third table in the previous lecture you will see that we have made
adjustment while we have iterated values and distributed these loads that these loads have has a
little bit adjustment and that may increase or decrease little bit in the reaction force being
reaction force and considering those things it may be considered that this is also a negligible
value or 0 value.
And then following that the moment on the fuselage in the vertical direction unit load in the
vertical direction takes this type of form. So, the second part we are will have come across so I
would like to go back once to as we were discussing; it is better to note that this are F and R R
this to this is say because of Z direction unit load and what we will get later is that that for X
Direction unit load as well as for unit load at tail assembly, tail plane.
So we need to add these three while all the three are acting together to give you that concept but I
am just trying to differentiate it with R F and R R because later it will be difficult to come back
and see it.
So, we have come to the X direction for solution of unit load factor in X direction this is again
taken from that same table where load distribution is considered and the moments are shown
here. What do we do in this, similar way as we have done in the last case we need to find out the
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values of R F and R R. Figure shows the panel point dead weight distribution for loads acting in
X direction at different station it is acting in the X direction in association to moments.
And as taken from the table to place the fuselage in equilibrium the wing reaction at point A and
B will be calculated this is point A and B as we have done in the last case here also we will do
and solving that what the forward as mentioned in the previous and assumption that R H is equal
to 2555 pound this horizontal force it is balancing all the force in the this direction. And the
vertical two forces R F and R R again it is better to mention that these two are this R R is
because of X and this R F is because of X.
So better to note these two that this is not to confuse with the previous case while both say for Z
and X both unit load is acting then we need to add up these two and all other moments also. So,
let us go forward this equations I am not describing again because these are simple moment
equations about A the moment is considered here and all those things are quite easy you can
easily get if you look at it carefully.
And this table also is there is not much things to explain because already we have explained one
table. Only difference is that here we have one more moment component that we need to see
moment increase due to axial load, moment increment due to vertical shear, moment at the left of
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station. So, two things we are we have this vertical shear we are well we are talking about these
two you say all other components are 0.
Only this component and this component is having some value and that is because of this shear
excitation 73 this is acting this one vertical Z shear this is acting with a x-axis distance of 36
these two gets multiplied and we get this value. Similarly this two gets multiplied and we get this
value. So, the vertical shear these two values we have got from their R F and R R are equal
values we have, so that is the reason we have these two is here and these two getting multiplied
and having this value.
And this is as we have seen this is addition of this plus this plus this and we are getting this value
and this is this plus this plus this and we are getting this value. So, the other things are similar if
we follow carefully a similar way we have put the loads in X direction and we have put the load
in the Z direction as it is mentioned the reactions we have at 116 station and at 73 station and
because of that there is a shear force in some in the Z direction.
In the X Direction also axial load increases that gives us this moment component this, moment
component we get from this two is getting this moment component this two is getting this 220 is
this is the 220 moment; this is the direct moment we are getting that moment is added up this 220
is added up with this to 2249 these components are from directly from there 274 this is X
component moments are plotted from the station whatever we have from the station it is plotted
here.
And this is the for the vertical shear it is getting multiplied this way we are getting this value.
This moment's as we have already found out from there we have put it so accordingly we get the
moment on the fuselage because of the X unit load and we plot that X in net load and the
bending moment diagram is something like this here we have a negative bending moment up to
this station and then again we have a sharp increase in the opposite direction because of these
two shear forces through wing reactions and then it goes down from here almost 0, it goes.
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You see 19, 20, 27,19 these are very small values and from there it is 0. So, for the x-direction
load it is almost clear how do we carry out the analysis and if we move forward.
This is for the unit tail plane solution for unit horizontal tail load acting downward 275.5 is the
station value that is there is in 100 277 -73 this about this point when the moment is considered
as the reason this is the station point value how far it is from this section and load is 100 the
fuselage shears and moments will be computed for a unit even a tail load of 100 pound.
Here the unit load is considered as 100 pound on the tail acting in Z direction with balancing
reactions at the wing attachment points the center of pressure on the horizontal tail is at Station
277.5 figure shows the fuselage length loading to find wing reactions at A and B. So, if we see it
is a simple equation solving with respect to point A, the moment acting this way is considered
and with 43 R because the distance between these two stations are 43 it is acting the other way
that is the reason it is considered like that and accordingly we get the R R value.
R R value as 475.6 pound upward and summation of loads in the Z direction gives us that the R
F value is 375.6 pound. Again it is better to mention that this is because of the tail plane load and
while all the three loads are acting we need to sum it up with proportion depending on how much
load is acting in which direction. Here whether the tail plane load is more than 100 if it is 200 we
need to multiply it by 2 even the moments also we need to multiply it by 2 if the acceleration in
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X direction is 2Z and then we need to multiply it by 2 and if in a vertical direction it is 3Z we
need to multiply all the components by 3.
So we come to the table as usual table; table does not have much more difference between the
previous and this so I would not spend much time you please look at it with your spare time how
is it done all these station points the shear forces load reactions are given there. Then shear forces
as it is it is in starting from here and that remains constant that remains constant from this point
up to this point because there is no other load at 116 that the shear force from the wing reaction
coming.
And from the wing reaction we get this value and again the other is there and that we get this
value; okay this gets balanced here becomes shear force becomes 0 because of this, this remains
constant in this section from here to here and then becomes 0 and moments as we have seen
already accordingly moment is calculated this multiplied by this is this one because this is the
distance between the station points and this is the shear force acting.
And accordingly as we have done in previous tables this is this plus this is this, this plus this is
this and accordingly we continue finding out moments again there is some amount of movement
that is because of the approximation we have already carried out and this gives us a straight line
as it is expected. So, with this we have we have covered the unit load analysis of a whole aircraft
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we have covered previous to previous in the previous to previous lecture the bending moment
and shear force experienced by cantilever wing.
And then in the last lecture we have covered how the loads should be distributed that is very,
very important we have seen how loads should be found out by the experienced engineer. And
then we have seen how that load must be distributed at station points of a fuselage to keep the
moment balance. And then in this lecture what we have learnt we have learnt that how in for 3
different cases we can continue we can carry out the unit load analysis.
In Z direction per unit acceleration in X direction per unit acceleration and for tail plane load
horizontal tail plane load of 100 pound we have carried out the unit load analysis. But it is the it
is it is not a case that only one of the unit load acts on the aircraft at a time it is a combination of
all those things. So, we are supposed to add up all those things considering linear combination of
the cases and we can find out the combined bending moment shear force diagram.
In all these cases in case of wing structure wing as well as in fuselage I have concentrated mostly
on the bending moment diagram. As an home assignment what you can do you can easily draw
the shear force diagram and check with your diagram and the values whether it is matching
properly or not the basic shear force diagram properties are satisfied or not and accordingly you
may continue your home assignment.
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So with this we go forward for the reference; light in different slides remain same because it is
all the books generally considered.
And this slight conclusion already I have told you just to note it down; you please keep a note
what are the points we have learnt today. And with that I thank you for attending this lecture we
will meet again in our next lecture.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture-12
Truss System
engineering department IIT Kharagpur. We are at the beginning of week 3 lectures, lecture
number 12 truss system will get introduced to truss system. We will see how determinate truss is
and predominantly in concentrate in these weekly lectures with determinate truss, plane truss as
well as space truss.
Space truss is our 3 dimensional stress is more popular in aircraft structures but to get introduced
we will spend some time in truss structures plane stress structures and then we will proceed
further.
So as we have seen this is history of aircraft engineering we have seen, we have in the last week
what we have seen is mentioned at the bottom the shear and moment on fuselage and shear and
moment on wing.
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Also we have seen so with that we will get introduced this week with two the truss system
method of section.
So, what we do a truss system statically determinate and indeterminate structures in this
terminology determinate and indeterminate structures. This is very frequent in case of truss
structures. So, it is easy to determine which is determinate which is not inter determinate or
indeterminate. A system is said to be determinate in all external if all the external reactions and
internal loads on its members can be obtained utilizing only the static equations of equilibrium.
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See here we mention internally and externally, internal loads and external reactions otherwise the
structure is said to be statically indeterminate or as redundant structures. In case of planes truss
we usually have three equations equilibrium equation that is the reason and number of unknowns
are in, so total number of unknowns are m + 3. And we have number of equations as number
joints multiplied by 2 if it is less than that it is unstable plane truss we say if it is more equal then
it is statically determinant.
Plane truss internally we say internally because if the number of reaction is more than it is
externally indeterminacy it is 3 if it is internal indeterminacy. So, if it is more it is indeterminate
plane truss. So, the three equations of equilibrium as we have seen many of you are already
introduced so we are not going to spend much time on it. If you are interested about it please
refer to many mechanics books many books are available to show it.
Similarly for space truss the number of equations has 6 as it is described at the bottom 3
equations of force and 3 equations of moments and similar way it is internally determinate it is
indeterminate and if it is less than it is unstable that means the truss is not supposed to be our
load it is to collapse.
So, it is always desirable to study a truss structure with example method of joints type of we will
study this week. Two examples who will do this is one example it's a very famous example we
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have a consider the requirement are to be found out is internal loads. Internal loads acting on
each member of the structure shown in the figure. So, somehow there are loads T equals to this is
acting one hundred pound is acting on it this is freely rotating disc attached at the end of the this
horizontal bar CH and there is one more system which is supported here.
And one more link bar is there that is say that another two Force member is there what is to force
member also we will see.
So, fast disassemble the structure as shown we have disassembled it or in more better way we
say it is a free body diagram. They make a free body diagram for each member since member
one two and four six this is four six, this is one two. Are two force members the forces acting on
them are along the line joining the pin joints of the members Since these members are only
joined at the two ends and there is no other force in between this if we are able to find out one.
It is a two force member so if one is known the other is automatically known so that that is the
way the free body diagram is shown here and that way it reduces to 3 reaction this one this one
and this one. So, we need to find out external reactions and also we need to find out the internal
loads developed in the member. All directions of forces are chosen arbitrarily and most must be
reversed if a negative value is obtained that is F3x is assumed to act to the right on the horizontal
member this way and this way
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And therefore must act to the left since its magnitude to be negative. So, this will come later so
we will see if it is required we may need to reverse or considering the same direction putting the
negative value we can easily solve that problem. So, all the forces here two components are there
from this point as it is you see F7x is acting this way here. The other way it is acting here F7x ,
F7y is acting this way upward it is acting downward here and at this point.
Similar way F3x is acting this way there is a reason it is acting this way we are assuming all these
joints are pin joints that means the it is free to rotate and it can have since there here we have two
components it has two components here only we have one component that is why it is two force
member. Here also only one member that is why it is a two force member.
So, we have a consider the free body diagram for solving from one side that is the general
approach of solving with method of joints. What we have done we have separated out the disc
and let us see from one to other equation how do we solve the problem. For the pulley
summation of moment we have considered about this point clockwise is considered positive.
Dimensions are not given here also this is the two 2 feet three 3 feet 4 feet and these are also in
feet changing. So, that is the reason to was coming there and while what we see that 1000
multiplied by 2 is equals to minus of 2t again 2 multiplied by, so tension in the cable is 1000
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pound you will consider summation in x-direction we get the F7x this equation I guess it is a
typographical mistake I hope you will get it F7x - 1000 is equals to 0 if I cut this then F7x - 1000
is equals to 0 here.
Similar way we get there F7y the component in y direction is equals to 1000. So, once we know
this we will take these forces here and we will go on solving the other components.
So, that is the reason the free body diagram has come in this slide. So, in this slide as we have
considered that two force member F6 is acting here in this direction but one thing we need to
know is about the angle that is solved here tan inverse 3 by 4 is equals to 36.9 degree. This 3 by
4 is from the geometry is already in taken. So, first to consider moment about 3 about this point
we are considering moment and this 2.4 is already calculated.
The distance between this length so 1000 is 7 is this distance is 7 and then this is passing through
this point these two are also passing through this point so the no component of these three forces
are coming only F7y acting downward this is acting this way the perpendicular distance is 2.4.
And accordingly if we solve the equation we get the F6 equals to 2915 pound. So, similarly if we
consider the equilibrium equation in the x direction this 2915 pound of F6 whatever we have got
that cost component of this, this is the angle.
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Whatever we have found out if F3x this direction plus this is also acting in this direction minus
this F7x this 1000 is considered so this gives us the equilibrium equation in the X direction and
we get that F3x value ad as minus 1335 this is what was mentioned in the first slide it is
negative. So, either we may continue solving considering the arrow otherwise other direction or
with the help considering this as a negative force keeping the direction same we can continue
solving it.
In the Y direction similarly if we get the sine component will come of the same force and we get
the vertical direction force as F3y is equals to minus 750 pound. Since the magnitude of F3x and
F3y comes to be negative the assumed direction must be revised. A common practice is to cross
out rather than erase the original arrow this is that is what we I mentioned just now we may keep
the arrow same with keeping the force in the other direction or we can change the arrow.
So if we come here in the next vertical member forces equilibrium of that process this F6 ; F4
and F6 are same since there are two joints that is why at two points this is named in this way so
F3x you see is considered in the same direction so we are supposed to put the negative value. So,
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we are considering moment about 5 this point so what are the forces will come. This forces are
known this force is known this is the force only unknown forces this F2 .
Again this F2 here it is written F1 actually this F1 and F2 are same because it is a two force
member. So, it may be written either as F2 or it may be written as F1 , so from there considering
that same equation what do we get is that if F1 is equals to 500 pound. Now considering the
summation of forces in the horizontal directions please keep in and keep it in mind in our
drawing it was mentioned that this angle is 30 degree and the other angle if we complete this,
this angle is 60 degree.
So considering the X Direction force equilibrium what we are going to get is that a F5x the
reaction here we write the equation this way a F5x - 2915 cos 36.9 + 1335 - 500 cos 60 = 0, so
see this is positive, though it is on the other direction positive is put because of the negative force
found and accordingly we get the value of the 5 reaction 1 of the reaction F5x which is 1250
power.
Similarly if we consider the equilibrium in the Y direction same manner the sine component
comes and sine component of this force comes and the seven people the other two forces
components of what are coming. And we get the value of F5y is goes to 1433 pound. As I was
made I have mentioned previously now you see that this is to force member that is why F1 is
equals to F2 , F4 is equals to F6 .
Now all internal loads have been obtained without the use of internal structure as a free body.
The solution is checked by applying the three equations of equilibrium to the internal structure.
So, considering the entire structure as a whole these three reactions can be found out so that is
what is done. It is said that instead of finding out the equilibrium equations for the whole
structure is found its calculated and it sums up to equals to 0.
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In the Y direction also if we consider this also comes as 0. And if we consider a moment about
this point that also comes as equals to 0. The equilibrium check should be made wherever
possible to detect any error that might have occurred during the analysis. So, this is a simplified
very simple example to get introduced with the method of joints sorry yes method of joints. The
next example what we will be solving is a introduction to the method of section.
So, and let us see how do we solve? This is one example this all these are liquid spaced 10 inch
distance this is a truss member all these joints are pin joints we always assume sometimes we
show sometimes we do not show. So, this is pin joint that is why there are two reactions this is
roller join that is why there is only one reaction. This is acting upward and we need to find out
member forces you please keep it in mind these small scripts are the right numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7 and this big font number whatever is there this one these are the member number this
number is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11.
This is even 10-inch there is a horizontal force acting here on this joint 200 pound, 2000 pound
one vertically downward force is acting. Here at joint two as for four thousand pound and at joint
7 there is a there is a load acting as 1000 pound what we need to find out we need to find out
member force this, find the internal load in the member 5 of the coplanar truss structure shown.
So, that is what we have already discussed that we will be solving mainly the plane trusses or the
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coplanar truss structures which does not have any other any member away from the plane of the
other members so considering that we will solve this problem.
Method of sections as it is said here as in this example often it is desirable to find the internal
loads in certain selected members that is why the method of section is more popular. While we
do not need to find out all the member forces in those situations method of method of session is
much more popular of a truss without analyzing the entire truss. Usually the method of joints is
cumbersome in this case.
Since the loads in all the members to the left or right of any member must be obtained before the
force is found in that particular member. In method of joints if we follow we need to need to find
out all the member forces, previous to the member force what we want to find out that is the
reason this is more popular. An analysis by the method of section will yield the internal load in
any pre-selected member by single operation without the necessity of finding loads in the other
members.
Instead of considering the joints as free bodies a cross-section is taken through the truss and the
part of the truss on there on either side is considered as free body. So, this is the key we need to
choose a section that section is not a desirably a straight line it can have can be a curved section
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also but the either side as a free body. This is free body considered as a free body the cross
section is chosen.
So that it cuts the member for which the forces are desired and preferably only three members
are cut. So, this is a trick to cut only three members but many times it is not possible to do and
such examples if time permits we will follow.
So the truss section what we have considered here is this one as it is said preferably three
members to cut that is what is cut here if we look at this member this member and this member
are cut. And what we have we have we need to find out the external forces before we come to the
method of section. Finding out external forces we need to solve the equation that you may do as
a homework or maybe why we will be solving the same problem using method of joints there
you can you can learn how to find out the forces.
Considering the whole structure as a free body and then considering moment about this point if
we consider then we can easily find out this vertical force. And the other way if we consider the
other two equations once this is known if we consider equilibrium in the vertical direction that
will give us this reaction force. If we consider equilibrium in the horizontal direction that will
give us this reaction force.
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So once we come to know these reaction forces we can easily apply the method of section and
continue. In our example the internal load in the member 5 is desired, the free body is as shown.
The load is load in member 5 they may be found by summing forces in y direction on either part
of the cut truss. Considering the left side as everybody we get so this side is considered we are
considering the equilibrium in the vertical direction so if we consider this way the unknown
force this is acting in this direction, this is acting in this direction. So, if we are considering this
equilibrium what we get is that these two are horizontal components.
So if we simply consider the equilibrium in the vertical direction the Y direction that gives us as
the solution F5 is equals to 500 pound. So, it is that easy to find out using method of section. But
in our next lecture we will see how difficult how time-consuming it is to find out using method
of joints. But method we need to learn both the fast process to do because we some these method
of sections sometimes is not very good in case of 3 dimensional truss.
Having a section in 3 dimensional truss is very, very difficult and in those cases method of joint
more useful and we need to follow this that method of joints more vivid way and we that will be
covered in our next lecture.
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So, with this consideration let us end today's lecture and with this lecture there are standard
references what we have already seen earlier also. Applied elasticity by one analysis of your cuff
structure and introduction by Donaldson analysis of design a flight structure by Bruhn by
Ravello theory, Theory analysis of flight structure the aircraft structure for engineering student
might mention Peery and Azar aircraft structure Wesley Peery and Azar aircraft structure but
amongst these books the most popular and most useful books are this Bruhn.
This Megson this Peery and sometimes we have also considered this Bruhn, later classes we will
consider Donaldson also you have used to some extent and any book of aircraft structure is
always useful for learning.
So, what we have done in this with more stress is the method of section and we have seen that
we if we choose a section in a very wise manner. With experience we can easily find out any
member force without much difficulty without much effort putting on it. So, this is a very
intelligent way of finding out but it requires experience to do. So, with this lecture thank you for
attending this lecture and we end today's lecture you please come back in our next class with
method of more detail of method of truss, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture-13
Truss System (Contd.,)
Welcome back to the aircraft structures one course this is Professor Anup Ghosh from aerospace
engineering department IIT Kharagpur. We are in the third week of the series. So, we have you
are already introduced with the truss system, system you are basically introduced with the plane
truss system and a small example two small examples we have done in our last lecture in that in
the first example we have seen how the overall equilibrium to consider to find out forces and
from separating the members how to prepare the free body diagram, and then to continue for the
solution of the total problem.
Then we have already also learned the method of sections which is a very easy and efficient way
of finding out a particular member force but that requires some experience unless you are you
have solved some problems it is difficult to use that method. With that foundation of plane truss
we will move forward for solution of plane truss or similar problem this in; this lecture and in
forthcoming lecture we will move forward to three dimensional or space structures sometimes
space truss mainly will solve space truss. But this week this lecture this lecture particularly will
consider method of joints.
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And in this wheel's let us see how do we solve but before that like every other lecture starting we
would like to revisit what we have done already. We have seen where from the solid mechanics
or structural analysis has started and where we are at present. We have seen how the aircraft has
progressed and come to a huge aircraft from a small one from there we have come to loads
coming on the aircraft.
We have learned about flight envelope we have learned about load factor, shear and moment on
wing of an aircraft we have solved how to find out shear and moment on wing how to solve for
shear and moment in coming experienced by a fuselage that is also solved. And then as just now
we have talked about introduction to method of sections we have covered and to some extent
introduction to truss structures have been covered in the last lecture.
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This week the same stress system all you will be doing but method of joints with stress on the
method of joints.
Method of joints if we look at in this analysis of our truss by method of joints the two equations
of static equilibrium that is horizontal forces are ∑Fx = 0 (+ →) and vertical forces ∑Fy = 0 (+
up) are applied for each joint that is the reason each joint gives us two equilibrium equations. We
need to consider the free body and then we need two free body of that particular joint and it
reapply these two.
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Two unknown forces may be obtained since we have two equations two unknown forces we can
find out. Since each member is an axial rod two force members it exerts equal and opposite
forces on the joints at its ends. So, while we talk about truss this is very, very important to notice
that in most of the cases we for analysis purpose we consider those as two force members and we
solve it. The joints of the truss must be analyzed in sequence by starting at a joint which has only
two members meeting with unknown forces.
This is quite obvious since if we have more members unknown members then we would not be
able to solve the joint or all the forces or at the joint or all the member forces at the joint so that
we need to keep it in mind while you are considering joint. Then the joints are analyzed in the
proper sequence until all joints have been considered if necessary. To find the unknown reactions
consider the entire structure as a free body.
So sometimes this is done before we go for the unknown member forces. So, overall reactions
support reactions we can if we can find out that becomes easy to find out the forces in the
member.
The same example as we have already mentioned in the previous class that this member force 5
this member force 5 is supposed to be found out. In the last week in the last lecture we have
considered with one section here and in this example you would not consider section but we see
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how can we find out the forces using method of joints because method of joints is most more
important why we will be solving 3 dimensional trusses that there it helps method of section does
not help much.
So, three unknown reactions this is one arrow has to be put here this is a reaction R6y this is roller
support that is why only one reaction there are two reaction because it is pin joint support then
we have horizontal forces so there must be some reactions at 4 in the horizontal direction.
Several methods are available for analyze truss structure two are discussed and applied in solving
this example two means one we have done already other we will be doing now.
So here we find out the overall reactions of the structures from the support as we have already
discussed sometimes it helps a lot for using method of joints that is what is done. So, in this case
it is considered that these supports are removed and there are two reactions here at this point and
one reaction here is acting in this point. And a summation of M4 equals to 0 (∑M4 = 0) that
means we are considering moment about point 4 is equals to 0.
So that is what is done 2000 multiplied by 10, 4000 multiplied by 10 this way this way this way
it is acting and 1000 multiplied by 30, 10 10 10 acting this way all are in the same direction -20
R6y this is acting the other way as it is which is better to put a an arrow on this. So, this is acting
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in the other direction so that is the reason the equation is form this way and if we solve this
equation we will easily get that the vertical reaction is 4500 pound.
Once we have found out the vertical reaction what at joint 6 what we are doing is that we are
considering sum of horizontal forces equals to 0 and sum of sum of vertical forces equals to 0.
The sum of horizontal forces will give us these are known force because there is no unknown no
more unknown remaining and the sum of vertical forces will give us this unknown reaction
because this is already known.
So accordingly what we get we get R4x is equal to 2000 pound it is quite apparent from the
structure also that it is supposed to balance force is supposed to be balanced by this because there
is no other horizontal force in overall weight acting on the system. And for Y is equals to if we
consider the vertical equilibrium I think there is a typographical mistake, so what is the mistake
is this R4y acting upward -two are acting downwards.
So this should not be there, this should be R6y equals to 0. So, R6y is already known so from that
there we can easily find out R4y as equals to 500 pound.
So, the direction of unknown forces in each member are assumed as in the previous example and
vectors are changed on the sketch when they are found to be negative. So, this is a general
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convention we do and that way it is it is shown here. So, what we are doing first is the joint 4 is
separated out first this is the joint 4, disjoint method of joints. The other way if we look at it is
something like this here is a section cut out and this joint is kept aside. So, if we draw a free
body diagram for this particular joint and as we have already discussed horizontal force
summation equals to 0 particle for summation is equals to 0.
And that is what is applied here and that gives us F2 is equals to 2000 pound and F1 is equals to
500 pound. So, this method is really easy but it is this kind of tedious method we need to follow
step by step the joints and we need to find out the forces.
So, once we have found out the joint 4 see this member force is already known. So, if we
consider this joint here the unknown forces are this and this. So, we have two equations easily
we can find out these two member forces that is what is done here in this the joint F3 is taken as a
kept aside free body diagram of that joint 3 is prepared 500 is the F1 force is applied here
external force 2000 pound is applied there.
Then it is simple its vertical moment equilibrium is considered sorry vertical force equilibrium is
considered 45 degree and if for sine 45 degrees it goes to 0. And then it gives us that F4 is a goes
to 707 pound and similarly if we consider the horizontal force equilibrium, so 707 cos 45 comes
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here and F3 we can find out as 2500 pound. So, there is I do not think much things to explain
only we can see where to move to find out the member force unknown member force F5.
So if we claim this at present after solving this member forces is forces known this member
forces known this member force is known. And if we come here in the last slide we have found
out this member force also. So, considering this joint this is not known this is not known so only
two unknowns are there so if we attempt this joint we can easily find out the F5. Whereas if we
attempt this joint here we do not have two or less unknown so we have three unknowns here.
So better not to attempt this joint it is better to attempt this joint and accordingly to find out the
member force. And since our aim is to find out the F5 here we have only our only two. We have
a considered if vertical equilibrium only Fy in the Y Direction equilibrium only and accordingly
we get I think this is another mistake 7070, 45 degree is not correct this is 707 only this is not
there. So, with that we get that F5 is equals to 500 pound.
So we will have solved two problems, two problems one in one method the other one in two
methods and this one is not exactly our principally truss but we can solve this problem
considering truss concept and let us see how do we do. Because in general the truss members are
not loaded transverse to its axis. So, but in this particular case this member and this member is
loaded transverse to the this axis in the upward direction.
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So principally this is not a truss but this type of problem can be solved using concept of truss. Let
us see this structure usually are classified as trusses because of the reasons as I told you since the
analysis is similar to that used for trusses. As shown in member 1 2 and 2 3 are not axial rods and
separate free body diagram for these members are required. So, as I told you we need to consider
these two members as a separate free body and we need to do. Let us see how do we solve this
problem.
Since each of these members has 4 unknown reactions 2 at this end 2 at this end. The equations
of static equilibrium are not sufficient to find all 4 unknowns. It is possible though to find the
vertical reactions R1y , R2y , R2’y , R3y equals to 100 pound and to obtain the reactions R1x equals
to R2x and R2’x equals to R3x from the equation of equilibrium. So, this is more on like a
equations of equilibrium is applied and from the symmetry of the structure we can find out that.
Since dimension I do not remember I need to go back this is 20 inch this is 30 degrees, so this
dimension is not required. So, that is total 200 pound is acting here it is completely symmetric
one and it is shared by these two that is the reason it is said all these forces are equals to 100
pound and this is in the transverse completely transverse direction it is acting. And these 2 has to
be equal otherwise equilibrium are to be maintained that is the reason we say that R1x is equal to
R2x and R2’x equals to R3x.
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So member 1 2 if we look at horizontal equilibrium gives these two and vertical equilibrium
gives these two and from symmetry since the two are two symmetric we can easily consider that
these are 100 pounds. This already I have discussed so this is we can skip now.
When the unknown reactions obtained from member 1 2 and 2 3 are applied to the remaining
part of the structure as a free body. It is apparent that the rest of the analysis is similar to that of
previous example. So, it is almost similar to the previous example as it is said those forces are
applied here as shown here and then considering joints one after another we can easily find out
the forces. So, first this joint is considered so S1 we are keeping the name here as S1.
Here also we say S1 so it please do not get confused with this S1 and this S1 better in this course
let us make it this is a S135 so this is S135 sine 30 is equals to 100 from this vertical equilibrium
equation we can get and S135 is 200 that is what we get so this is S135 this is 3 5 and
corresponding way the R3x what we get the horizontal that we have got that those are equal these
two are equal but what is the amount or how much pound it is that we did not find out so this is
the value of that force.
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So this joint is known we move to that second joint R 5, so in this what we can say that this S1 is
it actually is S145 this is 4 5 and it goes on this is 4 5. So, please consider that this is 4 5 so what
do we do in this how many unknowns we have this 200 is already known from the previous
example from this joint there is no other forces acting. So, this is 200 about this joint if we look
at what the forces are acting in the transverse direction from simple equilibrium we get that this
force is 200.
So from there if we look at this is 30 degree yes here it is written this is also 30 degree so this is
cos component acting in this direction 200 cos 30 this is acting in this direction this one. And this
S2 sine this is also acting in this direction. So, this makes us the summation of F X equals to 0
and remaining part I think only to put the numerical values and we can find out we get the
equation of S1 and S2. So, if we go for the vertical equilibrium direction.
So this 200 sine 30 this is this component is coming here and then 200 it is being added this one
this is the 200 and this vertical component is this is coming here and along with that this is also
coming this S2 is coming as cos 60 so that gives us another equation with S1 and S2 this is second
equation. And if we solve these two equations we get S2 equals to 200 and S145 is equals to 400.
So, well this is explaining is much easier but while we solve problem we do sometimes small
mistakes be careful while you solve problems.
And in this joint we have found out at this point of time this is known this is known this is found
out and this is also found out. Let us move to the next slide.
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This slide is about joint one reactions at one on wall we need to find out here this 400 pound is
already known because this is pin joint and it is a two Force member this is already known one
the reaction here we need to find out reaction at one that is the reason it is stated reaction at one
on the wall. So, R OX or 0X sometimes we say, reaction is we are considering this as 1732 is
that this member force already you have found out, those are equal.
And we have got that and this 200 cos 30 is coming from this member this is also 30 degree so
that is the sorry, this is 30 degree so that is the reason we have the cos component here and that
gives us the horizontal force as 346.4 pound. And the vertical equilibrium condition if we
consider from same this member force sine component is coming and that gives us 200 pound as
the vertical force.
Here one important point better to note down with that point we will conclude. All members
except 1 2 and 2 3 may be designed as simple tension or compression members. The horizontal
members 1 2 and 2 3 must be designed for bending combined with axial and shear loads. This is
what I try to tell you inform you at the beginning of the solution of this problem. So, these two
members are not designed completely as axially loaded members.
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These are designed for shear loads as well if the member the force is much more bending
moment is also much more then we sometimes need to design it for bending moment also. With
this let us conclude today's lecture.
References are as usual I do not find any point to repeat.

What we have learned is that truss structure mainly three examples who have done on truss
structure plane truss structures and in the next lecture we will move to the three-3 dimensional
structures basically the 3 dimensional trusses which are very, very popular in aircraft structures.
Big example is, if you if you look at the tail boom of helicopter those are 3 dimensional trusses
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not only that those are still being used you can find many small helicopters use that three
dimensional truss tail boom of helicopter.
Not only they are in many other places most important the basic analysis of any landing gear is
considered as a 3 dimensional truss structure and the primary analysis of the landing gear is
generally done you considering those as it truss structures. And then more fine analysis more
detailed analysis is carried out while we have other forces found out and we continue that way.
So, with that thank you for attending this lecture we will come back with 3 dimensional truss
next in our next lecture, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture-14
Space Structures
Welcome back to aircraft structures one this is Professor Anup Ghosh from aerospace
engineering IIT, Kharagpur. We are continuing the lectures for the week 3 or the 3rd week. In
the last two lectures we have covered plane truss and this lecture we will start with the space
structures then truss is something where all the members and forces are in one plane. It may be
any plane XY YZ or ZX any plane or may be in any arbitrary plane.
But in case of space structures it is in more than one plane. Practically if we look at all structures
our space structures. So, we need to consider those loads but in general we do not consider the
outer plane loads and we take components and try to make the analysis easy and accordingly we
do. But there are some cases where we need to analyze space structures. So, let us get introduced
to the space structures and I try to follow what the procedure is.
This is as usual the recapitulation slide already I have covered many times but it is always better
to say the salient points. We have learned the history that is very important I feel as you will
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grow older you will feel that history is very, very important. So, not only history of solid
mechanics our structural analysis but also we have seen the development of fixed-wing aircraft.
And then we have come to the loads encountered by aircrafts that is very, very important in
comparison to the structural analysis because all the loads has to be he has to be borne by the
structures successfully, efficiently and then that will serve the purpose very well. So as, already
we have mentioned in the last class we have covered the plane truss.
And today we will cover space structures and mainly truss will cover though it is written
structures but truss in the sense where transverse loads are not there in the structural members
structural members are predominantly considered as a member which is two force member. But
in one the example what we will solve there it will also experience some torsional moment. So,
in that sense we may call this as structures not as truss. But the analysis procedures is similar you
can easily go to wherever you want.
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As a general introduction let us try to get introduced with the problem equation space structures.
Equations of equilibrium is most necessary thing we need to find out the equation equations of
equilibrium to solve problems. Most structures must be designed to resist loads acting in more
than one plane this is what I was telling you a few minutes back. But in general we reduce it to a
plane structure so that problems becomes easy.
Consequently the structures are actually space structures. So, all structures are actual space
structures that is what is mentioned here although in many cases the loads in each plane may be
considered independently and the structures are analyzed by the method analysis of coplanar
structures. So, this is important we many times try to reduce the problem length understanding
and we solve it in this way.
When it is necessary to consider assume sorry when it is necessary to consider simultaneously

the forces acting in more than one plane the method of analysis are no more difficult but it is
often more difficult to visualize space geometry of the structure. This visualization creates real
problem and this I would like to take the opportunity to say something more in this point and this
is the reason it is very very difficult to solve by visual observation the space structures.
And that has initiated the analysis of all space structures with help of finite element analysis
where 3 dimensional geometries are created in CAD software’s and it is easy to visualize and to
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get the force components and moment components. In an analysis of space structures it is
desirable to draw several views of the structure with the forces shown in all views. So, unless we
draw several views and show the forces it is difficult. The equilibrium of any free body is in
space is defined by 6 equations 3 equations of forces and 3 equations of moments. This already
we have discussed once or twice we have brought in again as a reminder.
The components of force R this force from here to here in space along 3 mutually perpendicular
axis XYZ may be obtained from the following equation. So, it is simple resolution of the vector
R in X direction cos( ) component is coming if Fx = R cos( ) , if Fy = R cos( ) , and Fz =
R cos( ) , where alpha beta and gamma are the angle between the force and the X,Y and Z axis
respectively as shown in the figure.
The figure shows it very nicely but it is difficult to visualize these angles in real problem that
really creates a big issue we will see how do we solve it. The basic principle is this but we will
use in a different way so that it becomes easier to understand and solve. When the three
components are known the resultant may be obtained from the following equation this is well
known equation I do not think it requires some explanation.
If the resultant force or one of its component is found the remaining components may be
obtained from the geometric relation R by L , R divided by the length of the vector and if Fx by
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X this component Fy by Y, Fz by Z where X, Y, Z this is Z are the components of length L along
the mutually perpendicular reference axis better.you we correct this here this is Z.
How to take moment consider moment that's a really important issue we need to learn moment in
space structure. The moment of a force about a line is obtained by projecting the force to a plane
perpendicular to the line and finding the moment of the component of the force in that plane.
Apparently there are two things I should mention about a line. In two dimensional plane frames
structures we were taking moment about a point not about a line.
So this you please note that it is about a line and what do we have need to do we need to consider
the component of the force on a plane which is perpendicular to the line about which we are
trying to consider the moment. So, let us truss it for the description the force P in the figure has
component P2 parallel to axis of moment this is axis of moment this is axis of moment we may
say O Prime and P1 in a plane perpendicular to the axis of moment.
So this plane what we see this plane is perpendicular to this axis of moment. The moment of the
force about the line is P1 cross d. So, d is the perpendicular distance from this P1 force
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component to the axis of about which we are trying to find out the moment. Since the component
P2 has no moment about the line so this will not have any moment because it is in the same
direction another point you should do monitor here that see cos with this component we can
easily have a plane with this line.
And this component of the force can exist on a plane so that is the reason it cannot have a
moment about that plane about that line whereas this is on a plane which is perpendicular this to
this O prime. So, it is having a moment so looking at this simple principle if you keep it in mind
it helps to solve the problem. It may be noted that may be noted that a force has no moment
about any line that is in the same plane as the force that is what I said it in a different way.
A problem is of a landing gear, lending gear is having three components this is the main
component with which the wheel is attached. These are two supporting members. So, dimensions
are given here as well as it is given here. This view is if we look at this view is if you look at
from this side this side I want to mean it is on yes it is here VD plane and this view is on that SD
plane this way. So, this view is this one and this view is this one, so please keep it in mind that
these are the two views landing gear problem find the forces at points A, B and C for the landing
gear shown in the figure.
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Members OB and OC are two force members this OB and OC are two force members. Member
OA resist bending and torsion but point A is hinged by a universal joint so that the member can
carry torsion but no bending in any direction at this point. So, this member cannot carry bending
it can only carry torsion. So, what are the six we have six equations of equilibrium what are the
six unknowns? It is mentioned here one unknown the first unknown is force here second
unknown is force on this the two force member.
Third one we may say that this is the torsion acting on this member and they maybe three more
forces acting at this we may consider those as AD ,AS and AV please do not keep in your mind
the directions because for problem-solving direction maybe the other way taken in the drawing
will follow that drawing. But for principle to understand what are the unknowns these are the
unknowns and let us proceed to solve it.
First about the torsion components first consider the components of the torsional couple at Point
A here. The resultant couple vector T shown in figure below must be along the member. So, it is
along the member as I showed you in the last slide and it is it has components TV about vertical
axis and TS about the side axis. This is please you may note that this is vertical axis this is
dragged access this is side axis.
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So that way TV, TS and T is acting on this member by proportion of concentration of component
of vector TV / 40 , TV by this member 40, TS / 30 and T / 50, TV this is the length we get a
relation which is TV = 0.8 T, TS = 0.6 T. If you have probably understanding this relation you can
easily think about resolving the T along two components you can easily find out the cos
components from these three known values.
So it is nothing but those cos components are considered and a ratio in that form it has been
stated here.
So, here we have a relation between components of torsion those components are shown in this
figure. Here all the unknowns are also shown as I mentioned there are three forces acting on a
and we need to find out those forces and let us see slowly how do we get as I mentioned
previously that in the free body diagram for the inter structures shown over there are six
unknown forces. So, six unknown forces are these are components do not take it that way the
torsion is the unknown.
And this actually the torsion acting on along this is the unknown and this is say AD ,AS, AV three
and this and this; these are the six unknowns. The forces at B and C act along the member two
force members therefore there is only one unknown at each point the force at A is unknown in
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direction unknown in direction and must be considered as three unknown force components or as
an unknown force and two unknown direction angles.
Usually it is more convenient to find the components after which the resultant force may be
obtained from the relation R is equals to over root Fx square + Fy square + Fz square
(R Fx2 Fy2 Fz2 )The couple T is also resolved in two components about S and V that is
what is shown here. Taking moment about an axis through the point A and B so this is what we
are doing that MAB is written in C we are considering moment about this line that is why MAB is
written here.
So sum of moments; moments about AB what are the components will come since 4000 is
written here this is coming 36 where from 36 is coming this distance is 6 in the previous diagram
it is noted that there is in 36 this is 30 + 6 = 36 and it is acting upward is 4,000 is acting upward
that is there is not it, it is 36 then multiplied by C, 40 by this is cos component only C is on this
plane the front plane this is on this plane the C is acting.
So if it is acting on that plane about what is the perpendicular distance that perpendicular
distance is 30 this is the perpendicular distance as it is mentioned where the component?
Component is 40 by 50 from the previous diagram or if we consider the angle it comes 40 by 50,
50 is this length because this is 30 and this is this is also 30 that is, there is 30 by 30 square top
portion so this is 50 and accordingly 40 by 50 comes as the component.
∑MAB = 4,000 x 36 - C x (40/50) x 30 = 0, C = 6,000 lbNow it may arise in your mind why 1000
is not considered that gives us the value but why 1000 is not considered? 1000 is pound is in the
same direction of AV, so it is acting in the same direction so it does not have any component OB
is passing through a B this is the two Force member this is passing through the axis about which
we are considering movement so it is not having any moment component that is there is in 1000
and this AB.
B force is not having any component and we get the value of C at the end of this exercise okay
let us move to the next slide.
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In the next slide what we have is all the unknown forces and the 4000 pound load act through
member OA the torsional couple T may be found by taking moment about line OA if we
consider a moment about this line then component of these the forces of A are getting cancelled
because it is on that line. So, we do not need to consider that B is also acting or crossing that line
so there will be any component of from B.
C also there would not be any component only the component will remain from this 4000 pound
also will not have any component Y that 4000-pound is on the same plane as the OA is that is the
reason you do not have this 4000 pound is actually acting on this plane and OA is also in that
plains of this 4000 pound will not have any component in that plane. So, the torsional couple T
may be found by taking moments about line OA the 1000 pound drag load has a moment arm of
4.8 inch that 4.8 inch is shown in the previous figure.
If you do simple geometric calculation you can here it is shown here it is shown four point eight
but where from do we get this is 6 inch from the 6-inch component in this direction is having 4.8
so that is what is used here and so what we have is the as shown in the figure and we are
considering moment about AO that means about this axis no component of A is coming there no
component of 4000 pound is coming there no component of B no component of C.
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So easily we can find out 1000 cross 4.8 this way it is actually is the contribution to the torsional
moment and that is equals to 4800 inch pound. And as we have already found out the
components of TV and TS , those are TV = 0.8 T which is equal to 3840 inch pound and TS = 0.6
T , again there is a typographical mistake please excuse me this is T may be written more
precisely if I can okay so that gives us the force 2880 inch pound.
So the reasons why 4000 pound is not coming that I have already explained because it is on the
same plane vertical load is coplanar to AO I have mentioned again for more clarification. The
other forces are obtained from the following equations which are chosen so that only one
unknown appears in each equation. So, we are considering moment about OS, OS is this exists
and what we have AD in 40 AD which one is AD? This is AD other are not having because this is
on the same plane.
This is also on the same plane only this is out of plane and acting perpendicular to this plane that
is the reason it is AD is coming there and these are definitely these two are definitely crossing
that line this axis so there that would not be there would not be any component. So, considering
that equation what we have AD into 40, 40 is this length or this length and we have AD is equal to
72 pound.
The subscripts OS originated designates and axis through the point O in the side direction we
have mentioned it here and we need to continue what the other forces.
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So we are considering equilibrium in the drag direction solution of FD equals to 0. If we consider
summation of FD equals to 0 (∑FD = 0) it gives us the force B because in this direction this is
known these are orthogonal to that direction whereas this will have a component in that direction
this also will have a component in that direction but we we have already found out this force this
is known force that is 6000.
So that is the reason the component of B we can find out but this 53.9 where from it comes it
comes from this simple calculation the lid this is 53.9 where OB square is equals it is a
continuation. So, OB square is equals to this and that helps us to make a component in this
direction horizontal direction so that is the reason this is the 20 and this is the length and that
gives us the component in drag direction.
The other component is this is 30 and this is sorry 50 this is this is the 50 length this is 50 that
gives us the component here and 1000 and 72 this is 72 already known and 1000 is acting here.
So, as a result we get the force B and similar way if we consider in the S direction summation of
forces in the S direction we find out the force A is. As I had described in very well the previous
equation please try to understand these equations why this component is coming.
And definitely you need to spend some time to understand this equation also I would suggest you
find out this component FV and find out the vertical force AV. So, considering that AS and AV are
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known following the similar logic you can easily understand the components of forces in this
direction and you can find out the force AV. And as a check since it is a 3 dimensional problem
and it is better to have a check summation of AV we are we have checked and we are considering
the moment components about AV this axis and we are trying to see whether it gives us that
moment 0 or not.
So you may consider that as a homework if it is not clear we may discuss it all. So, with that note
let us conclude today's lecture in the next lecture again will solve one more truss problem and
interesting landing gear problem with landing gear components, concepts of Oleo strut and all
those who will discuss and will continue further.
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So references are all same references and what we have learnt from these slides are these space
structures introduced to space structures and we have solved a learning gear problem we have
how to consider three-dimensional structures to for the solution and that way we conclude
today's lecture and hope you will join back again in the next lecture that is another space
structure problem will solve, thank you for attending this lecture.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture-15
Space Structures (Contd.,)
Welcome back to aircraft structures one this is Professor Anup Ghosh from aerospace
engineering IIT Kharagpur. We are in the third week’s lectures this is lecture number 15
covering space structures.
And we have solved problems related to space structures one landing gear problem has been
solved in our last lecture. We will attempt one more to solve but before that this is simple
recapitulation that is the reason in the last line you see the mention of a landing gear problem.
Other things it is better to keep in mind what we have learnt so far that is the reason I have put all
the points in this way points are history of solid mechanics structural analysis and different types
of aircrafts and then we went to the loads.
We have also learnt details of aircraft structures how thin wall structures are used and in we have
learned the flight envelope. We have learned the load factor, how load factor varies at different
situations, limit load, ultimate load all those things we have learnt shear and moment on wing we
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have learnt. How it comes, how do we need to calculate those from the external loads as well as
on the fuselage?
So, with that introduction and recapitulation let us go for today's problem solving we will get
introduced more in the space structures.
So, before we continue further it is time to introduce the landing gear in a proper way. So, what
we have done here is that what are the key components of landing gear and how do those things
act that has been describes let us see. Landing gear a typical example of space structure, the
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landing gear structure withstands the ground reaction and shock load when the aircraft's come
into contact with the ground during landing.
In ideal landing condition the aircraft should land the ground with zero vertical velocity but the
actual condition it does have a vertical velocity and experience considerable ground reaction. So,
this is the reason we need to need to design the landing gear properly. So, that it withstands the
ground impact and it facilitates the landing in all aspects. Landing gear consists of basically three
parts we say that shock absorber, torque links, tension compression member.
Here is a brief description of the members let us have a look. The shock absorber consists of two
telescopic tubes as the shock observer is called compressed, oil is forced through an orifice in an
art airtight chamber and the energy from the landing impact is absorbed by the oil and air. This
shock mechanism is called olio strut transmits bending moments through the two telescopic
tubes. The tubes however are free to rotate with respect to each other and add just the additional
members.
It is free to rotate with respect to each other and adjust and additional members are called torque
links are required to resist the torsional moments. So, this is all about the oleo strut member if I
give you a one modern-day example is available in all motorbikes almost so those are the oleo
strut member. And then this as it is mentioned using those tubes it carries the bending moment
but since the tubes rotate on one on the other it is not able to resist the torque but we need to
resist the torque that is the reason we need to put the additional torque links.
Lastly the measuring forces are transmitted to the body of the aircraft by means of tension
compression members. So, there are tension compression members in addition to that we will see
with the example how it is carried out. In our example we will not come consider that the oleo
strut member is under bending will only try to find out loads at the ends of the members.
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This is the example we will understand, this is the figure this is the oleo strut rod. So, it has to
withstand these are the two force members this is a two force member, this is a two force
member you please look at the there is a projection from here to here where the wheel is attached
please observe the coordinate system this is the drag direction and this is the vertical direction
this is the side direction.
So that is the reason here it is shown that VS plane that means if you if you look from this angle
this is the view that is the reason we see this projected one and if you look from this side we have
this view that is on the VD plane this is the VD plane on that VD plane we have this look. Please
keep it in mind the dimensions because all the dimensions are not mentioned in the other
diagrams I have tried my best to keep associated with these figures show that dimensions you
see.
Some important points let me hear that this hinge point is below the top level this is the top level
if we see. This point has a distance of three inch from the center line of the oleo strut. This is also
at three inch apart so please note these two points this level as it is mentioned is here and this is
also that level. So, please keep it in mind these levels, so other things if we see the general
description, general steps for analysis determination of the parameters of the landing gear that is
this track clearance angle height etcetera.
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Ground load calculation on the nose landing unit and on the main landing unit design of
individual members of the nose and main landing, yes this is about overall landing gear analysis.
The example what we will be solving is find the forces acting on all members of the way landing
here shown in the figure assume only torsion may act on a member but no bending. So, with that
consideration we will try to find out let us see how the problem has been considered.
Some more preliminary understanding we need to follow otherwise it will be difficult to

understand the problem properly for convenience the reference axis VD and S will be taken as
shown in figure above with the V axis parallel to the oleo strut. Free body diagram of oleo strut
and the horizontal members are shown in the figure below. This is in the next slide that figure is
there this figure is not exactly the free body diagram.
Free body diagrams will come in the next slides this is again repeated for understanding of other
features. Force perpendiculars to the plane of the paper are shown by a circular dot or a cross for
a force towards the observer is the dot that means this force is towards me. If we look at in this
diagram this force is actually acting this way that is the reason it is towards me. And this
component this component is nothing but this component.
So, those two components are found out this please keep it in mind these are not very precise
calculation these values are approximated to these values so that the calculation becomes easy.
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But principle is only to find the sine and cos component of that particular angle 15 degree this
angle is 15 degree. So, with that understanding we can easily resolve the forces from the tire to
the landing gear. The V component of 20000 pound force is 20000 side not 20000 cos 15 degree
is 19300 pound and V component is 5190 pound I repeat these are approximated to close
rounded figure. So, that calculation becomes easy.
So the free body diagram what we are discussing is this free body diagram where we need to find
out torsions at this point also this point is joined with this IG member this I J member. So, there
will be torsion here torsional moments here that we need to find out and other force components
are shown here. What are to act at this initially we will not consider this top member IJ we will
consider the remaining portion this member as well as that means I want to say we will be
considering this point as AE.
We will be considering CG will be considering EH for our analysis. And then we will find out
the other forces will also find out here it is as mentioned that EV, ED, ES also we need to find out
along with the torsion TE here. So, let us see this is what understanding we need to solve the
problem let us see what is scripted here. The angle of the side brace member CG with the V axis
is tan inverse 12 by 18, tan-1 (12/18). I think you can get from here this is the 18 and the 12 is
coming from; this three is getting minus this is the 3 this is the angle.
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So this is 12 this is 18 so from there we get the angle necessary angle to resolve the CG, CG is
on that plane that this is the CG this plane view is put here and from there we get the
components. The V and S components of the force in member CG our CG cos 33.7 degree it
comes 0.832 of CG and CG the other component that is S component this is V component and
this is S component.
So, the drag brace member BH is at an angle of 45 degree that is quite clear from here because
you see why it is 45 as it is said this is 23 these two are at the same level this is this is 3. So, this
is 23 - 3 is this is 20 and this is also 20 so that makes the angle 45 degree and accordingly we get
that V and D. This is with respect to V this is with respect to D. The drag brace member BH is at
an 45 degree angle V axis and the components are in force member along V and D axis are it is a
kind of repetition by mistake. So, please ignore that part let us proceed to the next page.
So we have found out in the last slide that components of the CG and the CG and BH in vertical
and horizontal direction, horizontal in the side as well as in the drag direction let us see how do
we proceed further to find out other forces. The 6 unknown forces EV, ED, ES, CG, BH and TE
acting on the oleo strut are now obtained from the following equations to find out TE what we
can do we can consider a moment as it is mentioned here moment EV that means in vertical
direction EV at through the point E in the vertical direction.
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If we consider that what do we have we have component of this only because on this line if we
consider the plane this way these two are acting in the same plane so then that would not have
any torsion as well as the CG components which is acting this way and this way this way as well
as this way where this one this way I think this is may be corrected this is acting this way. So
these two are on the same plane so that that is the reason you do not have any component and
what we have only component of this which is 8 inch apart from the line and that gives us the
torsional moment acting at this point E.
If we proceed further this oleo strut member is again put here in a different view VD view is put
here that means we are looking from this direction we are looking from this direction. So, as it is
convention we have seen this is the force this is the force which is from me towards the board
acting or acting on this particular point CGS, CGS is acting in that direction and other forces are
shown. So, if we put it here that direction this is this way and this is this way this is CGS.
So we are considering moment about MES about point is this, in the direction of S which is the
direction of S here it is D that means direction of S is along this line along this line we are
considering the moment. If we are considering moment along this line what will happen CG and
CGS and CGv would not have any component on that moment equation. Even this and this will
have some component our vertical force BHV and BHD will have component BHV is apart say
three inch apart this is the BHV inch apart and BHD which is 20 inch apart as it is mentioned in
the previous diagram here also it is mentioned 20 inch so that is coming.
And the directions is as it is shown it is acting this way this is AD in this direction this is
definitely in the other direction about this point this way this is this way this is also this way so
that is the reason these two are minus and this is plus is considered. So, if we if we write that
with the components as we have done in the last slide what we get that BH value is 14050 pound
and since we have the relation with the BHV and BHD those are equal and that value is 9930
pound.
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So we have come to the stage where we need to find out the other forces in the member CG in
the last slide we have found out the member force of BH. In this slide before we go forward for
any other thing it is better to correct a small mistake. This value is by mistake has one 0 has
come extra. In all previous figures also you please consider that this value is 5190 pound. So,
with that value we will continue and we will see how the other forces we get.
So with this slide will be concentrating to find out the member forces in the member CGS as well
as CGD, CGS and CGV will become finding out that means vertical as well as the horizontal in
the side direction forces we need to find out. To do that we are considering the free body
diagram as it is shown here all the forces are acting as we have mentioned dot is something
which is acting from the board towards B.
So the other force may must BHV, BHD already we have described those are not having any
component here particularly because we are considering from the point E in the direction D from
the point E in the direction D that is in this direction in this line we are considering the moment
equation. So, if we are considering moment equation in that line what will be the components?
Components will be from the vertical force 19300 pound which is 8 inch apart will have
components from in this point as CGS as well as CGV it is that is also shown here.
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CGV is 3 inch apart if you look at the other drawings in previous case this is 3 inch distance from
here to this point from the center line to this point, this is 3 inch, so that is that 3 inch comes here
and the 20 inch as it is mentioned here is this is 20 inch oh here it is mentioned sorry these 3
inches already mentioned here. So, now about the direction see this AV is about this about this
point in this figure we are considering moment.
So this is rotating in this direction that means anti-clockwise direction. About this, this is rotating
CGS rotating in the class clockwise direction that is there is in CGS is the opposite of sign than
this vertical force and CGV that is also in clockwise direction that is the reason these two are
considered positive and this is considered negative. So, if you solve this algebraic equation what
do we get that CG is equals to 11350 pound and the components as we have already found out
from the angles that CGS equals to 6300 pound and CGV is equals to 9440 pound.
Now with the other forces let us see how do we find out we are considering the horizontal
vertical that means horizontal two directions S and D and vertical one direction summation of
forces will be considering and we will try to find out the forces acting at E that means EV, ES, ED.
So, how do we do this is from this figure if we look at summation of vertical direction forces we
are to consider from vertical direction forces what are the components will come CGV will come.
This is there CGV is coming here one more will come here this is BHVand this is CGV so
direction I have by mistake even opposite CGV is downward but the BHV is actually upward that
is the reason these two this 19300 and BHVare acting in the same direction and see CGV is acting
downward direction. EV is considered along the direction of CGV and it is found that the
direction assumed is correct that the reason we are getting the value of EV as 19790 pound.
Similar way if we consider the S direction in the S direction we have Es and CGS only CGS and
Es only so that gives us the value of 6300 pound yes ED direction if you see ED will have two
forces one is this as I have mentioned this zero is not there so that is the reason we have these
two forces that is the BHD and AD and ED. So, assume direction is on that same direction of AD
and we get the ED value as for say 4740 pound.
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So the unknowns what we have we have considered for the member oleo strut is known now.
The torsional moment at end E as well as 3 components of forces and the other forces acting on
this like this member this member force, this member force coming here 3 components here and
TE that makes the that means 4 unknowns here this is 5th unknown this is 6th unknown. All the 6
unknowns are determined for the oleo strut member.
We have one more member at the beginning as we have already mentioned that I J we need to
find out the forces. So, we will see in our next drawing the detailed drawing of figure of IJ and
how all those forces are acting on it.
So we had to find out the horizontal member forces in the member IJ and the field body diagram
is shown below IJ will now we considered as a free body. The forces obtained above are applied
to this member as shown in the respective figure and this 5 unknown reactions are obtained as
follows. If we consider in the S direction the member forces we have already found out that the
ESand G is values these two values are same that is the reason it is acting one to the opposite to
the other and that that gives us that IS is equals to 0.
Now we are supposed to find out along the sorry son of forces along ID. At point in the direction
drag in the direction drag. In this direction if we see what we have we have E V this is not F this
is MID this is in we are considering moment about ID from the point in the direction D. So, if we
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consider that what we have EV which is ID is in which direction is in this direction and that is in
this direction about this point.
So this EV is 3 inch apart that has a component acting here it is acting downward it is acting
towards me this force so that direction is considered positive. So, if we look at here this is acting
ED is EV is acting this way this is positive GV what is GV? That is also acting this way multiplied
by 18. This is the distance 18 and GS into 2 GS into 2 this distance from here to here this is 2 inch
this is 2 inch GS into 2 - 20 JV this is JV acting in the direction opposite to the EV that is the
reason it is minus.
So these 3 are acting in the same direction it is acting in the opposite direction that gives us 0 and
if we solve this equations from this equation we get the value of JV as 12100 pound. Now again
if we consider the summation of forces in the vertical direction as it is shown here EV, GV, JV is
already known ID also need to be found out that that gives us since these 3 are known this is
known this is known and this is known that leads to the solution of IV as 17130 pound.
Similarly we are supposed to consider moment about IV here we considered about ID that means
in the drag direction from the point I here from the point I in the vertical direction about this line.
So, this will help us to find out. So, if we see that TE is acting here, this is the force TE is acting
clockwise that is considered positive. ED cross 3 this is acting in the opposite direction that there
is in minus.
And 20 JD is acting in the opposite direction as in the direct sorry 20 JD here it is shown opposite
along ED but here it is considered in this direction and it is giving as a force. So, if we consider
this way that solves the gives the understanding better. And considering that direction we have
the JD force as 1375. So, similarly if we consider in the drag direction the summation of forces
that gives us the value of ID.
So with these considerations all the unknowns in the landing gear are solved even in the torque
links the forces are also solved and we can have a check we which we need to do in our next
slide.
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But we will see is it may be considered as homework what you have seen. So, in this slide what
we see is that the reactions are now checked by considering the inter structures as three body
diagram. And summations in all the direction V D and S has been checked and moments
equations are also checked and it gives us zero. This may be considered as homework and you
can solve this problem.
So with this solution of learning problem two examples we cover the landing gear solutions and
we will move forward to the next lecture.
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And in this lecture what we have learned is that how to solve the landing gear problems
considering that as a space structure. And thank you for attending this lecture we will meet again
in the next lecture with some other problem, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture-16
Wing Truss System
engineering department IIT Kharagpur. We are in the third week lectures this is the last lecture
of the third week lecture 16 wing truss system.
Today we will solve a small problem considering a wing truss even we would not call solve the
total truss system a part of the truss system 3D truss system will be solving today. Introduction as
a recapitulation what we have already done we have learned some history; we have learned how
the structures are. The fabrication or to some extent details of aircraft structures; we have learned
how load comes into the structure and we have learned what is load factor, ultimate load, limit
load all those things we have solved problems.
How the wing experiences bending moment and shear force as well as fuselage experiences
bending moment and shear force. And in last four lectures we have learned fast simple truss
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system and later on we have we have considered the problems of landing gear as a three
dimensional truss structures or truss system.
So, we will move forward to today with a wing lift trust, solving of wing lift truss. Let us see
how it is done and how do we solve the problem.
These types of wings are used for amateur aircrafts for various clubs by various clubs and for
amateur flights. So, let us see how do we solve the beam truss. Find the loads on the lift truss
members lift truss members are this two member truss this is a member lying on the plane which
is if we better to have a direction this is Y direction this is X direction and the up direction that
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means this direction is Z direction so this is I think it is better to draw here Y this is X. So, we
can say that this view what we see is on XZ and this view what we see is YZ with this
consideration we will move forward to solve the problem.
Find the loads on the lift truss members of the wing configuration considering all lift on the
wing. Drag truss this truss system is the drag truss system, drag truss members of the externally
braced monoplane wing is shown this is the external brush members these things we are
supposed to find out. The air load is assumed to be uniformly distributed along the span of the
wing the air load is uniformly distributed as it is mentioned it is 20 pound per inch along the
length.
The diagonal drag truss members are wires these members are wires with the tension diagonal
effective and the other diagonal carrying no load. So, only one is under tension whereas the other
side is not is not having any tension the vertical load 20 pound per inch is distributed to the spar
in inverse proportion to the distance between the centre of the pressure and the spars. These are
the two spars this is one spar and this is the other spar.
So this member is joined to this spar CG and this member the CE is joining or supporting this
part BE this CG is sub supporting the AG spar and CE is supporting the BE spar the load on the
front is therefore 16 pound per inch it is assumed as mentioned here inversely proportional. So,
that is the reason the front spar is carrying 14 pound per inch and the rear spar is carrying 4
pound per inch. So, let us see how do we solve the problem or find out member loads in the
member CG as well as CE that is our task we are supposed to find out the member force are in
CG and CE.
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Here we have the front or the front spar where as it is already discussed 16 pound per inch load is
distributed uniformly this distance is 10 inch this is the total 180 inch and we have a member that
is from C to G this is the point G the front spar is considered as a free body as shown the vertical
forces at A and G may be obtained with respect to a moment of summation of moment at with
point A and minus what do we consider is that we are considering the free body of the member
of the member CG 16 in into the total load coming.
Considering this member about point A we are taking moment so this 180 the CG is at 90
distance, 16 is the UDL uniformly distributed load concentration and the vertical load G is acting
there that is to support so from that way moment about X-axis at Point A moment about X-axis
about point A we are considering and that gives us the load CG as 2590 pound considering no
drag force in X Direction is acting on the joint G.
So if we consider this joint G and taking moment about X-axis at Point C considering the
member CG what we will get is that this is 60 and this is 100 this is 60 inch this is 100 inch and
the two forces are acting one is downward as G z and the other force acting here as G y . So, if
we solve this in this direction we have the opposite acting to moment and from there we get that
G y is equals to 4320 pound.
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This is the complete solution of the drag brace we will discuss this again but here it is to note that
this 4320 pound which is coming to on the member CG that is also acting in the this direction as
4320 pound here and this the other force will discuss in the next slide.
So, in this slide what do we have if the rear spar is considered as a free body as shown in the
figure M B are the moment about X-axis at point B if we consider what do we have like the
previous one we have solid the load intensity changes otherwise there is not much change in this
equation it is similar to that. So, we get the force E z , E z is 648 pound as it is shown here.
Considering no drag force is acting in X direction at the joint E and taking moment about X-axis
at Point C considering member CE this member CE but we have similar way as we have seen in
the last one that CE here also we have this force and this force this is equals to E z and this is
Ey .
And then accordingly what we can find out that E y is equals to 1020 pound this is C this is E
one more force is there but it is in the same line of x-direction that is why E z is not considered
and again considering no force is acting in y direction at the joint E and taking moment about Y
axis at Point C what we can find out that E x multiplied by 100 in the other plane if we consider
E x multiplied by 100 and E z multiplied by 30 and we get the E x value.
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So this is a similar visualization like this and we get the value of 324 and this 324 contribution
we will see in the this is the force 324 acting towards from the board towards me and that value
is 324 here it is acting. So, we need to consider the other direction moment to find out that. So,
with this consideration or both the members CG and CE are found out in case of CG there is no
force in the X direction whereas for the CE there is a force in the X direction.
With this understanding we also come to the last figure where as we as we have mentioned in the
last slide the found out force of G is shown here and that 324 is getting added up here. See this is
100, 100 + 200 gives 300 then 200 plus this gives the -824 found in this vertical member. So,
that is the reason that E x this direction force which is 324 is added up and increases the drag
member force. So, with those force combinations as it is drag members are there you can easily
solve the answer is also given.
So you can solve the problem and find out the forces please note the addition of Y and X
direction forces at joint G and E in X Direction force is added 324 in X Direction force is added
with 324 pound at the third member from tip of the wing and the adjacent members are added
with 4320 pound and 1080 pound respectively. This is the 1080 pound as it is shown so with
those member forces added we are supposed to solve the drag truss of the wing.
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With this we conclude the third week lecture series and with help of the space structure system.
We have solved a few problems of aerospace or aerospace structures there are many more
problems to solve but with this introduction I hope you will be able to attempt the day-to-day
problems of aircraft structures and will be so solve those problems for further analysis. So, with
this I thank you for attending the last lecture of third week will start a new topic in the fourth
week, thank you for attending the lecture.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -17
Introduction to Energy Methods
Welcome back to aircraft structures one course. This is Professor Anup Ghosh from department
of aerospace engineering IIT, Kharagpur we are at the beginning of fourth week of the course
that is known as module 4, this is lecture number 17 we will get introduced to the energy
methods, principles of energy methods we will discuss in a very, very brief way. The concepts
presented here is difficult to present in this few words.
So for further query or inquisitiveness to satisfy the inquisitiveness please refer to books
advanced books available on variational calculus or energy methods related books. So, with that
let us proceed.
As usual we need to recapitulate what we have done. We have done we have done history of
solid mechanics or structural analysis and then brief history of development of aircraft then flight
envelope and loads, load factor how load comes into details of fabrication and internal
fabrication details of structures. Then we have come across loads coming to the wing and
fuselage of aircraft how the bending moment shear force has come in to the wing and fuselage.
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And then in the last week we got introduced with the truss system. In the truss system the
advanced way of analyzing three-dimensional structures or three-dimensional trusses we have
seen we have solved a few problems related to aerospace engineering. And then will this week
will proceed further with the energy methods.
Energy method of structural analysis that is what is our aim to learn various methods we learn
starting from the stationary value of potential energy to Castingliano's theorem to Raleigh's
method many, many methods will come slowly and we learn dummy load method, unit load
method all those methods will come slowly and we will learn those things let us cross it.
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So, energy method of structural analysis we are starting, strain energy and complementary
energy. The concept of strain and complementary energy is the first topic we are getting into.
Consider a structural member a rod in tension this is the figure you should refer for that figure
shows a structural member subjected to a steadily increasing load P. As the member extends the
load does work and from the law of conservation of energy this work is stored in the member as
strain energy.
A typical load deflection curve for a member possessing nonlinear elastic characteristic is shown
in the figure, please mind it this curve represents nonlinear elastic material that is the reason we
see a curve it is not a straight line. The strain energy U produced by the load P and corresponding
extension Y is then U equals to integration from 0 to y P dy and is expressed sorry and is
represented by OBD of the load deflection curve OBD this portion represents that energy U.
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Engesser in 1889 called the area OBA above the curve as the complementary energy C and from
the figure we see that C is equals to integration from 0 to P y dP. Complementary energy as
opposed to the strain energy has no physical meaning. Physical meaning of strain energy is
described in the previous slide being purely a convenient mathematical one quantity so it is a
purely mathematical quantity.
However it is possible to show that complementary energy obeys the law of conservation of
energy in the type of situation usually arising in engineering structures so that its use as an
energy method is valid. So, we will be using that one and that whatever is shown said here that
we can use it for structural analysis that will slowly establish. Differentiating equation 1 and 2 to
is here the 1 is with U, so with respect to y and P respectively gives that dU dy is equals to P and
dC dP is equals to y.
227
Bearing these relationships in mind we can now consider the interchangeability of strain and
complementary energy. Suppose that the curve of the previous figure is represented by the
function P equals to b Y to the power n where the coefficient b and exponent n are constants.
Then if we do a simple calculus we can find that you may be expressed as we have said earlier or
using this function we can express it as 1 by n integration 0 to P P by b to the power 1 by n dP.
Or C may be expressed as this also n integration 0 to y b y to the power n dy and if we take the
derivative as it is given in the last slide what we get that dU dy is equals to P and dU dP is not
having a straightforward equation it is having the effect of non-linearity is quite clear 1 by n P by
b to the power 1 by n. Similarly dC dy is becomes b ny to the power n or nP.
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Now it is the most common case is the linear elastic one that curve is shown here. This is the
curve for linear elastic one and for n equals to 1 it becomes a linear elastic material and in that
case dU dy becomes equals to P as well as dC dy becomes equals to P whereas the other way dU
dP and dC dP becomes equals to y. And the strain and complementary energies are completely
interchangeable. Such a condition is found in a linear elastic member it is related to the load
deflection curve shown on the right hand side.
Clearly the area OBD is equal to the area OBA strain energy and complementary energy. It will
be observed that the equations 5 and 6 are in the form of what is commonly known as
Castigliano's theorem. This is more popularly known as Castingliano's theorem. In one of these
the differential of the strain energy U of the structure with respect to a load is equated to the
deflection of the load.
To be mathematically correct however it is the differentiation of the complementary energy C

which should be equated to the deflection. So this is more appropriate it says instead of this that
we have if you look at the equations in the previous page that you can easily understand.
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Potential energy of a structure: Consider and elastic rod subjected to a load P work done by the
load during the displacement y is Py. Assuming that this work done by the external force is
independent of the path that is assuming that the force is conservative there is a big proof for that
in advanced books let us assume this to continue. Change in potential energy of the external load
is equals to minus Py. If the potential energy of the load is zero initially potential energy of the
external load in the deflected equilibrium is V equals to minus Py strain energy of the bar due to
the deflection is U equals to what we have already seen integration 0 to y P dy.
The total potential energy of the system is defined as the sum of the potential energy of the
external load and strain energy of the system that is what U+ V and that we makes it that total
potential energy is equals to integration 0 to y P dy - P into y.
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For an elastic body with external load P 1 P 2 P 3 P n producing corresponding displacement like
Delta 1 Delta 2 Delta capital Delta l in direction of the load, the total potential energy becomes U
plus summation of R equals to 1 to n minus P r Delta r. Work done by the internal forces during
virtual internal displacement will be negative, if the internal forces are virtual it is negative of
that change in the potential energy or strain energy.
Load P r remains constant during the virtual displacement so we can write that it is virtual
change of energy Delta U minus Delta summation of P r Delta r from 1 to n. Again if we look at
the summation of P r Delta r is the work done by the external forces which may be said as the
minus of V potential energy of the external loads. So, summing up this with this concept we can
write that the change of any small change or variation of U + V is equals to 0.
And in language if we write that thus the total potential energy of an elastic system has a
stationary value for all small displacement if the body is in equilibrium. So, with that concept let
us proceed further we will see we will need to use this concept to solve problem.
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Principle of virtual work principle of virtual work: Consider a practical solid particle here it is
shown subjected to forces P 1 P 2 2 P n whose resultant is P r resultant is shown here as P r, if
we now impose an imaginary displacement Delta R on the particle in the direction of P r then the
imaginary r virtual work done by P r will be equal to the sum of the virtual work done by the
forces P i in moving through the virtual displacement Delta i caused by Delta r.
So it says that if there are P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 and many more up to the n and the corresponding
virtual displacements are Delta 1 Delta 2 Delta 3 Delta 4 then and those are having resultant as P
r and Delta r what we can write that P r Delta r is equals to P 1 Delta 1 plus P 2 Delta 2 and
summation like that and in a summation form it is like that. But before we go further here in this
bracket I skipped this it is introduced that the virtual displacement is so small that there is no
significant change in geometry so that the forces remain constant during displacement with this
concept we introduced the virtual displacement.
Now if this is what we have P r Delta r equals to this if the particle or the body is in equilibrium
so resultant P r is definitely is equals to 0. So, this side becomes 0 and or in any portion of the
this also is equals to 0 or this is equals to 0 and as a summation form we write that P r Delta r is
equals to 0 and we say that this is the principle of virtual displacement. A particle is in
equilibrium under the action of a system of forces if the total virtual work done by the force
system is zero for small virtual displacements.
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Similarly as we have introduced here the virtual displacement we can introduce here as a virtual
force that is there is in this portion I have kept in small font because it is almost repetition of the
same thing. Only instead of virtual displacement the same principle and concept may work in the
same way and we may get one more equation where it is virtual forces acting and we say that is
as the principle of virtual forces.
The principle of stationary value of total potential energy will be discussing now before that we
let us define again the virtual work done in 2 form one in the form of the virtual displacement
and other in the form of virtual forces. Consider and lasting body in equilibrium under external
forces P 1 2 P 2 2 P n let us impose virtual displacement Delta Delta 1 to Delta Delta n in
direction of the loads and then already you have learned that the virtual work done is equals to P
r Delta Delta r summation over r to n.
Since the body is continuous the imposed virtual displacement will induce displacement in the
particle of the body the internal force do work on the particle during the virtual displacement and
thus causes an increment of the strain energy that is Delta U of the internal strain energy this is a
potential energy. And then similar way with similar concept if we follow for the virtual forces if
we assume the work done by the internal forces to be independent of the path.
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Internal forces to be conservative we can straightforward say that the virtual work done by
external virtual forces is equals to Delta r Delta small Delta P r summation over r equals to n but
in this point the assumption what we say that is not always true that is only true for Hookean
material but considering Hookain material will proceed further.
Internal virtual forces will remain sorry internal virtual forces will move the particles through the
real displacement. This virtual work of the internal forces will increase the complementary
energy of the system hence assuming the work done to be independent of the path virtual work
done by internal forces is equals to minus of Delta C i where Delta C i is the increase in
complementary energy.
So, the total virtual work becomes minus Delta C i + Delta P r capital Delta r multiplied by small
Delta variation of P r and virtual P r summation over r equals to 1 to n since the body is in
equilibrium this total system or the total virtual work becomes equals to 0 and summation of
Delta r Delta P r may be regarded as complementary work done by the external forces. If we
assume work done to be independent of the path summation of capital Delta r small Delta P r
summation over r equals to 1 to n is equals to minus of Delta C e where Delta C e is the change
in complementary potential energy for the external load e represents the external loads.
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And then from this equation we can directly have the equation as minus Delta C i - Delta C e is
equals to 0 and then we can say that variation C i + C e is equals to zero, so we say that this C i +
C e is called the total complementary potential energy of the system for a body in equilibrium the
total complementary energy has a stationary value like the total potential energy what we have
already done.
So, let us apply the concept of stationary value of the energy into problem-solving and we think
with an example we will see how that we can use and solve a problem. This figure what you see
here is a truss in this figure there are forces starting from 1 2 3 4 to r 1 2 3 2 r to n, the figure
shown at the right side is an elastic framework where Delta 2 in the direction of P 2 is required to
be found out.
Total complimentary potential energy is equals to C i + C e as we have got in the previous

example we can write that 1 as summation of i equals to 1 to k for 0 to F i for individual member
lambda I delta F I, so if i is here the individual member forces. So, if we name the member 1 2 3
4 5 6 like that it will come as lambda i F i where F i is the internal forces in the ith member F i
will be a function of P 1 P 2 to P n, k is the total number of members in the frame and lambda i is
elongation of the ith member due to the internal force.
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So once we find out this value we can find out the total potential complimentary potential
energy. Now as it is said it is having a stationary value what we can see that from the principle of
stationary total complimentary potential energy we can say that the partial derivative of total
potential complimentary potential energy with respect to P 2 since we want the Delta 2 becomes
equals to 0 and then we go for partial derivation with respect to this, this lambda i remains same
Delta Fi Delta P 2.
Since Fi is a function of P 1 P 2 and P n we get this portion from this and whereas this portion
except all other Delta except Delta to all other things vanishes because those are not function of
P 2. So, this in a straightforward way gives us that Delta 2 is equals to summation of i equals to 1
to k lambda i which is elongation of a member at member and then del Fi del P 2 as the partial
derivative of each member with respect to the force P 2.
For linear elastic material elongation of ith member is lambda i F i l I E i divided by A i E i this
is a very well-known formula we have already come across this many times where A I E i and l i
are the area Young's modulus and length of the ith member respectively. For a nonlinear material
this portion is just introduced to you to keep in mind that the case is not always true. In case of
nonlinear material what we can observe that if it is F i equal to b lambda I to the power n that
same way we can find out the solution.
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But it the equation changes a little bit we need to substitute that value and to carry out that
operation anyway the equation 12.1 whatever is there in the previous space that will give us the
Delta 2. For linear in elastic material where we have already seen that C is equals to U the total
energy U is equals to i equals to 1 to k strain energy of summation of strain energy of each and
every member. Strain energy of linear elastic bar under axial load F i is half of a F i lambda.
So that half i half of a F i lambda this is value of lambda is written here and total U becomes
summation of a F i square lambda divided by 2 A i E i and that is what since we have seen this
and C is equals to U in this energy expression it is desirable to express F i as a function of P 1 P
2 to P n and we get following the discussion what we have done in the; with respect to last slide
that Delta 2 is equal to del U del P 2 and this equation, this is the equation summation from i to k
F i lambda i divided by A i E i and partial derivative of Delta del F i del P 2 partial derivative of
each and individual member forces with respect to P 2.
Procedure to find deflection of a framework under a load: This is the standard procedure
following similar to this procedure we will solve this problem. Solve the internal forces F i for all
loads P 1 P 2 P n calculate lambda i equals to F i l i by A i E i for all members find out the partial
derivative of del of Fi with respect to P 2 that is del F i del P 2 is the rate of change of F i with
respect to P 2 to find out this find out the loads in the members d F i dP 2 other loads removed
and take the derivative of del F i del P 2.
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Now calculate the expression what we have said in the last phase same expression and find out
the deflection in the desired direction. Here P 2 is symbolic with respect to the previous
discussion previous figure but this is not always P 2 definitely it is the direction of the desired
force where we want to find out. For this case in this problem it will be with respect to P because
there is no other force in this member.
If there are other forces in the member then we need to modify it with respect to that force. So,
this is a truss where we need to find out the vertical deflection at A, P load is acting here. So, if it
is a vertical length deflection is acting in this direction following this formula if we make it del F
i del P and if we complete this we will get the solution.
So, to go further let us first proceed for the solution of this truss joint a this is joint A, this is joint
A S 1 S 2 and P is acting, this is 45-degree simple equations are there. so in the vertical direction
both equals to zero that gives us S 2 equals to minus of root 2P. So, this is a compression
member as it is, so and similarly we get that ish one is equals to P considering the horizontal
equilibrium solution of FX equals to zero with respect to this point and that gives that this is a
tension member then again we come to join C 2 and C is this S 2 S 3 S 4 S 2 is already found out
is 4 is equals to minus P and since s 2 is equals to root 2 P minus root 2 P it is minus P and S 3 is
equals to P, similar with following the horizontal Direction equilibrium.
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So, joint b if we come join b is a similar way we can find out S 1 is known now, S 3 is known
now the only two unknowns that is S 6 and S 5, so S 5 if we want to find out we need to consider
equilibrium in this direction and similar way we get that S 5 is equals to minus or root 2 P and S
6 is equals to 2P. So, all the member forces are now known with respect to this we will use a
table to carry out the further calculations.
And we put the values in this table we have put the length of each and every member this is the
main member 1 2 3 4 5 length is given as l root 2l like that whatever is that these two are more
that is why this two are more 2 and 5 L by AE calculated from here is constant it is assumed that
all the member having same cross-section and it is made from same material. Member forces in
the previous slide we have found out that same forces are put here in all the forces those are also
put in this figure.
So you can easily match those figures and then we are considering that del F i del P so this is the
important step or is it is better to follow carefully what I am doing I am taking derivative of this,
this is 1 this is root 2 this is 1 this is minus 1 minus root 2 and this is minus root 2 this is 2 and
then we calculate that F i l i A i by A i E i and we get these values it is nothing but multiplication
of these two column we get and finally we get the summation here.
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So the vertical deflection in the direction of the force is equal to 7 plus 4 root 2 multiplied by PL
by AE that is the final answer. So, with a little concept of energy method we can easily find out
the deflection of a truss at a certain point and it works very well to find out the member forces.
With this let us try to come to the end of the of today's lecture references our standard references.
We every week bring their slide and in this slide we see that the strain energy and
complementary energy is introduced and we have said that it is having a stationary value. Total
complementary energy or total potential energy and using that property we can easily find out
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deflection of a point of a truss it is not only truss it may be applicable for any other structure
where we can find out similar way the energy expression.
So those problems we will see with those problems will come beam problems another slowly but
before that we will get introduced to other methods with respect to trust and maybe with some
tricky way of solving problems. So, with that introduction to future lecture let us end today's
lecture thank you for attending it will meet again in the second lecture of module 4 next time,
thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -18
Dummy and Unit Load Method
Welcome back to aircraft structures one course this is Professor Anup Ghosh from Aerospace
Engineering Department IIT Kharagpur. We are in the mid of fourth week lectures where we will
consider mainly the energy methods. Energy methods preliminary did definitions and derivations
are covered in the last lecture. This week we will cover the dummy load method and unit load
method.
Before we go into details in the dummy load method and unit load method better we recapitulate
what we have learned. We have learned history that's very important I always say always fill of
solid mechanics or structural analysis or aerospace structures. Various types of external loads
and conceptual structural details, flight envelope and load factor C r and moment on wing and
fuselage of an aircraft, truss and space structures we have done and then we have come to the
energy methods in our last lecture so we proceed.
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Today we will continue with that to dummy load method and unit load method.
The dummy load method what we will discuss today is we will take the help of the example what
we have solved for vertical deflection as it is shown on the right hand side of the slide, here. This
if it is asked to find out the horizontal deflection of this point A. So, how can we do? So, to do
that we need to take help of the dummy load method, say let A fictitious or dummy horizontal
load fictitious or dummy horizontal load P f be applied at A.
Deflection at the direction of the fictitious or dummy load is following the previous derivation
we can write that it is if it is capital Delta F is a partial derivative with respect to that P f or the
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fictitious load and then the total energy gone for that in all the members that is F i square a l i
divided by 2 A I E i that has to be taken a partial derivative with respect to the P i and it is
summed up for the members 1 to k. Now let us try to see how it changes if we talk about in a
general way.
So we can say that that force whatever F i is or the member force generated in each and every
member is F i and there is a contribution of two forces one is the F i here where it the value is P
because of P whatever force is coming that is a F i P and because of the fictitious load whatever
value is coming that is F 1 P f. So, if it is a sum of those two functions we are considering that
linear superposition is possible and then we can continue for the derivation this is square L i is
considered that square is expanded here.
If we consider the partial derivation with respect to this term definitely this is equals to 0 and this
term is here written as 2 fi PF this is constant and this is the derivative we are supposed to take
and in this term we have 2 f i 1 P f this is written equals to 0 because since the load is fictitious at
the end we are supposed to put a value r of P f equals to 0 and definitely this total value will
become the function value come zero for any case and that will make the total this portion of the
equation zero. The above function f i 1 P f becomes zero while we substitute the value of dummy
load as zeros.
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So, the finally what we have it boils down to the equation as it is shown at the top of the slide it
is it is - that's this slide where f i P because to the internal forces due to the external loads P 1 P 2
P n it could be as many as possible considering general case and f i 1 P f is equals to is the rate of
change of internal forces due to the P f or the application of the fictitious load. We will see look
at this equation in a different way that will help us to solve the problem.
So let us bring back the equation what we have put before we go for the partial derivation. As we
consider that the dummy force is also an external force. Considering the function F i equals to f i
P f i 1 P f + f i 1 P f partial derivative of this gives us that this is is equals to this, so what we
have we can easily replace this term with or this term with this term now remains F i what to do
for F i? For to use this formula we need to be precautious and we have to put that while P f is put
to zero before summation.
This while we are calculating the f i we need to put that those values for the P f equals to 0 and
we need to calculate that so that actually because this but this is more popular way to remember
and that is the way we generally carry on with keeping in mind that we need to put P f equals to
0 before we go for the summation.
So, let us solve that same problem what we have solved in our last lecture, problem is easy
procedure is, you better concentrate on the procedure. How the procedure is? How do we do?
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This is the original problem and in this case what we are doing is that we have removed all the
forces and we have put a force P f because of the P f we are supposed to find out the member
forces which will become that F i give us that f i 1P f, so this case will give us that value. Okay
so let us see the solution is very easy we need not to do much for this. For this joint we have
considered here and we have considered that.
Considering that this equilibrium of this what we can see that this S 1 is equals to P f and S 2 is
equals to zero and similar fashion if we go for the joint, in this joint what we can see that from
the summation of horizontal and vertical equilibrium as the process may be if we go for since S 2
is equals to 0 definitely S 3 and S 4 is equals to 0. Now if we come to this joint we have already
S 1 is having a value of P f, S 3 is already 0 this is equals to 0 and then S 6 + S 5 definitely S 6
will have a value of P f but S 5 will not have any value if we consider the vertical equilibrium.
So that way what do we have? We have values for S 6, S 1.
And with that we move to the table that helps us to carry out the calculation. In the table what we
have put we have put those members and one after another this is the length of the member this
is L by AE assuming that all the members are having same A and E where always A and E is
divided there may be problems where A and E are not constant. Practically it is not constant but
for problem solving purpose in most of the cases this AE is generally becomes a constant value
but A vary E sometimes in most of the cases are constant.
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Anyway these are the load for the external loads that here in this case the vertical load P. This
already we have solved in our previous class. This portion we have solved today. So, please here
in this please you please note that whatever is written underscore that is the subscript what is
with cap is the superscript. So, in that fashion with that we have the member force this way and
then we have the derivative of those forces partial derivative of those forces as 1 and 1.
And then we calculate the first this portion value here it is that portion value it is nothing but
multiplication of this and this, this and this and that way we have those values. And this is total
multiplication of with this, this is multiplied and we get those values. So, definitely since these
are 0 we have only summation, summation gives that 3 PL by AE. So, Delta f the deflection of
point A in the horizontal direction is 3 capital Delta f equals to 3 P l divided by AE and it is to
the right, why?
Because the direction of the P f we assumed on the right hand side Delta f has become a positive
value so our assumption of displacement on the right was correct and it is deflecting on the right
hand side. This method to find out deflection in elastic structures is known as dummy load
method. Why dummy load method? Because we are applying a dummy load P f we are applying
a dummy load P f and using that we are finding out the deflection. Let us move to the next slide.
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Before we move further for the unit load method we have already observed that energy is
required to be found out for various cases. And in the next example what we will be solving
using dummy load method we need these expressions so that is the reason in this, in a very brief
way energies for tension compression bending and torsion is derived here. This is not derived
definitely I would suggest you to please find out how do you get that curve U for a certain
member for a tension P Square L by 2 AE you get having a cross section A modulus of the A i E
and length L.
I think a little effort if you put you can easily do we will see the other portions. If we look at the
next one, if a bar is a beam is bending like this the radius of curvature is R and x axis is along the
span of the beam, so we are considering x axis in this direction and then we have a relation for
the curved beam under pure bending is that 1 by R is equals to M by E i. Sometimes we get
minus also that depends on the way we consider x and the way we consider R.
So since R is 1 by R is easily can be written as d theta dx this equals to the M by EI bending

moment causes rotation of the plane section external work done on an element of length dx as it
is shown here is equals to half M d theta the strain energy of the element dx and that this strain
energy we are going to integrate for the length. So, U is equals to half M d theta we are not
putting limit because depending on the case we need to put the limit and we need to find out the
total strain energy.
So that way d theta is substituted from here and it becomes M by E i dx and then we get the most
popular form of U for bending or strain energy for bending as equals to integration of M square
dx divided by twice E i. So, we have a similar expression for torsion let us see.
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In case of torsion which is a bar of length L loaded at two ends by T the torsion a dx length if we
consider the work done on element dx is equal to strain energy of the element dx which is equal
to half T D theta and same way we continue d theta dx we as we know from the torsion formula
is equals to T by G J and we integrate that substitute that d theta this becomes half T Square 2 GJ
dx and we get the formula it is my mistake repeated.
So for the torsion the formula is this. So, with this consideration or introduction of a calculation
of total strain energy let us move forward for further learning on the unit load method that is a
very beautiful method.
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Let us see how do we go for the unit load method it is very, very similar to the development load
method and let us have a reference with that method to understand this. Unit load method if
instead of applying a dummy load P f we had applied a unit load A in the horizontal direction. It
is we are talking about the same problem what we have solved and the internal forces in the
linear elastic member due to the unit load is the partial derivative of the forces developed due to
the dummy load P f.
So from observations from mathematics it is quite clear instead of applying P f dummy load of
any value if we have like unit load the derivation we need not to take it becomes the member
forces becomes automatically the partial derivative with respect to the P f. If those forces are
denoted by f i 1 for the ith member then easily we can put this value here and the Delta f
becomes summation of i 1 to k L I F i by A i E i multiplied by F i 1 where F i 1 is the forces
developed in the members due to application of unit load in the desired direction.
So if one F i 1 equals internal force due to unit load only in the direction in which deflection is
desired. In case of bending a similar expression may be obtained for dummy load method that is
what is written here this del M del P f becomes this value this is nothing but how do we get that's
why it has been as a reminder written. So, this value becomes M 1, M 1 is the is the moment
developed because of the application of unit load.
It sometimes get confusing please keep it in mind this statement in your mind while you are
confused and we get the value. M 0 or M not bending moment at any section due to the actual
loading M 1 bending moment at any section due to the unit loading applied in the direction of the
required deflection. Similarly in case of torsion we can have similar equation T 0 T 1 T 0 or T 0
or T 0 is the torsional moment at any section due to actual loading T 1 is the torsional moment at
any section due to unit loading applied in the direction of the required deflection.
So in a summation if we look at dummy load method and unit load method is that in dummy load
method we are supposed to carry out the partial derivation and in unit load method we are
statically finding out the moment torsion or the member forces in case of truss or the part of the
partial derivative because you are applying unit amount of load.
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So, let us try to solve a problem example unit load method, find the magnitude and the direction
of the movement of the joint C of the plane pin jointed frame loaded as shown. The value of the
value of L by AE for each member is 1 by 20 millimeter per Newton because we are trying to
find out who in dimension earlier things were not in dimension so we did not look at it. But here
L by AE value is given so we can find out in millimeter.
Length of member 1 or DC from the other dimension this and this easily we can find out square
root of those and it is 2400 millimeter. Now if we consider the joint C is 1 this is simply
considered as the summation of vertical forces equals to 0 and from there we get that S 1 is
equals to; since the members are all known 2400 is also known so we can easily find out that
cost component this is the cost component is equals to 10 and what we get that figure is not
given here it may be said something like this.
This is 10 Newton this is S 1 this is S 2 so we are considering equilibrium summation anyway

we get this and from the other component considering the horizontal direction we get the
summation we get that S 2 is equals to minus 13.336 Newton. Now if we cannot talk about joint
D or section including joint D and C so to do that what we have done we have considered a
section this way and that section is shown here.
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So either we can consider to find out a consider moment to find out member forces like say for S
4 we can consider moment about this point or we may have a horizontal and vertical equilibrium
because S 2 is already known. So, any way you may go for go and find out the values of S 4 here
in this particular case S 4 is equals to 13.336 Newton and S 3 is equals to minus 10 Newton. So,
let us proceed further.
If we consider a vertical section this is nothing but a section considered from this axis from here
a section is considered. Now from the dimensions we may easily find out whether the triangles
formed particularly this triangle this triangle, this is right angle or not this is right angle or not
may be checked from the dimension. So, that is what is done the BE this length BE is found out
as he calls to 1,800 mm and then this is definitely a right angle so we can do that.
AB if we talk about this AB this is also a right angle so from there easily we can find out that this
length is equal to 1350 now where why we have this length and this length if this matches with
square of this square root of that 2 matches with this we can easily control that this is also right
angle that will help us to consider a moment and know the forces. So, that check is considered
here 1800, so the other way it has been done I think you can easily check it so considering
moment about this point gives us the force S 6.
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S 6 this is then the perpendicular distance this distance is equal to this distance and we get that S
6 is equals to -16.67 Newton this is done for the load given in the vertically downward direction
but the question is that to find out the movement of C it is not that ask that whether the C is
moving how much it is moving downward or how much it is moving horizontally rightward or
leftward anyway we need to find out this.
This much is probably sufficient to carry out a vertically downward movement but let us see a
horizontal movement we need also to find out that is the reason we apply one unit load here this
direction. In the above case while we need to find out the forces in the members due to unit
horizontal load applied at the Point C it may be calculated that S 1, S 4 and S 3 are equals to 0
and S 2 is having value 1. And similar way if we proceed now the way we have done in the
previous portion now from a similar session as considered in the above summation of horizontal
and vertical forces are equal to 0 individually will lead to the solution S 5 and S 6.
S 5 for 1 horizontal load is equal to 0.6 Newton and for S 6 1 horizontal load is equals to 0.8
Newton. So, with that we move forward for the next slide.
We have got all the values we need to find out the deflections as we have already described
following that procedure we can easily find out the deflection. So, please keep it in mind that
these are not the values of deflection because in the earlier tables L by AE was also included in
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the table in this particular case it is not included. So, that is the reason the vertical deflection at C
becomes this divided by the 20 what is given in the question and that gives us that this joint
moves downward as 5.057 mm.
And if we follow similar way the horizontal is minus of 1.335 here comes why minus how do we
handle that minus. So, since it is minus we assume the load acting on the right hand side so the
value has become minus, so it is coming something 1.335 it is a small value and this value is
1.335 and the net resultant will be this. So, the magnitude is this that is 5.23 mm and the
direction is tan inverse 14.78 with vertical.
So this is the theta indicated that is 14.78 degree so with that the solution ends and we let us
move forward for one more example.
Quickly we will try to cover this example in this example need to be cleaned. This example is
associated with bending calculations the structure is shown here. Let us read it carefully example
unit load method semicircular beam. The tubular steel post tubular means the it is annular section
shown in the figure supports a load 250 Newton this is the load 250 Newton at the end see here it
is supporting 250 Newton.
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The outside diameter of the tube is 100 mm as shown here and the wall thickness is 3mm as
shown here neglecting the weight of the tube that means we are supposed to neglect the self
weight find the horizontal deflection of C. The modulus of elasticity is 206 000 Newton per
millimeter square. So, what we are supposed to do? We are supposed to find out the horizontal
deflection as it is indicated here.
We first calculate the strain energy because of moment. So, to do that with the original load
existing on the structure as it is shown here we are supposed to find out the moment at for
moment in between from these two this C to B if we consider this, this distance is nothing but
this one, multiplied by R definitely, so that multiplied by the W gives us the bending moment
considering that is acting this way as it is shown here.
And similarly it will it that the bending moment here from here to here it is since it is acting in
this direction that will remain constant for the value what it at it achieves here that is equals to W
into twice R this is twice R and that will remain constant for the length AB that is what is written
that in BA will remain constant. So, let us proceed further we need on in the horizontal direction
so what we need to do for that let us see.
To do that what we have done is we have applied one unit load here in the horizontal direction
and because of the application of the unit load we are supposed to find out the bending moment.
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That bending moment because we have assumed the bending moment acting this way as positive
this will act in the opposite direction and that is the reason if we again consider this, this, this is
nothing but the sine theta, R sine theta and that is what the MCB is because load is one that is
why not nothing else is there and here it is we are considering X from the here which is equals to
X because it is acting this way it is acting in a positive direction so that is the reason we are
considering that this is equals to X.
Now we are supposed to find out evaluate this equation that that equation is evaluated M 1 is
written here W R 1 - cos theta this is M 0 and dx is equals to R d theta and then what we have
done that has that is integrated from zero to PI 0 to 2PI and the remaining portion W to WR is
the M1 and this X is M2, so with this we integrate and integration is not shown here in detail you
can solve it as a homework and check whether you are getting this value or not.
So finally this del Delta or maybe written as capital Delta F any way you can write this and these
are same please keep a note up about it and you see we can find out the deflection either 48.67
mm or 53.33 mm that depends on how do we assume the moment, area moment it may be
assumed as a thin wall structure equals to PI R cube t or following the exact derivation it can be
found out using this formula that makes the difference between this and this and this.
Anyway the value whatever we get is reported here and with that we conclude our discussion
with energy method related to dummy load method and unit load method and we will also solve
some more examples to have a clear idea about the process.
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So, as usual the reference slides remain same and what we see is that what we have learned is
that dummy load method and unit load method with examples and also with derivation. And with
that I would like to thank you for attending this lecture and I would like to see you back in the
next lecture with some more example, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -19
Dummy and Unit Load Method - Examples
Engineering department IIT Kharagpur. We are in continuation of the fourth week lecture this is
lecture number 19. We are already introduced with dummy load and unit load method but unless
we solve energy method problems it is difficult to understand properly that is the reason we will
try to solve few more problems in this lecture.
And you should keep it in mind that the examples are solved in one method must be tried with
other methods which will be covered in the forthcoming lectures.
So before we go further it is better to have a recapitulation history of aircraft now already we

have done history of aircraft and aerospace structural analysis, various types of external loads
conceptual structural details that also we have done, how does it look like? Rib, spar frames long
runs all those things we are introduced and which portion carries what type of load. And then we
are introduced to overall source of load on any aircraft how the loads come and how what is
flight envelop.
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Why do we need to maintain it and in design how does it help, limit load ultimate load all those
things we have already discussed. Shear and moment on wing and fuselage of an aircraft has also
been discussed. Those have been discussed in with examples and then we have discussed
problems related to truss space structures especially landing the gear problem. To cover the
space structures and then we got introduced with energy methods and we are continuing with
that.
So, today as it is the mentioned already that we will solve if you example problem.
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So the first example if you look at this example is considering the a beam, a cantilever beam
cantilever beam is loaded uniformly distributed load W Newton per meter as it is shown in the
figure. And you see these problems who will be solving both first by unit load method and then
by dummy load method. But whatever we do we need to need to consider that this energy strain
energy for bending this is predominantly a bending one we need to consider the bending energy
and using the bending energy we can easily find out U either using unit load method or dummy
load method, what is the deflection?
So to find out the tip deflection in this particular case free end or the tip, tip deflection in this
particular case for to follow a unit load method what are we doing, we are applying one unit load
here. Once we apply the unit load here and accordingly we may find out M 0 and M1 here MX
whatever is there without the unit load that is actually the M 0 and for this particular section and
considering the direction of moment shown as shown in the figure we can easily say that the M 0
is W equals to x square by 2 W multiplied by x square by 2 and M 1 is when this uniformly
distributed load is not present and then the M 1 that is equals to 1 cross X.
So this case is better to neglect this portion of the uniformly distributed load and then what do,
we have already the formula what we usually use to find out and that formula we are using and
putting the values like M 0, M 0 is WX square by 2 1 by E I is there and X is there this M 1
value that gets multiplied W by 2 EI comes out. We do integrate from 0 to L here at the length of
the B means L not mentioned only mentioned in the state text.
So visually we can mention again this way, this is L. so, with this if we that's the reason the
integration is considered from 0 to L and X is considered from this into the left ward that x to the
power cube by dx and it is a simple way x4 and y4 will come and WL to the power 4 by 8 EI is
the deflection this is following unit load method. Now if we try to follow same example try to
solve same example using dummy load method what can be done is that we can we can solve the
similar way.
Only we need to consider del U del P f and instead of applying unit load will have need to apply
the load P f now it makes is equals to W x square by 2 + P f x because of this P f load so we need
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to that the total strain energy as we substitute this value here this is Wx square by 2 + P f x whole
square and the constant term is taken out integration is definitely again carried out for 0 to L dx
and then if we carry out further we have this formula is expanded this way W Square extremes to
the power 4 by 4.
So this is not there is no nothing of P f so this will Delphi derivative of this will go to 0 there is 1
P f there is 1 P f, so what will happen this P f will make that P f twice P f x square and while we
will put the value of P f equals to 0 this term also will lead to 0 only remaining term is this one
because P f will become 1. So, in that case this becomes integration Wx cube dx. Similar way W
will come out and it will lead to the same result.
So whether we follow the unit load method or the dummy load method in both the case the
answer has to be correct that is what we have learnt problem we thought made differ but answer
should be same. So, the first problem for today's discussion is complete we will go forward for
the next one.
This example is a different type of example find the horizontal deflection of the arch shown
using unit load method. So, first we will try unit load method how the unit load method works in
this case, find the; to do that the equations remain same as for the unit load method. It is the
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loading is symmetric if you look at it is centrally loaded. So, without any doubt we can easily
find out that there the reactions are P by 2 at the two ends.
And for unit load method we need to apply one unit load P 1 because this end is supposed to
displace whereas this end is supporting so there definitely will be one more reaction and that
reaction is shown here it is not that two unit loads are applied if the concept is not that like that
but the concept is to apply one unit load. The loading in the structure is symmetrical about center
line so that is what just now I mentioned.
Moment at any section theta moment at any section theta if we look at how can you find out that
is it will have two components one is this will give us the M 0 and this will give us the M 1. So,
M 0 if we talk about this is the momentum, so this distance is nothing but 1 minus R into 1 minus
cos theta and that is what is given shown here you see and P by 2 is also given. So, accordingly
we get the M 0 calm part for M 1 the on is this much and this is nothing but R sine theta.
And since it is R sine-theta without doubt who put that one in to R sine theta and ds is equal to
definitely R d theta. So, that is the thing is put in into the in this form this is the value is put and
we get this value. So, one thing you must notice that there is a two in front and the limit is from 0
to PI by 2 we are not considering 0 to PI. The our structure is symmetric that's the reason if we
find out the energy up to this and then make a double of that that gives us the total energy that is
what is done here.
So 1 by E IP by 2 R into this portion is because of M 0 and the other portion R sine-theta this is
M 1 so while we put this to value and we need to carry out the integration that is the remaining
part need to do. So, in unit load method we need not to differentiate, so if we follow steps sine
theta multiplied by 1 minus cos theta is the only variable part and PR cube PR R these are also is
there. So, makes PR cube by E I outside and then we need to carry out the integration this is sine
2 theta will become.
And then that is there is in one fourth and one more half will come because of the 2 theta while
we do integration minus plus is because of the integration sin to cos and here also sin to cos plus
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has become minus you put the boundary values 0 to PI integration limits 0 to PI by 2, 0 to PI by
2 and accordingly this gives us 1 and this gives us minus 1 by 2 and it finally leads that the end
deflection this end deflection if it deflates like this then this deflection is PR cube by twice EI so
that is what we have solved and let us move to next slide for another method the other method
what we can use to solve this.
Same problem we will try using dummy load method in this development not only that we will
solve using dummy load method will also solve it without considering the symmetry. So, it
becomes the equation becomes little bit lengthy and we need to solve it. So, let us try once using
that method also how what the result comes and we will see will solve in that process. So, let us
follow. It is same only since P f is applied one more P f reaction P f is there.
Since we are not considering symmetry we need to consider moment at this part also that is the
reason Phi is defined to help us to understand and after Phi is defined we can easily solve the
equation. Let M f is moment due to horizontal force P f if this is the thing as we have discussed
earlier this is the arm for P f and that is R sine-theta and similarly if M f is the moment due to the
reaction that becomes P by 2R sin into 1 minus cos theta.
So MP is the moment due to the vertical load due to this load due to this load and if we talk
about that load it is becoming minus of P R cos Phi minus of P R cos Phi it is acting this way all
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moments those are acting this way on this section, this way or this section in just this way
whereas this is acting in this way that is in minus F has come and P is the load R cos Phi is this
angle and that is transfer transform to theta as cos theta.
So that is the I think you can easily get why it is like that from 180 degree minus Phi and that
way we get it. So the total energy total strain energy is here 1 by 2 EI M f plus M r whole square
Rd theta plus this is for 0 to PI since as we said we are not going to consider the symmetry that is
the reason in two parts the integration is take considered from here to here one part where P f
that MP part is not there.
And from here to here one more PI by 2 2PI where MP part is there so that square is considered.
Similar way it is expanded both part this is the first part and this is the up to PI by 2 this is up to
PI, PI by 2 to PI and then again the derivation is considered and if we go for the derivation this
part is better we can easily concentrate. So, we are supposed to do derive it with respect to what I
say that I am sorry P f. So, this is noted here, this is going to be 0 why this is becoming 0 because
as we will put that P f is equals to 0.
Here P f will become equal we put 0 that there is in this part will become 0 this is automatically
0 this MP is also automatically 0 that is because MP does not contain any P f this is the part will
remain that a M r this part M f + P f will remain. And here also MP part will remain this is also
this also will go to 0. So, similar way if we do this also we can get as twice M r twice M r del M
f this part only remains but these two will not be there this will not be something like this and
will be 0.
Now what we have done we have put the values of the moment what we have found out here
those moments values are put here P by 2 R 1 minus cos theta this is this part and R square sine
theta is this one M f del M f by Del P f and it continues that way. So, in this case also what we
have we substitute these values and we get this equation.
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So, this equation is repeated from the previous page and if we simplify that it becomes I guess
there is a mistake of this R square this because this R, R square and R makes it R to the power 4
probably this is a mistake you please ignore that otherwise it is not going to be P R cube. In the
previous page also that mistake is there please ignore consider that this is not there. So, PR cube
by 2 EI comes out then sine theta minus 1/2 sine 2 theta it becomes.
And similarly from the other one also PR cube by 2 EI is coming out and then we carry out the
integration sine theta cos it becomes minus cos theta. Similar way plus 1 by 4 cos 2 theta 0 to PI
by 2 this is PI by 2 to PI cos becomes minus sine a sorry sine becomes minus cos and say here
also sine becomes minus cos 1 by 2 concern comes out and similarly we get it this way. So, I
think they are also some typographical mistakes are there you may consider this two part if you
carry out this integration you will definitely get this value.
So I would suggest you carry out the part and check whether these two equations are written
correctly or not but finally the deflection what we see is correct.
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So, if we move forward for the the last example this example we have a curved beam. In this
curved beam what we do we need to find out the deflection, the downward deflection of this free
end and the rotation of the free end rotation is considered in this way the rotation how it is taking
place. So, let us see first here to how the deflection is coming, it is a bending and twisting
problem unless both are there, there would not be any translation downward as well as rotation
that is the reason following in unit load method we have both the energy due to moment as well
as energy due to torsion.
And once we do that once we carry out that the M 0 this is the important part here is to find out
M 0, M 1 and T 0, T 1. So, let us try to see how which arm is taking and which part is being
considered for M 0 and M 1 that is the most interesting part. Remaining part it is simple calculus
I think you can easily do probably better than me. So, that you can easily check and find out the
values finally what you are getting.
So to do that let us do come we are to concentrate to find out the M 0 first we have a load P
acting downward in this particular case we are not considering this T or there is no T present at
this tip it is because of only the applied load P. So, do not get confused with that T is shown here
just to give you the idea which way and how the torsion may act and how the Phi is acting. In
this problem the there is no T is applied so what how the moment is acting in this particular
section.
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If we look at it at this section this P is acting from here downward. So, the arm for moment is
actually this portion and that is nothing but the R sine theta this component. So, that is the reason
P R sine theta we get for M 0 and for M 1 that is nothing but while unit load is applied here
removing the all other loads we get the R sine theta. Now about T 0, T 0 because of P what is the
torsion at this particular section?
So in this case particular case actually this is the point where P is acting downward and what is
the arm? Arm is actually this much and this is nothing but one minus cos theta multiplied by R.
so, that is what that T 1 we get P R 1 minus cos theta T is acting downward R 1 into 1 minus cos
theta, theta and P equals to 1 gives us the applied torque is increasing the tip deflection this is
interesting point.
See P is being producing a torsion which is which is moving the tip downward that is the reason
we say in this particular case the torque what is produced by this P at any section which is theta
apart is actually increasing the deflection vertical deflection downward. So, with this concept
while we have all this value while we have this formula we are supposed to put that those values
where and those values are put here P R sine theta, R sine theta and then 1 by G J therefore the
torsion part is also it is put.
And then the simple integration is carried out and that gives us that Delta is equal to P R cube by
a PI by 4 plus PR cube by GJ 3 PI by 4 minus 2 so with this consideration let us move to the
other part of the problem that is rotation of the end section A.
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So here we have considered some additional drawing we have prepared for better understanding.
What we need to see is we need to apply one torsional load, torsional unit load in the direction of
in the direction where the theta is increasing and accordingly we can find out whether it is what
is the value of Phi or the end rotation. So, for the rotation of end A and unit torque is applied at
the end bending and torsion due to external load T.
This we have already found out for the external load P the other load is the most interesting in
this part of example that is moment and torsion due to unit torque applied for the indicated
rotation R. Now you see we are applying this unit torque why it is in this direction because this is
tangentially tangential here and this is coming from bottom to the up from it comes from bottom
to the and that is the reason following right hand screw system this is the vector.
Now this vector is applied here as it will go further these two components will change following
this arc. If we one component will create a bending and the other component will create the
torsion or induce the torsion. So, if this is in two separate colors are used here if we make a
component this way this is this is the bending component. And this bending component is a
increasing the deflection downward and if it is increasing the deflection downward that
component will be this is one this component is one sine theta because see as we as we increase
this is increasing.
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So this angle is the theta, this is theta so if that is increasing so this component bending
component is a sine theta and the torsion component is cos theta. So, the bending component one
unit torque and sine theta that is M 1 is acting there and cos theta is the component fine one is
then magnitude of the force is fine but wise minus that minus is because you see this is the way it
is applied this is actually in the opposite direction it is acting opposite to the other torque that
means the torque.
The way we have considered previously in the previous example it is acting opposite to that and
that is the reason it has been considered as minus, so in this sense we can see that this point will
go up because of this torsion this point will go up because as I said as I repeat this is coming
going down and then coming up. So, that is the reason minus has come here and accordingly we
have put those values P R 1 minus cos theta multiplied by minus cos theta Rd theta and this is the
bending moment part and then if we integrate we get the value of Phi.
Phi of is in this direction considering this is positive while it is rotating this way if this total value
is positive we will be considering that this is rotating this way. So, PR square PI by 4 EI - PR
square by GJ 1 minus PI by 4 is the rotation value. So, with this solving 3 examples we conclude
today's lecture the examples are very good.
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You may solve the same examples references for this is similar to or same as we have done
previously and with this we come to the end of the lecture slide today and thank you for
attending this lecture. We will move forward for the next lecture, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -20
Castigliano's Theorems
Engineering IIT Kharagpur. We are in continuation of the week 4 lectures in that series in the
total sequence the lecture number is 20 we will learn Castigliano's theorem today that is very,
very popular and this is sometimes it is said it is a variation of the different energy methods only.
But let us we will try to establish the equation first and then we will solve a few example.
Before we start anything as usual we are supposed to recapitulate things. In this recapitulation we
have done history of aircraft and aerospace structural analysis, various types of external loads
conceptual structural details flight envelope and load factor. We have done shear and moment on
wing and fuselage of an aircraft has also been covered. We have also done truss plane truss and
also space truss or the space structures we have solved.
And in last three lectures we have considered with many examples dummy load method and unit
load method. And in this week class will or this lecture we will try to understand or solve the
series sorry Castigliano's theorem and let us start that.
271
So, Castigliano's theorem is the main topic let us try to cover.

So, Castigliano's theorem let us try to establish first, we are considering again one bar axially
loaded by P of length A sorry length L and cross section A, just load deflection curve is shown
here. Now the strain energy for a linear elastic body strain energy is equal to half P Delta strain
energy per unit volume we did not really define as half of Sigma into Epsilon and if we put those
values of half Sigma and epsilon that gives us the value as it goes to P Square L by A twice A
considering application of two loads P 1 and P 2 one after another.
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We may have three different scenario in one first case that P 1 is applied first P 2 next P 2 is
applied first P 1 next and in the last case both are applied simultaneously. So, let us see how the
energy changes or how what is the net amount of energy and what is the relation between those
energies. So, in the first case let us say it is a, P 1 first P 2 second. So, P 1 first means half of P 1
Delta 1 P 2 comes next because of that the displacement is Delta 2 that is half P 2 Delta 2 but P 1
remains in the system that is the reason work done is done by that P 1 is equals to P 1 Delta.
Similarly if we go for the second one the P 2 first and P 1 second half P 2 Delta 2 for the first
half P 1 Delta 1 for the second one and then P 2 remains that is why P 2 and the second
displacement is Delta 1. Similarly if we go for the second necessary loads acting simultaneously
that means P 1 plus P 2 is creating a displacement Delta 1 plus Delta 2 this scenario is depicted
here in this with Delta 1 P 1 corresponding to Delta 1 P 2 corresponding to Delta 2 the sequence
is not shown there may be more many figures for that but I think these are easy and usually you
can guess it.
So to do that you multiply those quantities and we see that behalf of P 1 Delta 1 plus half of P 2
Delta 2 plus half of P 1 Delta 1 plus P 2 Delta 1 we get the total load. Now since we have a
relation between the displacement and the applied load Delta 1 is equals to P L by AE Delta 1 is
equals to P 1 L by AE Delta 2 is equals to P 2 L by AE from this relation we can easily find that
that Delta 1 by P 1 is equals to Delta 2 by P 2.
Now if we use this relation if we do simple there were a little bit with this 3E relation you can
easily prove that you may consider that as a home assignment is it you can easily prove that this
is the U a U b and U c are the same that means the sequence is not important while we apply the
load. Strain energy does not depend on the order on which loads are applied.
273
Consider a homogeneous isotropic linear elastic body in equilibrium under the action of external
forces P 1 P 2 and so on as P n. When these loads act on the body they will do external work and
some strain energy say U is stored in the body. Now let the load P n be increased by an amount
Delta P n this is important. The strain energy will increase and hence the total final strain energy
will become U because of those what is stated here and plus because of Delta P n.
And Delta P n is multiplied by the change rate of change due to Delta P n, P n that is the reason
the del U Delta P n is the gradient multiplied by the Delta P n. So, if we reverse the order as we
have done in the previous case of application of the load that is if we apply Delta P and first and
then the loads P 1 P 2 to P n, the final energy will remain unchanged that we have already
proved. Let the deflection of the body in the direction of P n when Delta P n is applied is equals
to Delta n small Delta or variation small variation of Delta of capital Delta.
Applying the load in reverse order what do we have following the previous concept what we
have done that this is half of Delta P n Delta n and this is because the Delta n is created by the
inset of loads and that increases this and they energy you what we are not explicitly writing it
because this was existing this is coming extra where Delta n is the deflection on that P n. Now
neglecting the small terms that means this particular term this is very, very small both are very,
very small amount and if we neglect that so you F is equals to Delta P n capital Delta n plus U is
equals to this one because in the previous case energy is this.
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And that leads to that capital Delta n is equals to del U by P n where U is the strain energy in
equilibrium configuration. The deflection of any elastic this is known as the Castigliano’s second
theorem we will see the theorems in the next slide. The deflection of any elastic structure in the
direction of load acting on it is equal to the partial derivative of the total strain energy with
respect to the load.
So, the second theorem as let us read first then we will read the first one del U by del qi the
partial derivative of the complementary strain energy with respect to any independent
generalized force Qi is equal to the generalized displacement small Qi located at the force qi and
in the direction Qi. So, these two things are very, very important located at the force Qi and in
the direction Qi.
So, with that it is better to see and this because we consider why do we say the statement with
respect to complementary energy first because we have seen in the first lecture of this week at
this model that if the relationship is is not linear it is not linear elastic the derivation partial
derivation of complementary energy gives the displacement not the strain energy. So, that is the
reason we say that first and then for a linear elastic body as it is mentioned here we can consider
that del U del Q capital Q i is equals to small qi displacement in the ith position in the direction
of applied load Q i is small qi.
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So following that things we can also prove in a different way that is not in the scope of the study
so we may refer advanced books for this but let us learn that first theorem del U del Qi is equals
to small qi or the derivation with respect to the displacement gives as the force. For a stable
system the partial derivative of strain energy with respect to any independent generalized
displacement qi is equal to the generalized force Qi located at the displacement qi and in the
direction of qi.
So with this it is just opposite to that so it is easy to remember the first theorem. Now it is an
important point to note here that the dummy load method and unit load methods are special
method for solving deflection analysis problems and they follow identically the Castigliano's
theorem. So, we this note if you look at it if you solve the problems carefully if you look at it in
many times you will understand you will have the idea that these methods are not much different
but it is some variation of one is the some variation of the other.
So, let us solve a problem but the problem is again a cantilever beam. In the cantilever beam
there are two loads applied at the tip. One is vertically upward P and a moment n. So, it is asked
that that what is the vertical deflection of Point A as well as what is the slope at that point. Since
M is there and since P is present there we need not to apply any dummy load or unit load we if
we consider derivative with respect to P or the energy we will get the vertical deflection.
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If we consider a partial derivative with respect to the M we will get that slope. So, that is in this
example is not very tough it is the easy to understand and it explains the method very well but
what I would suggest that in the last three lectures whatever problems we have solved using
dummy load method and unit load method you better try to solve those methods using
Castigliano's theorem.
Let us solve this one again this as I have mentioned at any section as it is given here a section
which is x apart, x is measured from this portion the moment is this P x and M and it is simply
that U is M square by 2 EI for deflection what we have done we have considered as I mentioned
for deflection it is vertical upward deflection and in that direction P is applied so there is no
problem we are simply directly con considering derivative of partial derivative of that energy and
we get that 1 by E I equals to 0 to L Mx del Mx del P dx.
So while we while we substitute this values M x P x is the derivative value this x and this is Mx
and then if we integrate it we get that PL cube by tri EI and Ml square by twice EI is the
deflection. So, if we solve without the M we generally get this value and this is the contribution
of M that is quite clear. So, for the slope before we go for the slope better we try to draw it. So,
this is the slope we are trying to find out and this is the deflection what we are trying to find out
and then we see what is done here.
Then to obtain the slope at the end we calculate the partial derivative of the strain energy with
respect to the couple M which keeps theta equals to del U del M and M x del M del M x del M is
there and that gives us since this is there is only one will come so no point nothing is mentioned
yet only a Mx is present here and that is integrated and it gives that L square by 2 PL square by
twice EI Ml by EI.
So with that example we conclude today's lecture of Castigliano's theorem and as I have
suggested already you please better try to solve the other problems what are covered in the last
examples in last lectures to solve these equations.
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So, next slide is a simple repetition of the references.
And after that we have one slide what we have learnt today that is Castigliano’s theorem that
also comes in the energy method and we will follow in next class the Rayleigh Ritz method and I
thank you for attending this class the next class we will learn the Rayleigh Ritz method, thank
you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -21
Rayleigh - Ritz Method
So, welcome back to aircraft structures course aircraft structures one this is professor Anup
Ghosh from Aerospace Engineering IIT, Kharagpur. We are in the 4th week lecture series and
that is why the module 4 and the lecture in sequence is 21. We will get introduced to the method
Rayleigh-Ritz method. Rayleigh-Ritz method is really very, very important it is difficult to say
how important it is. It is important because probably these lays down the process of approximate
analysis and as a whole it lays down the process of computer based numerical methods.
So as such you would not find any link to those methods most popularly known as in structural
or solid mechanics as finite element method. But it has correlations it will you will get
introduced to it slowly as far as I can I will try to give you those glimpses at this stage it is
difficult to discuss those things but I will try my best to give you those introduction. So, with that
idea we will we will try to cover the Rayleigh method with one small example.
So let us proceed with the next slide which is as usual a recapitulation slide. In this slide what we
see is that we have already covered aircraft and aerospace structures analysis history of those we
279
have covered various types of external loads, conceptual structural details. We have covered the
flight envelope and load factor, how the flight does the fight envelop looks like and why it is so
and how the load factor varies.
We have seen with examples shear and movement coming to wing and fuselage considering a
typical example. We have seen truss and truss in the sensor it comes always plane truss but we
have seen also space truss or space structures. And we have solved a few examples related to that
especially the landing gear problems and then we got introduced to energy methods. And in that
sequence we have already done a dummy load or unit load method and unit load method and
Castigliano's theorem. Today we will do the Rayleigh-Ritz method.
So in the Rayleigh-Ritz method it is better to understand that it is an approximate method.

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First keeping in mind that idea let us try to understand it is it is a very brief way explained. It is
explained or discussed as brief as it can be because it is getting introduced for the first time.
There are big books on these methods to do as we have already discussed that these and some
other methods like the variational principle along with this method lays down the probably the
first step for the numerical analysis procedure in terms of say structural analysis or solid
mechanics problems or for fluid mechanics problems or for any other numerical analysis
depending on the magnetism or other physics problems.
So let us see try to understand each and every word of what is said here. So, the method
approximates the continuum it is a continuous system where continuity of all the variables what
we are considering that is persisting by a system with a finite number of degrees of freedom this
says a lot as I said so in we will discuss always in purview of solid mechanics structural analysis.
So, what we are considering that a structure which is as such as having a continuity or it is a
continuum is broken down to finite number of degrees of freedom.
In our solid mechanics we consider the degrees of freedom as displacements and in general we
need to define those displacements as functions and we need to carry out those. So, that is the
first step it says that it is an approximate method because it is getting divided in finite numbers of
degrees of freedom it is not a continuous one. Thus the solutions of the differential equations of
equilibrium are approximated by a system of simultaneous algebraic equations.
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So that is what as I was discussing these degrees of freedom there may be many or may be
repetition for considering small parts but though it is repetition for different boundary conditions
it will give different values and definitely it will be easier to get simultaneous algebraic
equations and we need to solve those simultaneous algebraic equations to find out the
approximate solution.
The method is particularly useful for statically indeterminate problems in which an exact
solution is often intractable. So, it is it is especially means it can it has a capability of solving
indeterminate problem because the solution approach does not take care of whether it is a
determinant or indeterminate problem in bigger senses while you will be using this you will find
that the all the problems what in general we solve for practical purpose those are indeterminate
problem statically indeterminate problem.
So from the principle of minimum potential energy functional the equilibrium is given by this
capital PI shows that the total potential energy and it also says that a variation of it or a small
change if I do not talk about in mathematical terms in physical terms if we talk about see by
some means if we consider a small change of the functional here the total potential energy. So,
that remains that leads to a value of 0 and that that is the fundamental equation and we need as
we have already introduced finite number of degrees of freedom and it will lead to simultaneous
equation.
This equation will lead to these segmentalian equations considering depending upon the degrees
of freedom we choose and how do we choose. The problem remains how the degrees of freedom
describes the problem properly and that is the way we get the solution we will consider this. In
this lecture and also in the lecture followed by this two problems one in this lecture other one in
the followed problem you will find depending upon the assumption of the degrees of freedom of
variable description it depends the accuracy though for there are limitations for hand calculations
so we will find approximate solutions.
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Or if PI is a function of n generalized displacements qi as I have already mentioned here the
degrees of freedom or displacements as it is mentioned then PI may be expressed as function of
qi to q 2 to q n and then this is nothing but with respect to each and every displacement variable
we are considering variation or in mathematical terms we say that it is the partial derivative with
respect to that particular displacement and each and every particular partial derivative equation
will lead to one equation.
So we will get n equations that is what is said simultaneous algebraic equations we will get and if
we solve those n equations we can find out some approximate solution and we get benefited by
this. So, let us move forward it is one more definition of the system in a little bit different way let
us try to see what is that definition.
So, a general linear deformable system can be described by displacement u x y z, v x y z and w x

y z which must satisfy the compatibility equilibrium and boundary conditions. Compatibility,
what is compatibility probably were not introduced that way compatibility is that while we are
considering this variable from one segment to the other it must maintain the relation between
these.
So the strain has to be compatible or otherwise it will show the property of continuum.
Equilibrium, definitely it has to maintain a equilibrium. Equilibrium equations we will do in the
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fifth week class. So, compatibility probably is covered in the sixth week class and boundary
conditions in Rayleigh-Ritz method definitely boundary condition has to be satisfied in
Rayleigh-Ritz method we write the displacements as u a i f i summation of i 1 to n summation of
i equals to 1 to n a i f i x y z g i x y z where the coefficient is b i here the coefficient is c i and we
define w.
So actually w which is anyone say w is function of x y z we also define that that is an equation
where we have one more coefficient c i and the function and a function h i which is also a
function of x y z where f i, g i and h i functions of x y z are assumed a priory. This plays a very,
very important role we need to have an idea what type of function we should assume for f g and
h it depends on the problem.
This is the key of the approximate method, infinite element analysis this is conforming I should
not say exactly it is conforming or similar probably to the shape functions of an element. So, like
that we need to assume this a priory because we need to know what problem we are going to
solve is it a displacement problem, it is a stress problem or some other property we are going to
solve.
So depending on that we need to consider and not only that what degree of accuracy we want to
consider whether it is linear which is non-linear depending on all those things this compatibility
equilibrium and boundary conditions will change and accordingly these functions will change.
So, this function play a big role in that they must satisfy kinematic or geometric boundary
condition but not necessarily the stress boundary condition.
So it has to satisfy the kinematic boundary condition and but it is not always necessary to satisfy
the stress boundary condition but it is sometimes desirable to solve to maintain that a i b i c i are
coefficients that we need to find out otherwise the functions we are saying assuming. So, the
unknowns are a i b i c i only so we need to find out those. So, what we are considering again
variation we are considering of the total potential energy and that gives us three partial
differential segments in this equations which are del PI del a i del PI del b i del PI del c i then
assuming that a i b i c i are linearly independent variables.
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It concludes that that then the above equation is satisfied if and only if individually these are zero
so that gives us n equations, n equations and n equations. So, we have three n equations we have
three n unknowns as we have done and this simultaneous equations algebraic equations we are
supposed to solve and we are supposed to find out but see for hand calculation it is not possible
to solve that is the reason we will solve small problems probably considering one or two
variables but principally it is the same.
So for a set of linearly independent simultaneous equation that can be solved for a i, b i and c i
there. So, let us move for the example and try to understand how this method has been applied.
Example statically determinate problem: This problem is quite known problem you have you can
easily solve this problem using the methods what we have already described. Those are like
Castigliano's principle or unit load method, dummy load method all those things are
complementary energy function derivative method all those things you can easily do. So, the
boundary conditions are w 0 equals to 0 and w l is also equals to 0 that means we are supposed to
assume the function w such that at this point it is equals to 0 as well as at this point it is equals to
0.
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The w x is supposed to be like something like this and it also has to satisfy the moment boundary
condition here that is the M 0 is equals to 0 and M l is equals to 0 as we know that double
derivative of w with respect to the x as it is said from the center line sorry from the center line
the EI del 2 w del x square is equals to 0 following this and following this we get that this is that
is also equals to 0. So, we need to assume w such that it satisfies all these 4 boundary conditions
these two as well as these two.
So now we are assuming it it requires some experience do not think that it may be assumed with
two days practice or maybe one years experience of solving problem so the problem is assumed
w x sorry the solution or that displacement function is assumed as w x equals to summation of i
equals to 1 to n a i sin i PI x by L. So, sin function is quite it matches well let us see how good
how good is our approximation to the exact solution it satisfies boundary conditions.
The potential energy total potential energy is PI is equals to U plus V. And U what we have
already seen this one, so that has to be its simple derivation is considered here and from 0 to L as
usual from 0 to L it is integrated and or square all those things I hope that you will be able to
carry out this and finally we get the strain energy as U is equals to L EI by 4 summation i equals
to 1 to n i pi by L whole to the power 4 a i square.
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Potential energy PE of the external load in the deflected equilibrium is V. So, we need to find out
that portion also the portion V of the total potential energy so that comes definitely minus of load
into displacement that is what is given here P 0 x the uniformly distributed load and the
displacement function w x what we have considered. So, it is integrated that way it is written the
same way it is written twice just to avoid confusion and then integration is carried out that gives
us that V is equals to minus of 2L by PI P 0 a i by L sum summed up over 1 to n for i equal value
of 1 to n.
And then the total potential energy partial derivative with a i is considered if we consider with
respect to a i this is this portion as well as a i is partial derivative is considered so and the
previous one if we consider it if you step jumps are there you can easily get that I guess, so
summing up of U and V and taking the partial derivative with a i gives us this relation and that is
equals to 0 and this gives us that a i is equals to 4 P 0 L to the power 4 divided by PI to the power
5 i to the power 5 EI.
And then once we have the value of a i the a priori assumed displacement function w, w x is
equals to 4 P 0 L to the power 4 divided by PI to the power 5 EI summation over i equals to 1 to
n and 1 by i to the power 5 sin i PI x by L. The convergence of the above series is rapid you can
easily test it probably by this time you have requires some skill of numerical or coding you can
easily do a coding to find out how first it get converges so that you can easily do.
But in this work what we have considered only consider the first term and if we consider the first
term what we have at L by 2 putting the value of x equals to L by 2 we have the deflection
central reflection here as 0.0131 P 0 L to the power 4 by EI and you please note that this is the
exact value 0.0130 which is nothing but 5 by 384 P 0 L to the power 4 by EI. So, with the first
term only it is quite accurate right.
So with other terms you can easily check how quickly it converges and how accurately we get
the solution this point it is good to note that since our a priori assumption of w x y is very, very
close to the actual deflection curve this curve is a sine curve that is the reason we are able to able
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to get almost the exact solution with first term only. So, it depends on the assumption of the basic
variable what we are considering or assuming and that way it depends on the solution.
So, with this I hope a very, very important method in solid mechanics is introduced Rayleigh
method you may have a look in detail in some from some advanced books definitely will get
enlightened and you will learn a lot.
So we proceed further with to the standard reference page.

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And from there we come to the conclusion page the energy methods of structural analysis and
the Rayleigh-Ritz method we have discussed here. Hope you have understood to some extent for
further things you please refer to the advanced books basically for those analysis. And thank you
for attending this particular lecture we will proceed further for indeterminate problem solving,
thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -22
Statically Indeterminate Structures
So, welcome back to aircraft structures one course this is Professor Anup Ghosh from Aerospace
Engineering department of IIT kharagpur. We are at the last lecture of fourth week or module 4
in series the lecture number is 22, we will solve a few problem of statically indeterminate
structures. In this problem solving will be you following you may say the complementary energy
method stationary problem or say Castigliano's theorem method or and we will solve using
dummy load method and we also will be solving one example with Rayleigh-Ritz method.
So all these methods are already introduced to you and we will will see how those methods are
applied for problem solving in indeterminate structures. As a recapitulation already we have
covered many things history of aircraft and solid mechanics or structural analysis, various types
of external loads experienced by the aircraft structures, flight envelope, the value of n how it
varies the load factor. We have considered we have seen how the moment varies on wing or on
fuselage because of the load for a typical example we have solved.
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We in energy methods we have solved various methods as it is listed during this week in the last
few lectures that is dummy load method, unit load method, Castigliano's theorem and Rayleigh-
Ritz method.
So, now we will proceed further to solve the indeterminate structures.

In indeterminate structures our first example is a very, very simple truss example this truss
example is first thing we should see that it is in an indeterminate structure and how it is
indeterminate and how can we take care of the indeterminancy. Statically determinate structure
this truss there are two truss members this thing is repeated I think twice even then there is no
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harm in repeating because this very easy questions are frequently asked m + 3 equals to 2 j is the
statically determinate internally m is the number of members 3 is the reactions external reactions
and 2j number of joints multiplied by 2.
If it is greater than the net indeterminate if it is less it is unstable structure. So, where m is the
number of members 3 is the externally unknown reactions and j is the number of joints.
Following this formula here m is equals to 6 j is equals to 4, 1 2 3 4 5 6, 1 2 3 4 number of
indeterminancy is 6 + 3 - 8 is equals to 1, 3 is because it is a plane truss we have equations 3
equations equilibrium equations and then it gives us that there is only one internal indeterminacy.
So in that sense if we remove either this diagonal or this diagonal this structure remains stable
but it becomes determinate structure. Somebody may ask why not this or this maybe this one is
possible to remove but this one if we remove that then also it is possible but it depends on your
ease of work how do you want to proceed. So, in this particular example we will we will remove
this diagonal and we will assume that it is a tension force acting in that member of magnitude R.
Let BD be the redundant member R is the tensile force in the member BD due to external R is
the tensile force in the member BD due to external load. The total complementary energy PI c as
we have done many times that is individual force and the variation of the force, if we integrate
that lambda i dF i from 0 to a F i equals to 1 to k minus this is the external energy induced into it
so that complementary energy what we have is for equilibrium of total complementary energy
has a stationary value.
If we consider with respect to the R variation and we get the equation this way and where lambda
is equals real equation of or contraction of ith member due to the external load and that gives us
the equation in this form 1 by AE i equals to 1 to k F i L i del F i del R equals to 0.
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So with that understanding following the procedure of tables solving this type of problems truss
problems we are quite familiar with the process what we will do? We will try to find out the
deflection in that particular or the equation in that particular member as it is given in the previous
page. So, the component F del F del R and F L del F del R all these components are calculated
and what do we have is that this is this loads you can easily find out.
I have not elaborated those loads how do you find out removing considering the member force R
and external force P better you solve the problem that portion is kept here if we solve the
problem it becomes that for AB which is of length L is minus R by root 2 and it goes
sequentially for different members there is no point of reading each and every members member
forces but the point to note that it is this column is derivative partial derivative with respect to the
R.
So this gives minus 1 by root 2 - 1 by root 2 - 1 by root 2 - 1 by root 2 this is 1 because R is

coefficient 1 here also it is 1 and then we do this multiplication and do the summation of all these
columns and that leads to that 4.83 RL + 2.707 PL is equals to 0 and from there we get the value
of R again one more job is left for you to do. You can have one more column here if we
substitute the value of R you can easily find out the forces in this member.
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So the redundant force is first found out that is minus of 0.56 P we assume tension it has become
a compression because it is minus. So, substituting sun of r value in column F will result in to the
force forces in all the members. Hope you will complete this problem let us proceed for the next
problem to solve.
This is an one more example of indeterminate structure here we will be following unit load
method. It is a cantilever beam but there are two supports at one at an two at one at and two
which is uniformly under uniformly distributed load P 0. This one and two are equidistant apart
that is L by 2 and L by 2 and since there are roller supports only vertical reactions are to be
considered. So, the total number of unknowns here are 5, 3 here though we do not have any force
in the x direction but we have that equation we have that unknowns.
If we have some inclined force then they definitely x will become the unknown. So, there are 5
unknowns and the indeterminacy if we see in that sense the number of indeterminacy is 2
because we have 5 unknowns. The above structure is an externally indeterminate structure
externally please note it previous things whatever we were discussing all those were internally
indeterminate structure. This is externally because from support point of view from stability or
external equilibrium point of view it has more than the necessary support.
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From the available global equilibrium equations sum of M equals to 0, sum of x F x equals to 0
sum of F y equals to 0 is not it is not possible to determine 5 reactions. Let us assume the two
redundant reaction forces are the two vertical support reactions at 1 and 2. These are the two
redundant forces, so redundant density is that indeterminate and redundancy this term is also
used sometime.
Redundant supports are those supports if we remove those supports after removal of the support
salsa structures remains externally stable. While we remove the supports the displacements of
those points do not change that has to be maintained. Two displacement boundary conditions for
the problems are delta 1 and delta 2, delta 1 is here delta 2 is here is equals to 0. Let us try to
solve the problem using in unit load method.
We need to find out moments at any cross section also because sorry we need to find out moment
at any cross section. So, let M 0 x is moment at any section due to imposed loads and reactions R
1 and R 2 are considered there. So, this is what M 0 is calculated while we are considering that R
1 is present R 2 are present instead of considering those as supports we are saying that those are
some loads support reaction loads are applied and we are supposed to find out the M 0 x, M
naught x.
And M 1 is the moment due to the unit load applied to find out the deflection let us see how do
we proceed with help of figure.
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As we have mentioned in the previous one M 0 x and M 1 x already we have mentioned. So, we
if we refer to this figure if we consider a section here the moment is equals to R 1 multiplied by x
that is what is there minus of it and it is considered this way minus and the other way the P 0 the
uniformly distributed load comes in this direction and that is considered plus so P 0 x square by 2
is that load, so it is from here to here we calculate the moment.
And then for the M 0 x the limit for here from here to here that is L by 2 to L we have one more
force R 2 that is what this is added by this R 2 but here the effective length is different x - L by 2
is put there. So, moment is found out for R 1 and R 2 we need to find out moment for unit loads
and we need to form equations and we need to solve. There are two unknowns R 1 and R 2, so
we need to at least have two equations to solve it.
So this is the first case we are considering all other loads are removed only unit load one is
applied at the tip and because of that moment is very simple it is minus x wherever you go it is
minus x increases with x from 0 to L and then it is M 0 M 1 with two limits it is put I can
meticulously put that this is brought down here minus x is there and then again minus x and this
is what down here and we need to carry out the integration hope this simple integration you can
carry out easily.
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So, if we carry out the integration we get the first equation involving R 1 and R 2 delta 1 is
equals to 0 we can put here or we can put later in this process delta this equation is equated to 0
later. We need to have one more equation. So, for that this is the second figure here all other
loads are removed only unit load is applied at position two and for that this is there is no moment
that is what it is equals to 0 and M 1 x is equals to - x + L by 2.
So that is what is the moment here and as usual this equation is put in this equation to find out
delta 2 integrated from 0 to L this first portion is 0 there is nothing so this portion becomes 0
only remaining portion is this one and we get the delta 2 is equals to this value.
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So, now we put the boundary condition delta 1 and delta 2 equals to 0 it is written in matrix form
you may not write the matrix forms you can simply solve the equation and if you solve the
equations we get that R 1 is equals to e11 P 0 L by 56 and R 2 equals to 12 P 0 L by 21. To
calculate the rotation at the end one we need to apply that this much is solved so the unknown
forces are known R 1 and R 2 are known.
But one more question has been asked in this problem to solve what is the rotation here it is from
may be some deflection. So it may be a following a deflection line something like that the
rotation here has been also asked what is that value. So, let us try to find out that for that what we
need to do is that we need to apply a unit moment as it is shown here. And for that moment
similarly it is minus 1 for unit moment and we put those values and find out the integration and
we get the solution theta is equals to p 0 L cube by divided by 336 EI.
So it is quite easy way to find out deflections for determinate and indeterminate structure the
indeterminate unit load method you can easily learn that well and apply it for further problem
solving. Let us move forward to the next example.
This is again in one indeterminate problem and we will use the Rayleigh-Ritz method to solve
this. Here as we have already discussed in the previous example the a priori assumed function
displacement function was very close to the exact one that is the reason with only one i equals to
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1 or considering only the first term we get a very, very close solution. Let us see what happens in
this particular case. So, let us try to solve the problem. This is a propped cantilever beam and
under uniformly distributed load find the deflected shape of the beam and the reaction at the
roller support.
P 0 is uniformly distributed load. Let us assume the shape of the deflection is w x equals to a 1 +
a 2 x + a 3 x square + a 4 x square, so it is assumed that the reflection what it is shown here is of
will be following this function so this depends on how accurately we assume this function the
accurate the solution we get. So, let us see the geometrical the geometric boundary conditions are
displacement is 0 at 0 here slope is 0 definitely slope is 0 as I have also tried to draw the slope
zero here and also displacement at this point is also equals to 0.
First the boundary condition this boundary condition if we implement that gives us that a 1 is
equals to 0 because all others are going zero, a 1 is for second boundary condition if we
implement that is the derivative. So, this also will become 0 this is already 0 that gives us this
will become 1 so this a 2 will become 0 and then the third one gives us a relation between a 3
and a 4 and that we have a 3 is equals to - a 4 L.
So if you substitute those values our modified equation becomes w x equals to a 4 x square
multiplied by x – l. So, with that consideration we try to find out let us try to find out the total
potential energy and the total potential energy becomes; to do that the U and V we need to find
out U is found out by integration 0 to l M square by EI and this M is put here a double derivative
of w partial derivative of w and that value we get.
This value hope this small steps you can easily do and after integration we get that U is equals to
twice EI a 4 square L cube and energy due to the externally applied load P 0 - 0 to l integration
we do P 0 w x as usual in the previous case also you have done and if we carry out that
integration we get that P 0 L to the power 4 by 12 multiplied by a 4. Now we are supposed to add
these two and suppose to consider a variation with respect to a 4.
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So to do that what we have done the total potential energy U + V is calculated here and then as I
have said that variation with respect to a 4 or partial derivative of total potential energy has been
found out and with that variation what we have is that if we apply that simple differentiation
partial differentiation if we do it leads to that a 4 equals to minus p0 l by 48 e i and w x becomes
- P 0 L by 48 EI x square multiplied by x – L.
And the shear force if we can are able to find out at this that is nothing but the reaction here that
is why the shear force has been has been found out which is nothing but negative of del M del x
here dM dx, so if we carry out that without M is equals to double derivative of the w function at
x equals to L this steps you please carry out it is considered here x equals to L if we put we get
that shear force here.
The shear force or the reaction here is equals to P 0L by 8. But please note that it is not very
close to the exact solution. This solution is 3 P 0 L by 8 that we can easily find out by unit load
method or any other energy method for indeterminate structure solution. Why it is not matching
that is the reason thing I have tried to discuss it depends on the experience of the engineer who is
analyzing it.
How close do you assume the function with respect to the displacement. If you look back this
function assumption finally this one with boundary condition no way describes this displacement
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closely and that is the reason we are not able to find out the exact solution in this way. So, either
will have to consider the function properly or will have to think of doing experiments to get
some variable or may be longer polynomials will have to take we need to consider other
boundary conditions to find out those solutions and we will have to proceed.
So with all these example we would like to conclude but I have a suggestion to the students that I
have solved many problems with different methods. So, you can apply all the methods to all the
problems and try your solution and check whether the solution is satisfactorily working for the
other methods or not. With that and note let us conclude today’s lectures and we come to the end.
With energy method and inter and also in this lecture we have solved indeterminate problems.
So, thank you for attending this lecture and we will start the theory of elasticity portion in our
next week lecture, thank you for attending.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -23
Theory of Elasticity - Stress
Engineering department IIT, Kharagpur. This is the first lecture of module 5 or week 5 the
number in that series is lecture number 23. We will start theory of elasticity the first lecture
consists of mainly the stress, definition of stress and components of stresses correlation I would
like to put on stress correlations with the previous things we have discussed and accordingly we
will go forward this class is with simple thoughts of how to; what is stress and how does it act
where what are the components we would not go much beyond.
But slowly in the future lectures we will start go into depth we will go into sometimes two
dimensional stress sometimes three dimensional stress considerations will do and accordingly we
will proceed for problem solving with that.
So, the next slide what we see is that usual recapitulation slide. In this slide we have already seen
the history of aircraft solid mechanics structural analysis various types, types of external loads
conceptual structural details. We have seen what is flight envelopes and load factor is. How do
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we need to restrict our design within the flight envelope, shear and movement on wing and
fuselage of an aircraft we have seen how does it act with a typical example we have solved that
those problems.
Unit load methods we have considered then we have gone to the truss and space structures,
especially the space structures we have covered there. We have solved problems with landing
gear interesting problems with landing gear, preliminary studies for landing gears are still done
that way unless you have a facility of advanced computations. But even then many times the way
it has been analyzed considering axially loaded members the same way it is still solved for the
first iteration.
Then in detail design there are many other ways to do more detail CAD drawings are prepared
and accordingly boundary conditions are put to find out things that is also true in case of
movement and wing moments on wing and fuselage. But whatever we do you better note down
that the thing what we will be learning today that you are already introduced with the stress,
components of stress in most of the cases you have solved problems in two dimension.
But our approach mainly is three dimension in some of the cases where three dimensional
approach is too complicated it is difficult to give you a proper understanding. On those cases we
will go for the two dimensional analysis and we will see how stresses are acting on a body what
are the components, how does it act where and how does it act? All that is the main aim of this
we will try to see some examples.
We will try to see how the stresses may act and we want to concentrate more about deflection
what we have already covered in this the last bullet as you see here that dummy load, unit load
energy methods that is the dummy load consisting of dummy load, unit load, Castigliano's
theorem, Rayleigh-Ritz method all those comes under energy method. In Rayleigh-Ritz also we
have considered energy it is not always the energy sometimes some other functional is also used
but predominantly energy is considered.
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But those things are not related to stress first of all better too note that in most of the cases we
have found out the deflection. Deflection also is a design criteria it is not that only stresses are
the predominant thing which we need to monitor. Say one good example I understand is that just
try to visualize the wing of an aircraft and say during takeoff it is in most of the cases the civil
aircrafts are are made such that the fuel is stored inside the wing.
And say if the fuel is stored inside the wing in that case the wing will definitely bend down. Now
if the clearance is not proper the engine may start the ground or the clearance distance may
reduce so that may create many other problems. So, deflection plays a big role not only that say
when it is airborne the lift is acting upward on the wing and because of that it changes the normal
angle of attack.
So in the deflected position what is the changed angle of attack that is also important so in that
way deflection is important. We will see how stress is important we have solved some problems
in our mechanics related to stakes sorry stress. In your in your previous courses they are
probably you have covered the course of mechanics engineering mechanics and there you have
covered stresses but will re look into it will try to see what are the stresses how does it act.
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So with those notes initial nodes we will go further to see what is stress how does it act? With
those introduction to stress that is the reason we say we are starting the topic introduction to
stress and we will go further.
In this if we see definition and notation of stress this is the main topic in one or two slides we
will be covering. What we are considering here that an arbitrary separate body subjected to
externally external applied forces P 1 to P n here it is up to shown P 5 it may be considered that it
is up to P 5. And what we are considering that inside it is not that this surface is perpendicular to
this vector this delta the surface what is shown at O consisting of area delta A is perpendicular to
delta P.
But what we are considering here that because of these external loads P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5 there is
a resultant force acting which is delta P and that delta P is acting inside the body on the surface
delta A which is located at O. So, for balance definitely there is one more force acting there if we
separate it out both will act to the two directions that is what is shown here. If we consider the
lower body and if we talk show that delta P is acting this way it has two components delta P n
and delta P s.
This delta P n whenever this subscript n is there we consider that, that is in the direction to the
normal to that surface n goes for normal to that surface and s is tangential to that surface delta s
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is tangential to that surface that is the reason we have two components of delta P one is delta P n
and the other is delta P s. So, these two forces are acting on this area delta A. So, delta P
resultant force on delta A in the plane n-n stress this is the definition of stress please note that
stress is equals to limit delta A tends to tends to 0 del P by del A.
So from the definition of limit you have already learned in mathematics what we get that that is
equals to the stress we denote that by sigma. So, if that is the stress sigma and what we see now
as we have already considered that the vector delta P is resolved to two components delta P n and
delta P s and it is in the direction normal to the surface it is in the direction tangent to the surface
that we have written here.
We have written that normal components plus tangential component normal or direct stress will
be there in the next slide. But before that let us consider an example of simply supported beam
where we have a central load of P acting downward as P and the length of the beam we consider
that is equals to L. So, at this we have reactions P by 2 we have reaction P by 2 and if we talk
about the bending moment diagram, bending moment diagram will be P by 2 multiplied by L by
2 is the this amplitude.
And this will become equals to PL by 4 and shear force if we talk about that will be oh sorry like
this so what I want to mean with this example is that at any section if we consider this section
and if we talk about if it is a rectangular cross section what are the forces we have we have
bending moment say this is what is acting. So, on these we have external bending moment acting
like this as well as we have shear force acting like this or in may be the other way direction is not
important thing what we are considering now.
But what I want to mean that because of this there is a shear force acting in this plane as well as
we have normal forces acting on this half as may be tension here and other half it may be
compression. If it is pass this way the other half is this way. So, this way it will create a
combination of stresses which we need to find out. So, like that this body is considered as a
simplest way the stress is what is acting there and accordingly we are trying to define the stress
considering a simple force system.
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So let us move forward. So, what we have here is that normal or direct stress sigma n n is equals
to delta P n by delta L let me delta a tends to 0 and sigma int sometimes tau n t is also used sigma
and tau is freely used in this case but sometimes when not mentioned sigma is the normal stress
and tau is the shear stress but it is not a very, very necessary rule sometimes both are used for
showing normal as well as shear stress.
So let stress in give is given by sigma ab or tau ab the first subscript a denotes the normal to the
plane so like that here if we talk about on which the stress is acting, so if we bring back the
example of the beam and if we consider this is the axis x it is supported something like this and if
we consider a rectangular cross section of the beam in that case the normal stress acting here will
be sigma x, x and the shear stress if we consider this is y this will be shear stress tau xy it is on x
plane in the y direction.
So that is what is stated here the first subscript a denotes the normal to the plane on which the
stress is acting the second subscript b denotes the direction of the stress x is on which plane it is
acting y is along which direction it is acting. Sigma n n following that sigma n n is a stress
normal stress acting on a plane denoted by its normal n some computer problem in the direction
of the normal and sigma nt is the stress or shear stress acting on the plane denoted by the
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normal’s in the transverse direction of the normal acting on the transverse direction of the normal
or along the plane.
So repeatedly we have said probably you do not have any more confusion about it. So, according
to the coordinate assumption of coordinate axis if we go for x y z axis considering say this is x
this is y and this is z we will be following right hand screw system. So, following that x y and z
is this way we can have different such components as it is shown in case of beam considering
only the cross section of the beam as rectangular cross section we have two components.
But if the if the beam is loaded also transverse direction say something this way from this
direction from the from me towards the board or from the board towards the me that means the j
in z direction then definitely there will be components in that z direction and other forces also
will come. So, those things we need to keep it in mind. These stresses also will vary depending
on the type of material we are considering.
It is not that always the sigma x remains same way it depends on the loading it depends on the
type of material whether the material is isotropic or not whether the material is composite or two
different materials put together that type of beam or not or beam is the common example you
have come across that is the reason we are i am trying to give you example of beam again and
again.
So, following that there may be many other components the components total number of
components what we may get we will see. So, it may be observed that while the subscripts are
the same that is a equals to b it is denoting a normal stress and while a is not equals to b it is a
shear stress resultant stress as usual from vector rule what you say is amplitude is that sigma n n
square plus tau nt square root of that those two sum of those two squares.
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Now we come to the state of stress at uniform stress condition. So, this is something better to
note that uniform stress condition. Uniform stretch condition is difficult to prevail in practical
cases. So, one example we may think at present some practical example is that say we have a
cantilever beam and we have a projection something like this and one load is applied at the tip
say P.
So in this particular case what will happen this may be replaced as a beam having whatever the
length is say if this is the length l then this is a moment Pl and one axial force P. Now any cross
section if we talk about of this is it is a rectangular cross section and as we have already
mentioned there is a variation of stress due to the bending but this is there is no change of
bending moment Pl throughout the length of the beam and that remains same for the total length
of the beam.
So that is a kind of uniform stress condition for the total structure we may talk about and in this
particular slide or in the next slide we will consider that there is no change of stress at for that for
the shake of definition. So, with that thing keeping in mind that thing this is one example how a
material or structure may be stressed where the stresses are uniform is very rare it does not
happen in general we need to think a lot to find out this type of case.
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Now what we are trying to do we are considering any point save of the beam for this particular
case beam and in this beam definitely if we consider this beam a point this point is inside this
beam then definitely we would not have all the stress components as it is shown here. So we
need to think about a structure which is loaded from all possible sides and inside that we are
considering a point and that point is drawn as a cuboid as shown here.
Now let us see about sign conventions and the force stresses acts on that particular point. So, if
the outer normal to the plane is along the positive coordinate direction out turn normal say this
normal in the positive coordinate direction and the direction of the stress component is also in the
positive direction, direction of this also in the positive direction. This stress is positive stress so
otherwise it is negative.
So what it is trying to say that if the normal is if I draw a normal on this particular plane say this
plane that will definitely in this direction if that direction is matching with this direction as well
as if the stress is also acting say stress is also acting but stress is also acting in the same direction
then we are cons saying that that is equals to positive stress. So, similar way this tau xy is also in
case of shear it is acting in this y direction and acting on the plane which is a shown by a positive
normal.
So this is positive this is also positive this is also positive so with that consideration if we look at
that sigma x in this particular xx is positive tau xy acting on the plane x in the direction y tau xz
acting on the plane x in the direction z as it is shown here is that if the outer normal to the plane
is along the negative coordinate direction and the direction of the stress is also in the negative
direction coordinate direction this stress is positive stress.
So on the positive we have shown one more way the stress may be positive that way we need to
consider this one, this component of stress. What is it says that normal to the plane is along the
negative direction this is the negative direction negative x direction and the direction of the
stress, stress is also in the negative direction. Direction of the stress that is this one is also on the
negative direction.
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So in that case we consider that sigma or the stress as positive stress. So, this is also positive
stress this is also positive stress otherwise it is negative stress. So, in that way if we talk about we
consider there are how many components we may think of we can think of that there are three
orthogonal planes that is we can say x plane y plane z plane each are having three components.
So, we have 9 components of stresses, so with this 9 component of stresses the possible types of
stresses possible variation of stresses and how do they act is to some extent defined.
So to note again let let me briefly repeat what are the things coming. These three are acting on x
plane these are also acting on x plane but in the opposite direction. This is and these are acting on
y plane and one more we have that is this and these are acting on two z planes. So, in two
directions it is acting. So, considering a cuboid in a point what we have shown that there are
possible 9 components of stresses and with those 9 components of stresses we let us move
forward.
So above figure is true this figure only only in the case of uniform stresses as I have already
mentioned it is true for uniform cases one example of a similar type we have seen. For uniform
stress components generally incremented from one plane to the next with a normal distance of dx
it is for non uniform stress. Please this is for non uniform stress, for non uniform stress, stress
components are generally incremented from one plane to the next plane with a normal distance
of dx.
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If sigma x is the stress on x plane it will be incremented as sigma x plus del sigma s del x which
is the gradient and the length is multiplied at the dx distance apart it will be incremented this
way. So, in the next lecture we will be considering equilibrium we will see how non uniform
stress is considered and how these things are taken care at a plane dx distance apart from the x
plane. Now stress at a point if we continue in that sense on three mutually perpendicular planes
at a point there exist three components on each plane and a total number of nine components
only that we have already seen.
How those things act and generally the total all the 9 components is generally given by sigma ij
here we also need to say that where i j is equals to 1 2 3. So, with this definition this sigma ij
shows if I say only this and this these two completes the definition of all the 9 components of
stresses this is with respect to Cartesian coordinate system it is given. This is a considered sum
coordinate system which is also orthogonal and named as 1 2 3 not x y z.
So with this note we would like to complete the definition one more small note is there as it is
mentioned in the previous slide that is the each element of sigma i j is called the stress
components. The nine components as a whole of sigma i j is called the stress tensor as we have
said in the last like last slide. The totality of these entities describing the state of stress at a point
is independent of coordinates this is called tensor. The stress vectors at any plane may be
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expressed in terms of sigma i j through equilibrium condition. So that is the next thing we will
learn the equilibrium condition let us proceed.
In that but before that I would like to thank you for attending this lecture and we will move
forward for equilibrium analysis in the next lecture.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -24
Theory of Elasticity - Equilibrium
Welcome back to aircraft structures one course this is professor Anup Ghosh from Aerospace
Engineering department, IIT Kharagpur. We are in the lecture of 5th week module 5 and we will
see how the equilibrium equations are derived we are in the discussion of theory of elasticity
which is very, very fundamental of solid mechanics if we say. And we have started in our last
lecture about definition of stress.
In this lecture we will be considering the equilibrium condition. So, equilibrium has to maintain
how mathematically we express the equilibrium in case of structural analysis or solid mechanics
that we will learn without equilibrium probably nothing exist. In case of our analysis also we will
see how the stress gets connected with the equilibrium or external surface loads or body force.
So with that note let us proceed further.
Before we proceed further as usual what we need to consider is that what we have learnt so far.
In a quick way we will say that we have learned a history of aircraft and structural analysis. We
have learned various types of external loads conceptual structural details flight envelope load
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factor shear and movement on wing and fuselage of an aircraft. Truss, three dimensional stress,
space structure dummy or unit load method. We have considered we have also learned different
energy methods to find out deflection.
And then we move forward we have already learned the definition of stress how does it come
and here we will be considering the equilibrium equation in this lecture.
So as we have already mentioned that we will be learning equations of equilibrium or in a

different word if we say that how the equilibrium is maintained while a structure is loaded that
we will see. And as in the last lecture we have mentioned that the uniform stress condition is a
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very rare case it is difficult to find out. But in the other case which is most common that case in a
generalized manner is shown in this particular slide.
The particular slide consists a huge thing on the figure the figure what is shown here this figure
consists many thing. So, we will describe we will try to learn those things. And let us see what
are the things how those things we need and how can we find out the equilibrium equation. Let
us consider a cuboid element with dimensions dx dy and dz. So, this is dx along the x please
note that this length is dx this is dx this is dx this is dx dy and dz.
Similarly dy is this length as it is mentioned once here dy dy dy or this is dy or dz dz is this

length this length this length or this length. Now directly we are saying taking moment about the
axis but before we take a moment about the axis it is better to note that here what are the things
shown in this cuboid. This cuboid is not similar to the last cuboid what we have seen. In the last
cuboid in both the x planes what was on the origin the plane on the origin.
This is the origin this is plane passing through the origin and this is a plane which is dx apart one
more x plane. In the previous case we assume that since the stress considered was uniform in
both the cases stresses were same but in this particular case these are not same. As I have
mentioned or we have observed that its get it the stresses changes its value how we do not know
how does it change but we can have a function which is a variable of xy z following that the
sigma x or the all the 9 components of stresses changes its value.
So say in that all the stress components in the for the first example say sigma xx is a function of
is a function of xy z. If it is a function of xy z for the increment along the length delta x we can
find a gradient and this gradient if we multiply by the length dx this is the change for the length
plane from this plane, the plane this plane to this plane for sigma x. Similarly for the that is what
is shown here, this component is shown here sigma x plus this component.
Similarly tau xy if we consider tau xy on the plane x acting on the y direction change in the x
direction that is why we are considering derivative with respect to delta x partial derivative with
respect to x and for the length delta x this is the total value of change of tau xy that is added to
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tau xy that gives us the value in this plane. Similarly if we see this is delta tau xz del x del tau xz
del x is the gradient and multiplied by delta x.
So similar way if we see, this plane and this plane will always have some incremental value
according to the position of the plane that is the reason here all the three components are
considered as partial derivative with respect to x multiplied by delta x. Here partial derivative
with respect to y multiplied by delta y same. In this case partial derivative with delta z in
multiplied by dz. So, all these three components we can see.
Now we have imbalance right which is a common case most general case now let us try to see
whether all these 9 components what we have given by sigma ij are different or they have some
relation in between. So, to consider that the first property what we will be trying to prove is the
complementary stress equality. To do that what we need to do as it is mentioned here that we are
taking a moment through the center of the element parallel to z axis.
So what is that parallel to z axis we are considering one axis like this and we are considering
moment of all the forces this is the axis better we increase that makes better visual
representation. About this axis we are considering moment what are the moment components
will come we have already discussed a moment in three dimension in one example while we are
solving truss problems.
Say let us start with the x plane, in this x plane this will not have any component because it is
passing through this, this will not have any component whereas this is along the axis that is why
you do not have any component whereas this will have some component because the
perpendicular distance from this to this and it is acting in the transverse direction to that axis. So,
if that is having a component similarly in the other plane this also will have a component that is
what is written here tau xy multiplied by this area this area is delta y and delta z this is delta y
this is delta z this is the area so it becomes force.
What is the momentum that is delta x by 2 this is delta x by 2 so that is the momentum. So, once
we understand any one component of this equation we can understand all the components very
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easily that is the reason we are trying to do. So, this is a small mistake this distance is not this
one actually the distance is this distance this is also delta x by 2. So, for this component this delta
x by 2 is acting this component so that component is written here tau xy plus incremental value
area makes it force and this is the momentum.
What else? What other components will come this is about x plane fine what will come from this
z plane? Nothing will come because this component this component or this component or are
acting in that same line. So, there will be no component coming from the z plane. Similarly this
will not have any component but we will have a component from the y plane. This will have a
component this will not have any component because it is along the line of that axis what we are
talking about there is no difference.
This is also will not have any component because it is along this line whereas this will have a
component this one. So, tau yx similarly this will have a component tau yz I think this is a
mistake this should be yx this should be yz. So, in in the other figures also probably it is there we
please correct it. So, it is acting in the x direction so it must be yx it is in the y plane. So, please
correct in the future one if I remember I will also correct it is a simple copy paste error please
ignore that.
So tau yx this tau yx multiplied by the area delta x delta z delta x delta z force and component as
we have seen. This is; this component this is will come as delta y by 2 delta y by 2 and similarly
the minus will come later let us see the components first and similarly this is the other
component delta yx delta tau yx del y del y area and this is the moment r. Now why it is positive
and why it is negative.
If we look at the components this is acting in the positive direction that means the right following
the right hand screw system. So, it is rotating in following the right hand screw system so
considering that as positive these components are considered this components are considered as
positive and the other one which is acting this way it is following the left hand screw system if
you look at so that is the reason this is having negative direction.
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Now let us move to the next slide this slide has already become very, very dirty let us clean it
and move it. So, please note that this is a small mistake you please ignore that and whatever
corrected that value you can consider and proceed.
So the next slide this equation is repeated the first equation just to have a reminder. As we have
pointed out earlier this is a small correction this is yx and this is yz. So, what happens if we
simplify this if we go for simplification we have components these two half, half will add up and
give this component and we have the differential component separate where we have delta x
square by 2.
Similarly here also we have that component this is half of makes it one and we have the other
component. Now what we can do divide this equation by del x del y del z or the volume of that
cuboid and taking the limit del x del y approaches to 0 what we have is that if you do you can
easily see that that tau xy is equals to tau yx. So, this considering the limit the remaining dx and
dy this part will go to 0 and will these two will remain these two are getting divided so that is not
coming into picture you please solve it and you find that tau xy is equals to tau yx.
So what is happening three components are reducing from 9 we have 6 component of stresses
because we can easily prove the same thing tau xz is equals to tau zx tau yz is equals to tau zy.
So, that makes us that there are 6 components we see therefore that a shear stress acting on a
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given plane tau xy tau xz or tau yz is always accompanied by an equal complementary shear
stress of tau yx tau zx tau zy acting on a plane perpendicular to the given plane and in the
opposite sense.
So this is important point you should keep it in mind shear stress never comes alone it is always
having a complementary part and we need to consider that whenever we are doing any analysis.
So, with this node we move forward for equilibrium condition.
Now one more thing we need to establish that is the equilibrium condition we need to establish
now considering the equilibrium of the element in x direction. Here a new thing comes in that is
the body force. Now considering the equilibrium of the element in x direction including a body
force component x acting in the positive x direction. Body force is the force which acts on the
volume of the system here it is the structure.
It is gravitation is a very, very good example gravitational force is the very good example of
body force electromagnetic force or some other forces may be visualized as body force. So, say
if it is a body force is acting so inside the structures with the stress components how the body
force keeps the equilibrium that is what we need to establish and we will try to establish in
mathematical equations form.
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So, to do that we are what we are doing it is same cuboid please consider these two corrections
better I do because I remember this is yx this is yz. So, we are considering the x direction sum of
all forces equals to 0 here interesting point that we will have how many components 6
components because in this plane there are 6 planes and each plane we have one x component
force.
So, considering the normal one first that is sigma xx this is also subscript sigma xx plus del
sigma x del x dx this acting on the area this area minus this we are considering this way positive
this way positive minus this this component similarly this will come xy del xy del y that means
this component minus this component this component always the area is considered to make it
force, stress to force.
And we have one more here this force tau xz del z this minus this now since we are we have
talked about the body force that is acting on the volume that is del x del y del z of intensity x we
put it we make it to 0 it is in equilibrium. Equilibrium has to be mentioned as we have done here
and if we simple observation gives us the equation that del sigma is del x plus del tau x tau yx or
xy del y plus tau tau del tau zx or xz by del x del z plus x is equals to 0.
So considering the complementary stress property as I was mentioning that we generally say it in
this form that partial derivative of normal stress and two shear stress components in y and z
plane plus the body force is equals to 0. So, this is considering on the on the x direction is not it
this is considering x direction what about y? What about z? We will definitely have similar
equation.
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If we consider those directions equilibrium and we can write those without going into the same
type of discussion that that similar equilibrium equations hold in all the three directions and we
have the equations as mentioned here this is in the y direction. Please note that the normal
stresses maintain the direction del sigma is del x del x this is the other two del tau xy del y delta
xz del z.
Similarly this is delta del tau xy del x del sigma y by del y tau yz del z this is y because this is y
and similarly this is z this is z and this is not difficult to memorize better you keep in mind this
equation. These equations are good equations to remember and it helps in many, many way in
many situation if you go for further study. The equations of equilibrium must be satisfied at all
interior points in a deformable body under a three dimensional force system.
So under three dimensional force system this is what we have. One more way it may be written
that is most popular to understand and that is generally followed in advanced books but that is
the reason unless it is introduced now it will be difficult for you to follow those that so the
tensorial notation or index notation as we have already introduced to we need to do. This F i is a
subscript please note it down this is subscript so what we write that sigma ij, j plus+ F i is equals
to 0 for i equals to 1 to 3 or xyz and j equals to 1 to 3 or xyz.
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Or as we have seen in the previous lecture i, j equals to 1 2 3. So, there is a comma here what
does that mean in index notation there is a repetition of j here what does that mean in index
notation? How this notation expresses these three equations at a time. This notation at a time
expresses all these three equations that we need to note. So, if anyone says this actually he is
talking about these three equations how?
In this process if an index operator appears sorry index appears twice in it means summation and
a comma j is twice here that that will yield these plus signs this is and the comma means
derivative with respect to that index comma j means this sigma ij is per taken a partial derivative
with respect to j so this since it it is a comma j it is partial derivative that is the reason here it is;
say the first term if we talk about i equals to 1 j equals to 1 that gives me that del sigma 11 since
comma is there del x plus is there.
So that is the reason we have del then j will change keeping one constant j is changing what will
happen del sigma 12 divided by del y better to say I think I say it in xy that will make it easier to
understand del sigma xx this is x this is xyz like that del sigma del x plus del sigma xy del y
second value of this plus del third one sigma xz divided by del z this plus x 1 this the first
subscript remains same is that is the reason x here it is F i this is fF i or if 1 is equals to 0.
So if I expand this similarly if we consider two next time and then again this this this if we
consider we get the second equation and similarly we can have the third equation also. So, that is
the reason that is the reason it is stated in this here in a different form this is the way it is
generally expressed sigma 11 with derivative 1 this is nothing but this, this is this, this is this and
this is this. So, with this notation we move forward to the next slide.
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In this scenario it is a good opportunity to introduce the plane stress it is a special case where of
three dimensional stress analysis. Most aircraft structures structural components are fabricated
from thin metal sheets so that stresses across the thickness of the sheet are usually negligible.
Assuming say that the z axis is in the direction of the thickness what we can assume that sigma z
equals to 0 tau xz equals 0 tau yz equals to 0.
So if we sigma zz if we put all the z direction stresses equals to 0 this column vanishes as well as
since this and this are the same this also vanishes. So, the remaining thing is that these 2 and this
this 2 and this so the stress consideration becomes tau I think this may be the first equation this is
second or maybe the other way del sigma xx del x plus delta tau xy del y plus x is equals to 0 and
the second equation is this one.
So again generally convention is to write this as the first equation this as the second equation but
while copy pasting it has reversed sorry please note that. So, with that the particular condition
what we prevail in plane stress condition is that the z direction stress components are 0 and that
induces the equilibrium equation in a simplified form.
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So, the boundary condition continues we will be considering the bound we have considered
equations with respect to the body forces inside the structures but we need to consider the
equilibrium also if there are some surface forces acting. So, with respect to the surface forces
what are the things equations we get and how do they look like let us see it is not very difficult
since the most difficult understanding in cuboid all those stress distributions you have already
come across.
So with that we proceed further. Equations of equilibrium derived last satisfy equilibrium sorry
requirement of equilibrium at all points in the body or inside the body. Equilibrium must include
equilibrium must be including the boundary of the body where surface forces are x bar y bar and
z bar. So, it has also to be mentioned or maintained in the surface and per unit area where the
surface forces are x bar y bar and z bar.
If we have a triangular element at the boundary of a 2d body then it is it looks like this, this
particular portion will be covering from 2 dimensional to 3 dimension. I some books it is it is
started from a tetrahedral from three dimensional consideration but there are some lacuna I do
not want to mention those but it is easy to understand and follow from the two dimension. So,
what we are considering let us proceed we are considering this element and that element in this is
in a body with a normal end and that element is simplified way shown here.
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And what we see in this element is uh that AB is the boundary AC CB the internal surface this is
inside the body this, this, this and this. And at AB the surface forces are x bar and y bar x bar and
y bar at AC and CB internal stresses are acting that is since it is in x direction sigma xx tau xy is
acting this way and in the y plane we have sigma yy and tau yx acting this way x is given body
force. Here it is not shown x multiplied by the volume is the body force this multiplied by the
surface area this is the surface force.
So there are two types of forces we need to consider those we need to have an equilibrium. So,
what we are trying to do we are considering similar way the summation of x equals to 0. So, if
we consider summation of x equals to 0 this as I said this is surface force delta s we are
considering unit width on the transverse direction on the on the depth side of the element so ds
remains makes the area so x bar multiplied by ds this is acting this way sigma x dy is acting this
way.
This one is acting here tau yx dx is acting in this direction and then the other body force coming
here that is capital X multiplied by half of delta x delta y is the volume. Unit width is considered
that is the reason we say in that tetrahedron derivation this part is not shown it is said it may be
done. So, what will happen let us see.
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The same equation is repeated in this slide by taking the limit as delta x approaches 0, we can
have that x bar this terms vanishes, so that gives us that x bar is equals to actually this is
becoming delta y by delta s then we are considering limit so we are considering a derivative or
we can say that that becomes the direction cosine. So, that direction cosine component comes
this term vanishes because delta x tends to 0 approaches 0 and we have the body forces as x bar
equals to sigma x xl + tau yx m.
So this is for two dimension definitely in the y direction we can have from the y equals to 0 the
same way that y bar is equals to tau xy l plus sigma y by m is equals to y bar. Similarly for a
three dimensional case we can have with the surface forces the equations sigma x sigma xy
sigma xz l m n and here also similar to that there it was a derivative here it is only direction
cosines are coming there is no derivative is considered and we have the equilibrium of surface
forces.
And in tonsorial real notation as we have described I would ask you to do this homework for the
tonsorial notation it is better to learn the tonsorial notation or index notation j is repeated please
note that is the reason plus sign has come 2 2 3 3 1 remains same j is changing so T 1, T 2, T 3
this again will come in a very different way. In many times this equation will come we will use
this equation many times so better you memorize this equation this or this or this anyway is the
most simple way to remember that whole equation we generally remember that.
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So with that note we move forward and it is similar the book references are same elasticity books
and other books are used here.
We have learned equilibrium from theory of elasticity point of view and thank you for attending
this lecture.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -25
Stress Transformation and Principal Stress
Engineering Department, IIT Kharagpur. We are in the 5th week lectures this is in sequence 25th
lecture. Today we will learn about principal stress in two dimension in three dimension some are
easily introduced, some are introduced with mathematical concept with tensor calculus. So,
whatever you understand it is good otherwise i would suggest you to refer some advanced books
as it is listed there or maybe some advanced books on tensor calculus.
So with that we will step forward for the recapitulation slide that is as usual history of aircraft
and aerospace structural analysis or solid mechanics. Then external loads structural details load
factors all those things we have seen. How it affects how do external loads come those are
experienced by different structural parts then shear and movement effects on fuselage and wing.
How 3d truss is used in aircraft structures one big example is landing gear other examples are
may be tailboom of helicopter.
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Or there are many others these are two visible distinct places where we see. So, like that we have
also covered different energy methods to find out deflection how deflection is important in
probably last or last to last lecture I have tried to tell you in detail. Introduction of theory of
elasticity already you ha you are introduced with theory of elasticity stress and equilibrium
equations we have done in our last lectures.
And today we will be covering some topics which encompasses the stress transformation will
solve a small problem. We will try to derive the principal stresses we will try to have the idea of
principal stresses. So, that idea is important and that plays a big role why stress is important
principle stress is important principal stress is important in the sense that is the highest amplitude
of stress acting inside the structure because of different loading condition.
And that may directly govern to failures like say if it is a tensile failure or a compressive
crushing failure. Those are the stresses which is since those are maximum in amount in
magnitude those leads to that type of failure. So, for a combined stressed body where three
dimensional stress is acting. In practical actually all the structures whatever we see are
experiencing almost all the components of a stresses like starting from sigma 1 sigma 11 sigma
22 sigma 33 to normal stresses to shear stresses like sigma 12 sigma 23 or sigma 12 23 and 31.
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So all stresses may act so in combination of all stresses which one and which direction it
becomes maximum that is important to study we need to find out depending on that structure is
designed. So, that is the reason it is very, very important those are having some important
properties and we will observe those properties.
So, let us move to the first topic first topic is a stress transformation.I stress transformation what
we do is a simple way how a stress is transformed this is probably covered in your mechanics in
some courses and if it is not with some skip some detail we will try to cover now. So, what we
are we have in our first figure we often need a to find stresses at some other plane of a body.
So this stress transformation is brought fast to be before the principle stresses because the
principal stress is obtained from the stress transformation. Unless we have the concept of stress
transformation it is difficult to imagine where the principal stress is acting. So, in this particular
case again my aim will be to discuss more on concepts like how does it act where it acts what are
the phenomena those things I will also try to cover mathematics whatever is written on slide and
the way it is done.
But some of the stuffs as I say are probably will not come into your understanding as and when it
is said you need to put some time to understand those you need to put consult some other books
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to understand those. I would suggest if you are planning for higher studies you should go through
those and try to understand. Again we are going away from today’s topic, so let us start today’s
topic. What is the stress transformation? The need is that to find stress at some other plane.
We can imagine some element in books in many times this element is shown as a rectangle sorry
a square but it is not necessarily to be square. So, it is considered as a rectangle here and that
rectangle because of the external loads is experiencing possible all stresses we are not
considering the third dimension. Third dimension which is towards the board or away from the
board it is considered that it is a two dimensional case where a plane is under these stresses.
Possible stress components are as we see the normal stress is shown as sigma xx sigma yy this is
balancing one and we also have tau xy. Last class we have established that there is also always a
complementary shear stress so these are the complementary components. So, once we have these
two pair they are also must have these two pair these two this pair should come along with this
pair. So, now the question as we have started that we need to find out stress say on this inclined
plane inside like this element that inclined plane is denoted by AB.
And we are separating out that here once we separate it out there we do not know the stress
condition at this plane that is the reason we have put that sigma n is acting normal to that plane
and there is one more component that is tau nt or along the plane. So, this idea already we have
that even if there are other components in two dimensional cases all those components may sum
up to these two components one which are orthogonal to each other 90 degree to each other
sigma n and tau nt.
Sometimes nt is drop it is directly said as tau. So, other components as it is shown here those are
brought here only thing is that it is given a finite dimension a small dimension that is a very
small delta x in this direction delta y in this direction and it is delta s in this direction. So, if we
try to consider the equilibrium x direction that is what if this is the force amount this is acting in
this direction tau xy del del x is acting in this direction.
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This is considered the other direction sigma n ok theta is not shown. So, this is theta while this is
theta so if this is theta then we have that delta n cos theta is the component and delta s is the area
considering unit width of the element and the other tau is having sin theta component. So, we get
this equation in this direction. Similarly in the vertical direction if we consider we have sigma yy
dx the area we have tau xy this tau xy acting on delta y and sigma n sine component it is acting
upward whereas this is acting downward its on the other side of the equal sign so it is having
minus sign and it is in this form. So it is acting in vertical direction.
Now if we solve these two equation we can easily get this equation and this equation solving I
have skipped intentionally so it you can easily do because it is already covered otherwise I can
give you a simple idea to do it. If we multiply this equation with cos and this equation with sine
this with cos this with sine and add it up this portion will cancel and we will get the expression of
sigma n and this delta y by delta s which is nothing but the cos.
So other cos will come from here no we are multiplying with the cos that makes the cos square
theta. So, similar way we can find we can find out that sigma n equals to sigma x cos square
theta plus sigma y sin square theta plus tau x y sin two theta and the way I have said if you
follow the same way and some simple subtraction of the two equations will lead to the
expression of tau or shear on a plane which is at theta angle with vertical.
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So with that small concept we are trying to solve a problem. In this the problem is shown on the
figure it is also described in the writing. So, let us read the writing first, a cylindrical beam this is
the cylindrical beam of circular cross section circular cross section supports a compressive load
50 Newton. This is the compressive load 50 Newton, 50 kilo Newton applied to its free end this
section is the free end at a point 1.5 mm 1.5 mm below a horizontal diameter in the horizontal
plane of symmetry.
This is the horizontal diameter and the horizontal plane of symmetry below that that is the reason
from that point it is 1.5 mm below together with a torque of 1200 Newton meter the torque is
1200 Newton meter calculate the direct and shear stresses on a plane inclined at 60 degree to the
axis of the cantilever is this one. At a point on the lower edge of the vertical plane of the
symmetry so it is asked that at this point what is the shear stress on a plane inclined 60 degree to
the axis.
So we need to find out that, so to find out that it is a combined bending and axial and torsion
problem there are two loads external loads actually one is this axial load other is torsion. But
since it is not acting on the axis of symmetry it will produce some moment so that moment we
need to find out and there is a torsion and because of that the element here is stressed and what
are the stresses and stress components that we need to find out.
So the direct loading system is equivalent to an axial load of 50 kilo Newton together with
bending moment off that is what the bending moment comes here 50 that is the kilo 1.5 Newton
millimeters that means 75000 Newton millimeter Newton per millimeter. I think it is a mistake it
is not oblique it is Newton millimeter. This is Newton millimeter so with that note therefore at
any point on the lower edge of the vertical plane of symmetry there are compressive stress due to
the axial load that 50 kilo Newton.
And bending moment which act on planes perpendicular to the axis of the beam and are
evaluated below so the sigma x direct P by A axial load only that is 50 kilo Newton divided by
the area we get 17.7 Newton millimeter square and the other way bending stress M is the
bending moment here y is the how far it is from the axis of symmetry this is 30 that is 30 is there
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is the y, i is the section moment of inertia of that circular section its put here and we get that 3.9
sorry 3.5 Newton per millimeter square.
Both are acting actually as a compressive load because we are talking about the lower point. So,
with that condition we also have a shear stress. The shear stress tau xy at the same point due to
the torque is this is the amount of torque and then the similar way we put the torsion formula and
we get this is the value of polar moment of inertia of that particular section 30 is the radius and
we get that 28.3. So we have normal stresses as well as shear stress.
Now we observe that the stress system acting on a two dimensional rectangular element at the
point is shown in the figure it is same figure we are considering we do not have any problem
only it is said that this angle is 60 degree. The instead of specifying this angle in the problem this
angle is specified. Note that since the element is positions at the bottom of the beam the shear
stress due to the torque is in the opposite direction of the shown positive direction.
So the torque tau is acting in this direction tau is internal so it is acting in this direction again
sigma n and tau may be found from first principle or by direct substitution in the previously
derived equations so theta is 30 degree that is what i just now mention here the in the according
to the problem it is mentioned that this is 60 degree figure is not conforming to that please
consider that this is 60 degree that is the reason we have saying that theta is equals to 30 degree.
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The total compressive stress we get as minus of 21.2 Newton here we have need a oblique per
millimeter square compressive sigma y is 0 there is no force in the y direction tau xy is minus
28.3 Newton per millimeter square. The negative sign is arising from the fact that it is opposite
direction to tau x y as shown in the figure. Now what we we do we simply substitute the values
in the equations and we get that sigma n is equals to -40.4 Newton per millimeter square.
So it is minus that is the reason it is not in this direction it is in this direction and it is
compressive in nature. And whatever tau we are getting is that five newton per millimeter square
acting in the direction AB from this to this this direction is ok. Different answer would have been
obtained if the plane AB had been chosen on the opposite side of EC if we chose choose a plane
something like this or something like this then we will have a different answer so that is what is
said the direction may change because it is on the other side plane which is 90 degree apart.
But anyway we have considered this way and the problem is solved so let us go forward with our
next topic.
In this topic whatever what we have are introduced that stress transformation that stress
transformation we have written in tensorial notation. We are considering that the prime axis
which is given by alpha beta is the transferred axis system or the plane system on which we want
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the stress to be found out and the known system where the sigma ij is the stress condition and we
have the direction cosines known as l alpha i and l beta i.
And since we are talking about two dimension that is the reason 12 is considered here but it is
also applicable for three dimension one the same equation we will use this in different way
written to derive the principal stress we will see that time. So, to understand this in a better way
we have used some diagram theta 90 degree minus theta all these things are given alpha i and
beta j are the direction cosines as it is given and as an example alpha 11 is cos theta alpha 12 is
90 degree minus theta equals to sin theta alpha 22 is cos theta and alpha 21 is minus sin theta.
Now if we consider as an example the 11 as the normal stress so i j is equals to 11 sorry alpha
beta is equals to 11 so this is one i this is bit one j so if that is the case only i j to vary that is what
11 22 12 21 the variation of i j is considered and similar way whatever values are coming as 11
since these are both are one it is 11 11 here it is this is 2 to both 2 that is the reason these two are
2 here 12 that is the reason 11 12 here 21 21 is there. So, accordingly if we substitute the values
from here we get the equation whatever we have got for sigma n.
So this is one good understanding and that this small tensorial expression can give us the
coordinate transformation very easily and stress transformation to a different coordinate or to a
different plane with respect to plane it is easy to understand. But actually we are imagining a
different coordinate system which is inclined in that manner. In three dimensional in two
dimension it is very easy to imagine in three dimension I would request you or suggest you to to
form some access system like my three fingers.
And then you can have rotate this axis system I do not have two right hands that is the problem.
So, you can make one more right angle system and put along with this and with respect to this
center or maybe having a translation you can easily imagine the how it changes the access
system from one to the other. So, keep it in mind we are considering both as right hand Cartesian
coordinate system and unless you prepare one template following that it is difficult to show you.
So, I would suggest you may do it and experience it.
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So this is a small topic introduced in between just as a reminder we need this always in different
condition we will repeat it again it is something very interesting. It is a T this surface normal is
given by this I think I need to go backward yes this surface normal is given by n 1 i into j and n 2
k and the traction force is given by this T 1 T 2 and T 3 n is because it is on the n plane the plane
which is denoted by n. And the internal stress system we can have that is equals to sigma n and
tau nt which is acting and the amplitude we can easily find out simple from the vectors rule.
Already we have considered and if we expand this which is the equilibrium equation nothing
else. This is the normal and tangential component of this the stack traction force and this is the
internal force sigma ij which is in balance this is the equilibrium equation we have found out. So,
if i know all these components we can easily find out these components and if we can find out
these components if one of these are known we can find out the other is once we know the
coordinate system nj is the components of unit vector that is cos unit normal this is n with respect
to the j.
And this is similarly sigma j and sigma tau may be found out that means here it is talking about
this ok. So, um we move forward to the next slide.
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Principle stress: Principle stress is really important point to discuss we will introduce it with
respect to two dimension first and we will go forward with advanced mathematical derivation for
three dimension we will find out and again we will discuss principle stress in the next class
lecture and we will see. So, in this condition, what we do is that we have sigma n considering a
plane which is at an angle theta.
And if we want to find out the axis system or the plane along which this is maximum value we
need to find the partial derivative of with respect to theta that is what is done here. If we do that
derivative if you please note that that leads to this equation we will come to that later 2i cos theta
sin theta sigma x minus will come because cos is there this is twice sin theta cos theta and this is
tau xy cos two theta two will come definitely in all the cases two are there.
So if we make that thing is equals to 0 we get an angle tan 2 theta is equals to 2 twice tau xy by
sigma x minus sigma y I would suggest you carry out this that simple mathematics is not the
topic of discussion here. Here the topic of discussion is that see we with that value substituting
that we can have two values of sigma that is sigma 1 and sigma 2 this derivation is available in
all books I would suggest you refer that.
We can have the two values two roots of sigma n which with replacement of theta as sigma one
and sigma two this is the convention it is given sometimes sigma numeric one numeric two not
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that roman 1 roman 2 which is sigma x plus sigma y by 2 plus minus half root over sigma x
minus sigma y square plus 4 tau x y square. Now question is that this is these are the two normal
stresses where we have tau equals to 0 that is the reason i said if you derive this we get this
equation.
And this if we put this equation is 0 that is nothing but the tau is equals to 0. So, we have that
plane where tau is equals to 0. So, in the other sense in a in it is a very common practice to say
that principle stress is the stress or the maximum stress at a plane where tau or the shear stress is
equals to 0 and those are the maximum values with possible combination of orientation of axis
system different way orientation of plane where we are trying to find out normal stress where
sigma 1 is the maximum or major principle stress and sigma 2 is the minimum or minor principle
stress.
So this major and minor terms are used popularly. Note that sigma 1 is algebraically the greatest
direct stress at the at that point since it is having a plus sign while sigma 2 is algebraically the
least. Therefore when sigma 2 is found out considering negative sign it is possible that sigma 2 to
be numerically greater than 1 while it is sigma 1 while its value is negative. So, this is a good
point to note that the compressive stress may become larger in numeric value in some condition.
So, it is not that since it is having a plus the material the maximum stress is experienced by while
we are considering plus value only. Plus value is only showing that the material is in tension but
while it is negative sign it shows that the material is in compression. So, in this point for the
maximum shear stress if we talk about the tau we have in similar way we can have that it is the
angle tan 2 theta again we can find out but it is inverse and minus sign is there with respect to
this.
So please note that this is a different angle so we have a different angle in this context it is better
to remember the Mohr cycle sorry Mohr circle of stresses where we put in tau and sigma axis.
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The values of at different orientation of plane what are the normal and shear stresses are and if
you look at those values that in general case if it is the Mohr circle this is sigma this is tau. We
will find that this is the sigma 1 and sigma 2 or may be the other way. I think better to show it in
the other way otherwise confusion will create. This is 2 this is 1 you please note that in this
condition at these two points tau is always 0 but while tau is having maximum value sigma is not
equals to 0.
So that does not mean that the normal stress is not there is no normal stress on that particular
orientation. So, keeping in mind that thing we would like to discuss one interesting problem. So,
before we go to that interesting problem which I will discuss partially and i would like to ask you
to explore on yourself tan 2 theta, we have now put for the maximum value. These values if we
put in the equations previously said in the last one we get that the tau max value is nothing but
sigma 1 minus sigma 2 by 2.
Above equation give the maximum shear stress at the point in the body in the plane of the given
stress given stresses. For a three dimensional body supporting a two dimensional stress system
this is not necessarily the maximum shear stress at that point so that is the reason we are
repeatedly saying it is a two dimensional case we are discussing. Since maximum principle stress
plane angle is the negative reciprocal of the maximum shear stress angle then the angle 2 theta
given by these two equations differ by 90 degree.
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So or the planes of maximum shear stress are inclined at 45 degree to the principal stress. In this
case I would like to give you a good problem that is what I thought. If we consider one element
and if it is under this stress condition there is no shear stress acting and if we imagine one
element inside which is having 45 degree angle I would like to suggest you to find out what is
the stress condition stress status in this element.
And this is very interesting problem with correlation to a problem while we twist a chalk and it
fails, it fails in a very particular orientation that may be discussed in some other way in some
other opportunity but this is very interesting problem you can solve it and observe it. So, let us
move forward with our next topic.
Next topic is really is an advanced topic i would will try to try to cover as much as I can it is as
much as I can, it is derivation general derivation of a principal stress we have derived in two
dimension but in three dimension it is difficult to derive. So, with respect to the tensor calculus
and LaGrange multiplier concept we will try to derive. Given sigma xx at a point we seek a
direction n equals to n p as it given.
Such that normal stress is the extremum value that is the problem in mathematics point of view if
we talk about we want to extremely find out the extremum or the extreme value or the maximum
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minimum value of the normal stresses in a orientation which gives the maximum. So, if we
consider that sigma m n is a general expression of stress and if we consider only the normal
stress of that component that becomes in boils down to slowly from m n reduces to only n.
And then it is once direction and we get that sigma ij and direction cosines if we multiply it
becomes this way. So, the normal stress at any plane which is l and l ni l nj direction cosine is
having n p say is denoted by distinction. Now this is the usual way of telling that this property to
satisfy. And this property to satisfy is direction cosine property is to satisfy and that same thing is
said again into different way.
And this is also l square m square this is nothing but this, these are also same thing so it is stated
in a different way to give you understanding for the thing which we are going to do. Now we are
bringing one concept of Lagrange multiplier we will extremize the equation a the normal stress
to be extreme extremized with respect to i j but what is the constraint with respect to n j as I said
with a restraining condition equation b that means it should maintain the we are transferring the
coordinate system.
But that coordinate system should follow the Cartesian called coordinate system rule that is the
Cartesian coordinate system rule this is the Cartesian coordinate system rule that is the reason is
saying that restraining condition equation b it has to follow that. We proceed to extremize the
following function with the introduction of Lagrange multiplier. We are going to extremize this
function where the normal stress is given by this we are considering that the sigma is some value
the normal value of it and it is following the same rule of Cartesian coordinate system as it is
given here that is substituted back with respect to n 1 n 2 here. And we are supposed to take the
derivative of it ok.
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Derivative of it with respect to; what? With respect to the direction right the normal stress we
need to find out the extreme value with respect to the direction we need to take the derivative and
that derivative is considered here. So, partial derivative of if n i is considered here it is written
the same thing once again only this sign is partial derivative sign is put here. Now on the left
hand side is something what is done with skip of this steps.
This derivation we are considering with respect to some arbitrary direction s first and if we go on
the derivation of s first in this way in between we get this similar to this one equation. So, this is
this equation we get n s n j n s is there the first term this it will lead to those two terms these are
the two terms we are getting. And then here sigma 1 this is constant we would not get get that
this is actually a square term there is the reason 2 sigma ni del ni del n s we are getting.
Now this will lead this derivative will lead to the Kronecker delta this chronic delta I think I have
not discussed earlier kronecker delta is better to discuss now I should have discussed earlier. So,
if you find earlier you please refer to that Kronecker delta is the delta while both the subscripts
are having same value it is equals to 1 otherwise it is equals to 0. So, if I say delta i j equals to
one while i is equals to j is equals to 0 while i is not equals to j that is what the Kronecker delta
is.
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So this derivative actually leads to this Kronecker delta and similarly other chronic delta also we
find. Now with this what we have this leads to this this leads to this I think you can easily say
that if we if we put this property we get this value this remains in this sense and a good
observation and a little knowledge of tensor calculus if you put you will find that this is equals.
This step as I said is the in between step this one and if we follow this step this actually leads to
this value i s is substituted here with the j, i j and this value we get.
And this is actually the condition of principal stress this sigma is the principal stress value which
represents in three homogeneous simultaneous equations if we expand ij to this value and we can
find the values of sigma for a nontrivial solution of this part. With this concept I would like to
conclude the principal stress will come back again with principle stress concept we will discuss
and will go further with different values of principle stress.
As I mentioned important things on the plane where principal stress acts the shear stress is equals
to 0. Principle stresses we need to find out in design cases because that may govern to failure of
the system, it may be compression it may be tension and the maximum shear stress also we need
to find because sometimes the failure leads from shear stresses.
So, with this note we move forward with the standard books whatever I have covered it is
available in these books only.
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And we conclude the today's lecture thank you for attending and we will move forward for our
next lecture, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -26
Theory of Elasticity - Principal Stress Boundary Condition
Engineering Department IIT Kharagpur. We are in the 5th week lectures to the introduction of
stresses we have covered different conditions of stresses. We have covered stress transformation
and in that sense we have in covered the concept of principal stress. Why we need to find out
where and how does it act.
It is on the changing plane in the direction we need to consider and we have also considered the
boundary conditions and we will go forward further with some example on boundary condition
and a little bit more note on the principal stresses.
So, as usual the recapitulation slide if we look at already we have covered history of aircraft and
aerospace structures as well as solid mechanics. Various types of external loads and conceptual
structural details we have covered flight envelope and load factors we have covered how a shear
and moment on wing and fuselage of an aircraft truss, aircraft structure comes that we have done
truss and space trusses also we have done.
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We have covered different unit load methods Castigliano's theorem and Rayleigh-Ritz method
under energy methods. we have found deflections different ways of finding deflections of
structure.
And we will go forward in the theory of elasticity classes we are concerning only about strain
and we will see how some example and we will talk more about principle stresses.
So, the example we have is that it is a an element of length AB so let us start with the
equilibrium equation find the stress at boundary y equals to b at this boundary. Let us start with
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the equilibrium equation where tractions are acting on an inclined plane T. We need to find out T
is given by this q 0 we are supposed to it is given this we are supposed to find out this is also
given from the element orientation.
So here left hand side is the applied load on the body sigma ij is the stress tensor at the point n j
is the outward normal’s at boundary points what are the normal’s here. So, for the present case
along y equals to b here it is angle with alpha, q 0 alpha the two components will be there i and j
x and y direction definitely the third direction is 0 there is no such component q 0 cos alpha I, q 0
sin alpha z are the two components.
And accordingly T 1 T 2 we will get T 1 is q 0 cos alpha T 2 is q 0 sin alpha. So, keeping in
mind this as we have seen in previous classes we can easily go further and find out the
components.
So, what we have is that T i is equals to sigma ij n j n values beta 2 this, this is the expanded
form in the previous slide we have found out T 1 T 2 value, n we know we know means we need
to denote it that it is in one is equals to 0 because we are talking about this one, n 2 is in this
direction equals to 1 and n 3 is equals to 0. If it is inclined some plane then it probably will have
n 1 and n 2 value so here it is not having that n 1 value and n 3 is always 0 because we are
considering two dimensional problem with help of three dimensional equilibrium equation.
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So now what we are putting we are simply putting those values T 1 is equals to this sigma 1 2 or
sigma this, this equation we are using this is 0 this is 0 sigma 1 2 is equals to T 1 is equals to k 0
cos alpha and since complementary shear stresses are same that is why 1 2 2 1 is made to 0 made
to equal and from the second expanded equilibrium equation what we have is that sigma 2 2 is
equals to q 0 sin alpha.
And from the third one what we have is that there is no 2 3 or 3 2 shear component because it is
a two dimensional stress condition definitely there would not be any shear component acting
from perpendicular to the board so definitely those are 0. So, this is a nice small example this
example explains this equilibrium equation use of this equilibrium equation very well. It is aim is
to give you that idea why and how we can use this equation so with that concept you can apply
this equation for further use.
So, we come back to the principal stress principle stress has been derived in two dimension it has
been derived in three dimension also. And the equation what we got at the end of the last class is
similar to this and we said that we for the non violation vanishing solution of n 1 n 2 and n 3 the
determinant of this the previous class if you have seen; previous lecture that portion should be 0
sigma ij minus sigma delta ij must be equals to 0.
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And if we make that thing equals to 0 and write it in expanded form this matrix calculus I would
suggest you please carry out in some books it is available in what in most of the books it is kept
but I would suggest you once do if you have some time. You will find these constants and with
respect to these constants we can easily express that equation this equation as minus sigma 3
cube + a 1 sigma square - sigma cube + a 1 sigma square - a 2 sigma + a 3 is equals to 0.
So that this has to obtain while a one is equals to sigma 11 sigma 22 sigma 33 general stresses
coming from this sigma i j a 2 also components of sigma i j as we have seen. In this form but this
multiplied by this minus this multiplied by this plus plus plus plus this is a Jacobean type of
Jacobean matrix anyway we need to call consider that and it is the a 3 is the determinant value of
that particular matrix sigma ij.
If sigma 1 sigma 2 and sigma 2 are the roots of the equations then definitely this will have this
equations follow this equations and this sigma 1 sigma 2 sigma 3 are the principal stresses and
we can easily prove. There are proofs available we are not going to prove here that this a 1 what
is expressed here that also follows that if sigma 1 sigma 2 sigma 3 are the roots or the principal
stresses in three orthogonal planes.
It also follows that a 1 is equals to sigma 1 + sigma 2 + sigma 3 a 2 is equals to sigma 1 sigma 2
+ sigma 2 sigma 3 and sigma 3 sigma 1 and a 3 is equals to sigma 1 sigma 2 sigma 3. For
symmetric stress these are known as the stress invariance that means for a; this concept is a kind
of something whatever may be the stress condition of a three dimensional stressed element
represented by sigma ij.
Better we write sigma ij we can find out a orientation of the axis system or we can say we can
find out three planes which are mutually orthogonal to each other those are having 0 cr stresses
and acted upon by the three principal stresses sigma 1 sigma 2 and sigma 3. So, again if I look
that if sigma ij is with respect to this coordinate system we can find some coordinate system
some orientation may be this way this way or the other way.
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In those coordinate system we can have three perpendicular or orthogonal planes on those three
orthogonal planes there are three normal stresses acting. Those normal stresses are the principal
stresses and on those planes there are no shear stresses and from mathematics point of view we
can prove that those stresses principle stresses always obeys this rule that means this is equals to
this the relation between the first coordinate system to the principal coordinate system is this is
equals to this, this is equals to this and this is equals to this, this is known as the three stress
invariance.
I hope to some extent I have made it clear some symmetric stress tensors. For some symmetric
stress tensors the three principle stresses are all real and the three principle planes are mutually
orthogonal just now I have said that it has to be mutually orthogonal following the Cartesian
coordinate system if you see that is ensured in the derivation in the with help of the Lagrange
multiplier. If the reference axis x 1 x 2 and x 3 are chosen to coincide with the principal axis this
is interesting i said this is the first coordinate system x for sigma ij.
Now if this sigma first coordinate system this ij coordinate system is coinciding with the
principal coordinate system then it is said that there is no shear stress that is why these
components are 0 that is what is chosen the coincides with the principal axis then sigma ij is
equals to this. So, as it is said that if the principal axis is the coordinate system of x 1 x 2 x 3
though in that those planes there is no shear stresses. So with that idea of principle stress in three
dimensional state.
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We would like to move forward, this is some interesting observation like the previous one what
we have seen this is a some property it holds that is what we will talk its very interesting
property. The equilibrium equation condition we have already seen that is the equilibrium
equation condition. Let the coordinate axis x 1 x 2 x 3 be chosen as the principal axis of the
stress tension and late the principal stresses are sigma 1 sigma 2 sigma 3.
Then sigma ij is equals to 0 while i is not equals to z. Then easily this components are T 1 is
equals to sigma 11 n 1 T 2 is equals to sigma 2 n 2 T 3 equals to sigma 3 n 3 this comes very
easily this has to follow unit vector. Here the components of the trajectory using this and this we
can easily come to this equation which says that T 1 by sigma 1 square + T 2 by sigma 2 square
+ T 3 by sigma 3 square is equals to 1.
This is nothing but an equation of ellipsoid or three dimensional ellipsoid. Now what is this we
have a relation what does that mean it means that if we consider a coordinate system coinciding
with the principal axis then for any body which is have showing that system or the stress system
follows or represents an ellipsoid by the tip of the vector T i this is I will try to again say better
before I will try to let me read this is an equation of ellipsoid with reference to a system of
rectangular Cartesian coordinates with access level with the three traction forces.
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The ellipsoid is the locus of the endpoints of the vector this issuing the common center. This is
this is probably the best way it is expressed. So, it is if both are having the common center the
traction and the principal axis then the traction vector tip is if it is plotted we will find different
points on this and if we join those points it gives me an ellipsoid that is represented by this
equation. This is a interesting mathematical phenomena and it follows that rule.
We sometimes use it for design purpose this becomes some design criteria to check and with that
consideration we would like to come to the end of todays lecture.
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Where we have discussed about principal stresses and Lame’s’ stress ellipsoid and we will come
back with some more things on stresses. And thank you for attending this lecture we will come
back with few more idea of stresses and further on strengths and some examples, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -27
Shear Stresses
So welcome back to aircraft structures 1 course this is Professor Anup Ghosh from Aerospace
Engineering Department, IIT Kharagpur. We are in the 5th week lecture series this is in sequence
27th lecture. We will be learning on shear stresses we need to learn in many times shear stress
governs the failure theories we want to discuss. In this scope it is discussed to some extent in a
small way probably in mechanics course in the previous courses.
Or it may be discussed with respect to the subjects whatever is generally considered for specific
requirement that way.
So, with that note we move forward to the recapitulation slide. We have done a brief history of
aircraft as well as a solid mechanics or structural analysis related to aerospace engineering. We
have learned various types of external loads and how do they act where do they act how those are
different in landing condition or also in while it is flying. And how the load factor plays a big
role and how the flight envelope is also important.
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Why we do need to keep a monitoring eye on the flight envelope. And after that we have learned
that the whole fuselage and wing bending moment shear force diagram with a typical condition
of loading we have learned to find out we have got we are introduced with the unit load analysis.
And then we have gone to the a specific type of truss structure truss is coming so that is 3
dimensional trusses which is important in aerospace vehicles.
So that we have learnt with some example of landing gear systems and then in this week we got
introduced to the theory of elasticity. Theory of elasticity you are introduced already with the
course of mechanics. You are already introduced with what is stress what is strain different
forms of stress and strain, transformations equilibrium but we need to learn for advanced studies
for development of advanced programs or analysis.
We need to learn what people have already done and how they have approached those problem
initially and recent days numerical things are not at all discussed here those are discussed in the
respective courses along in advance to these topics what we are discussing now. So, in that
encompassing the definition of stress equilibrium equations principal stresses already we have
covered. We have also covered the transformation of stresses and 1 important thing is introduced
to you that is the truss stress transformation or notation of stress system in terms of tensorial or
index notation.
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With that that sequel will come to the shear stress this lecture will consist of shear stress. Let us
see how do we find out shear stress and how do they represent in specific cases famous cases
also will be learning with example.
So, shearing stress what I we see is to consider that we are considering any surface as it is given
on the right hand side figure. This figure where what we have is that that plane that surface is
denoted by the normal n and this normal n vector is denoted as represented above with direction
cosines n 1 n 2 and n 3 unit direction cosines. So, with this we see that we also hold one more
important equation that is the traction or external loads what is acting on that, that may be
divided in components T 1 T 2 T 3.
And the magnitude of the resultant shearing stress on a section having the normal n i is given by
this, This n is sometimes given as n i also in index notation in 1 2 3 that is the reason it is stated
that way. So, if the normal stress acting on that particular plane is sigma n and the shear stress
acting on that particular plane is tau and then easily we can say that it is that tau square is equals
to T i square plus sigma n square.
So that in a vectorial way we can amplitude vectorial amp which amplitude we can easily find
out and then let the principal axis be chosen as the coordinate axis in this, this is we are
considering a special case. This is the general type of case and sigma 1 sigma 2 sigma 3 be the
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principal stresses. So, it becomes easy to understand because already we are introduced to sigma
1 sigma 2 sigma 3.
So because we are introduced to the coordinate transformation or transformation of traces

stresses also along with that so anything even if it is sigma ij acting on the system or experienced
by the system that can easily be transferred to sigma 1 sigma 2 sigma 3. And accordingly we can
if we choose accordingly we can write that this is sigma ij as it is mentioned here this is in
general but if it is in 1 2 3 form we can write that T 1 is equals to sigma 1 n 1 sigma T 2 equals to
sigma 2 n 2 and T 3 is equals to sigma 3 n 3.
Now what we can see is that the square of this is nothing but the square of this because those are
orthogonal in direction. So, that gives us this value. Now if we come to the previous equation
what is written this is already in vector way we can easily say if this is T so we can write that this
may be the sigma n n and this may be the tau nt so we can easily vector definitely here the vector
is not completely represented with the length.
It is only the direction is represented here. So, following that what we can say that the sigma n n
can have be also found out with multiplication of the unit direction cosines and that component if
we take all the 10 components will give us the normal direction sigma n n. So, we get the sigma
n n is equals to this. Now if we substitute back to this equation what we have is that tau square is
equals to this minus this, this one square.
And few steps are jumped we have jumped here i would suggest you do yourself and try to find
out that tau square is equals to n 1 square + n 2 square multiplied by sigma 1 - sigma 2 whole
square + n 2 square n 3 square multiplied by sigma 2 - sigma 3 whole square n 3 square n 1
square multiplied by sigma 3 sigma 1 whole square so this is a good expression for the shear
stress acting on a surface while the surface force surface boundary force are denoted by T and
the normal stress on that particular plane is given by sigma n n.
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So we move forward to discuss the situation discuss the shear stress conditions we will consider
typical examples it is not a very general usual example but it is it is having some significant
representation. So, let us see, first example we are considering that n 1 and n 2 is equals to 1 by
root 2 that is it is 45 degree in angle with the sigma 1 and sigma 2 axis whatever we have chosen
from the general stack system sigma i j we have found out sigma 1 sigma 2 and those
corresponding directions.
And we are considering that the say n 3 is equals to 0. So, if it is like that we may imagine a
cuboid where the n 3 is a matching or the third direction is matching with the sigma 3 whereas n
1 and n 2 the other 2 directions of the qr plane of the cuboid is at 45 degree angle with respect to
their 1 and 2 axis. Now if we substitute this value in the shear stress equation what we have
derived in the previous slide what we get is that the tau in that particular plane is equals to half of
sigma 1 minus sigma 2.
So this we can easily visualize that is why the plane of maximum stresses is given here this is
one of the maximum stresses what we find in that this particular case. So, similar to the previous
example if we consider this is changed to n 1 and n 3 just to visualize it properly otherwise it is a
similar case whether the axis system is rotated 90 degree with respect to any one axis hardly
matters to the stress system.
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So just for visualization we have changed the axis system n 1 and n 3 we have considered 1 by
root 2 that is 45 degree and n 2 is co-linear or in the same direction to the sigma 2. And
sometimes it is it is easy to imagine with respect to x y z that is the reason this x y z is also given
and considered that 1 and is corresponding to x 3 corresponding to z and the 2 is corresponding
to y. The plane where T is acting along the sigma n and sigma nt along with sigma n n and sigma
nt.
So what we have similar way sigma 1 minus sigma 3 we are getting for the case where sigma 1 is
greater than these are not cut please consider that it is a typographical error sigma 1 is greater
than sigma 2, sigma 2 is greater than sigma 3 the maximum shear stress we get is sigma 2 and
the sorry tau 2 and the associated normal stress is sigma n n is given by putting the values in this
equation we can find out that sigma n n equals to half of sigma 1 + sigma 3.
So, we have in those particular planes plane we have I have said this it is difficult to imagine we
will come to the next slide and see but what is the stress condition and that particular plane. In
that particular plane the stress condition is this is the truss shear stress and this is the normal
stress. So, we have 2 planes 2 orthogonal planes 1 one and n 3 such that where this same
amplitude of stresses are acting. And in n 2 we are on that plane we are not sure what is acting
there.
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So, if we move forward sorry here we see the representation of that particular problem what we
have discussed in the previous one. Here what we see is that 1 and 3 that is the reason for the
drawing sake and for understanding with the type of coordinate system so far we have followed
we have followed this. As we have said that 2 is along the same direction whereas 1 and 3 those
planes are making 45 degree angle.
So this plane and this plane I should say that this plane this plane is making 45 degree angle with
sigma 1 as well as sigma 3 and additionally if we look at this plane is also making 45 degree with
the sigma 3 and negative of sigma 1. So, that is what is said these are the planes we are talking
about this means that the planes 2 of them on which the shear stress takes on takes on an extreme
value makes angle of 45 degree or 135 degree with the sigma 1 and sigma 3.
So corresponding we have 2 more that is the reason 2 both the angles are mentioned. So,
accordingly we find those cases. We have one more typical case where we assume that sigma 1
is equals to sigma 2 2 and they are greater than sigma 3. So, let us see try to check what happens
so tau max becomes T 1 following the similar way putting the substituting the values as we have
done earlier and sigma n n is equals to half of sigma 2 + sigma 3.
Corresponding orientation of the plane is n 1 equals to n 2 and since sigma 1 sigma 2 are same
and it is undefined. It is undefined because those are same and it is mathematically speaking we
cannot find out the orientation as it is here we can find out the orient orientation but there we
cannot find out the orientation. And n 3 which is equals to plus minus 1 by root 2 may have some
orientation, so it is something we can say that this cuboid only but it is rotating with respect to
this axis.
So it may have different position because the other 2 are undefined that is the reason. Keeping in
this axis sigma 3 oriented in this direction or in this direction it may have any angle on the other
side so that is the reason it says undefined. So, in terms of x and y and z it has been said again.
Actually the planes corresponding to n x and n y are indeterminate this means that the plane on
which tau 1 is acting makes an angle 45 degree or 135 degree with sigma 3 axis but remains
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indeterminate with respect to sigma 1 and sigma 2 that is the reason I said it may be something
any position and it is be difficult to determine or indeterminate.
So we move forward to our next topic next topic shear stress is to some extent introduced if you
are interested more about this we can easily have a look. This topic is to some extent also related
to shear stresses. So, it is a nice visualization like the stress ellipsoid lame is a stress ellipsoid we
have seen in the last class or the last lecture. So, here what we see let us see let the frame of
reference be again chosen along sigma 1 sigma 2 and sigma 3 axis.
We are choosing those as the axis and a plane that is equally inclined to that to these 3 axis is
called an octahedral plane. This is a also used in some book for equilibrium equations for
surface. This plane looks like this plane; so, if we look at the description what is said that a plane
that is equally inclined to these 3 axis is called an octahedral plane. We are talking about this
plane because this is equally inclined to all the 3 axis I have not given any axis number it can be
easily given following the system what we are doing.
This is x this is y and this is z. So, following this we can say that this is the octahedral plane and
such a plane will have n x n y n z equal definitely it has to be equal because it is inclined to same
way in the to the axis and definitely to for a Cartesian system that this has to follow an
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octahedral plane will be defined as plus minus 1 by root 3. There are eight such planes now it
becomes difficult to imagine.
Why eight such planes? Let us try to observe, say this is the plane which is xz and we also have
one more plane better to change the color ok one more plane is bisecting it perpendicular way
and that plane we can say that this is zy plane. Now we can imagine one more plane in the
Cartesian coordinate system which is something like this. Now with this notation with this
drawing we can easily imagine that and this may be this is then what which plane this is then xy
plane.
So which quadrant we have drawn here, this quadrant this quadrant is; this quadrant we have
drawn we have talked about this octahedral plane yellow is not visible at all anyway it is there.
So, similar to that we can have so there are 8 quadrants in 3 dimension and we can find out that
is the reason here it is said that there are 8 such planes. So, this is in one quadrant and similar
way we can have 8 quadrants because that is created by 3 mutually perpendicular planes and that
may have 3 quadrants.
So let us go to the to the visualization or octahedral states what we are we are discussing. The
normal and shear stresses on these planes are called the octahedral normal stress and octahedral
shear stress respectively. Now from the previous equations what we have already derived the
sigma we can easily find out putting those values for the sigma n n and sigma n or sigma n n that
becomes sigma 1 one third of sigma 1 + sigma 2 + sigma 3 and that is what is written here as i 1
that is the stress first stress invariant.
This first stress invariant is also introduced in the last week and it is said why it is said invariant
because irrespective of coordinate system it remains same. So, whatever way the it is stressed
whatever value the stress system it means external load it remains same then in any condition the
sigma 1 sigma 2 sigma 3 also remains same and the sum of those 3 is also a constant known as
the first stress invariant or i 1 sometimes this is also given as a 1 in some books. So but both are
same.
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So the octahedral stresses we have this is what we have and the tau the shear stresses the normal
stress is this and the shear stress we can find out substituting the values of direction cosines in
this equation. And what we can find out that the tau is equals to this and in do simple maths we
have 9 tau octahedral shear stress square is equals to 2 into i square or the first invariant square
plus 6 into this is the second invariant.
If you look at the equation in the previous class this is the second invariant i 2 or a 2 there it is
given as a 2 and that simplifies to that tau octahedral is equals to root 2 by 3 root over i 1 square
- 3 i 2 so that 2 is taken outside 9 is coming so it is there is no such problem. And those 8 planes
are drawn here to give you the understanding in those octahedral planes the normal and shear
stresses are having some invariant value because it is a combination of invariant so that those
values always remains constant.
On those planes normal and shear stresses and that makes an interesting observation sometimes
for some material property determination we need to evaluate this. So, for a better visualization
what is what we can do we can mark the access system here. So, if we mark the axis system here
this is the first octahedral plane what we have already seen and the remaining are quite visible
from there. So, with this if in a state of stress the first invariant is equals to 0 that means the
octahedral normal stress is equals to 0.
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And only the shear stresses will act normal stress on the octahedral plane equals 0 it may happen
that in some cases the first invariant if it is 0 there only the shear stresses will act. Some example
I have drawn a typical case in 2 dimension I have drawn for pure shear. So, there was no normal
stress acting so that type of pure shear may act this is an important from the point of view of
strength and failure of some material.
So that pure shear sometimes govern the material property and that is the reason we need to find
out this and we need to check whether the pure shear condition in 3 dimensional stress concept is
with sustained by the material or not and or how much it can sustain.
So with that same note we have come to the end of the lecture today the books are remain same
that is why it has been written there.
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All the text whatever I have covered so far or may be covering in future slides all are taken from
some books either this book or that book so I would suggest if you do not find. And it is difficult
to pinpoint what is taken from what which book it is sometimes a mix of different books that is
the reason I would suggest you follow those books if required. And with that I thank you for
attending today's lecture and we will meet again with our next lecture soon, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -28
Introduction of Strain
Welcome back to aircraft structures 1 course this is professor Anup Ghosh from aerospace
Engineering, IIT Kharagpur. We are at the beginning of the module 6 or the 6th week in
sequence the lecture number is 28. We have covered in last week lectures last module lectures
different way the stress and in this week we will cover strain as well as we will solve a few
problems to give you some insight about the analysis.
So we will discuss more on strain this is this is very important lecture. The lecture may be may
outcome to a very small lecture but it is very important I would suggest if you are in the process
of learning or in advance studies better you remember this particular lecture it will help, you
definitely it will help you. With that note let us move forward and as we move forward the first
slide comes with the recapitulation.
It is always I feel to better to recapitulate that helps to memorize things gives us the reminder
what you have learned all already. And as a whole at the end of the course you will see if you
look at this and attend this few seconds you will find that you can visualize the total course very
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well and that helps that really helps not a big deal but really helps. I have learned this from a
very renowned profession. I am lucky to learn things from him.
Anyway so we have learned history of aircraft or aviation to some extent and we have learned
how physicist has developed the subject of mechanics solid mechanics and from there how the
structural analysis has come up. In mathematical approach was the first approach that we have
already started we have started in last week as well as in the last to last week while we have
discussed about complementary strain and energy strain energy and total potential energy
everything we started.
And those are the basic things where from the total subject has evolved to do to the date what we
have learned. Various types of external load is the next topic we have covered for experienced by
aircraft and how those loads vary in different condition while it is in runway or is its airborne or
maybe during landing. And we have also learned the flight envelope load factors. We have we
have also learned shear stress bending moments experienced by an aircraft.
We have learned 3 dimensional structures like trusses and in the last week that is just in the last
week what we have learned is that about stress. How the stresses are we have come across
different types of stresses components of stresses for isotropic stress we have come across 6
components finally. Considering the complementary shear stresses to be equal initially it was 9
components.
And then we have come across of different orientations transformations from transformation we
have seen that we can find a coordinate system or a set of set of stress sigma 1 sigma 2 sigma 3
which are normal stresses were known as principal stresses where in those particular planes
where those are acting there is no shear stress. And from there we have come across about shear
stress also at any plane.
And we have come across good examples like octahedral stress and also we have come across
about the stress ellipsoid. So those things you have learned we have learned in the last week with
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that note we will move forward to the definition of strain. And this week we will be covering
mainly the strain this is what already we have seen.
So what we are going to do is the strain introduction to strain we will be doing and I will try to
introduce the strain with as much detail as possible in different books it has been introduced in
different way. I will try to follow a general approach with a concept of vectors and tensors. Let
us see how do we understand that.
So in this it is again some mistake with the interpretation of slide these are all vectors. So with
that note let us start our discussion. This figure is really interesting figure what we are trying to
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see is that a vector is there as r the tip of that vector is p and an incremental length of that p
vector is q which is given by dr. And we see that we are considering that that amplitude dr is
equals to ds. Now we also define dr star please consider that thing for misrepresentation in
digital media.
Similarly we are considering that after deformation, deformation means it is under stress from
external system and because of the stress that r vector has come here and that p has changed
position to p and q has p star and the q of r has changed position to q star. And please look at that
there is twisting and all other possible change of lengths as far as possible is represented in this
figure the overall this figure is changed it is twisted it is length is increased.
All those things all possible ways we have put here and from general consideration since you are
introduced with the components of stresses we can easily imagine that that many components of
strains are also there. And we define that this r vector as the r p as x p i x p j x p k or x 1 x 2 x 3
as i j k using the unit vector now as it is said there I mentioned that delta r is a is an increment
from here and that is the point q x + dx i is the are the 2 points to a distance of dr apart.
And that dr apart these 2 points are changing to these 2 points dr changes to dr star and because
of that the displacement involved is here is u and here is u + delta u let us try to see what happens
this is a general discussion on the direction cosines involved and we will be using the direction
coefficients that is the reason direction cosines of p q are lambda 1 lambda 2 lambda 3
sometimes it is given by l m n sometimes if it is unit n 1 into n 3 all those way it is given and
thus the reason it is given as dr is ds the x y z as it is can be said x 1 x 2 x x 1 x 2 x 3 here.
And similar way we define those in a general way we define this way dx i is equals to lambda ds
after deformation the displacement of p from p to p star this we have said and u is u i u y where
you are 1. Again it is some similar terms are introduced here though we will be using mostly the
tonsorial way. But these terms are introduced these these or these are introduced to give you the
correlation with the already experienced or learned system.
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We are bringing back all those things again and again. So in that way 1 2 3 represents u v and w
are known as engineering notations and displacement of q is as we mentioned u + u star is equals
to u + delta u. So with this understanding of the system and positions and vectors direction
cosines we move forward to the next slide.
All vectors are now ownerless so we need to erase those vectors are erased. Now what we have
is that this is the increment u star yes it has gone back that is the problem so u star as we have
seen that is getting increment with respect to the coordinate system or that is the way this is the
gradient in that particular direction of x 1 and that is why the dx change is given as del u 1 by del
x 1 del u 2 by del x 2 by dx 2 in the y direction x direction y direction and z direction in 3
orthogonal direction we are get giving the increment.
And that is consisting of the du portion and then du gets redefined in this term this way as the
separate increments of that particular direction or 3 orthogonal Cartesian directions. And
accordingly what we have is that u star i - u i is equals to this. So with this what we have which
represents the relative displacement between the 2 neighboring point p and q. A small line
element dr before deformation deform to dr star this we are repeating.
Then the magnitude has changed from ds to ds star and from the usual definition of strain this is
has come close please excuse me if we define epsilon is equals to change of length by original
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length that gives us ds star - ds divided by ds and a simple algebraic + 1 if we do in both sides we
get this relation which gives that that ds star or the changed length this length is equals to 1 +
epsilon multiplied by the ds the original length.
Now ds star amplitude if you talking about is nothing but the dot product of these 2 p q and dr
star and dr star so what we can do is let us see how can we define that p q.
So this is star component this is star component that is the reason we will come there so p q star
what we have found is that r q a vector I have not drawn from here to here and a vector r p star
that is from here to here that is the difference will give me that p s star q star vector so that is
written here and it is exponent as r p + dr and u + delta u and this is the rq what we see and this is
the rp what we see and if this the common terms cancels out.
And we have that this is equals to dr - du and actually while we substitute the values of this what
we have is that this is equals to dot product of these 2 or in the other way if we see that this is
this is equals to P star Q star dot P star Q star dot so this we have as this expression and those
expressions are substituted here and the previous slide what we have already found out that is put
here.
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And what we see is that I have skipped some steps in this because that is a completely tensorial
notation of multiplying 2 incremental vectors. We need to already you see some are introduced
Kronecker delta because of the dot product is already introduced. And because of the
introduction of that dummy variable k l all these things there is a complicated tonsorial calculus
is involved. Thus the reason I have jumped those few steps.
And why if we see we get if we carry out this we get these equations and the equation becomes
that del x dx i multiplied by dx i or square of it we generally do not write a square in that sense
so the other components becomes del u del u i del x j del u j del x I del u k del x I del u k del x j
these 2 are repeated. So if these 2 are repeated what happens I will have summation over that but
before that let us see how does theses get modified for with respect to the left hand side.
So now ds can easily be divided on the right hand side and we can have that this is equals to
lambda i into lambda i and this is also lambda i and lambda j this is x i and x j that is there is an i
j and this is x i and multiplication of this or something like cos square theta + cos square alpha +
cos square beta + cos square gamma is equals to 1 so following that for 3 dimensional case we
have direction equations summation of those equals to 0 this and this cancels out.
The remaining term is twice e + epsilon 2 twice epsilon + epsilon square is equals to this term so
finally what we see is that we considered a vector r and that vector is changed position to here as
the final r vector with p star. And associated increment of that particular vector dr is also
changed to dr star and that thing we have found out that what is the strain this is the strain from
here ds star square we have found out.
And ds star square is nothing but this p q dot product of these 2 and those 2 vectors we have
found out dot product using the tensor calculus and we come across some relation with respect to
the strain and displacement variables involving u y u j and u k sorry u i j where i j varying from 1
to 3 so with that note we move forward to the next slide.
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Yes this is what we have seen in our last slide it is written in a very clean way. Now epsilon
square may be neglected as a very small value please consider this epsilon and this epsilon as
same. These are 2 font problem only so if this is neglected because very small terms if made
square that contributes a very, very small way that is the reason that is neglected. And if we
express that epsilon is equals to epsilon i j lambda i lambda j.
What we can see that this epsilon i j is equals to half of u i, j that means the derivative of u i with
respect to j derivative of u j with respect to i and derivative of u k with respect to i multiplied by
this and summation T understand this tonsorial notation one example is carried out. In this
example i and j is considered as 1, 1. So what happens half remains outside as half this is 1, 1
that means del u 1 del u del i or del x i this is said that del u again same quantity because both are
same.
And they are here we have summation of those these are since it is 1, 1 all are coming as square
but it is not always the same way we can elaborate it, we can experience it. So I would suggest
you may consider that as a homework. If we elaborate this as a tensorial notation putting i and j 1
2 3 and k is definitely sum over i j and since it is repeated we need to consider those as sum of
those 2 terms.
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Let u 1 equals to u, u 2 equals to v and u 3 equals to w then same expression becomes this
expression. So it is in index notation 1 2 3 it is in Cartesian notation or x y z notation u v w are
the displacement fields and derivatives are taken with respect to x and x x is defined this way.
Now here it is better to introduce that probably you were introduced with the term that epsa x x s
is equals to del u del x where from this term comes this is what we get because of consideration
of that particular generic case of strain derivation.
We considered any type of movement and we have in that way we have considered some higher
order terms or non-linear terms. So this part of strain is generally known as the non-linear strain
and this is the known as the linear strain.
So in a general way if we write it down what it looks like let us say if it is some shear strain to be
denoted so like that epsa x x considering 1 2 also you can find out and as I said it is does not is a
square it is sometimes this way written and in general epsa x y is something like half of del u del
y + del v del x that is what we are familiar with but this terms are coming here as the non-linear
terms. For linear theory we generally do not consider those terms and it becomes something like
epsa x x equals to del u del epsa y y is del v del y it says that del w del del z and x y is equals to
half of del u del y + del v del x and similarly we can write the other strain components also.
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Where there is a good relation between these 2 epsa and it is known as a gamma 1 2 is known as
the engineering strain and epsilon 2 is known as tensor component of strain. So please keep it in
mind generally these 2 convention is followed either epsilon or gamma is used and with this
notation we will again yes please stop please recording it is multiplication yes to stop (FL:
26:05) last slide what I have written yes here it is written square is considered there it is written
yes good pointed out good pointing out.
So better to repeat this slide (FL: 26:27 to 27:44) so with the generic derivation of strain we
have already seen the epsilon x x considering from the index or tensorial notation to the
Cartesian notation how does it changes to epsilon xx in case of epsilon xy or the shear strain
similar way we can derive from the index notation what is the expression comes it comes as half
of del u del y + del v del x and this is not plus please note that it is a typographical mistake this is
multiplication this is also multiplication and this is also multiplication do not think that it is
deleted.
This plus signs have come by mistake but actually if you observe the previous expression you
can is also easily get but for correction purpose it has been corrected here. And what we do we
move forward considering this particular portion or the non-linear portion as it is said to be
discarded for linear theory and most of the derivations most of the work whatever we do we
follow the linear theory.
And probably our world is running following the linear theory whatever engineering design in
general we do we consider linear theories. Nonlinear theories are still in research state
implementation probably is there in some cases but it is not may be very high precision strain
wherever it is required or the material which is a which shows too much deformations along with
non-linearity in its deflection in those cases we need to consider.
But those are rare cases we really do not need to consider 1 very specific example may be the
inflatable structure people are using but anyway those things are very, very high topic of
discussion better not to bring here at this stage. So anyway what we see is that with linear theory
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it reduces to very easy expressions epsa x x is del u del x if so y by del v del y epsilon z del w del
z and epsilon x y is equals to half of del u del y + del v del x.
Similarly the y z you can do and z x also you can do is corresponding u v and w are all these
variables will change. And corresponding one more notation is generally followed that is half of
gamma 12 where gamma 12 is known as the engineering strand and epsilon 12 is known as the
tensor component of strain.
So we move forward, so we come across to the last slide it is better to remember this slide this
slide is very, very useful wherever whatever we do. You may like to remember along with the
non-linear terms or you may like to remember without the non-linear terms but it is better to
remember this if you remember all this up to this it there is not a big deal to remember the
remaining portion.
So this is what the strain is defined including the non-linear portion and it is only with the linear
terms. So with that note let us conclude today’s lecture.
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Reference slides are same and we come back to what we have learnt slide and that learnt slide we
have learned linear and learned non-linear strain derivation with respect to the displacement,
strain displacement relation is learned now we will go further with different compatibility
equation of strain and will solve problems in our future lecture. So with that I thank you for
attending this class. This lecture will meet again in the next lecture to start or to talk more about
strain and problems, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -29
Introduction to Strain - Equations of Compatibility
Welcome back to aircraft structures 1 this is Professor Anup Ghosh from Aerospace Engineering
IIT Kharagpur. We are in continuation of the 6th week lectures this is in that sequence the 29th.
In the last class we are already introduced with the derivation of strain more popularly that is the
terminology use derivation of strain. But actually that is also known in the words like a strain
displacement relation.
So with respect to displacement how strain is defined that we have done we have done
considering a mathematical approach not considering a visual approach like many other books
have presented may be considering 2 dimensional then going to 3 dimensional. What we have
done we have considered a vector approach or beta to say tensor approach and then using the
tonsorial notations a tensor calculus we have found out the expression for strain.
In that process it is good that we have got the expression including higher order terms that is the
non-linear part of the strain displacement relation. Non-linear part of the strain displacement
relation is in general not required probably for discussion of the stage you are going through. But
it is better always to get introduced with the non-linear part also because we should not keep in
mind that all relations of strain and displacement are always linear.
There are cases for large deflection especially we need to consider the nonlinear part. So in those
cases where we need we need to consider but the discussions on theory of elasticity or the type of
problem what we generally solve in this stage of study is concerning about linear part of
strength. So with that definition of linear part of strain which is also ij is equals to half of del u, i
del j we will come to that better.
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Before that we go into the recapitulation slide this helps a lot about what we have already
covered in the course. We have covered history of aircraft as well as solid mechanics or
structural analysis all these things what we are covering in the last during the last week and also
this week those things how those got developed by 1 after another big physicist that we have to
some extent in a very brief way we have discussed.
Then we have come across the various types of external loads encountered by an aircraft and
then we have come across to the conceptual structural details how it is fabricated why thin
structure where how is it done why asymmetric structures come all those things are discussed.
And then we have discussed about the loads, load factors flight envelop those points we have
discussed. We have come across to a good method of unit load consideration for analyzing
structure whole structure.
In the sense we have we have divided the whole structure in wing as well as in fuselage and then
wing and fuse larger is separately analyzed for bending moment and shear force distribution. We
have drawn those shear force and binding movement distribution considering a typical case.
Then we have come across with to the cases of space structures solid we have solved landing
gear problems.
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Then in last week we got introduced to the theory of elasticity definition of a stress and in the
last lecture 2 definition of strain. It is not that theory of elasticity has not been introduced to you
earlier but this portion of the course what we are trying, is to cover the theory of elasticity from 3
dimensional point of view or from the visible possible orientation or dimensions of any
structures and its loading and the stresses what it encounters.
So in that sequel we have defined stress we have come across with equilibrium equation.
Equilibrium equations with respect to the body force with respect to the surface forces. Then we
got introduced with the stress transformation how stress is transformed along with little bit of a
coordinate transformation. So and then we found that there is a plane on which no shear stress
act and not only 1 plane there are 2 more orthogonal planes to the parent planes so there are 3
planes.
Where only normal stresses act and no shear stresses act on that those planes and those stresses
are defined as the principal stresses along with that we also found the shear stresses maximum
shear stresses we found. And then got introduced to the strain in last lecture and today we will go
further with the definition of strain.
What we need to do is today's main topic of discussion will cover the compatibility equation.
Compatibility equation is really very, very interesting one.
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We will have many things written with help of those written scripts and other things we will try
to have why compatibility equations are required and what is compatibility we are talking about?
What type of compatibility we are talking about? That we need to discuss that we need to see so
as I was defining I thought of saying orally but it is very difficult to say orally the expression of
strain with respect to displacement.
So epsa ij is equals to half of u i, j u j, i that is u i with respect to t to the partial derivation of j

and then u j with respect to i where i j is varying for 1 2 and 3. So that is generally written but
sometimes it is not because our purview of analysis is within that domain only. So in that sense it
may not be mentioned always we may always consider that i and j is equals to 1 2 and 3 so we
get 6 components of strain epsilon x x epsilon y y.
So all the 6 components we can easily get sometimes to keep a conformity sometimes this is also
written as x y z with respect to the Cartesian system. So um if u i are given as continuous
function of x i we can readily compute epsilon i j. So that is the reason sometimes x i it is written
sometimes instead of x y z this is also said as x 1 x 2 x 3 that is the reason it is said x i so with res
respect to to x i we can readily compute the epsilon i j because this we can easily put in this
expression we can we can find out what is what are the 6 components of strains we can easily
find it out.
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On the other hand epsa ij or epsilon ij are given as function of x 1 x 2 x 3 then we cannot
uniquely determine ui because we have 6 equations in epsilon ij but there are displacement but 3
displacement components. This 3 displacement components 6 this so that is the reason we cannot
find it out in unique manner. So we need to have some relation between the this components to
satisfy maybe in terms of in terms of strains, strain components.
So that it becomes unique that is the point what we say from mathematical point of view while it
got derived it was a from mathematical point of view only it got derived so that was the first
reason to say that it should hold some this is the basic reason to hold some. But later the physical
representation physical continuity and those things are talked about later let us see. The
displacement u i must be continuous and single valued it has to be that is the other requirement to
keep this reverse relation satisfying.
That single value unless it is single valued we may have a strain while derived from the same
expression considering some part will give some value or maybe some other value considering
some other parts. So that may create anomalies it would not be conforming to the existing or
physical system so this has to be continuous and single valued. In order to obtain a unique
solution as discussed in 1 and also satisfying the requirement as discussed in 2 you must satisfy
certain conditions those are the compatibility.
Epsa ij must ensure continuous displacement that is compatibility condition of strength

continuous displacements continuous for how much that is in which way what is happening you
please try to observe say we better always we consider a simple structures example. Say I have a
cantilever beam and it is loaded at tip by p what will happen this structure will bend like this.
Now the displacement slope these parameters are always continuous along this length of the
beam.
But while we define mathematically that may not be; so if it is not that will create the problem.
So these are some points what mathematically says that that continuity must hold and that
continuity to hold we must satisfy a set of equations known as compatibility to keep it unique the
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solution or relation between x 1 x 2 x 3 and the 6 strain components that is where the
compatibility equations come.
But in general we do not need those equations to discuss much because the assumption or type of
solutions problems we solved those are already solved by many people and these things are
already satisfied so we need not to think much about these things. So with this idea of equations
of compatibility or compatibility condition let us move forward.
All equations this derivation I would say is available in almost all books. It is too mathematical
there here also it is too mathematical you only need to be an expert of partial derivation and
algebraic equation what I say observing algebraic equation and rearranging those equations to
the desired form or desired expression way. So in that form we would like to have establish the
relations why these are the relations that is rarely proved in a book.
I will also try to skip those that part in this context that probably comes in very higher
mathematics or continuum mechanics domain of analysis or in mathematics. So those things we
would not say but what we would say that the compatibility equations what we see this 1 2 3 4 5
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6 how do we get 1 or 2 we will discuss and we will say that the other may be obtained following
a similar way.
If you are not able to obtain there are good books available very popular good books or almost
all books it is available I would suggest you refer those to going to much beyond let us start with
the expression of shear strain gamma xy. Gamma xy as usual with respect to that if we do half
goes with the if you compare with the previous 1 that is for epsilon we have already established a
relation that epsilon is equals to half gamma.
So from there half gets cancelled and we get this expression del v del x plus del u del y. Now
what we do we do twice the partial derivative with respect to x and y and the right hand side gets
modified this way. This line from mathematical point of view is very, very important since the
function u we are continuous we may write we are changing the derivative sequence of
derivation. So this thing usually comes in higher mathematics or you have probably covered in
your higher mathematics course.
So what we get is that the right hand side gets a little bit modified del 2 del x 2 equals to del v del
y + del 2 del y 2 equal multiplied by del u del x so this we can easily say already defined as epsa
yy or epsilon y y and this is epsa xx. So we have a relation between the gamma and 2 epsilon. So
this is the first compatibility equations. So following this if we start with this gamma y z easily
you can come to this if we if we start with this easily you can come to this it is not a big issue to
solve it.
Similar way if you start with this expression or epsilon x x is equals to del u del x and then do
these 2 see it is the other 2 y z if we do this derivation and substitute all these x these expressions
are the other expressions whatever you have got and rearrange those you will easily get the
expressions for this. So please look at the compatibility conditions compatibility equations these
3 equations establish a relation between the shear and the normal shear strain and the normal
strain.
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And this set of equations on the left hand side with the normal strain to the shear strain. So once
this equations are satisfied we have unique solution for the strain with the assumption of
displacement function that is the reason it is important and we need to satisfy this condition
whenever we are solving any problem following elasticity approach not only in elasticity
approach say when we go for the process of solution of numerical methods.
Do not think there it is not satisfied numerical methods are fundamentally rooted to these theory
of elasticity and they are whatever the displacement functions are chosen those satisfy this
condition. And from there the derivation is done and those are approximate because it is
considered piecewise satisfaction of these equations and that is the reason as a whole while we
go it gives us approximate solution.
So we come to a specific case known as plane strain condition plane stress you are already
introduced. It is similar to plane stress in that case say z components of sigma was 0 here z
component of epsilon r 0 that is what we mathematically say. It is easy to remember that way
that is why we say it frequently but problem wise it is a different type of problem. In case of
plane stress problem we say that the surfaces which are free those are the z direction.
And in case of of plane strain where the surfaces we are confined or restricted to expand or
contract those surfaces or that direction is considered epsa zz. So with that we let us see how the
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equations are modified. Equations modifications are not much to do only these things we are
supposed to substitute we are supposed to substitute in the previous relations whatever we have
got for the strain displacement relation as well as the compatibility condition and we get these
values.
So the particles of the body suffer displacement in 1 plane only. Let the plane be x y we say that
it is a plane strain problem. The other way I said I told you that in the z dimension it is restricted
or restrained to strain so no expansion or contraction is allowed in that direction. So accordingly
the compatibility equations we get. Now this is a good discussion whether we have got many
equations is not it.
I have tried to give you small less number of equations but up to some limit I cannot restrict
myself I have to give. So anyway let us see what we have and what we need more. So the stress
strain relationship if we talk about why do we need the stress strain relationship that is what is
briefed here in this things. Till now we get equations of equilibrium 3 strain displacement
relations 6 equations compatibility equations are an expression of compatibility of displacement
which we must have or maintain.
So those are not something relating in relation to the unknown and the known things and number
of equations so that cannot be used that is what we said. So, similarly if we consider that so total
we have 3 + 6 independent equations. So number of unknowns what we have described using
those equations are 6 components of stresses 6 components of strain and displacement 3
components.
So there is a shortcut so 6 more relations we need that 6 more relations will come from the stress
strain relationship. So we must have an additional 6 equation to obtain a complete elasticity
solution this we get from the stress strain relations. So we move forward to stress strain relation
that is a very easy stuff I would not spend much time on that.
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But before we go for before we go for the stress strain relation it is time to have some definitions.
Probably you are aware of this definition for better to remind those. So anybody under
consideration will be assumed to occupy all the space within the boundary surface such
idealization of matter is called the continuous media or continuum. This may be visualized
something like that.
Say I visualize this way say you have a bubble inside a rubber or eraser what you usually use and
if you stretch it many times you see that while it is in normal condition you do not see that
bubble but while you stretch it you observe that bubble that makes it not a continuous media. So
something like that if it is there are discontinuities so this continuous assumption is not holding.
Elastic body it is a if a strained body can recover completely to its original state of shape the
body is called an elastic body. Please note its original state or shape if a strained body cannot
recover completely to its state or shape the body is said to be plastic state. So that is the basic
definition. So this may relations we will talk about in next slide. Homogeneous body if a body
possesses the same property everywhere in the body that is a homogeneous body.
That means any sample we take that shows the same property that is why we say it
homogeneous. And isotropic; isotropic is the properties in all directions are the same at a point.
All directions we have we have talked about only 3 directions. So in the all the 3 possible
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directions or maybe any if you rotate whatever the way you like the axis system in any direction
the properties are same so we call that as isotropic is if not we call it anisotropic. Orthotropic
there are many others categories we would not discuss those things those are generally discussed
in other subjects in more detail.
In general we shall consider bodies to be elastic homogeneous and isotropic continuous that is
what we our all elasticity problems what we are discussing is based on. So on these uh
definitions we will define the stress strain relation.
So the stress strain relation we come across is this is what is new in this right why did I discuss
the previous slide. The previous slide is the basis previous definitions are the basis of these
assumptions or say I should say it is not assumption this property Hooke’s law epsilon xx is
equals to sigma xx divided by E very well known E is modulus of elasticity. See here one more
thing you must note in the previous one we talked about elastic that means which recovers.
But it may recover in a linear manner or in a non-linear manner so whether E is constant during
the process or not that is a big concern. Our discussion is again within the limit where we have E
is a straight line that this is sigma this is epsilon and the slope is E. So our per view or discussion
is in that region. So epsilon xx accompanied by lateral strain epsilon yyy equals to -nu sigma x
by epsilon this is easy to write sometimes I visualize in the way that it is very easy if we I used to
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play in my still I play with eraser is a very soft piece of rubber many things are easy to visualize
there.
So you can easily observe that if you pull the eraser or the rubber block it contracts from the
transverse 2 directions why it contracts? That is because of the Poisons ratio and that is the
reason the minus is there that ratio of contraction is given by this Poisons ratio these are already
introduced to you so better not to spend much time but I like to bring that example that is why I
am talking about that.
So with this thing with this scenario we can easily write this equations because if a body is under
stress of sigma x sigma y and sigma z or sigma xx sigma yy or and sigma zz we can easily say
that 1 by E multiplied by sigma x - mu into sigma y by + sigma zz and similarly we can write the
other 2 normal strain components and the shear strain components we can easily write
considering G as the modulus of rigidity as gamma xy is equals to tau xy by G and so on.
These are easy equation probably in mechanics many times people introduce this without giving
the background and other things I think no harm in that so we are repeating the same equation.
We have come across to some relation in the previous slide E and G relations are written I did
not say it very clearly this relation you can you can easily as I said I have skipped that part you
can easily prove that following some 2 dimensional case of strain where a block is tilted because
of shear strain and then put those values and easily you can find it out.
So I do not want to spend much time G is equals to E by 2 into 1 + nu. So, one more constant is
there that we can easily discuss in relation to that and with that will conclude today's lecture.
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So what we can do if we sum all the components of normal stresses we get the equations as we
see here. And if we take it out uh this portion sigma xx sigma yy and sigma zz then we can have
an expression something like that e will define what is e? e is equals to 1 - 2 nu by e. And in this
particular case if we consider that all these components are equal and that is -p or its a
compression from all size side or it is a hydrostatic pressure hydrostatic pressure is easy to
visualize again while we keep something under water.
So from all the surfaces the body if it is considerably small in size with respect to the depth of
the water it experiences hydrostatic pressure or equal pressure from all the sides or you may need
to do something else to visualize and we can have those type of environment for experiments.
But anyway if we put those we get the relation something like this and this constant in relation to
e is known as the bulk modulus or modulus of volume expansion. So with this small definition
we would like to conclude the lecture with compatibility.
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And the standard references come and whatever we have learned that is what is it are reiterated
here please keep a note of that and then with that I thank you for attending today's lecture we will
meet again with some more concept of problem solving, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -30
Formulation of Elasticity Problems
Engineering Department IIT Kharagpur. We are in the sixth week lectures in sequence it is it is
the 30 lecture. We will have covered relations between stress strain, strain displacement all these
relations we have covered now it is time to solve problem. But theory of elasticity approach of
solving problem is not very well appreciated problem for many.
So we need to think a lot to solve those problems and people have spent considerable time to find
solution for those problems. Now we are learning probably learning is not much difficult much
not much time consuming but it is we are continuing with that. So what we have done so far we
have done so far in the elasticity portion with help of the next slide we will discuss.
As a recapitulation slide appears it is relating related to the whole or whatever we have covered
in our course till that starting with history of aircraft and aerospace structures or solid mechanics.
How people started it how Leonardo da Vinci did his the first experiment and then slowly we
have come across to many things and to the derivation of cell and other things. Now various
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types of after that we have discussed about various types of loads experienced by our structure
the aircraft structure.
In different condition it experiences different type of load when it is airborne it is not only the
loads coming from air and the engine it is it experiences. It also experiences body forces or the
inertia forces because of the movement maneuver we say there so man for maneuvering different
type of g forces comes and that is popularly known as that how much g it can withstand or the
body force it is experiencing.
So with respect to that in correlation to g we have also come across to the flight envelope a flight
envelope is the envelope for which we define how much a structure should withstand how much
g a structure should withstand and it varies from aircraft to aircraft a type of aircraft definitely
for a aerobatic aircraft or a fighter aircraft the g experienced is much more than an agricultural
aircraft or a civil aviation aircraft or maybe a glider one.
So keeping in mind those maneuver difficult maneuvers and experience of g a flight envelope is
generally prepared and those flight envelope guides us for the design. Now after that bending
moment shear force diagram what you have done for different beams probably in your
mechanics course for cantilever simply supported many more. We have done those things
surface and bending moment diagram for wing and fuselage.
We have considered those separately and we have solved typical problems in association to that
we have come across then learn the truss structures. In truss structure we have solved landing
gear problems in relation to truss and not only landing gear problem there are many other three
dimensional structures available inside the aircraft. So those we may also solve using the
approach what we have learned and then we have started discussing the stress strain relations
theory of elasticity all those points.
Stress strain in the first week class we have defined stresses we have defined equilibrium
equations we have defined transformation of truss. How do we transform for trusses from one
plane to the other and during that transformation we found that there is a plane where shear stress
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is equals to 0 or in a better way we should say there are three planes orthogonal planes where
shear stresses are 0. And the normal stresses in those planes are known as the principal stresses.
Those principal stresses follow some certain set of invariant property we have three invariants
stress invariance and similarly we have strain invariance also. But strain invariants we have not
discussed it is given you as a scope to explore on your own or the principle strain properties all
those things I would suggest you explore on your own and I may go into that but after that the
most important thing what we have derived is a related to the strain displacement relation.
The strain displacement relation we have derived from the tensor calculus approach or with
considering vector and tensors and then we got the complete equations of strain displacement
including the non-linear terms. Then in the last class we have considering the only the linear part
we have come across to the complete compatibility equations compatibility ability equations are
important for unique solutions and that has to be maintained.
So so we we have learned what are the equations and we need to we need to satisfy those
conditions for any analysis. Then the stress strain relations that we are probably already
introduced to us we have got some relations and with that scenario let us move forward for
today’s topic.
Today’s topic or this lectures topic is a formulation of elasticity problem.

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So let us look into it how the elasticity problems are formulated formulation of elasticity
problems for a 3D body so we have we are continuing with the formulation of elasticity problem
for a 3d body problem in elasticity we have three equations of equilibrium 6 equations for strain
displacement 6 equations for stress strain relations total 15 relations we have we need to solve 6
stresses 6 strains 3 displacements sigma epsilon u v w or x y z and that is also total 15.
So now we are ready with our status to solve it how to solve that is what we will cover. Now an
elasticity problem can be solved however exact solutions are only obtained for some simple
problems here lies the key people have tried a lot to solve all the problems using this
mathematical approach. And it is really difficult to solve using this mathematical approach all
the problems there are a few problems that people have tried and solved and those we will learn.
And there are two basically ways of solution one is solving the three displacement first and then
solving the stresses the other is the reverse way. But those we will learn but this actually this as
the statements stated here that actually initiates the process of approximate solution and modern
day computational solution process. So involving finite element method not only finite element
method finite element method is the probably the first method that is why people say always
finite element method.
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There are many other methods similar methods like boundary element methods and so on. So
those approximate methods are invented and using these conditions satisfied these conditions
satisfied for a smaller domain they go for the larger domain analysis and using computers and
modeling of those solids in a even if it is complicated. We can solve those problems find out
solutions for that and we cannot solve find out solutions for all problems following the elasticity
approach.
But the question may come why then do we need to learn if it is not able to solve because the
approximate methods what just now I said most popular is find element method nowadays
probably people are more referring more with the commercial names those things but
fundamental basis of those are also this theory of elasticity from here using some functional
analysis approach or some approximate method approach like the Rayleigh method or some
other functional analysis approach we get the basic equations for the smallest unit.
And then we assemble those units and get the approximate solutions. So how good we
approximate the displacement behavior from the theory of elasticity point of view that gives us
how accurate we are in finding the solution. Anyway let us move forward 2 classes of problems
usually we need to determine 3 unknown displacements or 6 unknown stresses whatever we do
we can do the other using the relations whatever we have in our hand.
We have 15 relations is not it. In the first category this category problems in the first category
problems equilibrium equations are written in terms of strain by expressing 6 stresses as function
of strains. Equilibrium equations are written in terms of strain. The strain displacement relations
are then used to form three equations involving 3 displacements u, v and w. The boundary
conditions for this method of solution must be specified as displacement.
So in this approach this is the way we solve after finding u, v and w we can then obtain 6 strains
from strain displacement equations and we find 6 unknown stresses from the stress strain
equations. Note that compatibility is not being used however u, v and w are determined directly
and they ensure that they are singular valued functions. So with this note um as I have already
said unless uvw are having single valued function we cannot do that is the reason in many cases
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after going through the elasticity course many people say that what is the need of compatibility
equation.
Because the type of problem we solve that those are already solved by famous physicist and
scientist and they have already satisfied the conditions of compatibility. We generally many
times skip that part we do not show that it is satisfying the compatibility condition but that does
not mean that it is not required to be satisfied. So please keep it in mind compatibility has to be
satisfied so with that note we move forward to have some more discussion on that solution
process.
In a structural problem our objective is to find the stress distribution in an elastic body produced
by an external loading system. In this case it is usually more convenient to determine 6 stresses
fast before calculating any required strain or displacement. This is done as follows. So write 6
equations of compatibility in terms of stresses. So in the second approach to find the stresses first
we need to write the compatibility in terms of stresses that is what we will try to do try to see.
And to do that what we do is simply recall first the equations of stress and strain 6 equations we
have the resulting equations are equations are then simplified by making use of the strains
relationships developed in the equation of equilibrium the solution of this equations
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automatically satisfy the condition of compatibility and equilibrium throughout. So let us see
how do we do compatibility in terms of stresses.
Again to make it simpler to understand it properly we have reduced our domain we have come to
the two dimensional problem two dimensional case of a plane stress or strain plane stress or
strain we will be solving. So in this first to consider plane stress in today and strain will be
discussed in the next lecture. So in case of plane stress as we have already said that in the z
direction all the stress components are 0 that is sigma zz equals to sin 0 and tau xz tau yz are also
equals to 0.
If we put this condition to equilibrium equation it reduces to this xy are the surface forces stress
and relation also reduces to this and compatibility. This is also with substitution of the other
relations we can have the stress strain directly with respect to the g is something like this and
then we find that although if such z exists compatibility equations are satisfied leaving this
equation only.
So if we substitute all these values and the compatibility equations even though the there is a
value of f z we can we come across only to this equations to satisfy that is del 2 gamma xy del x
del y is del two epsa y del x 2 del two epsilon x del y 2. And then substituting for strain here if
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we substitute all these strain components but we have a relation it is again I have skipped that
part I did not find it simply copying pasting the equations and to show you.
I would suggest you simply substitute these equations and get get the equations here substituting
this here and get this equation here. And then if we move forward with this equation what we
have we need to use the remaining one is not it.
So the equilibrium equation the remaining equilibrium equations 2 and 3 what we have that we
can see and that is taken a derivative.
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This is substituted this notation is only changed here it is sigma there it is tau is used please keep
it in mind that no not a new equation here and that one more derivation is considered and simply
rearrangement is done and then those values are substituted in the equation one after adding
these two. So what we do we add first these two equations and we get the equations at tau xy we
with respect to the boundary conditions the x and y.
And then if we substitute these two in equation one we have a relation which is this that is del 2
del x 2 + del 2 del y 2 sigma xx + sigma yy is equals to minus of 1 + nu del x del y del x sorry
del capital X del x del capital Y del y so this is a compatibility in the in terms of stresses. So,
with this note which is the second approach to find out the stresses. We conclude we will also
find out in case of plane strain how these equations are modified and then we will try to solve a
few problems in the next lecture.
So the reference slide it is as usual it is a combination of the books I am sorry I cannot pinpoint
for a lecture which book is followed. So formulation of elasticity problem is discussed in this
lecture to some extent and probably you have come across you have learned the process followed
to solve a elasticity problem and with that note I thank you for attending this lecture and we will
meet again in the next class to solve a few problems, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -31
Inverse Method of Solution
Welcome back to aircraft structures one this is Professor Anup Ghosh from Aerospace
Engineering Department, IIT, Kharagpur. We are in the lectures of sixth week or module 6 in
that sequence this is lecture number 31 and in this already we have covered to some extent how
the problems to be formulated those from the unknowns fifteen15 unknowns and 15 equations
already we have come up come across. So, using those; how to how to solve problem that is the
predominant approach and importance in this lecture.
We will start with there are basically two types of approach in that also in solution method also.
So, in that solution method we will see we will learn one process in this lecture series and the
other process we will learn in the next lecture. So with this introduction we let us start but before
we start anything I prefer always to come back to the recapitulation slide.
Recapitulation slide really helps us to learn what we have done. So far we have covered history
brief history of aircraft development of aircraft from Wright brothers and then to the present days
the huge Al225 or A380 or and also you have learned aerospace structural analysis or solid
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mechanics from the starting point. How physicist approached the problem how the first
experiment or documented experiment done by Leonardo da Vinci all those things we have
learned. We have also said that in the recent years few years back also there are good famous
theories by Quieter Sanders with respect to the shells.
Shells are very good or applicable structure for aero industry aerospace structures always things
are curved in most of the cases. So from there we went to the various types of external loads
encountered by an aircraft and then we have come across to the conceptual detail of those
structures aircraft structures. Those conceptual details to some extent we have seen with different
diagrams internals of ribs, frames all those things spar.
We have seen how do they look like then what are the load type may be encountered while it is
on ground or it is airborne why? What is the concept of light envelope? How the inertia row
plays a huge role in case of aircraft structure? How the load factors take care of that and fix a
regime of design for different type of aircrafts. From there we have seen how different parts of
aircraft like wing landing gear, tail plane tail assembly experience different type of loads.
Fuselage experiences different type of load and from there also we have learned with typical
example of shear force bending moment diagram of whole aircraft we have considered in two
part. One the wing as separately how the bending moment shear force is coming on it
considering unit load method and then we have seen for fuselage also. Then three dimensional
structures are important in our aircraft industry.
It is not only used in landing gear it that is also used in different other parts of the structure also
like the tail wing or the internal fuselage construction. If we look at it may be analyzed as
considering a plane frame but it is probably better with invention of modern tools may be
considered as three dimensional one. With modern tools all structures are nowadays done with as
three dimensional structures and it is analyzed unless it is very, very computationally expensive
or it requires huge resource.
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So from their introduction of loads and other things we have gone to the deflection. How energy
methods help us to find out deflection. Deflections are interesting because in any structure
especially in aircraft structures deflections are interesting because deflection governs many
things. Many things in the sense one good example is that as we have discussed earlier also then
again to there is no harm in discussing again.
While at the position of takeoff say it is taxing in that case the aircraft wing is loaded with fuel
the maximum amount of well in general whatever is possible is stored inside. And because of
that it bends down how much the tip bends down how much the engine comes close to the
ground that becomes important. So we need to find out deflection not only that because of that
the aerodynamics also changes because of that say the deflection of wing changes.
And if the deflection of wing changes it also changes the lift. If you go into more deep the aero
elastic phenomena that this I have not talked about earlier that also changes because inertia is
changing deflection pattern is changing many way it changes in that way. Up to that we have
talked about more on aircraft structures but after that what we have started is that a theory of
elasticity part which is the basic of solid mechanics structural analysis whatever the way we
think that way.
And we have learned and redefined we must say we have learnt how the stress is defined and
from there we have found out equations of equilibrium. We have found out principal stresses
shear stresses strain displacement relations compatibility equations have redefined strain and
then we have come across about 15 unknowns what we were talking about few minutes back and
with that concept let us try to see how do we solve problems.
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So in this we will be mainly concentrating on the inverse method of solution and let us see how
do we do that.
But before that some part was truncated in the last lecture. We have done in the last lecture the
compatibility equation in terms of stress for solution what we generally satisfy to solve problem
instead of satisfying the displacements in terms of strain. We generally try to do in terms of
strain and that is the approach we try to do because stress it is easier. So in that context we have
already learned that for plane stress condition how the compatibility equation in terms of stress
gets modified.
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So we have so grad square sigma x + sigma y and the right hand side x and y are the surface
forces acting for unit area and this is -1 1 + nu but same way this is for plane stress condition that
means what we have done is that sigma zz tau in this case all these are equals to 0 so considering
that we have got this equation. Now if we try to find out similar one while we do for the go for
the plane strain.
So let us see how do we do in plane strain already it is it is described many times that. It is
described many times that it is similar to the stress but only the third direction component of
strain is restrained it is considered as 0. So compatibility condition we need to satisfy in terms of
stress that is the reason compatibility is written first at the beginning. Now what we can do the
previous method if you not all the steps are repeated here but it is easy you can easily do it this
strain components are put considering these values for the strain expressions are put back to this
equation.
So we get the equations in terms of stress. Once we get the equations in terms of stress then a
little bit modification of the equilibrium equation with respect to the surface forces we can easily
do and we can find out the equation what is listed here as the plane strain condition. So I repeat
what is done this epsa z is equals to 0 epsa xx epsilon yy and epsa zz all these terms are put back
in this equations and then what do we do is we do a little bit modification of the equation and go
for 2 and we find out the equations for compatibility in terms of stress in planes in plane strain
condition.
One point you must note that here that the left hand side this is same even this part is also same
only this constant is changing. So with that note let us move forward.
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So we here it comes the stress function concept as we have already introduced that instead of
compatibility in terms of displacement or strain we are coming to the stress function or in terms
of stress we try to solve in terms of stress. So in that process what we will do this function
facilitates the solution of elasticity problem but the function is how the function is what are the
things to satisfy that let us see.
So in that case for a 2D problem stresses are related to single function of xy such that
substitutions of these stresses in terms of this function automatically satisfy the equation of
equilibrium. No matter what form of function may take however an appropriate stress function
must satisfy the 2d equations of compatibility plus appropriate boundary condition. So this has to
be done and if we have seen that instead of the boundary instead of the forces surface forces
capital X and capital Y the compatibility equations in terms of stress what we have seen reduces
to this or we can say that the compatibility condition in terms of stress is this one.
And we also have in for a 2D case equilibrium equation without a body force is this when we do
not have any force like that. So considering that what we can go forward that here comes
whatever conditions we have said here about the function that function is denoted by phi we say
that we need to define such a way that that sigma x here again a small mistake is there
typographical mistake definitely this is equals to sigma xx equals to del 2 phi del y square sigma
yy or sigma y is equals to del 2 phi del x square and tau xy is equals to delta phi del x del y.
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So if we see we also define or bring one more persons name famous physicist name that is Airy
Airy’s stress function phi is known as where phi is Airy test stress function substituting in one in
this satisfies the equilibrium equation. So this can directly be substituted here and this we say
that this takes the form of Bi harmonic equation grad 4 phi is equals to 0. So if this z is satisfied
we say that the equilibrium condition is satisfied.
So with this note and concept of phi we need to consider a phi i should not say imagine we need
to consider we need to need to find out a function phi which represents the stress for a particular
problem. And in that particular problem the stresses components in 2 dimensional is sigma xx
axis this sigma yy is this and tau xy is this. So with that concept let us move forward to solve
problems.
Here comes the two ways of solving problem inverse and semi inverse method as it is mentioned
we will first learn the inverse method and in the next lecture we will go through the semi inverse
method. So to go through the methods in brief the task of finding a stress function satisfying the
above condition is quite difficult as just now I was telling you, I was hesitating to define so you
just may think of how difficult it is to find out to formulate the phi so that it represents a
particular stressed body with its stresses.
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So it is really difficult it needs lot of experience it needs maybe while they did all these things
probably they did a lot of experiments and then from the experiments they try to do all these
things to find out the stresses. So with this note let us go forward and alternate approach is
known as the inverse method. Here we specify a form of phi satisfying equation 3 what is
equation 3? This is equation 3 ok so that is the equilibrium equation to satisfy it.
And then what we can do is that assume an arbitrary boundary and then determine the loading
condition which fits the assumed stress function and choose boundary. So this is the reason it is
said inverse so we are finding out the first stresses and boundaries conditions and then we are put
saying that it is applicable for this type of case. Usually phi is expressed as polynomial that is the
good way of doing it because the nature if you look at of grad 4 phi it is better to follow a
polynomial.
You may use other things say whatever the experience you have you may try and share with us.
So first let us consider as an example one in the inverse method let us consider that phi is equals
to Ax square + B xy + Cy square so where A B and C are constant it satisfies that grad 4 phi. So
that means the fourth derivative of x if we consider this is definitely goes to 0 that is y definitely
will go partial derivative we will see and the second two consecutive second partial derivative
the second term if we talk about that if we consider for this that also is 0.
Here also it becomes 0 here also it becomes 0 and the third one which is third part of the grad 4
that is the partial derivative with respect to y in 4 order that also makes it 0. So it is satisfied once
it is satisfied the stresses are stresses are listed here it is double derivative so we have 2C it is
also double derivative with respect to x we have 2A and this tau - del 2 phi del x del y that leads
to –B. Now let us try to see the let us try to draw what is the condition we are getting if we if we
represent all this in this particular element sigma x is 2C on this side as well as it is 2C in this
side.
And acting uniformly in the element in the x direction y is also 2A acting in the y direction
sigma yy and we have a shear stress where it is of -B that is the reason the sign is shown in the
opposite direction and with this notation we say that it represents a good plane stress condition.
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And this plane stress conditions we may use for solution of any problem the derived stress
conditions are shown below representing the state of stress described by the assumption of stress
function.
So this is what this assumption describes this problem so this is inverse method. Let us see 1 or 2
more problems in the inverse approach.
So in this approach what we see is that example 2 we again assume one polynomial in this case
the polynomial what we have assumed is is Ax cube by 6 Bx square y by 2 Cx by square by 2
and Dy cube by 6. So this also satisfies this by harmonic equation or grad 4 phi is equals to 0 that
you can easily check I would suggest you check I have not worked out these things here verbally
I have described in the last but it is you may do try this.
So similar following the similar approach since this is the first part of assumption we can find
out the stresses. What do we have in the stresses that the sigma x is equals to Cx + Dy Cx + Dy
right and the sigma y is similar function is very very symmetric one so definitely it is Ax + By
the sigma y and tau xy what do we have we have as -Bx – Cy. Now this gives us a certain type of
stress conditions.
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But probably that does not represents a problem what we are looking for. So let us see if we
consider these constants A B C D in such a manner or that it represents some practical problem
so the first case we will see that is the problem where we are assuming here ABC are completely
arbitrary and a variety of loading conditions are possible on a rectangular plate. If we assume
ABC is equals to 0 that means ABC is equals to 0 what is happening sigma x is equals to only dy
sigma y is becoming 0 oh here it is written sigma x is equals to dy sigma y is equals to 0 and tau
xy is also equals to 0.
So what do we get we get a stress condition something like this D is varying if this is the element
we are talking about half above half below in that case what is happening with respect to D since
it is changing it is representing stress here is distension and in this part it is compression where
do we get this type of problem this type of stresses we get it in pure bending pure bending means
there is no change of bending in along the length of the structure as well as there is no shear
force is acting.
So that is the reason it is it is to some extent concluded and we will be using this letter this
understanding will use later that Dy cube by 6 this term of this inverse approach shows its it this
inverse approach solves or shows the bending problem. Now with this approach we will see this
bending is as I told you this is one good example probably for pure bending a cantilever beam
and at tip there is a load p if this length is l the projection length then this beam is actually under
pl moment.
And that moment is a pure bending because there is no shear force acting in the transverse
direction of the beam. So the beam load in the beam is pure bending and that stress distribution
in this is the only normal stress and there is axial one more addition is there p we can easily have
that that is not represented here. But it is similar to that there must be some additional load of the
p.
So to nullify that we can easily put one more load here as p then that axial load is also missing
but there is a bending moment. So with this condition we can have a pure bending but the next
portion with assumption of other variables, let us see how it represents. So while we assume that
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A C D equals to 0. What do we have we have sigma x is equals to 0 sigma y is equals to By and
tau xy is equals to -By and that particular stress condition is shown here.
In this stress condition if you look at the sigma y is By at any distance B this amp amplitude if
we talk about this is how much then if this is B that means capital B multiplied by small b by 2.
So this is what and the other way this side it is minus but please note that the tau is having
varying with x and here also along this boundary it is varying in here there is no stress acting in
this boundary.
So in this boundary axis value is 0 and sigma y is not having any component of x so that is the
reason you please note that the shear stress is varying this way here similarly it is varying this
way here since it is like this. So the shear stress varies like that and it is constant here at this end.
So with representation of A C and D equals to 0 considering the inverse approach considering
the stress functions the stress function as shown as the polynomial we can have this type of
problem.
And with this introduction to the inverse method we will consider the semi inverse method in our
next lecture. So we have come to the end of this lecture.
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The standard reference is shown here. So please try to follow in case of problem or if you have
more query about those. So the inverse method we have learnt and in that consequence I would
like to thank you for attending this lecture and we will move forward to learn the next lecture,
thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -32
Semi-Inverse Method of Solution
Welcome back to aircraft structures 1 this is a Professor Anup Ghosh from Aerospace
Engineering, IIT, Kharagpur. We are in the lectures of 6th week or the module 6 in sequence this
is the 32 lecture. And this is involved with the semi inverse method of solution semi inverse
method of solution in terms of theory of elasticity approach to solve problems and in that
sequence we will learn how do we solve problem with a typical example.
Now in that sequence we always in every lecture i try to cover what we have learnt. So far this
time I will try to cover it in more brief as quickly as I can. History aircraft development from a
small 1 At Kitty Hawk by Wright brothers to the huge 1 like the AN225 we have learned history
of solid mechanics or structural analysis or the way you see. Then various types of loads
encountered or experienced by aircraft structure is discussed where how those loads comes.
And then we have learned the inertia loads play a huge role in design and that in that context we
have learned the flight envelope and flight envelope also varies with respect to a particular type
of aircraft depending upon its service condition. We have learned how can we find out from the
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overall external load the bending moment and shear force is encountered by wing and fuselage.
Then we have learned three dimensional structures we have solved a few problem in three
dimensional structures with respect to landing gear problems.
And then we have started the deflections energy methods in that we have learned Castiglione’s
method total potential energy method complementary energy method and we have learned a
very, very good method what I say that probably less the fundamental foundation of future
numerical analysis that is the Rayleigh’s method. To some extent in that discussion came the
variation variational calculus not that way but anyway you are introduced maybe.
So and then the theory of elasticity got introduced to stress then equilibrium with body forces,
surface forces, stress transformation, concept of stress transformation our total discussion was
predominantly in the Cartesian coordinate system. Then from there the principle stresses how do
we find a plane where there is no shear stress. And from there we have discussed that what are
the properties of principle stresses.
How invariant is observed? Then we have established strain displacement relation then
compatibility, compatibility combination how it is important without that solution is not practical
we need to satisfy the compatibility condition or equations. Then stress strain relations we have
found out then in the last class last lecture we have covered the way how a problem is formulated
and then solved.
In that method we have already solved 2 three problems with respect to the inverse method in the
inverse method we directly assume the stress function it is stress function and then we try to put
the bound find out we try to find out the stresses components of stresses and then accordingly
putting the boundary sorry putting the constants to 0 or modifying the constants we can achieve
some problem which represents the stress functions properly.
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So with that note we will try to solve problems in theory of elasticity with semi inverse method.
It is almost similar we will use some conclusions like the pure bending portion what we have
learned in the semi inverse method part of the equation that we will be using to solve this
particular a particular example.
So, before we go for the solution of the particular example let us get introduced to the method.
So in this process what we do so disadvantage of inverse method we are determining problems to
fit and assume solution whereas in structural analysis the reverse is the case. So that is quite
obvious but the solution may be simplified by looking at the shape of the boundary and the
applied loading. Semi inverse method is popular in that sense it is suggested by Saint Venant.
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Semi inverse method is suggested by St. Venant here assumptions are made to stress or
displacement components but before we go since the same benefits St. Venant principle is better
to come across once this is important this lines are important you please I will read I will try to
explain with 1 example in the next slide I will try to explain. I will tell you very, very simplified
words also that would not include all these but those are not totally correct.
Simplification always sacrifices something anyway if a system of forces acting on a small

portion of a surface of an elastic body is replaced by another statically equivalent of force acting
on the same portion of the surface this redistribution of loading process produces substantial
changes in the stress only in the intimate neighborhood. It changes substantially but in the
intimate neighborhood of the loading. And the stresses are essentially the same in the parts of the
body which are at large distance in comparison with the linear dimension of surface on which the
forces are changed, linear dimension of the surface on which the forces are changed.
So it says that if I replace by equivalent or statically equivalent force system at the vicinity it is
not the same case but at some distance it is same and that some distance is what it is that distance
is governed by this linear dimension of the surface on which the forces are changed that is a
principle is really very, very important observation and noted by Saint Venant this helps us a lot
in the next page we will see how it helps us.
But without looking into this thing we have considered this in our mind and we have solved
problems already in your mechanics in your other say here also whatever we have covered from
during problem solving we have assumed this. So by statically equivalent systems we mean that
the 2 distribution of forces have the same resultant force and moment. So let us see the example.
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So by static evil equivalent system we mean that the 2 distribution of forces have the same
resultant force and moment. So what is shown here that if 2P loads are applied at some section
AA this is the distribution of stresses because of this 2 concentrated load at this point. But while
the section is l apart which is more than the B it is uniform that is what we you always talk about
is not it. We say that load is applied at the tip of the member and the stress is uniform P by A.
So that P by A here it is say the area is A then it is 2P by A so that is what is a Venant said it in a
different way it says that if it is replaced by a force system if it is replaced by many other forces
summing up to p and statically equivalent then it is same at a distance l where it is more than B.
So both the said forces will induce similar type of stresses with this context with this
understanding we will move forward to our next slide.
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And in next slide we will solve a problem this problem is quite popular from your first day of
mechanics probably. Problem is similar only difference is that we have assumed a different
coordinate system we have drawn the problem in a different way. The boundary condition or the
fixed support is on the right hand side at the center of the beam we have assumed the origin and
x is going this way and y is coming downward.
So with this consideration we will do it is h this is d so the section dimension so with this
consideration let us try to find out the solution. So solution means stress as well as deflection h is
much less than the d the loaded beam can be regarded as an example in plane stress condition. So
upper and lower ages are free from load and the resulting shear forces at x equals to 0 is p. So
there is no load on the upper and lower edge there is a shear force distributed shear force acting
at this edge which results into p this is a boundary condition we will use later.
We can see that sigma xx at any point of the section is proportional to y bending moment at any
section is proportional to x. So this sigma x s is proportional to y this part already we have seen
in our previous inverse method and that brings us to this c 1 y cube by 6 and then b a bending
moment at any section is proportional to x that there is an x factor is coming here and that
governs this lines observation to our physical condition gives us the way that this part is
something like this.
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So, with this note what we can do we can start. Let us assume for a trial sigma xx is equals to c 1
xy where c 1 is constant so this is same c 1 small or capital we are following this I jumped here
to give you that observation. But it can have from this type of approach also where following this
y and x multiplication also we can assume. And then if we integrate that what do we have we get
the same term what we have there.
And we also have 2 functions f 1 x multiplied by y and f 2 x without any multiplication as 2

functions of x because we are integrating the partial differentiation equation with respect to y
where f 1 x and f 2 x are known as functions of x. Now the compatibility it is satisfied there is no
doubt. But to satisfy this what we get we get 1 more relation in terms of f 1 and f 2. So while we
do this if we carry out this term by term I can again explain like the way I have explained earlier.
But better you try once so with application or to satisfy the compatibility condition what we have
is that y del 4 f 1 del x 4 + del 4 f 2 d it is a complete derivative because these are only a function
of x. So with that note we move forward.
Since f 1 f 2 are functions of x only since f 1 and f 2 are functions of x only the second term in
the above equation is independent of y but this must be satisfied for all x and y in the beam. This
is possible only if this is equals to 0 this stating this is very easy but it requires a lot of a lot of
understanding or on the mathematical equations. If you think deep you will also come to the
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same conclusion that this individually these 2 functions must be 0 to be satisfied by the grad 4
phi equation.
Now if we integrate all these terms f 1 is equals to what we have is that c 2 c 3 c 4 c 5 and f 2 is
equals to 6 7 8 9 it is changing the power I hope it there is no point of explaining it. So the phi
changes with the constants starting from c 1 to c 9, 9 constants yes we have to find out. And to
find out those constants let us see what do we do we need to put the boundary conditions. But
with these constants in place we can find out the expressions for sigma yy and tau xy.
So those expressions are quite obvious as it is shown here and we try to put the boundary
condition this boundary condition is interesting. Sigma y is 0 at y equals to + - d by 2 for all x. If
we go back to the previous equation previous figure we can easily observe that at this and at this
which are + - d by 2 definitely it is stress free and that is the reason we say that this boundary
condition holds. So with this node we move forward.
So the boundary condition as it is said in the last page is repeated here and we apply the
boundary condition. Once we apply the boundary condition to sig ma yy we have see very, very
interesting 1 again minus minus minus minus otherwise it is same and again either I need to
mathematically prove or I can simply assume that it holds and we can proceed. These equations
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must be valid for all x between 0 to l x for 0 to l only when this constants are equals to 0 thats
why it is made to 0 this.
So both the equations should hold only in case while these are individually equals to 0 these are
proved in maths we would not spend time for that and consequently these 4 conditions this is for
this particular nature of the boundary conditions implementation equations we get that c 2 c 3 c 4
c 7 are equals to 0 and then tau xy is equals to we have minus of c 1 by 2 y square minus c 4. We
have 1 more boundary condition that is tau xy on y equals to + - d by 2 is also equals to 0 that is
it is also shear stress free it is not only the normal stress free the boundary are top and bottom
there is no shear stress also.
This is a small correction this is definitely not too equal signs this is equals to 0. So, with that
note what we see is that this gives us a relation between c 1 and c 4 and as I mentioned at the
beginning while we were defining the problem that distributed shears stresses at x equals to 0
that means if we go back at this point upper and lower edges are free from load and the resulting
shear force at x equals to 0 is p. So that is what we will implement.
Now this is implemented here and if we implement that h is multiplied with to make it force. So
we with simple integration substitution of the tau xy whatever we have this value and other
things and it yields that c 1 is equals to minus of 12 p by d cube h and same since I is already is
quite well known equals to minus p by I and at the end all the 9 constants are known. Once we
have all the 9 constants known we can have expressions for sigma x as well as sigma y and tau
xy.
So the tau xy reduces to the expressions are something like this as we have if after
implementation of the constants sigma xx is equals to minus P xy by I sigma yy is definitely 0
everywhere and tau xy is equals dependent on the y square and accordingly we have.
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So in the next portion we will try to solve the displacements. Displacements equations are
interesting to solve it is simple mathematics now. There is no 1; not much of elasticity or
structures only boundary conditions are there. Boundary conditions in terms of mathematics you
need to understand and you need to implement. So keeping in mind what we have the strain
expression we put from the stress what we have we integrate.
Similarly for epsa y we have this expression and gamma xy we have this expression we name
this as this 1 2 3. If we integrate there will be unknowns definitely so we get g 1 y g 2 x. So with
that and definitely gamma also will be there. So we can; so we have found out by integration the
del u and v here what we see that since it is a partial derivation of x. So integration gives us a
function of y and g2 gives us a function of x.
And similarly we will be using this expression so incidentally 1 thing is 1 typographical mistake
is noticed you please note that this is not multiplication this is I should do it with red ink blue is
not visible this is a positives plus sign. So with this note please I think it is you can also easily
put it and in the next slide while we will move we will use this equations we will substitute these
values there in the again these values in the third equations and we will proceed further.
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So we go to the next equation. So substituting in three equation three what do we have and little
bit rearrangement definitely we have that is the reason we have partial derivative with respect to
y and we have also the other term with respect to x and it is rearranged a little bit I hope you can
easily carry it out. And then the left hand side is a this rearrangement is done to with keeping in
mind with the things that all the y terms are kept on the left hand side and the wall x terms are
kept on the right hand side.
So the left hand side is a function of y and right hand side is a function of x. A function of x can
be equal to a function of y for all values of x and y only when they are both equal to constant that
is quite obvious this phenomena will be using in many part while you will go for the higher
stages of say any course say it is if it is CFD or dynamics structural learning’s or anywhere. So
anyway this is a mathematical phenomena and according to that we assume that it is a constant a
ok.
So we put this is equals to a 1 and that is the other side also is also equals to a 2 and again we
rearrange once we rearrange and integrate we get g1 and g2 we have 2 more constants because of
integration that is a 2 and a 3. So all total we have 3 unknowns again fine. So we need to find out
those three unknowns how can we find out those three unknowns we have we are in the process
of finding displacement all functions are in terms of u v.
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So we need to put boundary condition in terms of u and v. So while we put in terms of that u v
the boundary condition.
What we can see let us see so then we the displacements are u v as it is put as y a 1 a 2 a 1 a 3 all
the constants uv is completely written here and the boundary conditions at x equals to l and y
equals to 0 that means at this point as well at this point the other x equals to l sorry not at this
point at this point x equals to l y equals to 0 here uv u equals to v equals to del v del x that means
the slope is also 0 because the structure is supposed to bend like this.
This slope is always 0 these are 0. So with that implementation of 3 boundary conditions easily
we can find out a 1 a 2 and a 3 and if we solve those what do we get is that a 1 is equals to PL
square by 2 I z I - 1 + nu P d square by 4 E I a 2 is equals to 0 and a 3 equals to PL cube by thrice
EI and if we substitute those values a 2 is 0 so this is a y function is there and we just put it here
and in a different way and we also put the v boundary condition.
And the deflection curve for the neutral axis since it is neutral axis which parameter goes to 0
that is y equals to 0 so v expression y equals to put to 0 and we have this expression only. So this
is the equation of the deflection line this is the line we are talking about. So this is equation of
this line ok and 1 more interesting point probably you have solved using various methods that the
tip deflection is always PL cube by 3 EI.
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So that if you put x equals to 0 this goes off this is also equals to 0 and we have the desired
solution is equals to PL cube by 3 EI. So with this note the preliminary discussion of theory of
elasticity ends and in next 2 weeks we will solve specific problems with help of theory of
elasticity. We will see how it is important how does it gives insight to a certain problem and
accordingly we will learn a lot. So we have come to the end of today's lecture.
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In this process the usual the reference slide comes and also comes the conclusion page where we
have learnt that semi inverse method of solution using 1 example of cantilever beam. And with
that note I thank you all for attending the course, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -33
Equilibrium Equation in Polar Coordinate System
Welcome back to aircraft structures 1 course this is Professor Anup Ghosh from Aerospace
Engineering, IIT, Kharagpur. We are at the beginning of the module 7 or the 7th week lectures
we will be discussing equilibrium equation in polar coordinate system because the type of
problem what we will attempt this week is requires the polar coordinate system. Polar coordinate
system I want to mean not in general the coordinate system will be our highlight of discussion.
Our main aim will be to discuss the discuss and develop the equilibrium equations compatibility
equations and other theory of elasticity equations what we have already learned with respect to
Cartesian coordinate system. So those Cartesian coordinate system expressions we need to
convert in polar coordinate system and in this particular case it is not exactly polar coordinate
system what we will be using we will be using a similar to a cylindrical coordinate system.
So the difference between polar coordinate system and cylindrical coordinate system may be
imagined something like that the polar coordinate system describes with angle and radius a
position of a point in a globe or in a circular manner or in a spherical manner whereas in case of
cylindrical system what we can imagine that it is it is a cylindrical body which is being described
by the system.
The other way in mathematical sense what do we say that it has a an axis of symmetry. So for
things which are having axis of symmetry generally we consider the cylindrical coordinate
system and accordingly we go forward. So we will come to the equilibrium equation derivation
in this small lecture step by step we will learn how it is done.
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And before that as usual we let us come back to the slides of recapitulation it is important slide in
the sense what we have covered so far in the lecture series or lectures whatever we have um so
far described. So history of aircraft and aerospace structures analysis is the first topic what we
have discussed. In that we have learned that famous physicist have contributed a lot while we
discussed about the structural analysis they have discussed how what is the material a material
behaves how a material behaves.
How many constants do we need to describe a material behavior? There was so many confusions
initially and then finally there was a consensus that for isotropic material again if we talk
isotropic, what is isotropic? That is also a matter of question so they defined discussed isotropic
they defined that E and u are the 2 constants which are sufficient to describe linear elastic
material again.
I use the word linear, linear elastic so they also have discussed linear elasticity non-linear
elasticity all those things and slowly they have developed they have proposed analysis theories
not only static analysis theories they have proposed discussed analysis theories related to
dynamics also or say the time dependent load. And time dependent load how structures behave
and then and then we got defined that what is structures.
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How anything bears a load and then we have come across that may be there are some specific
structures which are predominantly used like plates and cells and we have also seen that the cell
structures development have taken place in the last few years back. The basic fundamental
developments have been done by scientist physicist researchers in maybe in last 50 years also. So
with that we have looked into the history of aircraft also development of aircraft starting from the
Kitty Hawk by Wright brothers.
And then we have come across more than 100 years almost 120 little less than 120 years and we
have crossed huge steps starting from monocoque to semi monocoque structures and from
structures point of view from isotropic material used to the orthotropic material use. From
material use of metal to plastic like that we have learned the other developments mainly we have
put our stress in terms of structural analysis.
Then various types of external loads conceptual structural details we have learned. So because
and structure a structure is supposed to withstand loads. So where from loads come into that
structure or on an aircraft. So that is important so we have discussed various situations various
flight regimes maneuvers during which portion gets stressed more which portion is designed in a
overall manner we have discussed that.
We have seen that there are specific groups who takes care of all these design part it is not that
somebody is sitting on a desk and designing an whole aircraft. There are experts who finds out
the type of loads and they estimates those there is a an agency known as airworthiness agency in
every country almost it is there. So they looks at the critical conditions from where the maximum
load is encountered by an aircraft.
So according to that some schedule procedures have already been laid out and people follow that
engineers designers follow that and those various types of loads we have discussed to some
extent in overall manner. We have seen how the structures are fabricated from thin wall members
from forming using the process of forming how thin wall thin plates thin sheets are bend
according to the required section type.
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And then those are used how those rivets are done all those things we have just discussed
articulated portions of wing fuselage we have seen. We have not analyzed those parts are may be
done in detail in some other course. Then other things like flight envelope we have seen load
factors we have seen many, many more things shear force bending moment diagrams all those
things on fuselage and wing we have seen.
We have seen energy methods for deflection we have seen approximate methods we have seen
studied theory of elasticity Cartesian coordinate approach we have solved problems we have
seen that there are 15 unknowns we need 15 equations considering equilibrium stress strain and
strain displacements. And then what we have come across today is that formulation of a problem
which requires some other coordinate system. We have solved problems also in last lecture and
previous to that.
And today we will go into the formulation or say derivation of the equilibrium equation in polar
coordinate system. So let us start with that.
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So in that what we will do the general equations in polar coordinate system we need to find out
the first equations what we will attempt today is the equilibrium equation. Before we go into the
equilibrium equation it is to better to describe what is there on the right hand figure this figure
what do we consider and how do we do that is described here also in a very concise manner.
What we are considering that again as I told you we are considering asymmetric portion.
Say there is some structure which is asymmetric about the z axis, z axis is not shown which is
from this point towards me or on the other side. So if it is if we follow the right hand coordinate
system it is going from me to the board that means it is coming this way and it is going the other
way to the board so it is something like this, x is coming to y and z is coming down. So anyway
that part the axis of the symmetry we would not discuss here.
But we will discuss here that we are considering a small element given by this 1 2 3 4 and named
as P, P is the center point of that element and what do we see that there are 2 the radius of point
P is as it is said OP is equals to r up to this point it is r and we see that there are 2 red other radial
components which are d theta by 2 apart from the theta or on the other sense we can say that
from this point it is d theta apart 2 radial planes which are perpendicular to xy plane is cutting the
element.
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And 2 cylindrical plane say from this point to this point these points to this point are cutting this
element. So this element is having 2 straight edges 2 curved edges given as name 1 2 3 4 and this
element is theta at theta degree angle with respect to the x. Now we have we need to find out the
equilibrium of that particular element to find out the equilibrium of that particular element we
have given 3 components of stresses here.
Those components are sigma r sigma theta and tau r theta ok. So it is to better to define what is r
what is sigma r and what is sigma theta. Sigma r is for this part particular element or in this
coordinate system we are describing the stress experienced in the radial direction so that is the
reason r is given here and theta, theta is perpendicular to any particular radial line or plane ok
this is perpendicular to this plane given a notation sigma theta.
So perpendicular to this plane acting outward as tension considering positive is given as sigma
theta and as usual there are complementary shear stresses obscure stresses come always in pair.
So those are given here tau r theta tau r theta tau r theta tau r theta and with respect to the plane
the name subscripts and brackets are introduced as 1 2 3 4. And these are also given 1 2 3 4
considering the plane where it is acting.
So let us see what is written here and read almost the same thing is described here in a very
concise manner. Let us see in discussion stresses in plates with circular holes circular rings and
discs card bars of narrow rectangular cross section with a circular axis etcetera it is advantageous
to use polar coordinate. So why do we need polar coordinate that is what is said it is
advantageous to discuss it in polar coordinate while there is a problem of a circular hole in a
plate.
Circular rings or discs curved bars or narrow rectangular cross sections bars of narrow
rectangular cross sections with a circular axis. In those cases if we consider if we discuss with
this type of coordinate system it becomes helpful. The position of the point in the middle plane
of a plate is then defined by the distance from the origin and by the angle theta between r and a
certain axis OX fixed in the plane.
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Let us now consider the equilibrium of the small element 1 2 3 4 cut out from the plate by the
radial section O 4 O 4 O 2 O 2 it is something like a plane acting on this normal to the plate that
is the reason it is saying normal to the plate it is difficult to; so it is acting like this and by 2
cylindrical surfaces 3 1 normal to the plate.
So it is the same figure we need to refer this figure for repeated leaf or derivation so the normal
stress components in the radial direction is denoted by sigma r the normal component in the
circumferential direction is given by sigma theta and the shearing stress component tau r theta.
Each symbol representing stresses at that point r and theta this is the point r theta which is the
point P of the element point P of the element.
On account of variation of stress the values at midpoint of sides 1 2 3 4 are not quite the same as
the value of sigma or sigma theta r theta and are denoted by sigma r 1 r 2 r 3 like that. So it is
said that since there is we are considering that there is a variation. So if that is the reason these
are components are given some other subscripts. The radii of the sides 3 and 3 1 are denoted by r
3 and r 1, the radial forces on the side 1 is sigma r 1 r 1 d theta sigma r 1 d theta is this area d
theta multiplied by this we are considering unit width in the z direction that is the reason it is not
coming.
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So this length is r 1 d theta multiplied by sigma r 1 so that is the force considering unit width unit
depth z direction it is the force may be written as sigma r r 1 d theta and similar to the radial.
Similarly the radial force on side 3 is minus is given because it is acting in the opposite direction
that can also be got considering this and we get this equation. So these 2 components of forces
we have. Now let us see the other components.
The normal force on side 2 has a component along the radius through P of sigma theta 2 r 1 r 1
minus r 2 sine d theta by 2. So if this is d theta by 2 it is very, very thin line. So this component is
as it is given here as sigma theta 2 r 1 - r 2 sine d theta by 2. So it is acting in this direction that is
there is in the minus is coming here and sin d theta by 2 is very small angle that is the reason we
can directly consider that it is equals to d theta by 2 that is what is said.
And this change of length that radius is considered as dr so this becomes minus sigma theta 2 dr
d theta by 2. Similarly from this also we will have 1 more component. If I draw it will become
little bit clumsy so we can easily imagine that 1 more component will come say that is also
coming in this direction. So similar way that 1 is this is also d theta by 2 and accordingly we get
this value. Now the shearing forces on side 2 and 4 gives side 2 and 4 this is side 2 and this is
side 4 considering 2 this side positive this minus this dr is the total force considering again z unit
depth.
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Summing up forces in the radial direction including body force R per unit volume in the radial
direction we obtain that this is coming here as sigma r 1 sigma r not this 1 this is described in the
previous slide this component this component is this component this is this component as it is
given this is this component as it is given and this cr portion here whatever is given and this is
the body force. So we have in the radial direction this is the equation and we see how this
equation changes.
So in this what we have we divide the previous equation with dr and d theta and what do we have
is that sigma r r 1 - sigma r 3 by dr half sigma theta 2 + sigma theta 4 tau r theta 2 - tau r theta 4
by d theta are smaller equals to 0. So if the dimensions of the elements are now taken smaller and
smaller to the limit 0 this is nothing but considering the limit. The first term of the equation is in
the limit of del sigma r r dr this gives del sigma r dr.
The second becomes sigma theta it is average of 2 sides and the third this also becomes del tau r
theta del theta now if it is a multiplication of 2 terms if we expand this using del du v del x that
multiplication of 2 variables derivation concept if you use the equation of the equilibrium in the
tangential direction may be derived in the what do we get is this equation sorry this is for this
statement.
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So what do we get is this equations from this component we get this as well as we get this
component sigma r by r and the remaining is whatever we have this is this component r is getting
divided this is this component. So all the components after getting it in the radial direction we
have this equilibrium equation and the process what is shown already considering those process
if we consider in this direction the equilibrium and in that direction equilibrium whatever we can
get is the equation the equation of equilibrium in the tangential direction may be derived in the
same manner the 2 equations take the final form as 1 by r del sigma theta d theta del theta + del
tau r theta del r + 2 tau r theta by r equals to 0.
So we get the equilibrium equations considering the body forces in case of polar coordinate
system or particular case the cylindrical application or cylindrical coordinate system because we
are not considering the z considering as a symmetric portion of that.
So with that we proceed further the equations are the equations of equilibrium to solve 2
dimensional problems by means of polar coordinates when the body force R is 0 they are
satisfied by putting this expression with respect to phi the stress function, the stress function
already you have. You are introduced to so this how do we get this expression we will prove in
the next lecture but let us consider that if we transfer the stress function expression we get this
stress function expressions.
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And if we put this stress function expression in the previous equilibrium equation we those are
satisfied so with respect to that we define that sigma r is equals to 1 by r del phi del r + 1 by r
square delta phi del theta 2 sigma theta is del 2 phi del r 2 and tau r theta is 1 by r square del phi
del theta - 1 by r del 2 phi del r del theta equals to minus of del del r of 1 by r del phi del theta
this is the popular way generally written where phi is the stress function as a function of r and
theta.
This of course may be verified by direct substitution to yield a possible stress distribution this
function must ensure that the condition of compatibility is satisfied. The Cartesian coordinates;
in Cartesian coordinate this condition is as we have already seen grad 4 phi is equals to 0 or by
harmonic equation is this. So this is our next task in the lecture forthcoming lecture we will come
across about finding out the equivalent expression in polar coordinate for the compatibility
equation.
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So with this note we come to the almost end of that lecture. And what we have learned in this
slide is equilibrium equations in polar coordinate system we have derived we have derived the
polar coordinate system equations for a axis symmetric case. And we will further find out the
solution or compatibility condition with this topic we come to the conclusion concluding slide
today and thank you for attending this lecture we will come back again with the compatibility
equation, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -34
Compatibility Condition in Polar Coordinate System
Welcome back to aircraft structures 1 this is Professor Anup Ghosh from Aerospace Engineering
Department, IIT, Kharagpur. We are in the middle of the 7th week lectures or the module 7 in
sequence it this is 34 lectures. In the last class we have learned in polar coordinate system the
equilibrium equation in this lecture we will be covering the compatibility condition in polar
coordinate system and we will discuss a little bit of transformation of those stress function
expressions first in terms of to find out stresses.
So with that note let us come to the recapitulation slide among the recapitulation slide in the last
lecture we have we have recapitulated history of aircraft various types of external loads in detail
flight envelope to some extent we have detail we have recapitulated. Flight envelope let us starts
with that again flight envelope. Flight envelope is the envelope within which a particular type of
aircraft is supposed to maintain its flight.
And flight envelope is important for structures or design because whenever it flies it experiences
inertia loads more than 1g more than acceleration involved 1g. So since it is very useful by any
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aircraft to crush 2.5 or something about come to about 3g forces so it is better to maintain a an
envelope or prescribe an envelop within which the design should persist or should remain. So
keeping in mind those parameters what we have discussed is that flight envelope and the load
factor.
Load factor is how many times of g forces g means the gravitation force of earth is encountered
by any structure that we need to discuss and we have seen in which condition which load factor
becomes more. And in this correlation we have discussed problems related to bending moment
and shear force diagram of overall wing and fuselage. We have come across the unit load method
unit load method is nothing but considering unit g not only sometimes unit g sometimes unit
force is also considered.
So that any multiplication of force or any multiplication of g factor can easily give us the desired
forces or bending moment and shear force encountered by wing and fuselage. So but it is
important to analyze bending moment and shear force of wing and fuselage that is the reason we
have learned about those wing, wing and phase large bending moment and shear force diagram.
We have learned three dimensional structures three dimensional structures are space structures
are important in terms of aircraft structures there are many applications 1 of the most prominent
application is landing gear.
And in case of landing gear we use in general the truss concept or axially loaded member
concept. So considering a landing gear as three dimensional truss what are the deflection and
what are the loads coming to the components of a truss we have solved we have solved specific
problems we have seen how it is solved and done. We are also introduced to some extent
components of trusses like the oleostart member or torsion links.
So after that we have gone to the displacements or energy methods energy methods and
displacements where it is mentioned energy methods involving complementary energy method
involving Castiglione’s theorem involving unit load method dummy load method. So unit load
method dummy load method Castiglione’s theorem are how those are similar to each other and
how efficiently we can use to solve problems.
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How can we even solve indeterminate problems using those methods that we have seen not only
that we are introduced to a fundamental process of approximate analysis based on energy
principles that is the Rayleigh method? We got introduced how approximation is considered
there and how approximate good it is depending on the initial assumptions of the displacement
profile that we have seen with examples.
And after that we have come across to the stresses or theory of elasticity approach. Theory of
elasticity approach is important in the sense because we specifically encounter different types of
types of problems which leads to fatal accident 1 of the important thing is stress concentration
around the whole that we are in the process of discussion. And we can see from internet that
there was an aircraft designed with almost rectangular windows.
And that rectangular window led to catastrophic failure of the fuselage. So we need to see why
those are important to study. So unless we learn the theory of elasticity approach unless we look
into the in depth about the behavior of stress development and strain development and
displacement it is difficult to predict problems so we that is keeping in mind those things.
Not only those things we need the fundamental development of any numerical method what we
are popular like the finite element method is based on this elasticity theory of elasticity and
energy methods so unless we learn all these methods very, very efficient way we will not be able
to learn the further topics that is the reason theory of elasticity is introduced. And in last two
weeks we have we have considered Cartesian coordinate system.
We have found out stresses equilibrium equations principle structures shear stresses stress strain
strain displacement relation compatibility strain stress strain relations all those and the last
lecture we got introduced to the polar coordinate system for theory of elasticity because we our
aim in this week is to discuss the stress distribution around a hole due to a simple tension in a
plate.
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So in following that line what we will do we will learn in this lecture the compatibility condition
in polar coordinate.
This is again a kind of simple mathematical derivation it there you do not have much concept of
elasticity or structures its simple mathematical approach. Let us see how it is done. So to yield a
possible stress distribution stress function phi must ensure that the condition of compatibility is
satisfied this is the condition of compatibility in Cartesian coordinates this condition is as stated
here and sometimes we write this as grad 4 phi is equals to 0.
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So with this we proceed further for present purpose we need this equation to be transferred to
polar coordinates the relation between polar and Cartesian coordinate is given by r square equals
to x square + y square its quite obvious and theta is equals to tan inverse y by x or r tan y by x
this is quite a I think you can easily do it. It is not big issue this is r so that is the way it is done
for which we have del r del x just simple from this what we have is x by r.
And if we that is equals to cos theta del r del y is equals to sin theta. Now del theta del x if we
use this 1 we have minus y by r square and that can easily be stated as sin theta by r. And similar
way del theta I think a minus is missing here so please put that del theta del y is equals to x by r
square cos theta by r using this and considering phi as a function of r and theta we find that it is
del t phi del x is equals to simple series way it is done del phi del r multiplied by del r del x.
Similarly del phi del theta multiplied by del theta del x and then we substitute these values we
have del phi del r cos theta - del phi 1 by r del phi del theta sin theta. So minus is because of this
it is missing here please note that. So with that we move forward to the next slide.
In this slide what we have to get the second derivative with respect to x it is only necessary to
repeat I think I need to clean more to get the second derivative with respect to x it is only
necessary to repeat the above operation hence del 2 phi del x square is nothing but multiplication
of those two. Here please note in mathematical way how it is written and if we carry out that
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multiplication we have how many terms 1 2 3 4 5 terms and those 5 terms are because of this rr
is involved here those and other terms will come and we need to simplify those things. I would
suggest you carry out that.
So it is finally we get del 2 phi del r square cos square theta - 2 del 2 phi del theta del r sin theta
cos theta by r del phi del r sin square theta by r + 2 del phi del theta sin theta cos theta by r del 2
phi del theta square sin square theta r square. So these are the similar term and the similar way if
we if we find out del two phi del y square we get a similar expression with five terms. But please
note that this term and this term is simply opposite in sign this term and this term are also
opposite in sign.
These two if it is added will man is the theta component similarly this two if we add will vanish
this theta component sin square theta plus cos square theta is becoming equals to 1 it is similar to
these two terminals these two term this two term. So finally what we have we have this 1 by r
this and 1 by r square.
Those three terms as it is mentioned we have grad square phi but we need the 4th 1 knows by
harmonic equation we need. So to in that sense using the identity it is nothing but this is equals to
this multiplied by this where this is the derivative multiplication the way it is written. And it is
not carried out it is better not to carried out at this position because if we carry it out it becomes
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lengthy it becomes difficult to handle and we probably do not need that way that is the reason it
is not carried out and simple way this term is written here as the bionic form in polar coordinate
system.
And above second order expression the compatibility equation in polar coordinate system
becomes this, this is here and the other as parameter. Form it is written from various solutions of
this partial differential equation we obtain solutions of two dimensional problems in polar
coordinates for various boundary conditions. So equilibrium equations and compatibility
equation in terms of stresses compatibility equations in terms of stresses or stress function is
evaluated.
So we need with using this we can attempt to solve problems and in this week we will try to
solve problem with respect to a problem which is a whole circular hole in a plate. We will see
that problem how the problem simplified way we can discuss in this slide to some extent. A plate
if we consider this way and if it is under uniform stress is and if we consider 1 circular hole at
the middle what is the distribution of stress at this point what is the distribution of stress at this
point.
Whether those points are having same amount of stress experienced or not that is a very
interesting point interesting problem to discuss. So with that note we will move to the next slide
where we will again find out the stress function quantity in a different form in a different way.
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So the second the first and second of the above stress expressions as derivatives of stress
function may be found out now because already now we have the coordinates transformation
equations from Cartesian to the polar we have. So we can easily check those. If we choose any
point in the plate and let the x axis passes through it we have theta is equals to 0 and sigma x and
sigma y are the same.
For this particular point as sigma r and sigma theta it is also similar thus for the second order
partial derivative of phi with respect to y and putting theta equals to 0 we can have an expression
of sigma r and sigma theta and that is what is done here sigma r is equals to sigma x at theta
equals to 0. So that is was del 2 phi del y square what is we have learnt in ins area stress function
definition if you remember but this transformation was not done earlier in the last lecture that is
the reason it was not given.
We simply stated this so this equation what we can do now we are putting using this value and
putting that theta is equals to 0. So if we put theta equals to 0 what will happen this is 0 this is 0
this is 0 but this is 1 this is 1 right so we will have only these two components that is what 1 by r
del phi del r and 1 by r square del two phi del theta two is present here similarly this x expression
continues to represent sigma r whatever the orientation of x axis.
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We find similarly from the second order partial derivative of phi with respect to x and putting
theta equals to 0 the expression for sigma theta and in that expression its similar way theta if we
put it its similar way what we get is that this this expression only because all other terms are
involving sin, sin means it is leading to 0 so we have finally this. So with this small derivation
note we will proceed further and if we follow similar approach we can have the expression for
tau r theta tau r theta is this as it is written here we can easily find out.
So with as I said with this note of derivation we come to the end of today's lecture this is the
standard slide of reference.
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Conclusion is that we have learned compatibility condition in polar coordinate system and we
will learn further polar coordinate to consider problems in the sense of finding out stress
distribution around a hole and with that node we come to the end of today's lecture. Next lecture
we will start the problem of a circular hole in a plate which is under uniform tension, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -35
Compatibility Condition in Polar Coordinate System
Engineering Department, IIT, Kharagpur. We are in the 7th week lectures or in the module 7
lectures in sequence this is the 35th lecture. Today we will start the effect of circular hole on
stress distribution in a plate that is very important it gives us the idea of stress concentration.
How stress varies around a hole under a uniform tension.
And to analyze this; what we have done so far is that in the last two lectures we have derived
equations of equilibrium as well as compatibility in terms of stresses in polar coordinate system.
We have also derived or expressed or changed the coordinate from Cartesian to polar in case of
stress components like sigma theta sigma r or tau r theta. Now we will be using those to find out
the stress distribution due to a hole in a plate while the plate is under uniform tension.
We will consider initially only the tension maybe later in some lecture we will cover about other
cases or critical cases that we will discuss.
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But with this idea let us start but before we go into today’s topic it is time to recapitulate or to
remember back the things what we have already covered. In this relation we have covered the
theory of elasticity or solid mechanics history. We have also seen development of aircraft
starting from Wright Brothers Kitty Hawk flight then we have seen various types of external load
loads conceptual structural details.
How the ribs sparse skins come in a aircraft wing we have seen how transverse frames are put in
aircraft fuselage. How longrons are also put in aircraft fuselage how the deck is put in the aircraft
fuselage how it is divided in separate compartments with different structural parts. We have seen
landing gear also we have seen other components like tail plane. We have seen later the bending
moment shear force distribution for the overall wing and fuselage.
Then landing gear analysis we have done from structures point of view considering those as a
three dimensional truss and then we have come to the theory of elasticity. Before we come to the
theory of elasticity we have also seen or found out deflections are important in any structure. So
deflections to find out deflection we have gone across different methods starting from strain
energy complementary strain energy.
And then total potential energy then Castiglione’s theorem from their unit load method dummy
load method and at the end very, very important method that is the Rayleigh method. So
thereafter we have come across with theory of elasticity. Theory of elasticity is important to learn
in various ways. If you go further for different understanding in depth the type of problem say
we will be solving today or in this week.
That will give us insight in development of stresses around a whole similar way unless we learn
theory of elasticity it is difficult to cover all the cases to predict critical conditions. So keeping in
mind those things theory of elasticity is taught. So in that theory of elasticity where we need to
find out 15 unknowns like 6 component of stresses 6 component of strains and 3 components of
displacements uvw.
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So those say 15 quantities what we need for structural analysis purpose has to have 15 equations
those equations we have derived. We have talked about compatibility also compatibility is
always important it holds a separate place in the total analysis. So we have also seen conversion
of strain compatibility to stress complement compatibility to bi-harmonic equations and through
that we have come across to the point where we have some knowledge to analyze effect of a
circular hole in a plate which is under in plane tension.
So with that note let us proceed for today’s lecture.

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The effect of circular holes on stress distribution in a in plates is interesting problem figure
below this is what we idealize this is the way we idealize figure below represents a plate
submitted to an uniform tension of magnitude S it is in plane tension in plane means the forces
are acting at the plane of the plate and it is of S amplitude magnitude in the x direction. If a small
circular hole as it is shown here is made in the middle of the plate the stress distribution in the
neighborhood of the hole will be changed.
So how is it going to change we can easily say it is going to change because there is a hole
definitely it is not continuous. So it is something will happen if we think the stresses something
like on lines parallel lines and then because of the whole the lines will not get discontinuous
something will happen it will may disperse in some direction and do so that we are supposed to
find out. But we can conclude from Saint Venant’s principle that the change is negligible at a
distance which are large compared with a, a is the radius of the hole.
The radius of the hole so its Saint Venants principle already we have learned we have not gone
through the proof but it can be proved in higher elasticity classes, theory of elasticity classes that
is not proved. So with that respect we are considering that if it is the dimension position is more
than a few times a then it remains same. So with that concept so the changes whatever will be in
the vicinity of the circle may be around in this region.
What is the change it is coming so while we consider this is as a. So let us see what are the other
changes may come up and we can continue.
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So with this we do some idealization of the problem and that problem let us see how do you
idealize it is same stress stresses as is shown here. We are imagining that the dimension of the
hole is twice a as it is shown. And we also imagine some circle which is of diameter b sorry
radius b and b is considerably large in comparison to a. We name the whole points this is n this is
m.
We also name the other diametrical point as p q we consider if any point which is at angle theta.
So x is acting this way y is acting in this direction. So with that concept consider the portion of
the plate with in a within a concentric circle of radius b large in comparison with a that is what
we said this dimension b is large in comparison to a. The stresses at the radius b are effectively
the same as in the plate without the hole and r therefore given by this.
So what we are considering here with this expression that if there is a plate without a hole what
are the stresses to be? We are saying that the stresses to be the sigma r in the radial direction is
half of S cos 2 theta component. So it is something like if we consider a plane here and if we
consider this as the sigma r and if it is theta degree in angle instead of considering there if we
consider here it will be easier to imagine.
If this is sigma r theta is the angle then we say this is equals to half of S + S cos t 2 theta by 2 this
you can easily get from the two dimensional stress stress transformation what we have learned if
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you put the values only the sigma x you will get this value of sigma r there. And the shear stress
tau r theta in this particular plane the shear stress tau r theta is minus of half sine 2 theta. So it is
said that beyond this circle whatever the circle we see the stresses are in this form sigma r and
tau r theta.
So with that note let us proceed these forces acting around the outside of the ring having the
inner and outer radius r equals to a and r equals to b give a stress distribution within the ring
which we may regard as consisting of two parts. So what is coming down now? Now instead of
considering these stresses what we are considering that this annular ring is under this stress
distribution stress distribution.
So if it is under this stress distribution what we can again subdivide the problem in this way the
first part the first is due to the constant component of half S this is the half S of normal forces.
The normal forces the stress stresses it produce can be calculated by means of symmetric stress
distribution about an axis. So what it says that if this is the case then if we can imagine some
problem where stresses are acting in this form.
And this stress value is S by 2 then we can and if we are able to find out the distribution of
stresses inside this body that is what the problem we want to solve. So, one part of the problem is
this. The stresses it produce can be calculated by means of symmetric stress division about an
axis so this is symmetric about an axis means the axis perpendicular to this or the z axis.
The remaining part consisting of the normal forces half S cos two theta that means this and this
multiplied together with the shearing stress minus half sine two theta will have to also find and
will have to add it up considering linear superposition of the stresses developed by two different
cases. So the problem gets divided in two parts. So let us see that is the way we will solve the
problem in one part we will consider this and the other part we will consider that there is a sigma
r consisting of this part and everywhere there is a tau also with this formula.
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So what do we have? The first part as i said the access symmetric case where axis of symmetry is
z sigma r we are considering as S by 2 that part we will try to solve. Now the stress distribution
symmetric about an axis if the stress distribution. If the stress distribution is symmetrical with
respect to the axis through O perpendicular to the xy plane the stress components do not depend
on theta and are functions of r only.
So it is quite obvious that if it is symmetric it is not dependent on theta it becomes a function of r

only. So we consider that we think that if this is the case we are talking about then whatever the
stress here if it is some distance same distance apart from the center it is same here it is same at
this place or at this place. So it is only dependent on r not on theta for from symmetry it follows
also that the shear shearing stress tau r theta must vanish.
Since it is a symmetric force so there would be any tau r theta then only the first of the 2
equations of the equilibrium remains and we have these are the 2 equilibrium equations just to
remember those I have put back again. So since as it is says it is independent of theta this term is
not there and since tau r theta is not present this equation completely vanish. So the only
remaining equation that to where we do not have any theta dependent term.
If we discard that part that remains this part this part and this part that is what is written here. If
the body force R is 0 we may use the stress function phi when this function depends only on r.
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The equations of compatibility becomes this is the original equations of compatibility what in
polar coordinate we have derived already but since as we have already mentioned theta
dependent terms are not there it reduces back to this.
And phi what we have considered as a stress function if we put that it becomes the compatibility
equations after this multiplication and derivation accordingly done this becomes the equations of
compatibility in terms of stress or in terms of stress function.
This is an ordinary differential equation which can be reduced to a linear differential equation
with constant coefficients by introducing a new variable t such that r is equals to e to the power t.
In this manner the general solution of the above equation can easily be obtained this solution has
4 constants of integration which must be determined from the boundary conditions by
substituting it can be checked that phi is equals to this is a general solutions.
This requires lot of experience to find out this you need mathematics knowledge of good
mathematical knowledge to do it we have skipped that part. So we are considering that this holds
this satisfies the previous bi harmonic equation in terms of polar coordinate applicable for a
symmetric axis symmetric stress distribution and we have checked people have checked
scientists physicists have checked and said that holds.
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The solution of all problems of symmetrical stress distribution and no body forces can be
obtained from this. This corresponding stress distributions are what we can say that since already
we have derived the stress functions we have converted the stress functions and stress relations
which are sigma r equals to 1 by r del phi del r +1 by r square del 2 phi del theta square sigma
theta is equals to del 2 phi del r 2.
So if we substitute this value in this form of equations what we have we have these two
components. So once we have these 2 components these 2 equations what we can think of we
can think of putting boundary conditions. So to find out the constants A B C and D is vanished
because it is not having any component with respect to r or theta. So let us move to the next
slide.
So it is repeated back those two slides those two equations and if there is no hole at the origin of
the coordinates constants A and B vanish since otherwise the stress components become infinite
when r is equals to 0. So if you look back here if r is becoming 0 this component is definitely
going to in finite and that is the reason we need to discard that part and for the case while we do
not have any hole at the center.
But it is a axis symmetric crest which satisfies this equation so we hence for a plate without a
hole at the origin and with no body forces only one case of stress distribution symmetrical with
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respect to the axis may exist namely that when sigma r is equals to sigma theta and is equals to
constant so both a b vanishes as we said if we look at it carefully then only it is equals to
constant or equals to two c and the plate is in a condition of uniform tension or uniform comp
compression in all direction in its plane.
So either it is in the; depending on the type of stress acted upon on that particular case which is
not this case but a case where we do not have any hole. So in this particular case what we can see
is that if there are stresses something like this in that case it is sigma r is equals to sigma theta
and it is equals to some constant here it is 2C. So it if it changes it accordingly we need to find
out that value. So with that note we would like to come to the end of today's this lecture.
Particular lecture and we will use these equations in the next lecture with boundary condition
otherwise it becomes a bit discontinuous portion that is the result we have taken this way and we
will find out the stresses in the hole. So with that note we come to the end of this.
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And we will proceed further in the next lecture thank you for attending this lecture.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -36
Effects of Circular Hole on Stress Distributions in a Plate
Engineering Department IIT, Kharagpur. We are in the series of the lectures where we are at the
seventh week the sequence is 36th lecture. We were solving stress around a hole how for
uniform in plane tension those stresses vary on the circumference of a hole. So we need to we
have solved to some extent the problem.
We have solved the problem with no hole and with uniform stress condition access symmetric
stress condition and this lecture we will solve the remaining portion the most important portion
of the stress distribution. Here we will consider a hole we will put boundary condition
accordingly and with those boundary condition we will see how we can solve the problem.
So with that note we will proceed further the recapitulation slide comes. Every lecture we simply
try want to remember again what we have learned this course may be long for somebody maybe
not very long but anyway whatever we have learnt and where we are it is better to come get a
reminder for that. So history of aircraft and solid mechanics or structural analysis we have done.
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We have done various types of external loads conceptual structural details. We have done flight
envelope and load factor bending moment and shear force diagram of wing and fuselage.
Truss and space structures we have done. Solved problems related to landing gear. We have used
different energy methods to find deflection it is for determinate as as well as indeterminate
structures external internal both we have done. We have used different methods like dummy load
method unit load method Castiglione’s theorem. We have also learned a very, very important
method like Rayleigh ridge method.
We have come across the theory of elasticity next and then there we have learn different
equations required to solve problems and in that process we have solved problems in inverse and
semi inverse method. We have solved problems for a cantilever beam loaded at tip that’s a very
good solution we get and then we have we have discussed a part of of the problem where there is
a hole in a plate and the plate is loaded on its plane.
And because of the hole how the stress varies on the sun circumference of the hole we need to
study and we will go into that problem.
So we have solved a part of it in last 2, 3 lectures and we will continue with that without any
introduction.
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So what we have consider here is that we are there is a hole of diameter twice a uniform tension
is acting of amplitude S we are considering one more circle b which is considerably large in red
in radius in comparison to the whole radius. And we are assuming that the stress distribution
beyond this hole beyond this circle is a uniform, uniform in the sense as if there is no hole in the
structure or the plate.
So considering that we got that there are 2 part one is sigma r and the other is tau r theta. Sigma r
is also divided in 2 parts one is because of the uniform compression or tension S by 2 other is
theta dependent component tau r theta is completely theta dependent component. So the first part
considering the first part that is access symmetric case S by 2 that we have solved to some extent
and we have discussed that if there is no hole in this particular case AB goes to 0.
And it results in to the sigma r or sigma sigma r or sigma theta as constant but we are discussing
if the problem with hole that is the reason after repeating the equations what we have derived in
the last class. We are considering the case with a hole. If there is a hole at the origin other
solution then uniform tension and compression can be derived from the expressions from these
expressions only. Taking b as 0 this comes may appear bit arbitrary but we do not have the scope
to prove this let us consider that b becomes 0 considering the displacement considerations.
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The above equation becomes sigma r equals to A by r square + 2C and sigma theta theta is
equals to minus A by r square + 2C. So if this is the case and if we imagine that it is under
pressure from inside as well as from outside it may look like a cylinder this solution may be
adapted to represent the stress distribution in a hollow cylinder submitted to uniform pressure on
the inner and outer surface.
Let A and B denote the inner and outer radial of the cylinder and p i and p o the uniform internal
and external pressure. So what it says that this is p o and this stress distribution whatever we see
that is p i ok and we are considering some problem where we have a cylinder something like this
and it is under pressure from outside as well as from inside also there are pressures as it is shown
here.
So this is xyz it is not the same way it is given here it is upside down may be considered for
Cartesian right hand rule system it has to be xyz in this way otherwise we need to draw it in a
different way anyway so here xy is in acting in a different direction. So as it is says that both are
compression that is the reason it is minus this is also minus acting here. So we need to put the
boundary condition we need to check what are the constants we get?
Substituting the first of stress expression we obtain the following equation to determine A and C.
So in sigma r if we substitute we have this is equals to p i and this is also a this is say mistake
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this should be b. So A by b square is equals to + 2C so with that if we go for solving this A and
C we get the equation this as well as 2C is equals to this and from there what we can if you
directly substitute this to the values we have 1 by r square remains and 2C is this value.
So there is nothing more to discuss and similarly sigma theta is having this expression. So we
now know for a case where it is in compressive stress from inside as well as from outside a
cylinder how the stress distribution is it is dependent on again only on r not on theta because it is
axis symmetric case again.
So the remaining part consisting of now we come to the remaining part remaining part that is the
reason I have brought back those 2 equations why we are saying remaining part? Because sigma
r and C tau r theta what we have seen is that is the expression beyond the b or while there is no
hole. So this part we have considered so far with a hole the remaining part means that this S cos
2 theta by 2 and tau equals to - S sin 2 theta by 2 those 2 parts we need to consider and find out
the stresses.
The remaining part consisting of normal stresses half S cos 2 theta together with the shearing
stress minus half S sine 2 theta produce stresses from which may be derived from stress function
of the form phi is equals to f r cos 2 theta. So substituting in the compatibility equations what we
can see is that it is substituted here we have if f is a function of 4 f this is completely I think you
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can get the is there any need to explain I do not find any need to explain it is some simply
substituted here.
And accordingly we get this ok del 2 phi del 2 r square is simply theta is coming out in all the
cases cos 2 theta comes out that is the reason only f component is present there. So del 2 del 2 f
del r 2 then 1 by r del f del r - 4f r square and this is the other parameter. So because it is grad 4
form so phi is equals to the general stress function is therefore maybe as this phi is equals to Ar
square + Br to the power 4 + C1 by r square + D again how do we get to this it is simply a
mathematical portion we are not going to discuss it. So with this we proceed to the next part.
So what we need to do is that and the corresponding stress components sigma r since we have
got that stress functions with constants A B C D if we use the stress function expressions with to
find out the normal sigma r and sigma theta and tau r theta we get these components as minus of
2A + 6C by r 4 to the power 4 4D by r square cos 2 theta sigma theta is in this function these are
the fr portions and then we have this form also.
And what do we have after that we need to substitute the boundary conditions so if we go into
substitution of the boundary conditions. The constants of integrations are now to be determined
from boundary conditions for the outer boundary and from the conditions that the edge of the
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hole is free from external forces this condition gives that the considering this part only what we
have is this minus has come in the other side.
And for the outer boundary at this is at b and it is 0 sigma r is zero and the inner boundary and
we put that is equals to 0 considering this equations we have these 2 boundary conditions and if
we go for the other equations with tau r theta if we put that again we have 2 equations.
So total we have 4 equations and if we solve those 4 equations this is the other boundary
condition just show shown here solving these equations and putting a by b equals to 0 that is
assuming in finitely large plate we obtain that A is equals to minus S by 4 B is equals to 0 C is
equals to minus S a to the power 4 by 4 and D is equals to S a square by 2 substituting these
values of constant into the stress equations.
And adding the stresses produced by the uniform tension half S on the outer boundary calculated
from the expressions of the stress for the problem of stress distribution symmetrical about an axis
we find this is for stress distribution symmetrical about an axis and here we are supposed to they
are p and p forces were compressive here it is intense type is tensile. So keeping in mind that the
sign change we need to consider we also need to consider that a by b is equals to 0.
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So if we take common from this side the b, b gets cancelled and accordingly we get we remain
the a the r square remains this portion becomes 0 no not this portion becomes 0 this is also p p
inner is equals to 0 p i is 0 here also p i is equals to 0 and p outer is supposed to be minus of S by
2 putting those values what do we get that sigma r is equals to S by 2 1 - S square by r square + S
by 2 1 + 3S square + r square – 4S square by r square cos 2 theta.
So this is because of the axis symmetric part what we have solved earlier and this part is from
this up to this process whatever we have solved. So this becomes a linear combination of both
the cases and then we have an expressions for sigma r.
Similarly if we put the values and we know the constants for sigma theta if we consider we have
the value for sigma theta and also the value for tau r theta. So finally we have all the expressions
for sigma theta tau r theta and sigma r sorry sigma r sigma theta and tau r theta around this hole.
And what does this what does this drawing what is shown here represents that we will try to
explain now and see how it is do we get that portion
So if we look into this if r is very large sigma r and tau r theta approaches the value given in the
previous derivation or in the boundary condition at the edge of the hole r equals to a we find that
sigma r and tau r theta is equals to 0. If we substitute the value r equals to a in the sigma r
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expression which is not brought here we can easily see that so that becomes that sigma r and tau
r theta equals to is 0.
But sigma theta is not 0 sigma theta makes an expression something like this S – 2S cos 2 theta
and that is a very, very significant equations and this gives us a distribution something like this.
So it can be seen that sigma theta is greatest when theta is equals to pi by 2 or theta is equals to 3
pi by 2. So where it is this is at this point and this is or the other way we are measuring theta in
this way so if I say this is theta 1 this is position 1.
If we say this is theta 2 this is position 2 so with this we see that these are the 2 points where
sigma theta is maximum which way sigma theta is acting in this particular case if we consider
this portion consider some element here sigma r is acting in this directions sigma theta is acting
sigma r this is and sigma theta is acting in this direction. So if this is acting in this direction what
is the value in this particular point at the end m m and n of the diameter perpendicular to the
direction of the tension.
This is maybe is not for may be darkened please note that this portion to be but how to do excuse
me (FL: 21:10 to 21:42) so these are at this point as we have seen the stresses sigma r and sigma
theta is acting this way this is sigma theta and that value what we get is that this is become minus
we go becomes plus in this particular value. And we have this is equals to 3 S that means
whatever the stress applied to the plate this particular portion the element whatever we see this
element is experiencing sigma theta is equals to 3S 3 times the S.
So and it is in tensile nature it is in opening nature if you look at it if we consider this portion it is
opening in nature. So this is the maximum tensile stress and is in is 3 times the uniform stress S
applied at the ends of the plate at the point p and q theta is equals to pi and 0 this if we look at
instead we have –S. So if we consider some element here if we consider say here some element
in this particular case this is sigma theta and this is sigma r and this sigma theta is equals to –S.
So this part is m n is in compression tension m and n in tension tensile stress and p and q in
compressive stress. So this is very, very important point 2 note you please also note and now if
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we apply the values in sigma theta and if we increase the other values increase the value of r say
not equals to a say little bit more than a if we continue putting we along this direction along this
line we have the sigma theta distribution following this parameter this profile.
So this is a very good point to note though it is of 3S it reduces very quickly as we have learned
following the Saint Venants principle there is a and that distribution is something like this. So if
it is under tension with s stress at these 2 points it is experiencing tensile stress of magnitude 3S
and at this 2 point it is experiencing compressive stress of magnitude S. So with this note with
some considerations or a few discussions we will come to the next lecture.
We will see how things are improved for service and accordingly we will go to the next problem
to solve torsion related things. So with that note we come to the end of the lecture today.
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Reference is a standard reference so what we have learnt that the distribution of stress, stress
distribution on the circumference of circular hole and in this process very, very important
phenomena with inside how the stress varies we have learnt and with that note we come to the
end of today's lecture. So thank you for attending this lecture we will meet again with some more
lectures, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -37
Effects of Circular Hole on Stress Distributions in a Plate
Welcome back to aircraft structures 1 course this is professor Anup Ghosh from Aerospace
Engineering Department, IIT, Kharagpur. We are at the end lecture of module 7 or the 7th week
lectures and title of the lecture remains same effects of circular hole on stress distribution in a
plate that is because so far what we have done in this series is we have evaluated the equations or
derived I should say the equations of elasticity in polar coordinate system.
So that we can handle the problems problem we have specified. And after that for uniform stress
uniaxial stress in plane stress of amplitude is we have solved the problem and in that solution we
have also seen that there are different stresses at different points. And those things more about
those with those results we will spend some time in this lecture to have some more insight into
the problem.
So with that note we move forward and in this what we do is that we do the recapitulation in this
recapitulation slide as usual we try to remember the work what we have or the portions. What we
have already covered we started with the history of aircraft as well as history of solid mechanics
473
and then we have slowly come to the various types of external loads conceptual structural details
of aircraft structures though we have covered.
We have covered in depth the flight envelope and load factor how the flight envelope changes
for different types of aircraft that also we have discussed. It is important to find out the shear
force bending moment experienced by wing and fuselage. So 1 typical example in that
correlation we have solved considering unit load concept considering 1g and some unit loading
concept combined with unit load concept.
It is said so that for different g value or inertia load we can find out the bending moment and
shear force. We have solved learned to solve three dimensional structures especially trusses.
Solved a few problems related to landing gear then we have come across 2 different energy
methods predominantly to find out the deflection. So in that method we have learned
complementary energy method total potential energy approach unit load method dummy load
method Castiglione’s theorem.
And also we have learned one very, very important step in important procedure we must say that
is the Rayleigh ridge method. And we have seen how the assumption of initial reflection profile
is important to get a good solution or appropriate or close to experimental solutions are
necessary. So after that we have gone to the theory of elasticity portion. Theory of elasticity is
very, very important in the sense that unless we learn the theory of elasticity.
We are not able to have insight into the problems and this lecture specially is dealing that type of
insight already we have discussed to some extent in the last few minutes of the last lecture. Why
a hole is analyzing a hole under uniform tension in a plate is important. How more stresses are
coming why the cracks open from a certain position and it goes further those things we have
learned and a little bit more we will try to discuss in this lecture.
So this lecture is mainly the discussion about the ways it has been it has been implemented or
precautions should be taken.
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So with that note let us proceed further with the problem what we have solved we have found out
the stresses but we need to have a discussion on it.
So with that note the same figure we bring let me have a re have a have a description of the
problem what we have solved. In this what we have solved is a plate is considered the prime
thing is that the plate is loaded uniaxially along the axis x and the intensity of stress is S and then
what we have is that there is a hole and we consider that the whole radius is comparatively small
in comparison to the width or the other way it has been defined the diameter is less
comparatively small in comparison to the width or a is small in comparison to b.
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So we are considering that after b the stress remains uniform as if there is no hole in that
condition and we have considered found out the stress for that from that part we have not done
but you can easily do it simple stress transformation if you do you can find out the stresses for
that. And from there we found that it comprises of 2 part 1 is uniform stress of S by 2 and the
others are non uniform in nature with it I would like to say why non uniform non uniformity is
with respect to theta.
So other part is uniform with respect to theta. So it is axis symmetric case that part we have
solved first then the other part we have solved and we have combined equations for sigma theta
sigma r as well as tau r theta. So this is what we have got with respect to theta cos 2 theta cos 2
theta sin 2 theta. Also we have discussed that under this particular situation the stress at this
particular point is thrice the stress applied to the plate this is 3S and that is also tensile in nature
here and as well as here m and n and at p and q this is compressive in nature.
So that is the usual reason why a crack opens up from this and goes further it is three times
definitely that is supposed to fail in tension and that position and it is to propagate. Now in this
that we have already discussed how do we get to some extent profile also discussed we will
discuss again that profile. So let us see what is there today to discuss. For the cross section of the
plate through the center of the hole and perpendicular to the x axis theta is equals to pi by 2.
And from the previous stress equations around the whole what we can see is this equations they
are here the value is only put for theta and we get that S by 2 2 + S square by r square plus 3a to
the power 4 by r to the power 4 it is a at r equals to a it goes to 3S as we have seen. So that holds
tau r theta is equals to 0 from here. It is evident that the effective effect of the whole is of a very
localized character and as r increases or say in this line if we go further for to find out sigma
theta.
The stress sigma theta approaches the value S very rapidly. Since it is 4th order and second order
in terms of a and r ratio definitely it is supposed to be very, very quickly to come to 0. So that is
what is said mathematically if you plot it gives this type of profile the localized character of the
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stress sorry the localized character of the stresses around the hole justifies the application of the
solution.
So it is said that a means the solution whatever we have got if we try to check the solutions how
far the initial assumption what we took that if b is comparatively large with respect to a it that
uniform stress remains. So whether that is prevailing or not that we are saying and it is said that
it is a little distance apart only it becomes uniform. So the localized character of the stresses
around the hole justifies the application of the solution derived from the infinitely large plate to a
plate of finite width.
So that finite width is b. If the width of the plate is not less than 4 times the diameter of the
whole the error of the solution in calculating sigma theta max does not exceed 6%. So it says that
if it is 4 times the diameter then the maximum error involved is 6%. So it is quite clear that
means what we can say that this side it is 1 and half diameter this side it is 1 and half diameter
because this is 1 diameter.
So is not big if the figure is much more than that so with that concept we say that there is a stress
concentration at this point at this point but it does not remain for much more length even if we
consider the length approximately 4 times or the width here approximately 4 times the diameter
of the circle the error involved is approximately 6% so that is probably negligible. So with that
note we proceed further for the discussion.
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We come across to a different type of problem. In this problem what we see is that instead of
putting only stress only in 1 direction we may have stress condition from both the directions so
what can be the situation that is what we have tried to find ou? Having the solution for torsion
sorry tension or compression in 1 direction the solution for tension or compression in 2
perpendicular directions can be easily obtained by superposition’s.
So it is we are assuming that linear superposition holds so if in 1 direction the solution we got
have obtained we can easily find out the other direction separately and we can add it. By taking
the for instance tensile stresses in 2 perpendicular directions not this case tensile stress in 2
perpendicular directions equals to S. We find at the boundary of the hole a tensile stress of twice
S why it is coming like that?
Because if this is S this is also S because if we consider any 1 point there we have for 1 direction
is plus 3S but for the other direction it is –S. So it becomes twice sorry twice S. So similarly it is
a symmetric condition so in all the corners whatever we have all the diametrically opposite
position is having experiencing sigma theta or opening type of stress in this particular point say
this point if we talk about sigma theta is acting we are talking about this sigma theta.
So that is what if we apply in both the direction tensile force but if we apply some other type of
force which is more critical we need to discuss that is what is shown here it is a critical case. By
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taking a tensile stress is in x direction better we remove this for in x direction as in the figure
above or it is on the right hand side and a compressive stress of -S compressive stress of -S in the
y direction. We obtain the case of pure shear this is this is something what we asked you to
solve.
See if in this particular case if we consider any element here which is 45 degree angle this
experiences a pure shear that means only shear stresses are acting there is no normal stress acting
on that particular orientation element. So in the there it is also may be noted that this amplitude
becomes S whatever the amplitude of the stress being applied on that that is the reason we call it
as a pure shear.
The tangential stress at the boundary of the holes are so in this particular case of pure shear
which may be achieved by tensile and compressive stresses as applied here. We can have sigma
theta is equals to this minus this it is as usual I do not want to go into deep into it for theta equals
to pi by 2 and theta equals to 3 pi by 2 that is at the point n and m we are talking about this point
as well as this point what we have we find that sigma theta is equals to 4S.
If you just simply substitute in this formula and see that in that particular portion we have tensile
stress of 4S for theta equals to 0 and theta equals to pi that means this position as well as this
position we have theta is equals sigma theta is equals to -4S. So this is a particular type of
situation where we have very high stress concentration at the diametrical point one is tensile in
nature this is tensile in nature this is compressive in nature and those goes to the magnitude of 4
times the stress applied on it.
And in this particular case if we go for a stress transformation we can find out that at 45 degree
angle there is a pure shear is oriented pure shear is developed. So hence for a large plate under
pure shear the maximum tangential stress at the boundary of the hole is 4 times larger than the
applied pure shear. Why it is saying tangential stress because whatever the sigma theta we are
talking about here also it is acting this way.
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Here also it is acting this way that is the reason we say this is tangential stress. So this is negative
compressive in nature these 2 are tensile in nature. So with that node with this critical point of
discussion which may be experienced by some part of the structure we will move further to
discuss this thing with respect to the application.
So we have few points to discuss let us try. The high stress concentration found at the edge of a
hole is of greater practical importance. So already we have discussed we need to consider this
things will come again as an example hole in the cabin of an aircraft fuselage may be mentioned.
So this is very, very important case aircraft comet disaster took place they are they used some
rectangular type of window if something like this shape corners were round but not serve.
But from there because of the different stress condition the fuselage got tear apart and that was
the problem it happened there were many, many catastrophic failures and after that the design
got modified people did lot of experiments with strain gauges applied on those areas. Hope you
are aware of strain gauges strain gauges are the gauges what we based on the structure put on the
structure to find out strains.
So that is very, very important decision people have learned and the crack propagation and
fracture has come to a; with a very, very important subject of discussion. So with that what we
go further with the skin of the fuselage band tension or compression is produced in the skin and
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there is a high stress concentration at the holes. Under the cyclic cycles of stresses produced by
the aerodynamic loads landing and takeoff fatigue of the metal can be over stressed portions
sorry fatigue of the metal at the overstressed portions may result finally in fatty cracks.
So along with that 1 more phenomena is talked about that is the fatigue that means with repeated
loading properties of the structure changes capacity to withstand crack changes it becomes prone
to failure and those studies again that is a separate area of discussion. So people have studied
those areas and seen that if this type of situations are there we need to reinforce the parts
surrounding this we generally put another reinforcing ring around surrounding this with rivets.
Because we cannot have a structure where we do not have any hole so once we reinforce it we
make it more stress with stress with standing portion then the nature and distribution of stresses
change and then we get a structure which is safe to use so with that note we proceed further.
So here we will bring we want to derive the equations but we will try to use the equation for
understanding. So let us see it is often necessary to reduce the stress concentration at holes such
as access holes in airplane wings and fuselage. There are many access holes not only that we
need those holes to reduce weights. We need those holes and areas to say for wing ribs if you
look at those there are so many holes.
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Because in civil aircraft may predominantly fuel is stored in the wing so unless we have hole
how can we store. So the wheel we need to lay the fuel pipes and other avionic other control
equipments through those ribs so we need to have holes we cannot have a structure without a
hole. But at the same time we need to use those properly so that it does not go to failure. The
analytical problem has been solved by extending the method employed for the hole and results
have been compared with strain gauge measurement.
So what is done this can be done by adding a reinforcing ring as I have shown in the last slide in
general we put a reinforcing ring around that particular hole and that prevents a lot. So with that
note we proceed further to this particular type case in an elliptical hole which is oriented this way
is made in an infinite plate under tension S with 1 of the principal axis parallel to the tension.
The stresses at the ends of the axis of the hole perpendicular to the direction of the tension are
sigma is equals to S 1 + 2 a by b at this point.
So where 2a is the axis of the ellipse perpendicular to the tension and 2b is the other axis we are
talking about theta definitely. We are talking about stress in this direction so this derivation is
little bit lengthy and it takes time. So that is the reason it has been skipped you may find it in any
theory of elasticity book. So what we do a very large center slender hole or while a by b is large
that means this is a whole something like may be this type of ellipse or maybe may be more
perpendicular to the axis of the tension causes a very high stress concentration.
Why in this particular case a by b ratio is high? If a by b ratio is high you see this stress jumps if
it is equal it is 3S as the circular case of hole. If it is more it increases so that is very, very good
phenomena to increase. So as the hole becomes thin or the ellipse ratio changes a is much more
than the b then the stress concentration at this particular point becomes very high. This explains
why cracked transverse to the applied force tends to spread.
So if you think about a crack that crack also may be assumed something like a ellipse and but
having a and b a different value a is definitely high very high in comparison to b and that
initiates and propagates the crack. The spreading can be stopped this is very, very intelligent way
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of doing it in practical life. The spreading can be stopped by drilling a hole at the ends of the
crack to eliminate the sharp curvature responsible for the high stress concentration.
So as soon as if we talk about if we find some crack here and if we put a hole drill a hole around
this what will happen? The stress is limited they are up to only 3S it is not more than 3S so that
arrests a crack so with that intelligent way of adjusting crack people work in practical situations
where it is difficult to prevent the structure by replacing it or by reinforcing it in some other
manner.
In some cases this trick is this i should not say trick this intelligent way is applied and with that
note on crack propagation stress concentration we would like to come to the end of the lecture.
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And we come to the standard usual slide of references and with that note we come to the end of
the week 7 lecture where we have discussed stress concentration around a whole. And with that
note I thank you for attending this lecture we will meet again in the 8th week lecture, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -38
Theory of Elasticity - Torsion Problems
Welcome back to aircraft structures one course and this is Professor Anup Ghosh from
Aerospace Engineering Department, IIT, Kharagpur. We are at the first lecture of the module 8
in sequence this is the 38th lecture and we will attempt the problem of torsion in theories of
elasticity approach.
So in that connection first thing what we get is the recapitulation slide in this recapitulation slide
we have covered a history of solid mechanics or structural analysis starting from the beam
analysis then how before the beam analysis how the theory of elasticity came in how the linear
material non-linear materials are described. And then to beam analysis plate analysis vibrations
who did what all those things we have we have learned.
And we have seen that the development is still going on the most recent development may be in
the area of cell analysis which is very, very important structure while we try to analyze aircraft
structure where all the members probably are curved in nature and thin in dimension in the
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lateral direction so it belongs to the cell group after that what we have learned is that how an
aircraft experiences load or how does it withstand load where from the loads come in case of
aerodynamic loads.
There are different conditions like rolling pitching or normal aerodynamic lift load or may be
gassed or maybe an engine out condition from propulsion side all those loads where and how it
comes we have discussed so far. To some extent we have also seen different type of aircraft
structures how those are fabricated? How does they look like? How do they look like? And then
we have seen different types of loading envelope flight enveloped a new concept is applied for
different types of aircraft how the inertia load plays a big role.
And we see that that for civil aircraft where the maximum g force or inertia loads may be limited
to up to 2.8 to 3.5 or maybe approximately said as 3 but whereas in case of aerobatic aircrafts or
a fighter aircraft it goes to maybe 5 5.5 or 6g so it is it is a huge amount of change of force we
need to take care. So depending upon the type of aircraft we need to develop the flight envelope
and we need to consider the parts of the structures to design to withstand those inertia loads.
Not only inertia loads it also experiences many other loads as we have discussed we have seen
the bending moment shear force diagram of whole aircraft segment and divided in 2 parts in
orthogonal direction that is fuselage and wing and then shear force bending moment we have
done. We have done stress sorry 3 dimensional truss solved problem of landing gear and then we
have gone to the theory of elasticity.
But before we go to the theory of elasticity we have solved problems related to deflection to find
out deflection, different energy methods we have learned and in amongst the energy method a
very, very important method we have learned that is the Rayleigh ridge method. So with that
note we went further for theory of elasticity we developed several equations 15 equations namely
may be and more because compatibility is also involved there.
We have seen compatibility in terms of strain we have seen compatibility in terms of stresses
compatibility is something which has to be maintained within a structure while we define in
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mathematical way. In practical world all structures are continuous there is no problem but while
we define it mathematically we need to define accordingly and after that solving a few problems
initial small problems with inverse and semi inverse approach.
We have come across to the problem where we have discussed the effect of a circular hole in a
plate which is uniaxially loaded. And we have seen that there is a huge stress concentration
because of those loads may be observed that is up to the 3 times of the tension applied and that is
the reason it the crack opens transfers to the direction of the application of the tensile stress. We
have seen how we need to take care of the holes by reinforcement we have seen how a crack
propagation takes place and why it is like that with help of ellipse and stress concentration
equations.
So after that we will try to solve this week we will start to solve this week problems related to
torsion.
Torsion problems what you have solved in your previous mechanics course probably is little bit
different than the way it will be approached in this section. The basic difference is the
considerations of warping. What is warping? That is a big question while there is out of plane
displacement out of plane means which plane we are talking about. So if we consider in most of
the cases what you have seen is that we considered we have considered a cylindrical shaft which
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is fixed here and we applied some torsion T and what we see say we have observed or assume
that if we consider any of one of this plane that plane remains at that plane but it rotates.
But there is no displacement in this direction that is what we said as outer plane displacement so
out of plane from the plane of the cross section of the circular member. So if there is some
displacement out of plane we call that as a warping. Warping is a phenomena we need to learn
because practically if we do if it is a non circular section we observe a warping very predominant
way. For example if we consider a rectangular bar what will happen if we apply a torsion?
This will deform like this and this will continue for all sections. I have exaggerated the thing it is
difficult to draw all the portions but this outer plane this corner is coming down and the other 2
corners are going up this type of phenomena is known as the warping. So if it is a non circular
section we need to take care of that and how do we take care that is first established or developed
by Prandtls. And those assumptions the way it has been done that we will learn slowly in very
small segments of small lectures. So let us proceed with that note.
So what do we see the torsion problem the well known torsion null equations for circular shaft
solid or hollow is tau shear stress developed is T r by j and the theta per rotation per unit length
twist angle of twist or rotation per unit length is where t is the applied torsional movement and j
is the polar moment of the cross section. As I said Saint Venant started the analysis and then later
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Pandors also worked on it. In this approach to the torsion problems following assumptions are
made.
The body is cylindrical do not think that cylindrical means a circular cross section the body is
cylindrical with the axis lying along the z axis, axis system will see in the next page we have
drawing for displacement equations we will see. The unit angle of twist theta is constant along z
axis. Here comes the most important assumption the projections of the cross of sections of x y
plane rotates as rigid bodies.
Earlier we did not use this term projections we said that the sections on the xy plane rotates as
rigid bodies. So that is the difference here we say the projections of this so with that
considerations we will go. So if a particular section is projected on the xy plane that rotates as a
rigid body not that section completely. So there is out of plane deformation and we need to take
care of that.
So let us try to define the displacement first with respect to torsion. In this section it is the
description of the problem first this assumption restricts the problem to the torsion of a
cylindrical body with no axial restraint at the ends. Why it says like that let us read and will
come back again. There are essentially 2 limiting torsional problems namely that of free torsion
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in which the cross sections are free to work, please note that in case of free torsion sections are
free to warp or free to deform out of plane with respect to the xy plane.
And that is restrained torsion and that of restraints torsion in which at least one cross section
usually at one end of the cylinder is constrained to remain parallel to the xy plane. So here what
we are considering that no plane is restrained even the case we discussed for the circular the
figure I have drawn in the last slide it is not like that no part was even this plane as well as also
this plane no plane is restricted to deform out of the plane or the xy plane here with respect to the
xy it is quite clear.
The analysis that follows will therefore be the free torsion problem. So what we will consider in
this particular case is for the free torsion. So that for the free torsion what how are we going to
define the displacement and how do we get the first starting equation with that small note we will
end today's lecture. So let us try to go forward.
Here we have it so initially this section this is the section of the cylindrical body bottom section
this dotted one is the top section and then there is a torsional force applied on this body and we
have seen that theta is the rotation per unit length. So, the total rotation here is theta multiplied
by z because from this point to this point or the segment of the cylinder cylindrical body we are
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considering is the off length z. Now with that considerations; considering xy is like this similarly
xy is also here at this plane we are considering the displacement at this particular point.
We define that a point p which is r its distance apart from the axis or the z axis is rotated to p
prime here both are p prime because initially this was the p prime point and then after rotation
after application of the torsion it has rotated to this point. Now with this concept what uh how do
we get the displacement and other equations let us try to see. Plane containing p prime is rotated
with respect to the plane containing p with application of a torsional moment.
Now u is equals to r theta z sine alpha and v is equals to r theta z cos alpha this is not derived
here why the minus is coming why it is not like that I would suggest you to do this as homework
because if we go for the geometric way drawing the components and other things it becomes
difficult to understand. So we need to find u v as we have discussed that finding u and v in
geometric way is much more difficult so following trigonometric approach probably will help.
So, what we can assume that as it is the drawing what is prevailing here we will draw the same
thing same phenomena in a different way. So let us this is the xy plane and with r I think I need
to revise it, say this is the point represented as x 1 y 1 and after and this is the angle alpha and
after rotation it goes somewhere here which is x 2 y 2. Now this is theta z say if we simply
consider u, u is equals to r cos alpha - r cos theta z + alpha.
So if you simply do it you will get this relation and the similarly v also you can find out so with
that I think we can proceed you can solve this easily. So what do we have since we have the
other relations like x is equals to r cos alpha and y is equals to r sin alpha u becomes minus of y
theta z and v becomes x theta z, z is not subscript please be careful z is never subscript. So that is
what is written here repeatedly.
And we define one more important function w function of xy this function is the difference with
respect to our previous things from the stress strain relation this is known as the warping function
from the stress strain relations and strain displacement deformation relations we get this, this will
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be repeated in next slide also we will use it sigma x sigma y and all those will let us see how do
we come to the equilibrium equation.
So with this note what we see is that we have all the 6 components of stresses here and if we
substitute these values what we have got the displacement because of the torsion. If we substitute
all those values here we finally get that sigma x sigma y sigma z and tau x y is equals to 0 you
can easily substitute this and check have checked several times please note that this A and B are
written in a generic form which are function of alpha E and mu.
E and mu is the sorry is expressed in terms of E and mu then tau yz and tau xz are the 2
remaining stress components and if we substitute these values here what do we get we get this is
a simple substitution in this we get that tau yz equals to z x theta plus del w del y and tau tau yz
is this tau x z is z del w del x - y theta. So 1, 2, 3 are the 3 equations. In case of free torsion
problem w is obtained from equilibrium conditions equilibrium condition without any, body
force which is the third equilibrium condition we need to bring because of because all other
terms are 0 only this equation will lead to equation what we is what is useful.
So simple substitution of that here what do we get is that we get a function in terms of w and
which may be stated as that grad square w is equals to 0. So for a torsion problem to solve our
equilibrium equation is grad square w or the working function is equals to 0. So with that note let
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us stop here for the development of torsional problem. We will come back in the next lecture
with a few more concept and we will go through it.
So we come to the standard references what we need to follow and what we have learned or
initiated is the torsion problem as the theory of elasticity approach. And at the end I thank you
for attending this lecture and we will come back with some more lectures soon, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -39
Theory of Elasticity - Torsion Problems (Contd.,)
Engineering Department, IIT, Kharagpur. We are in the continuation of 8th week lecture today is
lecture number 39 in the domain of theory of elasticity with an aim to solve a particular type of
problem related to torsion of cylindrical bodies we have already covered a little bit we have
come across to the displacement equations. We have come across 2 equilibrium equations for
that we got introduced to some other topics like warping.
And then we will do some more development or general process of analysis today depending on
the stress function. And then in the fourth comic lecture we will solve a specific problem in
relation to torsion.
So before we go into the topic today’s topic it is time to recapitulate as we have started with the
history of solid mechanics or structural analysis the physicist famous physicist started this
avenue long ago probably with the experiment of Leonardo da Vinci it started he tried to
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estimate the strength of and where is a nice experiment we have discussed. Not only that history
we have also come across to the development of aircraft from Kitty Hawk flight to present day
huge aircrafts including the A380 or Antonov 225.
So then we have come across to various types of loads conceptual structural details various types
of loads in the sense while it is in runway or it is airborne what are the types of loads are
encountered by an aircraft. And not only that we have gone into detail of how thin wall sections
are used to fabricate fuselage and wings different sparse got introduced to different components
with names the role of those components also we got introduced.
We also got introduced which part experience what type of loads more and which part is
designed for what type of loads those with picture preview we have seen we have come across
one agency known as airworthiness agency also which guides the critical uh conditions. They
have laid down some critical conditions loading parameters for design. After that we have gone
to the flight envelope load factor how it is different for different type of aircraft.
We have seen or carried out examples to find out bending moment diagram and shear force
diagram of aircraft wing and fuselage truss is the next structure three dimensional stress also we
have used and in this we have solved problems relation related to aircraft landing gear which is
generally solved considering three dimensional structure concept or stress concept then we have
come across to the deflection determination procedures different types of structures.
Not only determinate, in determinate also we have solved and we have found out indeterminate
reactions external reactions as well as deflection at different points. And in this method we have
come across with the complementary energy method we have come across to the total potential
energy method unit load method dummy load method we have also learned a very, very
important method known as Rayleigh method.
Castiglione’s theorem is also covered and then after that we have come or we have started
learning the theory of elasticity approach. In theory of elasticity approach we have we have
developed several equations to find out stress strain and displacement. In that relation we have
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seen that there are 15 such unknowns 6 stress components 6 strain components and three
displacement components. So we have found out equations corresponding to those.
We have also seen the compatibility equations or a compatibility condition which is very, very
important to satisfy while we are we are describing a physical entity in terms of mathematics. So
displacement strain and stresses should maintain the compatibility continuity to some extent so
that we have seen. And then we have solved a few problems 2 different approaches we have
learned one is an inverse method and the other is semi inverse method.
And then we have solved a very, very important problem in theory of elasticity that is the last
point here mentioned as the effect of circular hole on stress distribution in a plate. We have seen
that even it is uniaxially loaded if there is a hole irrespective of the dimension of the hole the
stress tensile stress reaches to thrice the uniform stress experienced by the plate in one direction
that is a considerably more stress and that is the reason we have studied it.
So that tensile stress is responsible for opening we have also seen some critical conditions where
how maximum stress may be experienced and we have seen that in case of pure shear or while a
piece a rectangular segment a plate is under in plane tension and compression it experiences
about four times the tension or compression stress. So that is also very, very important point to
note. We have also discussed problems with in relation to crack propagation we have not gone
into crack propagation in detail.
But a starting point or may be a glimpse of that area we have seen we have considered some
elliptical hole and then we have seen that how at the tip the stress becomes very, very high and
leads to failure it propagates. We have also seen that it is a very easy way to arrest the crack if
we if we are able to drill a hole at the tip of the crack. So that that restricts the stress to the three
thrice the stress experienced in general.
So with those nodes we have attempted the cylindrical body of irregular cross section not
circular cross section and then we have tried to find out the equilibrium equations and then with
the stress function approach we will see how these things can be solved.
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So that is what the stress function approach will be covering today and in this stress function
approach how do we get the other equations that we will see.
So the stress function methods of solution stress function method of solution let us consider the
free torsion case discussed above. So again we are already introduced to the concept of free
torsion what is free torsion? We have assumed that no cross section not even the end cross
section is restrained to deform out of its plane and that is the reason we are saying it is a free
torsion will be solving that type of problem.
497
And if it is there if it is a non circular cross section we will see it experiences warping. So we
have seen with drawing in the last class that how a rectangular bar experiences warping and how
it gets deformed in a quick look we can again bring back that if this is the cross section the top
surface deforms something like this and it continues for the total. So similarly for all the surfaces
it happens like that so this warping is not possible unless it is it is a free torsion.
So considering that we have seen that the equilibrium equations since sigma theta sigma this this
this condition holds sigma x not sigma theta sigma r sigma x sigma y sigma z and tau xy, xy is
which plane we always consider that this is x this is y and this is z. So there is no tau xy so
whatever is there is that tau xz or tau yz so it is the other sense if we say instead of saying xz yz
we can better say that tau zx tau zy that means in this plane whatever is acting is there.
And that is acting either in this direction or it is in this direction. So that is the reason this one is
we say that tau zx and this one we say that is tau zy. So with this concept what we have seen is
that it holds the equilibrium equation as stated here. And one more thing I remember now last
class I forgot to mention while we were finding out the displacement u and v. The equations
whatever we found out there we are supposed to consider that theta z is very, very small and cos
theta z is equals to 1 and sine theta z is equals to theta z.
Unless you consider that we would not get the uv expressions what you we have used in the last
lecture. So with that small note let us proceeds excuse me so with that small note let us proceed
further.
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So this may be satisfied by stress function phi this equilibrium equations where the stress
function is defined in terms of tau zx and tau zy or yz as it is given one is positive the other is
negative and the derivative is also may be noted tau zx is with respect to y tau zy is with respect
to x and minus. So this 1 2 3 is nothing but these are the equations I have brought again to that so
if we use these equations and these relations easily we can say that the grad square tau yz is
equals to 0.
So these 2 relations hold so del 2 tau y z del x 2 del 2 tau y z del y 2 is equals to 0 plus this is
equals to 0 and del 2 tau zx del x 2 plus del 2 tau zx del y 2 is also equals to 0. So with this node
we proceed to the next slide.
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With respect to the stress function if we take back we you can easily see that del del x of grad
square phi is equals to 0 and del del y of dr square phi is also equals to 0 from which we can say
since this is x derivative and this is y derivative and both are coming to 0 there must be it must
be equated plus of these 2 must be equals to some constant value and that is why from
mathematical conclusion why we get that we consider that this is a constant value and generally
this constant is given by in this particular discussion as F.
So with that note let us see what we have thus any function satisfying the above equation will
satisfy the compatibility and equilibrium conditions and will yield stress found from the
derivatives of the stress function. So it is quite clear if phi satisfies these and if we know the phi
we can find out the stresses the functions will correspond to the problem in hand if it is also
satisfying the given boundary conditions of the problem.
So boundary condition has to be satisfied for a particular type of problem and then it will
represent that particular problems solution. The fundamental boundary condition in the torsion
problem is determined by the fact that the outer surface of the cylindrical body is free of any
normal stress. This is quite important we do not assume any force on the outer body and if we do
some mathematical jugglery that I have skipped what do we get? We get a nice equation which is
there in the next page.
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This equation we get and let us see considering equilibrium of the general three dimensional
element that is what from the equilibrium concept of external forces whatever we you are taught
earlier if you follow those things and if you follow a simple steps as described in all almost all
standard books you will find out that it shows that it may be proved that the torsional moment T
holds the following relation with respect to the stress function phi.
So this is satisfied so this you may say as the boundary condition with respect to the surface
forces. So that is the equation we have we need to satisfy this as a boundary condition for to get
solution of any particular problem. Considering the displacement already we have found out
these equations are nothing but the displacement equations rearranged in this way in the last
class we have seen del w del x tau z x divided by g + theta y and del w del y is equals to tau zy
by z - theta x.
Now if we follow this operation that means if we divide it take a derivative with xy and x this is
y and this is x and then if we subtract so this left hand side portion will vanish and we will have a
relation with respect to this this this and this that is what we have here and since we are taking
derivative of this part with respect to y this y also will become one. So only theta remains so one
by z del tau zx del y - del tau z y del x is equals to - 2 theta.
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Now as we have seen in the previous lecture or maybe in the previous slide if we substitute the
value of tau zx and tau zy what do we get we get back the equation where it says that del 2 phi
del y square + del 2 phi del x square is equals to a constant or may be defined as F this equation
we have come across already here. In this case and so once we get that equation in a different
way we say that that F is nothing but the constant minus g 2 theta so that is satisfied.
So with this we come to the summary of the stress function approach what is required to solve
the problem in torsion. The summary we can say that the we have 2 expressions for tau that is tau
zx and tau zy del phi del y - del phi del x we have the equilibrium conditions is equals to F. And
F is equals to - 2g theta we also have the boundary conditions which says that T is equals to 2
double integration phi del x del y.
So with that note we will end today's lecture and we will go further proceed to our next problem
of finding out solution for a particular type of section that is elliptical section. And in that
elliptical section we can we can solve those problems and find out the solution for almost all
components up to displacements.
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So with that note we come to the slide of references these are the standard references all these
problems are solved there and I thank you for attending this course.
Before I thank you at that we have what we have learned in this class is that the stress function
method of solution. And with that note I thank you for attending this lecture and will proceed to
solve a very nice problem which gives you insight into the torsional problem where wiping is
inevitable unless it is a circular section and we will conclude mathematically whatever we are
talking about.
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We will see that we will get the equations where if it is a circular section it would not show any
warping if it is a non circular section it will show warping. And not only that we will also get
introduced with the with the values of the polar moment of the area what we use to find out shear
stress as well as the rotation theta probably is not very, very wise to use if it is a non circular
section with those things let us end today’s lecture thank you for attending.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -40
Torsion of an Elliptical Bar
Welcome back to aircraft structures 1 course this is Professor Anup Ghosh from Aerospace
Engineering Department, IIT, Kharagpur. We are in the continuation of 8th week lecture this is
the 40th lecture in that equations sequence today we will try to solve problems related to torsion
of an elliptical bar. This is very interesting problem this shows the mathematical way of how the
warping takes place.
We have talked about warping in the last two lectures I have shown you drawing figures also but
in this particular case for rectangular bar I have shown you how the warping takes place we have
done experiments and we have seen observed those things we do regularly that type of
experiments as a regular lab of of B.Tec students and with that note we will proceed further to
solve today's problem.
In this before we go into solving the problems what we will do we will go for a recapitulation as
it is listed there today I would not discuss much about what we have done. I will try to simply
read it history of aircraft and aerospace structural analysis various types of external loads
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conceptual structural details we have covered we have also come across a flight envelope and
different load factors experienced by different types of aircrafts why it is different how it is
different all those things we have discussed.
We have drawn bending moment shear force diagram considering typical loading unit load
method we have used we have considered those things and solved found out the surface bending
moment diagram. Then we have come to the three dimensional structures or the space structures
solved a few problem related to landing gear. Then energy methods we have solved different
problems not only determinate indeterminate problems also we have solved.
Found out indeterminate reactions redundant forces and then in that method we have come
across two unit load method dummy load method and other methods related to Rayleigh rich
method. Rayleigh method is really very, very important 1 and we follow those in further
derivation or further numerical processes then we have learned the stress elasticity approach
elasticity approach of solving problems I have already said many times why theory of elasticity
is so important.
In a brief we can say unless we learn the theory of elasticity approach of solving a problem it is
difficult to have a insight into the development of stresses and strains inside a body while it is
loaded. Unless we have the insight it is difficult to predict catastrophic situations or failures and
those criteria. So that is the reason we need to study the theory of elasticity approach and we
have covered those things. 1 very, very important problem we have solved in a week long
session that is the circular hole stress due to a circular hole on a plate.
While it is loaded uniaxially even in biaxial nature we have seen if the hole is elliptical how it
changes. And in the last two lectures what is not listed here we have developed equations to
solve torsion of cylindrical bodies it is not considered we will our approach is not considering the
section as circular and at the end of this lecture we will come to the section as circular and we
will conclude that how it is conforming to the usual solution. With that note we proceed further.
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And torsion of an elliptical bar is the problem what we will be solving today.
So with that the problem what we will be solving is an elliptical section having a semi major axis
and b semi minor axis. Let us consider a bar with an electrical cross section under the action of
free torsion again free torsion is there as we have said unless it is free torsion warping is difficult
to observe and that is the reason warping has been introduced and has been observed here. If a
and b are the semi major and same inner minor axis respectively of the ellipse the equation of the
equal elliptical boundary is given by x square by a square + y square by b square - 1 is equals to
0 its quite well learned.
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Again since phi must be a constant on the boundary we can assume for it an equation of the form
what is equal to similar to the equation of the ellipse. So phi is equals to a constant m multiplied
by the x square by a square + y square by b square – 1.
So phi as we have defined in the last slide from equilibrium equation if you substitute this what
do we have del two phi del y 2 + del 2 phi del x 2 is equals to constant as we have seen and that
constant we get the value of m its simple rearrangement we have done. And if we substitute back
to that the phi takes the form as it is said a square + b square by twice a square + b square
multiplied by F and the remaining portion is part of the ellipse equation.
The value of S if is determined by the use of boundary condition. So that boundary condition
whatever we have earlier stated we have not derived this but it can be derived from the boundary
condition surface forces boundary condition easily. So if we put the value of phi here and we
carry out write the equations in a segmented manner what do we have we have x square by s
square d x d y square by b square dx dy and this is - dx dy.
So if we this terms are quite familiar is not it, if you try to remember we will find that this you
have already solved.
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As area moment of inertia so we know from the previous calculations that the moment of inertia
of the cross section about y axis is x square by del dx dy that is I y, similarly this is y square dx
dy is I x integration definitely is there and integration dx dy is equals to the area. So now if we
find the integration of these things so I x is equals to pi a cube b by 4 I y is equals to pi a cube b
by 4 I x is equals to pi a b cube by 4 and a is by ab as we know.
So with that note we come to a simple solution for T and we write that F may be written as – 2T
x square + v square by pi a cube b cube. So now we have 1 more expression for the a earlier we
had an expression with respect to theta. Now from the boundary conditions implementation what
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we have the expression of F the constant as in terms of T. So easily we can correlate those two so
but it is not done here it may be done later.
So the stress function may be then written as - T by pi a b x square + by a square + y square by b

square - 1 is equals to this. Now once we have the stress function in terms of the applied torsion.
So we can easily find out the shear stress shear stress experienced by a particular section. So as I
mentioned z along x z along y del phi del y and we simply take derivative of this you can easily
do I think and what do we get is - T y by 2 I . Similarly for the other direction in the y direction
in the z plane the shear stress is T x by 2I y.
So to have some discussion with respect to the shear stresses as we have seen. So if we look at
the expression along with the along the x axis and y equals to 0 we find that that means if we
follow this axis what do we have since y is equals to 0 the y expression if you look into the
previous slide you will find that tau zx is equals to 0 and tau zy is having some value. So if we
try to draw it here we have only value may be increasing linearly why because it is a function of
x.
And this value is the maximum value what do we have if we substitute x is equals to a we have
this value is 2T by pi a square b and we do not have the other component zx is missing in this
direction there is no shear stress shear stress is acting only in this direction and the maximum
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value is plus minus this because 1 may be this direction the other may be in the other direction
that is the reason it is said plus minus this.
Similarly at x equals to a at x equals to - a up to this is this one. So similarly along the y axis the
x is equals to 0, if we follow this line x is equals to 0 what do we have again? We have that this
is equals to minus so if it is equals to minus we can have and this value is the maximum value
that is 2T by pi a b square ok so that is what at the plus minus even here also we will have so
with that note we observe that for an elliptical section at the boundary the stresses are not same.
It is different and it is not that every point there are tau xz x as well as tau yz in between any
point if you consider whatever may be the point we have values tau zx as well as tau zy I think I
have written wrong zx and tau zy. So with that note and with the distribution of shear stress this
is very, very important understanding in my opinion we will proceed further for this type of
solution what else we have to see to have some insight.
So unless a repeat unless it is on this line there are shear stress components both tau zx as well as
tau zy and with that note we proceed further to solve or observe other properties.
Since a is greater than b as drawn we find that the maximum value of shearing stress will occur
at the ends of the minor axis of the ellipse. So from the expressions easily you can say one is
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what is the expression one is 2T pi a square by b the other is 2T pi a b square since a is larger this
value is more that is what is said. So the amplitude here will be more whereas amplitude here
will be less.
The drawing what I drawn last time probably showing the same amplitude but it is not the same
amplitude what we have is that to notice that we find that the maximum value of shearing stress
will occur at the ends of the minor axis of the ellipse. So the maximum value will occur at this
place or at this place these point this point. The resultant value of tau at any point in the cross
section is given by it is as usual it is very easy formality formula to observe and we have the
resultant value as given here as 2T by pi a b over square root of y square by b to the power 4 + x
square by a to the power 4.
Which indicates that the value of tau is constant and correspond to a family of ellipse so family
of ellipse means where this the a by a b ratio is maintained and there is a relations which satisfies
this equation in those ellipse it is constant all resultant shearing stress is constant. So with that
node we proceed further.
To determine the unit angular twist of any torsional moment we make use of the equations as we
have done earlier F equals to - 2 g theta and then if we put that what we have as I mentioned in
the previous slide that there we got expression with F with respect to T and put it to find out phi
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here we are putting the same value and getting the equations for theta, theta is equals to T by G J
effective where from the J effective is coming?
We are in it is quite known that theta is equals to 2 by GJ J is the polar moment of inertia of the
section. Now but in this elliptical case what we observe that J effective or from this equation the
J effective is having some different value that is pi a cube b cube by divided by a square + b
square and whereas if we find out the usual way of a polar moment of inertia of that particular
section of ellipse as we have described earlier with semi major axis as a and say minor axis as b
we get the expression something like this is written in a special way to cancel out a few terms.
So if you take a ratio of this and this what do we have is equals to 4 square b square divided by a
square + b square whole square and let us try to observe what happens if we assume J is J p or e
is equals to J effective.
To study that if with respect to the variation of a and b we have prepared a plot it is available in
almost all good books. So with that what is that plot we have plotted the J effective by J p in the
y axis and in the x axis we have plotted the ellipse semi major and say minor axis ratio that is a
by b as it is pointed out here. So what do we see if it is 1 that means it is a circular section in that
particular case there is no change of this value the ratio that ratio is equals to 1 but as it becomes
the ellipse there is a considerable change of this value.
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At some point while the a by b is equals to 5 or it is very, very slender or thin ellipse if we talk
about in that particular case it is the value is about 0.2 here about say about say 4.25 or
somewhere it is about 0.2 and that is a considerable change in value of J p and definitely there
will be a constant they were sorry considerable change in the tau as well as theta. But a simple
observation you can see that what is happening the J effective is increasing that is the reason we
get the value in fraction.
So as it becomes more elliptic from the circular the J effective value is increasing and from there
the theta value is decreasing. If we look at that manner what is happening if the torsion applied
torsion remains same the angle of twist reduces right. So with that note we proceed further.
Now to find out the displacement so to find out displacement the deformation u and v may be
obtained by means of the equations already you have we have found out. Now it is time to
replace only the value of theta T by G J effective is put there here also it is put it is integrated.
Once we integrate it again del w del x is brought back in relation to the standard way what we
have seen in the equations and then what we get that w is equals to f 1 of y because it is partial
derivative of x and similarly if we go for the w from this equation we have a function of x since
it is derivative with respect to y.
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So now it is interesting to note that in both the cases it is expressing w and to have a reasonable
solution from mathematical point of view w must be equal for both values of x and y we can
state set that f 1 y and f 2 x are equals to 0 but w is a unique number it is not having a different
value at the; for different position of xy. So for any value of xy since this w both the functions
are certain to lead to a same value the values of f 1 and f 2 f 1 y and f 2 x are equals to 0 and we
get that w which is along this axis.
So if I consider better to have some conforming relation. If this is x if this is x this is y this is z.
So this is the xy plane and w is in this direction. Now 1 more thing you should notice here it
sometimes it is confusing I have tried to draw it as clearly as I can it is digital drawing becomes
difficult. So let me give you some try to explain the figure as far as I can. So the initial state of
the section is given by this line am I right? Yes I am.
This is the section which is not stressed or which is not experiencing any torsion. But as soon as
there is a torsion applied what is happening we observe that there is a out of plane displacement
and this point goes inside corresponding this point comes out. Similarly this point goes inside
this point comes out. So as I showed you in case of a rectangular cross section the some opposite
corners go up and the opposite corners go down.
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In a similar manner if we see that this side this side is going down this side is also going down ok
its going in this direction its going in this direction whereas this side is coming out this side is
coming out. So this is a nice phenomena unless you do experiment unless you observe the
section it is difficult to imagine difficult to probably experience using this formula but it happens
we have seen to happen its exciting phenomena.
So we if you carry out experiment elliptical section is difficult to find out that is the reason we
always prefer to carry out experiment with rectangular section. If you do rectangular section
experiment I would suggest that you do draw parallel lines on the section before you give it for
torsion and then at the end of the of the experiment while the specimen has failed you please
observe that it will take the shape as we have described as we have got in case of elliptical
section. So with this note of warping is very, very nice function phenomena we proceed to the
next slide.
For the circular bar where a is equals to b is equals to r so we come back to the simplified
solution considering a and b are equals and is equals to r and we will try to see observe that the
derivation whatever we have done that also holds for a circular section that is what is done a is
equals to b is equals to r is put here and the tau resultant shear stress if we put those values is
equals to t r by J and the theta is T by G J and J effective is also equals to J and it is equals to 1.
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And we have u is equals to - of T by G J yz and v is equals to T by G J xz w is equals to 0. It can
be shown that the circular cylinder either hollow or solid is the only shape in which the true
geometric value of J may be used and in which there is no warping of cross section furthermore
only in circular cylinder. Does the resultant shearing stress act perpendicular to the radius vector
and is directly proportional to the distance from the center of the circle.
So the resultant as we have seen that there are two components always tau zx and tau zy unless it
is lying on the axis. So definitely it is the resultant is not going to be perpendicular to the radius
so that is what is concluded in this portion and we observe that particular phenomena.
So with that note we come to the end of the torsion problem of elliptical section will solve a few
more if time permits. So these are the standard reference what we see and with this reference.
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We go to the next slide what we have learned today learned that torsion of elliptical section and
not only elliptical section we have got some insight towards the warping phenomena. And we
have seen solutions conforming to the circular section also. So with that note I thank you for
attending the lecture we will see you later, thank you.
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Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -41
Membrane Analogy for Torsion Problem
Welcome back to aircraft structures one course this is Professor Aanu Ghosh from Aerospace
Engineering Department, IIT, Kharagpur. We are in the last week lecture the eighth week lecture
module 8 it is named and the topic we will cover in these two lectures last two lectures is the
membrane analogy for torsion problems. So keeping in mind that let us proceed.
Since we are we have come almost at the end of the course only one topic is remaining that is the
membrane analogy with respect to torsion problem to find out torsionals rotation as well as a
torsional shear stress developed in a section irregular section. Those things will come later but
before that let us have a recapitulation of what we have done. We have done history of aircraft
and aerospace structural analysis or we can say that it is related to the development of aircraft
from the Kitty Hawk site the 12 second flight.
From there in 1903 from there we have come to the huge aircrafts we have come to the rotary
aircrafts, we have come there are developments in rockets also but those things we are not going
to discuss our predominant area of discussion was related to fixed wing aircraft. And we have
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seen how the configuration have configurations have changed from time to time different types
of wing configuration tail configurations different types of purpose it serves with those
configurations.
And we have seen that from a very small aircraft may be fitting in a classroom to a an aircraft
fitting comfortably fitting in a football field. People have developed human men have developed
society engineers have developed that and those are in service we are being used. Many aircrafts
are there some variation of 737ah and 747 are there which are used for fire fighting also. Huge
quantity of water they carry and fire retardant chemicals they carry and spray it on jungle.
So we have seen various developments of aircraft we have also have gone from to through the
we have gone through the development of solid mechanics structural analysis from the static
analysis how people have come to the concept of modulus of elasticity it is constant. How people
have come to the concept of Poissons ratio it was difficult for initially to imagine that for any
isotropic material these are the two constants which defines the total material property when we
are considering linear elastic region.
This again this linear elasticity also they defined and slowly from different experiments related to
the beam it has been done with and then it has gone further in with to the plate and to the cell we
have also seen developments in the direction of vibration but those are not of important in this
particular course but people have developed side by side physicist scientists have developed side
by side. Different equations they have proposed they have proposed relations for strain and
displacement the famous relations.
Proposed compatibility equations and from with all those things we are able to design huge
aircrafts nowadays. Even huge other structures that knowledge is very, very important unless we
develop that insight to a to a analysis it is difficult to have a insight in that problem and to solve.
Then various types of external loads and conceptual loads coming to the aircraft structure we
have covered a different flight condition which portion of the structure is more prone to
experience certain type of loads some part of fuselage.
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Some part of wing some part of tail plane at which condition they experience what type of load
and what should be the critical design condition we have also come across to the agency known
as the air worthiness agency. And they define and help engineers to design the aircraft according
to safety norms and then what we have seen we have seen how the bending moment and shear
force are experienced by wing and fuselage we have not come done any combined three
dimensional way the shear force bending moment.
But we have considered in two dimensional manner; separately as being as fuselage we have
drawn shear force bending moment diagram with unit load concept. So that for any kind of unit
load we can solve it before that we have come across to the concept of inertia load and how
inertia load is very, very important in case of aircraft structures. So with those notes we have
come across to the flight envelope for different types of aircrafts.
How flight envelopes are different and we need to prepare it. Then three dimensional truss
structures we have seen we have solved a few problems related to related to trusses and then we
have seen displacement to find out deflection of different structures we started with determinate
structure with energy different energy methods related to complementary energy method
Castiglione’s theorem unit load method dummy load method.
And also we got introduced to a very, very important energy based solution known as Rayleigh
method so after finding out displacement we have started learning theory of elasticity approach
theory of elasticity approach is the mathematical way of formulating problems and to find out
solution for that different stress conditions strain condition and displacements. So and then that
connection we got that for isotropic material there are 15 unknowns to be found out to solve a
problem amongst that 6 are stresses 6 are strains.
And three displacement components accordingly 15 equations we have found out in that
consequence we have also got introduced to the compatibility condition compatibility condition
is really very important condition we need to maintain while we are formulating a problem we
are trying to define mathematically a problem unless the compatibility is maintained compiling
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compatibility means the continuity from point to point one point to the other in terms of strain or
displacement and as well as in terms of stress.
So unless you maintain that in mathematically it will be a mistake because in all physical
structure physical world it is always continuous there is no discontinuity like that. So that
concept is introduced. Then we have solved a few problems with inverse semi inverse method
we have come got in we got introduced to the concept of stress function Aris stress function was
introduced and then we solved a very typical problem known as the stress concentration on the
circumference of a hole if irrespective of the diameter of the hole while the plate is uniaxially
loaded with uniform stress.
Then from there we have seen that if even if it is other conditions are there what is the maximum
stress may be found out on the circumference of a hole and then we have learned how a crack
propagation may be correlated with elliptical hole and how it can be arrested by drilling a hole.
After that we have started in last three lectures we have covered the concept of torsion in theory
of elasticity approach irregular prismatic sections we have considered not circular sections.
And then at the end we have come to the circular section also we got introduced to the free
torsion where warping takes place. Warping is nothing but the out of plane displacement the
plane here means the plane which rotates which rotates due to the torsion. So it is better way to
imagine mathematically it is difficult to say without drawing a figure so the warping got
introduced it is out of plane displacement.
And then a easy way of finding out um torsion properties with same with respect to the
membrane stretching to be discussed this two lectures in these two lectures.
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So with that note let us start that discussion. So we will be discussing membrane analogy for
torsion problem what is membrane analogy for torsion problem?
If we think about the process first and then if we go to the description it will be much better what
is done that for a regular section maybe a rectangle maybe a circle may be a cylindrical, annular
cylindrical section or member we can find out torsional rotation and maximum shear stresses to
design. But if it is a irregular section say it is a C section a hat section or a z section which are
very, very popular in aircraft structures.
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It is difficult to find out the J effective or the polar moment of inertia effective to find out the
torsional maximum shear stress as well as the rotation theta. So to do that Prandtl introduced
some experimental method. What he introduced that if we if we put a film on the cross section
and if we are able to measure the internal pressure of the film and if we are able to measure the
profile of the film then we can correlate that film properties to the torsional properties that is
what the membrane analogy.
I am talking about film but I am it is written there the membrane that is because the film is
considered as membrane. So in experiment what is done is in general say if it is a C section if we
just think of a C section we consider the C section similar to this and we put a this section is
generally prepared as hollow there is nothing is put on this section it is very, very thin wall
section generally prepared first.
And then one rubber membrane is put on top of it and internal pressure is produced. So because
of that if I look from this side what will happen it will there will be a profile of the rubber sheet
something like this here. So if we are able to measure this profile and we are able to measure the
P internal pressure then we can have some correlation. So since a membrane is used generally for
experiment people used to use these things.
Nowadays it is not much used but if it is used this way then we can find out the maximum shear
stress or resultant shear stress at any section as well as we can find out the rotation theta. So with
that concept let us try to have a discussion or have the equations derived. The membrane analogy
to the torsion problem for irregular separate bars subjected to torsion the methods show
discussed may lead either to unsolvable differential equation or to lengthy approximate methods.
For such bars there is an analogy to the torsion problem developed by Prandtl which uses the
equations of uniformly stressed membrane subjected to a normal load and which makes possible
an experimental solution to the torsion problem. The experimental procedure just now I have
described that is what is said here. But unless we have the correlation between the slope between
the slope as well as the pressure and the profile we would not be able to have a correlation.
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But before that mathematically we need to pre have the correlation that is what we will discuss.
So what we are trying to say that there is an element we are considering this is the irregular
separate section and is a part of it as dx dy is considered. And it is may be x direction it may be
considered as the y direction z remains same. So it is there is some internal pressures and
because of that international pressure in sorry because of that internal pressure the membrane
inflates like this way.
So these are the corners edges of this member this is the edge this is the edge and that edge is this
edge. The membrane is stretched over a boundary that conforms to the shape of the bar to be
loaded in torsion and is subjected to a normal pressure of p psi. If we write the equilibrium
equation of an element we will have as the resultant force in the z direction. So let us see how do
we get it.
So this derivation portion I have skipped this portion of derivation this is similar derivation with
respect to the plate bending there are many more books which describes the plate bending. So
you can easily have this type of expression considering in plane load So we can easily see that
but let us see what the concept is for the element dx dy in the direction of x we are considering in
this direction.
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This figure may be considered here in that case this is the x direction the load experience because
of the stretching is -S del 2 z del x 2 dx dy acting outward acting downward this way it is acting.
It is negative because of the negative curvature of the membrane. Similarly for the y direction the
force acting is -S delta z del y 2 dx dy and if we sum it these are in this direction p is in the
opposite direction we get the equation as it is given.
And from there we can easily come to this solution but it is reiterated the sign in the equations
are correct if we consider as positive intention and p positive as drawn its going upward in the
direction of z. Since the radius of curvature is negative for the reflection curve as indicated in
figure the above equation may be written as it is divided and we get a second order differential
equation partial differential equation del 2 z del x 2 + del 2 z del y 2 is equals to minus of P by S.
So we can have a simple analogy with the equations what we have already derived which can be
directly related to the stress function differ the differential equation this is where the analogy
starts. So from this analogy we can easily conclude that P by S is equals to 2G theta or P by S
equals to –F. So with it this conclusion will use this property later let us proceed further.
So by setting the displacement of the membrane z equal to the stress function phi and constant F
equals to -2G theta equal to the pressure tension ratio - P by S the deflection of the membrane
along any contour line is as is constant. So what is happening if we think of a contour line the
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irregular shape what we considered that would give this type of contour line. This type of
contour line is generally obtained for a body which is may be elliptical in section and then it
converges to an ellipse here otherwise there will be such changes of curve and the contour would
be something very symmetric like this.
So but we can imagine a even elliptical section and we can go for the understanding the
deflection of the membrane along any contour line is constant. So here at particular height maybe
this height if we consider this it is z is constant so that is the reason along this line the del z del s
dz ds is equals to 0. So which can be related to the stress function so we will be substituting z to
phi and then we are rewriting the equation in a split manner so del phi del x del x del s del phi
del x dx ds.
We are doing plus del phi del y dy ds we can write in this way and then as we have seen earlier
this is nothing but minus of T zy and dx ds is there and this is nothing but tau z x this is dy ds
and this is equals to 0. So while we get mathematically this expression this gives us a conclusion
in physical manner. What is that conclusion from the stress point of view, indicates that the
projection of any shearing force on the normal to the contour N this is the N to the contour r
equals to 0 so if we consider components of tau zx or tau zy in this direction that is equals to 0.
And therefore the tangent to any membrane contour gives the direction of the resultant shearing
stress at that point. So this the tangent at that point gives us the resultant shearing stress. So with
this conclusion we let us see what more we can have analogy with this problem and let us see.
527
So the magnitude of the resultant shearing stress is obtained by projection of the tangent of the
stress components. The resultant shearing stress at any point is given by tau is equals to tau zx
cos N x - tau z tau zy cos N x - tau z x cos N y. So if you look at it first component is zy this is
the N x component here actually the N x is this but a simple correlation if we geometrically if we
think this becomes the component.
So accordingly we get that that tau is equals to this value and we get this equation and from there
what we can conclude is that we can conclude that cos N x so not conclusion we can observe that
cos N x is equals to dx dn where in dn is the unit normal in this direction and this cos N y is
equal to dy dn and then if we substitute those values what we can say that this becomes minus of
rearrangement from the conclusion that this is equals to minus d phi dn and which is since phi
and z is correlated this way d this is dz dn.
Now from there what do we conclude magnitude of the shearing stress at any point is represented
by the slope of the membrane that means if we correspond to this, this slope that is this, so of the
membrane taken perpendicular to the contour line through that points. So the from the other
equations what we have already derived T is equals to twice double integration phi dx dy and
that can be easily approximated to the volume twice the volume.
528
And we have the correlation we conclude that we see that the torsional moment is represented by
twice the volume under the membrane which conforms to the cross section shape of the bar so
this is another very, very important equation we are going to use. So with this note we will come
again in the next lecture to find out relations for theta two relations we will find already one we
have got with respect to theta.
But one more we will find out considering the equilibrium in s direction we come to the
conclusion of this slide.
529
This is the standard reference slide and we proceed further to the last slide where it says that we
have learnt to some extent the membrane analogy method. And at the end I thank you for
attending this lecture we will meet again with the next lecture, thank you.
530
Prof. Anup Ghosh
Lecture No -42
Membrane Analogy for Torsion Problem (Contd.,)
Welcome back to aircraft structures one course this is Professor Aanp Ghosh from Aerospace
Engineering Department IIT Kharagpur. In due process we have come to the last lecture of the
total course the eighth week is going to end with this lecture the 42nd lecture in sequence and
here we will have some understanding will follow or put some insight into the membrane
analogy for the torsion problem.
And we will end the course but before we end the course it is we go into the lectures it is my
duty to thank many people who has helped me from the audio visual section of IIT Kharagpur
who has helped me to record this lecture in a very, very well beautifully record this lecture
beautifully and presentable to everyone. My sincere thank to our departmental retired professor P
K Dhakta without his help probably it was a very difficult task for me to do it.
I also would like to thank my two students who will be teaching assistant in this course Mr
Vikash Kaushik as well as Mr Supen Sah without their help also it is not a possible task. Not
only that there are many other people who are involved from CET section of our institute I
would like to thank each and everybody and with that note I would like to start today's lecture
which is the final lecture.
531
So let us proceed so in this recapitulation slide what we see is that history of aircraft and
aerospace structural analysis we have discussed. We have also discussed various types of
external loads, conceptual structural details how a wing is fabricated what are the members
structural members, how does a rib looks like? How does a spar looks like? How thin wall
sections are used to fabricate those things.
And we have seen where from loads come to aircraft and it experiences different critical
conditions we have come across to the flight envelope. We have also seen that if we consider the
fuselage separately or the wing separately how does it bends? How does it experiences shear
force its changes. We have done unit load analysis method so that for any practical case it can be
achieved that particular value.
Then three dimensional structures are given stress with as example which is very common in
aircraft without which an aircraft cannot land. Landing is very, very important so landing gear
analysis with help of three dimensional structures. Flying is a tough job fine but unless we are
able to land it is of no use. So landing gear analysis we have done and then we have done various
methods to find out deflection you are given the concept to find out deflection.
We have covered methods like complementary energy method total potential energy method. We
have learned Castiglione’s theorem we have learned unit load method, dummy load method. We
532
have also learned how to solve indeterminate structures statically indeterminate structures if
there are more like the cropped cantilever that is a very common example. Not only that even in
truss with more members are also solved.
Then we got introduced to a very, very important method known as the Rayleigh ridge method of
analysis which lays the foundation stone probably for the numerical analysis world from where
probably it starts. And it goes further and the world is now running in computer in digital world
unless we have a computer unless we are able to solve we cannot design anything we need to
find solution.
But see even the there is computer there are advanced methods of analysis like finite element
analysis method or many other different methods to analyze structures. Unless we have the
insight into the development of stresses and deflections it is difficult to design So to have that
insight to have the feel of development of stresses and strengths and displacements we need to
learn the theory of elasticity.
And in that connection we have learnt theory of elasticity. We have learnt that there are
compatibility conditions compatibility or continuity of stresses and strains while we are
formulating a problem we need to maintain mathematically otherwise it will not going to
represent the stress strain with the physical matching with the physical world or the practical
world. So those things we have learnt we have solved very, very typical problem of circular hole
in a plate.
Then we have solved torsion problem got introduced with the phenomena known as warping it is
a very beautiful phenomena to observe you may think of experiments wherever you are in your
college you may ask for a torsion experiment it is not very difficult one. But before you go for
the torsion element a torsion experiment you should mark parallel lines so that you can observe
the warping after the break after by torsion.
And then in the last lecture we got introduced with the membrane analogy and we will continue
with the membrane analogy to find out torsional stresses and deflections.
533
So in that connection we come to the relation between the stress and theta with respect to
membrane. So in this we are considering again one stretched membrane which is under pressure
P. The stress member is stressed on the surrounding or the edges of the structure which is under
torsion. If we consider the equilibrium equation of any portion of the membrane taken along a
contour line. The following equation results so what we can get from this equations along a
contour line is that S sine alpha sine alpha is equals to dz dn.
Integrate it along a contour line which is the I have shown you in the last lecture we can easily
write that this is equals to integration over that contour line for ds length considering a small
length ds is this one and that dz dn is equals to tau the slope already we have put and since we
have found out a relation between this p by S equals to 2G J sorry 2G theta that if we substitute
here we finally see that that whatever the pressure that total pressure is equals to p into A.
The total force acting in this direction and once we complete the integration we get the relation
something like tau ds integration over the S tau ds is equals to 2G A theta and where ds is an
increment of the distance S measured along the contour line. So with that concept we move
further for practical cases.
534
How do we implement this membrane analogy. For solid and hollow circular sections the
membranes would be as indicated in the figure below since the membrane for the solid circular
section has axial symmetry the membrane for the removed portion of the hollow section is a
circular membrane shown dotted in the figure this one. And torsional properties of the remaining
hollow cylinder are given by the dark membrane outline of the same figure.
So this will govern the torsional property this membrane so with that note we move further for a
solid section this is the way this total membrane for a annular section where there is a hole axial
hole cut in the shaft. This portion of the section we are supposed to consider for thin wall let us
see what is the relation we get with respect to theta. It can be readily be seen from seen why the
removal of the center portion of solid rod does not remove any considerable part of the torsional
stiffness of the section.
So if the wall comes thin we have the section as shown where the portion of the membrane
presenting the wall can be assumed to have a constant slope this particular portion. So that tau
may be equated with that slope value that tau is a so since from the equation T equals to twice
the volume under the membrane what we can see that the volume under the membrane is this
height and h A multiplied by h t twice A multiplied by h and T is equals to h by T as we can see
this is the slope. And then if we substitute the value of h here we get that T is equals to twice At
tau.
535
So with that note we come to the relation as tau is equals to T by twice A t using the stress
equations we find the angular twist for constant value of t and theta may be written as integration
tau ds 2GA or this may be again from the relations whatever we have seen may be written as Ts
by A4A square G t. So in this equation S is the perimeter of the cross section and A is the
average area enclosed by the cross section wall.
The membrane method so membrane method clearly shows the great difference in torsional
stiffness between a completely closed thin wall cylinder completely closed and thin wall cylinder
and a cylinder that has been cut. Figure above these are the two examples we are considering
now to discuss with membrane analogy and how the torsion torsional resistance varies that will
try to discuss.
In the first cylinder the value of phi on the outer boundary is equal to 0 but the value of phi on
the inner boundary is some constant value different from zero. This boundary so this is not
equals to 0 if we put some internal pressure. So the membrane as we have discussed in the last
slide membrane is something like this. So, that is the reason we have some definite value here.
Since the resistance to a torsional moment is proportional to the volume V under the membrane
here V 1 this resistance is indicated by the shaded area shown as V 1.
536
So, we are supposed to find out this volume for this closed ring so what happens if it is not a
closed ring.
So in case of cuttering considering now the cut cylinder we see that there is only one surface to
this member there is one surface to this member and that phi equals to 0. So this total edge if we
look at starting from here to here it is a complete single edge and there phi is equals to 0 on both
the sides of the and outside of the board both inside and outside of the cylinder. Thus the volume
representing the torque resistance is that of the small volume V 2 this volume.
This volume covering this area it is therefore quite apparent that even the smallest cut in such a
member reduce its torsional stiffness to a point where it is essentially equal to the torsional
stiffness of the thin plate with a thickness equal to the cylinder wall thickness and width equal to
the perimeter of the cylinder. So it is saying that if we stretch it, it is becoming almost similar
case a thin wall section and with that scenario the capability to resist torsion reduces in great
way.
So that is what from the membrane analogy we can easily conclude and keeping in mind that
analogy we also conclude that now if we are able to find out J effective separately for this
sections which makes the C section a 1 is this one a 2 is this one and a 3 is this one then we can
easily have summation of those J effectives to find out the J effective for the total C section thus
537
for any thin walled section open section it is approximately correct to say that the torsional
stiffness is equal to the torsional stiffness of its elements considered as flat plate under torsion.
So with that concept it gives us some approximate method of analysis that helps a lot for the
initial iteration and with that note we move to the next slide.
We will try to find out solution for a very easy problem. The equations for a long rectangular
rectangle can easily be obtained by a consideration of the membrane analogy if in figure above h
is very, very greater than b in this figure is talked about the membrane can be considered a
cylindrical surface one to mean if we look from this side this becomes something like this there
will be changes definitely at this corner this corner this corner and this corner but we can easily
neglect that part since we are going for the approximate analysis.
So that cylindrical surface we will get since the effects of the ends on the volume enclosed under
the membrane will be very small as these corners as we said we can easily consider that that as a
cylinder. And if we do that for a cylindrical surface what is mentioned here this is the cylinder
this cylinder is talked about. For a cylindrical membrane loaded with a tension force S and a
normal pressure p the deflection is given by delta equals to pb square by 8S this is a standard
value what we are using we are not going to derive this. nd the maximum slope is alpha equals to
twice delta by b by 2 and which leads to pb by twice s.
538
So we the volume under the membrane is equal to V two third of b delta h and we have this
value 1 by 12 pb k by h by S but since we have the relation p by S equals to 2G theta and t equals
to twice V if we combine those two we get the equation t is equals to one third h b cube G theta
and the tau max which is equals to alpha and if we substitute the values whatever we have
observe here is equals to T by one third h b square and theta from the membranology theta or the
rotation for unit length.
Per unit length is given by T by one third h b cube G the effective polar moment of inertia J
effective is equals to one third h b cube as it is obtained in this relation in is very small compared
to the true polar moment of inertia of the section which is h b cube +s h cube b divided by 12. So
there is a big difference as the section becomes more thin it becomes less in value and as the it is
less in value it shows more theta.
So in this connection we go further in the case discussed so far the equation of the membrane
may be determined analytically. In more general cases experimental methods may be used in
which a whole shepherd like the cross section of the cylindrical bar to be considered is cut in the
plate is so film or thin highly stretched rubber film is placed over the hole and then subjected to a
known normal pressure the shape of the membrane surface is determined either by mechanical
probes or by optical methods.
539
If only relative values are wanted they may be obtained by using a circular hole with the same
membrane and the same internal pressure since the value of the circle are known. The value of
the unknown cross section can be determined by comparison. So with this note we come to the
membrane analogy method and we come to the end of our course aircraft structures one.
And moving further we see the usual slide what consisting of the reference books and with this
note we would like to say I would like to thank you for attending the course and hope it will help
you a lot to understand the subject well. And to move further in academic world as well as in the
540
physical design or engineering world whatever we call it. And it will be helpful for your career,
thank you for attending the course, thank you.
541
THIS BOOK IS
NOT FOR SALE
NOR COMMERCIAL USE
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INDEX

The history of structural mechanics or solid mechanics is as old as civilization. So this

In case of laminated composite we have many application related to that, so a maximum

Gustav Kirchhoff from Germany, L. Pochhammer from Germany, J. V. Boussinesq from

Welcome back to structures 1. We are in the process of introduction. We are already

From there we have aircraft which is solar-powered, developed by some commercial

This is with courtesy to Wikipedia. So we have segmented development in different slides

To protect passengers, payload, systems, etc from environmental conditions encountered

Passengers cannot fly at minus 55 degree centigrade or minus 60 degree centigrade

So far we have covered so far historical background of aerospace structural analysis

So with conclusion of today’s lecture the reference is a standard reference is taken.

References are as usual I do not find any point to repeat.

When it is necessary to consider assume sorry when it is necessary to consider simultaneously

(Refer Slide Time: 08:46)

(Refer Slide Time: 29:08)

Some more preliminary understanding we need to follow otherwise it will be difficult to

E x multiplied by 100 and E z multiplied by 30 and we get the E x value.

To be mathematically correct however it is the differentiation of the complementary energy C

Total complimentary potential energy is equals to C i + C e as we have got in the previous

So since R is 1 by R is easily can be written as d theta dx this equals to the M by EI bending

This is 10 Newton this is S 1 this is S 2 so we are considering equilibrium summation anyway

So before we go further it is better to have a recapitulation history of aircraft now already we

So, Castigliano's theorem is the main topic let us try to cover.

So in the Rayleigh-Ritz method it is better to understand that it is an approximate method.

So, a general linear deformable system can be described by displacement u x y z, v x y z and w x

So we proceed further with to the standard reference page.

So, now we will proceed further to solve the indeterminate structures.

So this gives minus 1 by root 2 - 1 by root 2 - 1 by root 2 - 1 by root 2 this is 1 because R is

So as we have already mentioned that we will be learning equations of equilibrium or in a

Similarly dy is this length as it is mentioned once here dy dy dy or this is dy or dz dz is this

(Refer Slide Time: 17:07)

So because we are introduced to the coordinate transformation or transformation of traces

So epsa ij is equals to half of u i, j u j, i that is u i with respect to t to the partial derivation of j

Epsa ij must ensure continuous displacement that is compatibility condition of strength

Today’s topic or this lectures topic is a formulation of elasticity problem.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:50)

Simplification always sacrifices something anyway if a system of forces acting on a small

And we also have 2 functions f 1 x multiplied by y and f 2 x without any multiplication as 2

(Refer Slide Time: 30:09)

(Refer Slide Time: 28:26)

So with that note let us proceed for today’s lecture.

So it is quite obvious that if it is symmetric it is not dependent on theta it becomes a function of r

(Refer Slide Time: 26:11)

(Refer Slide Time: 29:19)

(Refer Slide Time: 22:53)

So the stress function may be then written as - T by pi a b x square + by a square + y square by b

(Refer Slide Time: 25:12)

(Refer Slide Time: 21:11)

(044) 2257 5905/08 nptel.ac.in swayam.gov.in

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