105105108

INDEX
S.No. Topic Page No.

WEEK- 1
1 Introduction 1
2 Analysis of Stress - I 29
3 Analysis of Stress – II 49
4 Analysis of Stress – III 66
5 Analysis of Stress - IV 88
WEEK- 2
6 Analysis of Stress - v 110

7 Analysis of Strain - I 131
8 Analysis of Strain – II 157
9 Analysis of Strain – III 181
10 Analysis of Strain - IV 210
WEEK- 3
11 Analysis of Strain – V 236

12 Analysis of Strain – VI 262
13 Analysis of Strain – VII 289
14 Analysis of Strain – VIII 313
15 Application of Stress/Strain- I 339
WEEK – 4
16 Application of Stress/Strain II 368

17 Application of Stress/Strain III 393
18 Torsion - I 424
19 Torsion - II 448
20 Torsion - III 472
WEEK- 5
21 Torsion – IV 502
22 Bending of Beams - I 528
23 Bending of Beams - II 554
24 Bending of Beams – III 580
25 Bending of Beams - IV 606
WEEK- 6
26 Stresses in Beams - I 641

27 Stresses in Beams - II 665
28 Stresses in Beams - III 691
29 Stresses in Beams - IV 714
30 Deflection of Beams - I 737
WEEK – 7
31 Deflection of Beams - II 762

32 Deflection of Beams - III 799
33 Deflection of Beams - IV 834
34 Combined Stresses - I 881
35 Combined Stresses - II 916
WEEK – 8
36 Combined Stresses - III 944

37 Stability of Columns - I 975
38 Stability of Columns - II 1019
39 Springs - I 1057
40 Springs - II 1086
Strength of Materials
Prof S. K. Bhattacharya
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Lecture - 1
Introduction
Welcome to the video lecture series of the course on Strength of Materials. Well, I am
S.K.Bhattacharyya from the department of civil engineering at IIT Kharagpur. You can
further contact me on bsri@civil.iitkgp.ernet.in. Now, the course on Strength of Materials is
designed in such a way that it covers basic aspects of the first course on the Strength of
Materials. It is expected to cover the entire course in 40 lessons which is of 1-hour duration
module. And it is expected that the whole course is covered in 10 modules.
(Refer Slide Time: 1:57)
In Module 1 we expect to complete the analysis of stress and will have six lessons including the
lesson which we will be discussing today where we will be introducing the concept of stress.
Module 2 will have around eight lessons, which will be on the analysis of strain.
Module 3 is the application of stress and strain, which is on thin-walled pressure vessels and will
have three lessons.
Module 4 is on torsion and will have four lessons
Module 5 is on bending of beams, which will also have four lessons.
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Module 6 is on stresses in beams, which will have also four lessons.

Module 7 is on deflection of beams and will have four lessons.
Module 8 is on combined stresses and will have three lessons.
Module 9 is on stability of columns and will have two lessons and
Module 10 is on springs and will have two lessons.
So thereby, in these ten modules, we expect to cover around 40 lessons in which the entire aspect
or the basic aspect of strength of material is going to be covered.
2
Now this particular course on the engineering mechanics basically has three fundamental
areas and they are;
The Statics
The Dynamics and
The Mechanics of material.
Now it is expected that you have already gone through aspects of statics and dynamics. You have
noticed probably that statics and dynamics mainly concentrate on the study of external effects on
rigid bodies. We do not worry about the deformation of the body, or deformation of the bodies is
neglected. Whereas in mechanics of materials, we deal with the study of bodies, which are
subjected to externally applied loads. We look into the aspects of the internal effects of the loads,
which are acting externally and the deformation characteristics of the structural member. So in
mechanics of materials, we are interested in these two aspects, internal effects of the externally
applied load and the deformations that are caused within the body because of the externally
applied load. And in fact, of these both, the aspects deformation of the load and deformation play
an important role while designing a member.
In fact we look into what we mean by design. When we try to arrive at a particular size of the
member, we need to know how much it deforms and what is the effect of external load on that
member internally and these aspects are dealt in the particular subject, which we call mechanics
of the material.
3
Now mechanics of material: in fact, when you look into this, you will find they are called by
different names; they are called strength of materials or mechanics of deformable bodies or
mechanics of solids. Now whatever the name we may call the subject as, basically, they contain
the same information or they will give you similar information, whether it is mechanics of
material or strength of materials or mechanics of deformable bodies or mechanics of solids; they
mean the same thing. Now here we have termed it as strength of materials.
Now it is interesting that all branches of engineering deal with some kind of physical systems.
And these physical systems are composed of the individual parts. When we look into different
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systems from different engineering disciplines, we will find that these physical systems are
composed of different elements. And each individual element, when connected together, gives
the whole system. Now these systems of the individual units are to be defined or assigned a
definite physical size, and these elements are fabricated from some materials. And we need to
know the characteristics of these materials or behavior of these materials. This helps to know the
whole structure of the system or whole physical system that are made of different elements and
can help us to understand whether they can stand the external load. This is the objective of this
particular subject, wherein we look into what these elements are, what are the different kinds of
forces they are subjected to, and what is the behavior of these elements against these external
loads.
Now, if we talk about a building structure, which you must have noticed in several places this
particular building structure is made of some kind of materials and also this particular building
structure is made of some individual elements and all these elements, when combined together,
they give this building a structural form. Now it is expected that this building structure should
perform some of the functions for which it has been built or it has been designed. Now the
functions this particular structure is subjected to, different kinds of loadings, and these loadings
could be generated from the environmental aspect such as for the effect of wind on the structure
or this particular structure may be subjected to earthquake forces. Now apart from these loadings,
which are expected to come on this building from the environmental or the surrounding
environment, it is also subjected to some kind of loads.
For example, its own weight of the element: there could be loads where human beings will
be moving around and there could be loads, which are arising because of some operation of
the equipment inside the building. So these building structures as a whole and the individual
components, combining which we have formed this whole structure, they are subjected to these
external loads.
Now, we will have to know or we will have to find out what are the effects of these external
loads on the building structure as a whole and in the individual units, in parts, what are the
effects of these loads? Now it may so happen that the flow of the building on which the people
are moving, if it deforms excessively then there is a possibility that it may not be in a usable
form and as a result it may not be in a serviceable condition. So we will have to know whether
elements within this whole structure can withstand the external load of which we just talked
about, whether it can perform that it does not have excessive deformation, whether the
whole structure is stable in its form because of such environmental loading or huge loading or
wind loading or earthquake. Whether the whole structure is in a stable position or not? Now
these are the answers we would like to found out. And the area which covers this is nothing
but the Strength of Materials.
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Other than the building structure, there is another interesting structure that is the bridge structure,
which is bridging the gap between the two sides or two ends of the river. Now as we have seen in
the case of the building structure we have loading from the environment, which we have said
from the wind or the earthquake. Now this particular structure, apart from those loading, will be
subjected to the loads because of the movement of the water. The supporting structure, which is
holding this bridge, will have the loads because of the movement of water. So that is an
additional load coming on this structure; also there will be vehicular movement on this particular
supporting structure that also imparts particular load on this structural form, and as you can see
the ones re-structured should withstand these loads without undergoing the excessive
deformation. Or the strength of the re-structure should be such that it can withstand these
external loads.
Also, as you can see, this particular structure is composed of different elements. So individually
these elements should be in a position to withstand all these loads. So again what I would like to
emphasize is that structures, when we consider they are fabricated or constructed out of
individual elements and combined together. So each individual element will be subjected to
some kind of forces which we will see as we progress in the course and those members should be
in a position to withstand those forces safely without causing any failure of those elements. If
any individual element fails that may lead to the failure of the whole structure.
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Now let us look into the other areas of the subject. For example, the spacecraft structure. These
are also subjected to different kinds of environmental loading apart from the loading which will
be generated for the movement of the spacecraft. And their structural body is made up of some
material, which should withstand the forces that it is subjected to and also one of the
requirements of these spacecraft is that the materials, which we use for the whole structure of the
body, should be lighter in nature.
Now if we have to adhere to this particular condition, that means we need to look into the
particular type of material, which can withstand safely the forces that will be generated in this
particular structural form. At the same time it should not contribute too much weight to the
structural form. And in one word, the whole structure should be stable; it should be strong to
withstand the external forces and also it should not have excessive deformation in different
positions.
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We look into this particular mechanical equipment, which is used for testing purposes. Now this
mechanical equipment has several parts when the loads are applied for testing. . Now these
individual parts are to be assigned size in such a way that they do not undergo excessive loading
or in other words that the load distribution should be such that the parts sizes should be such that
they can withstand the load which is coming when it is raised. So you can see whether building
structure or bridge structure or you talk about spacecrafts or you talk about the mechanical
components; even the electronic engineer when they use printed circuit boards wherein the chips
are mounted. The boards are to be strong enough to withstand any environmental loading that is
coming on that. It should be positioned properly, the support. It should not fail.
Therefore, you see any physical system used by any engineering discipline they are, they should
be such that they can withstand the external load coming on such structural form. So our
objective is to analyze these individual parts with which all these structural forms are used.
Structural forms, in general, could be building structure, it could be bridge structure, it could be
spacecrafts or it could be mechanical components. So any of these structures, when they are built
with these individual components, now these individual components are to be analyzed and see
that they satisfy the strength requirements, they satisfy the deformation requirements, and they
satisfy the stability requirements. This is what we look for in this particular subject of strength of
material.
8
As we have discussed, appropriate sizing is necessary for these parts to safely withstand the
imposed forces and at an optimal cost. Though we are not going to talk much about the cost
aspect of it, but when you talk about the strong design we are concerned with both the safety and
cost. When we say safety, we mean that the elements should be assigned the sizes in such a way
that it can withstand any external loads. And these external loads could arise from any of such
conditions as we discussed. And many a time, it so happens that we give larger size for a
particular element and thereby, we satisfy the strength or the deformation of the requirement. But
it may so happen that a smaller size of that could easily withstand that force without causing
much of harm in terms of strength or deformation.
Naturally then, the smaller size will be more economical than the larger size, which we can go
for though both are safe in terms of strength, size and deformation. Hence what we need to do is
not only that we should look into these strength, stability and deformation characteristics, but we
should look into the cost aspect also when we look into the proper design. That is the job of the
designer. Well, for the time being, we will not look into the cost aspect of it but we will be more
concerned with the aspect of strength, we will be more concerned with the aspect of deformation
and the aspect with the stability. And that is what we will be looking into in this particular
course.
9
Hence, it is essential to study the behavior of material from the strength and deformation point of
view, as well as the characterization of different kinds of forces, which cause different types of
stresses in the material. In fact, in a few minutes, we will look into what really means by stress.
So we are concerned about the strength, the deformation and of course we would like to look into
the effects of different kinds of forces that this particular member will be subjected to, that can
cause different kinds of stresses in the material.
Now the subject, which deals with the analytical deformation of the strength, the deformation
characteristics which you call as stiffness and stability of different members, is normally
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designated as the Strength of Materials. I emphasize that we like to look into these three aspects:
one is strength another is stiffness, which is nothing but the deformation characteristics of the
members and the stability of different elements, which we look into in this particular course and
which are the combination of these three. That means characterization of the strength, the
deformation, the stiffness and the stability. All we look into in this particular course, which we
normally call as Strength of Materials.
So now we are in fact in Strength of Materials, we are interested in these three characteristics:
first one is strength, another is stiffness and another is stability and these are called as three Ss of
strength of material. So we are concerned with the three Ss: parameter strength, stiffness and
stability.
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Well now, having looked into this background of strength of material, we look into the historical
background of this particular course. In fact the Strength of Materials is quite an old subject. In
the earlier part of the seventeenth century in fact Galileo, Leonardo-Da-Vinci tried to give
rational meaning of these aspects of structural members. Prior to that, in fact, people used to use
these concepts, which were based on the experience and mainly based on the rule of the thumbs.
But Galileo started giving explanation in a more rational way about the different aspects of the
forces in the words in terms of tension, in terms of compression, and of course they or Galileo
emphasized more on the experimental side of these elemental characteristics.
In fact, Strength of Materials in that sense is a fascinating blend of both the experiment and
theoretical aspects. In fact, Leonard Euler in 1744 gave his theory on the column buckling. Now
he had explained how you arrive at critical buckling load for a column member. But since he
didn’t have any experimental evidence, in fact, it took almost 100 years to establish or
reestablish this particular theory of Euler’s. Still today, we talk about the Euler’s column
buckling aspect. In fact in the earlier stages we had lot of theoretical explanation we had
experimental evidences but subsequently the French investigators like, to name a few, Cauchy,
Nervier, Poisson, Coulomb, St. Venant and several others. They had devoted their attention to
these areas: theoretical development of strength of material aspect or the mechanics material of
the aspect, based on which, we find that this particular subject, where it stands today, is based on
their research investigations. And several theories came up based on their research findings.
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With this background what we expect from this particular course is that once this particular
course is completed that means once somebody goes through all these lecture lessons of ten
modules, it is expected that one should be in a position to understand the classification of
different kinds of forces that structural components are subjected to. Now, when we say
structural components the structural component we talk in a generalized term, it is not that of any
particular structure. A structure could be building structure, it could be bridge structure or it
could be structural component of any mechanical equipment or it could be part of any
spacecrafts or any structural form we talk about; it is a part we could talk about, it is the part or
any part of the structural system as a whole.
Any part when it is subjected to any kind of force, we should be in a position to characterize
these forces, in a position to find out the effects of the forces such as structural components: the
classification of different kinds of forces that structural components are subjected to and then the
effects of different forces on such components and their solution techniques. This is what we will
be looking into in the particular course. Subsequently, the stresses of these forces on the
members and the deformations these members will be subjected to will be analyzed
systematically.
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Hence the scope of this particular course includes the identification of different types of forces
that the structural components will be subjected to and as we will go along in this particular
course, you will find that in different modules that we have looked into, the different types of
forces the structural components are subjected to and how to analyze those forces or the
components of the forces that the members will be subjected to and how to compute the stresses
in the members based on the forces. Also, we will look into the systematic evaluation of the
effects of these forces on such structural components.
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We will be confining ourselves to the materials, which are useful for engineering applications.
This is important because, we are not going to cover the whole lot of materials because when you
talk about the materials it is quite general in nature, it covers many aspects, different kinds of
materials, but here we will be restricting ourselves to the materials, which are useful for
engineering applications and that is what we should keep in mind. Also, the structural members
which we talk about, they do follow the laws of Newtonian mechanics and thereby the
equilibrium of forces governed by the mechanics law will be enforced. Also, it will be essential
to know the mechanical characteristics of the materials with which the member will be
fabricated.
So you see that when we talk about these aspects, we will be dealing with the theoretical
aspect, where we will be looking into the equilibrium of forces which are acting on the body
and we try to analyze the internal forces so governing the Newton’s laws of mechanics
adopted and subsequently we will have to use the mechanical behavior of the material with
which these structural elements will be fabricated. Now to characterize this behavior of this
material or the mechanics of that material we need to adopt some kind of experimental
investigation. So this part will have some out put from the test results in the laboratory. So you
see that it will be combination of the theoretical aspect along with the experimental investigation.
The Strength of Materials is a blend of these two. That is, theoretical aspects on which we apply
the laws of Newtonian mechanics and we try to characterize using the behavior of the material
based on certain experimental evidence. The combinations of these two will lead us to different
theories and will lead us to the different classification of the stresses due to the externally applied
load on structural members.
As we go along, we will find that the whole course will be divided broadly into two parts: one is
the logical development of the concept and another one is the application of these concepts to the
practical problems. When we talk about the logical development of the concepts, basically based
on these concepts we will try to derive the formulae that are necessary for arriving at different
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kinds of stresses in the members for the external loads. That is what we will be looking into and
the first part will be devoted for that. For any reason the initial part will be devoted to the
derivations of the theoretical background or the concept and based on those concepts and
formulae that we arrive at, we will be looking into some application problem areas or example
problems and in those application concepts we find, we classify into two groups, one we call the
numerical problem and other the algebraic problem.
When you talk about the numerical problems, we will be dealing with some example problems in
which we will be assigning some specific values, whereas in the case of algebraic problems, we
will try to arrive at some expressions which are very general in nature. Now both are having its
merits. When we talk about the numerical examples, at each type of these examples, we will be
evaluating it. We can visualize it: based on the values of the parameters we will be arriving at,
we can get a feel of those parameters, physically what they represent and what they should be
and what actually we are getting.
Now when we talk about algebraic problems, there we would be discussing about the problems
which could be general in nature and thereby we will arrive at certain expressions and these
expressions can be used for solving specific problems where we will have specific numerical
value or some parameter. This is how we classify the two groups of problems. This is what is
indicated over here that the application concept which we derived in the initial stage, these
concepts when they are applied to practical problems, they could be applied to the numerical
problem or the algebraic problem and as we go along in the course in the different modules, we
have taken different examples and different areas, which satisfy the requirements of different
engineering disciplines. Those structural components can be used for characterizing the behavior
of those individual elements. So they can be used according to the need of any structural system.
When we talk about the numerical problems or the algebraic problems, we talk about the units
and the basic units which are used. We use the international system of units in this particular
course. And the basic units for these in the international system are
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Metre(m) is for length. Let us call this length as L. Kilogram (kg) is for mass (M) and for
time(T), we use second (s). Based on these basic units L, M and T, we arrive at certain derived
units.
Now when you talk about the units for the area
Area is the product of two linear parameters.
A (m2) = L(m) x L(m)
Velocity (m/s) = distance (L)/ time(s)
Acceleration (m/s2) = velcocity (m/s)/ time(s)
Force (P) = Mass(kg) x acceleration(m/s2)

This unit kg.m/s2 we normally designate as Newton(N). And the abbreviated form of the
Newton is N.
Now for higher values we use kilo Newton (kN), which is 103 N, or we define in mega Newton,
which is 106 Newton.
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We will define another parameter in a few minutes, which we call as stress. We define as the
force per unit area. So as we have defined, the unit of force will be =Force (N)/ Area(m2)
which is also called as Pascal (Pa).
When one Newton of force is acting on one square meter of area, this amount comes small,
where load(N) is very small when compared to area(m2) which is very large, many a times this
stress is represented in terms of Mega Pascal (MPa) (=106 Pa) or kilo Pascal (kPa) (=103 Pa) or
Giga Pascal (GPa) (=109 Pa)
As you can see, based on these units that we use in international system when length in
meter, the mass in kg and the time in second and based on those basic units, we can arrive at
the derived units and we look into these in this particular course. We will be more concerned
with the units of the stresses, which is Pascal, and thereby at many a place you will come
across kilo Pascal, mega Pascal or the Gigapascal for the units of the stresses.
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Having known the units, let us look into the aspects of the forces that the body or the member is
subjected to. Now we come across a term which is called a body force; the body force is
basically associated with the units, the volume of the body, and thereby it is basically a
distributed system, that is, the force which is distributed over the entire volume of the body. Or
in that sense the gravitational force or the inertial force or the magnetic force – these are the
forces which we term as body forces. Now, though it is distributed over the volume, when we try
to analyze the forcing system, the body force we apply assuming that it is at the centre of the
gravity of the body. So when we analyze a particular structural component, the body force we
apply at the centre of the gravity of the body. Basically these are the forces: the gravitational
force, the inertia force or the magnetic force are generally termed as body force.
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Now, having known the body force, we are interested to know the kind of surface forces. This is
another kind of force which acts on the body, that is, the surface force. From the name itself you
can make out these forces act on the surface of the body. We call these the area elements of the
body. Now these forces on the surface, supposing this is the structural body, we have two kinds
of support. The body is supported at these points and subjected to the forces at these points. Now
these forces, which we call as concentrated load at these points, act on these particular surfaces
of the body; this particular force is acting and it is over a small area and thereby the force
concentration at that particular point. That particular force we call as concentrated force. It could
be distributed over like in some area, in this particular case if you look into that, it is distributed
and this we call as distributed force system. The body on the surface could be subjected to either
a concentrated force or a distributed force. Now when these surface forces act on the boundary,
we call that as surface traction. So please keep in mind the surface forces could be a concentrated
force or a distributed force. When this forcing system acts on the boundary, we call that as
surface traction.
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Now, having known the body force and the surface force, another aspect that we would be
dealing with quite frequently would be the internal force. To know the internal force, we will
have to look into one aspect, which we call as a free body diagram. Now let us consider a
body which is supported at these two points, and subjected to these loads P1 and P2. And these
we call as external loads. So the external loads are acting on the particular body shown in the
figure above. Since this body is in equilibrium, under the actions of these external loads,
there will be some amount of reactive forces generated at these support points.
So, if we remove these supports from this body, and represent the body in this form where P 1
and P 2 are the forces acting on the body, which we call as active force and because of these
active forces on the body there are reactive forces, which are R 1 and R 2 . Now these active forces
of P 1 and P 2 and reactive forces of R 1 and R 2 are keeping this body in equilibrium. Hence when
we consider or represent body with the external loads, in fact these reactive forces are also
external loads, but when we represent the whole body, when we free or we make them free from
these supports, and represent them using the active force and the reactive force, this particular
diagram we call as free body diagram. So this is the free body diagram of the structure as a
whole. That means, we have freed this structure from its supporting constraints and applied the
reactive forces over there. Now if I like to cut this particular body through a line and divide and
break it into two halves, then if this particular structure is cut through the line divided into two
halves, then what do you get?
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Then we get a form, something like this, wherein you see this particular half of the body is
subjected to these external loads, P 1 and P 2 . Since the whole body is in equilibrium, the parts of
the body should also be in equilibrium. So when we make a cut in the body and separate it out
into two halves, as you can see internally there are forces which will be generated, which are
called S 1 , S 2 and S 3 . And the other half will also have the reactive forces, and these forces will
be equal and opposite in nature because in static form they are in equilibrium condition.
Now these forces, which are generated internally to equilibriate these loads, we call these forces
as internal forces. And these diagrams also are called as free body diagrams. So as you can
see free that to obtain a free body diagram, we can remove the reactive constraints and make
the body from the support and thereby we draw all the external loads acting on that. That is
also a free body diagram or we cut the body and make different parts and on that we show the
external force and the internal force and that is also a free body diagram. Now this free body
diagram gives us the idea of the internal forces.
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In mechanics of materials or Strength of Materials, what we are concerned with is internal

forces or the intensity of the forces that are acting. As you have seen these internal forces
equilibrate the external forces and keep the body in equilibrium. Hence what we are
interested to find out is the intensity of these forces and how they keep the body in equilibrium
and thereby reduce the deformation of the whole structure. Now if we look into this particular
body, wherein we have taken a cut and this cut, if you take the normal to this cut, this directs
along the x axis.
On these we have a small force ΔP acting on a small area, which is ΔA. Now it is customary to
decompose this force into two directions: one is perpendicular to the direction and another one is
along the plane of the cross section. Now if we do that, if we decompose this load perpendicular
section, which is Δ P x because it is the direction of x and further in the plane the load in the
section can be decomposed into two directions, one is ΔP y and another is ∆Pz . Now since we are
interested in the intensity of the force over this area, so ∆P and ∆A give us the intensity and that
∆P
we call as stress. So stress basically equals . Now we have taken the components along x, y
∆A
and z directions, and mind that we have taken a cut, the perpendicular to that is matching with
∆Px ∆Py
the x direction. Now this – – we call as the stress in the x direction = τ x , is the
∆A ∆A
∆Pz
stress in the y direction and the in the z direction. Now on a limiting scale, when we talk
∆A
about the stress, at a point when this ∆A tends to zero this τ x , τ y and τ z give us the stress at a
particular point.
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Now the way we have given these designations, if you look into τ it is the term of stress, the
first subscript defines the plane, as I said, for a body we have taken a cut, the normal drawn to
the plane, directs towards the axis x. This we call as x plane. This particular we call it as stress.
Now τ xx indicates that it is the stress in x plane and directed towards x and τ xy indicates that the
stress in x plane is directed towards y, and τ xz indicates the τ in x plane directed towards the z.
Now, when we have the plane and direction coinciding or if this is the direction of the normal to
the plane and this is also directed towards this, this we call as the normal stress. We denote this
generally with σ x . Sigma x defines that this particular stress is normal to the plane and this
normal stress could be tensile or compressive in nature. When the pull, when this particular force
is perpendicular to the plane and it tries to pull the body, we call that as tensile and when it
pushes the body we call that as a compressive stress. We will look into more aspects in later
lessons. Also the stresses, which are acting in the plane of the act, we call that as shear stress.
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So stresses, multiplied by the respective areas, on which they act, give us the forces and at
section, the vector sum of these forces is known as the stress resultant. Basically, in the problem
of Strength of Materials, we are interested to evaluate this stress resultant and from those stress
resultants, we compute the values of the stresses of a body, which are subjected to different kinds
of loads.
Now in this example we are interested to draw the free body diagram for this. Now this is the
part which is subjected to a tensile pull. Now if you would like to draw the free body diagram of
the whole part then, the free body diagram will be like this: that it is acting on by this force
25
which is passing through the centre of gravity of this member, so the reactive force will also be
P. Or if we take a cut somewhere, it will be a small part of the body and that also will be in
equilibrium under action of these loads. This is free body of α the part of the structural form.
Also, if you like to draw the free body diagram for this structural form, which are bars subjected
to this load P, now as we have done, make these structures free from the support and thereby get
the reactive forces, they could be in this form or we can take a cut in this particular structural
form and thereby you get the reactive forces, the active forces and the member forces. This is the
free body diagram of this particular part. And this is how we make the elements free and take a
cut, which give us the free body diagram of the structure.
26
Hence to summarize in this particular lesson, we have included the general idea about the scope
of the subject, we have discussed the typical application areas where strength of material can be
applied. What is the scope of this particular subject? What are the disciplines where we come
across the different problems based on the strength of the material formulae, where based on
what we can get the solutions for such problems? Then concept of different forces also we have
looked into: the concept of free body diagram and thereby the concept of stress.
These are the questions for you.

What are the units of the Force and Stress?
27
What is the definition of normal stress?
What is meant by free body diagram?
What are the axioms on which the behavior of the deformable member subjected to forces
depend?
Now look into these questions. If you go through this lesson, you should be in a position to
answer these questions. We will be discussing about the answers of these questions in the next
session.
28
Lecture - 2
Analysis of Stress - I
Welcome to the course, strength of materials. In the last lesson I introduced the concept of
stresses. In this particular lesson we are going to look into some more aspects of analysis of
stresses.
29
Here are some of the questions posed in the last session. The first question was;
What is the unit of force and stress?
The unit of Force is Newton (N) and unit of stress is (N by m square) or Pascal (Pa). This can be
represented in terms of also Mega Pascal (Mpa) or just Giga Pascal (GPa).
(Refer Slide Time: 2.04)
What is the definition of normal stress?

It can be defined as stress acting normal to the plane.
30
If you have a free body which is a part of a major body and is acted on by forces, then there will
be resultant forces in it which will keep this body in equilibrium. If we take resultant stress in a
particular small element, then we can decompose this stress into two components, - one is along
the normal direction of this particular cross section and another component along the plane of
this particular section. The component which is acting normal to this particular cross section is
normally known as the normal stress.
Normal stress is the normal component perpendicular to the particular section.

What is meant by free body diagram?
31
Free body diagram is a diagram of a body as a whole or a part of it, acted on by external
resistive forces. It can be the whole body acted on by active forces and resistive forces or if we
cut any section from the body and they are also acted on by the same forces and the resistive
forces which will keep the body in equilibrium, then we call it as the free body diagram of
that particular configuration.
Let us say we have a body which is supported at these two points and acted on by forces. If we
have to draw free body diagram of this, we will draw a diagram subjected to the external forces.
This may not be the right diagram. The right diagram will be, if you take a body acted on
by active force along with resistive forces at the support which will keep the body in
equilibrium. Then this is the true free body diagram of the body.
Now, if we want to cut the free body clearly and separate it into two halves then we have one
half which is acted by active and resistive forces and resistive force will keep this part of the
body in equilibrium. Then this particular part also is a part of the free body of whole structural
form. So, free body diagram is essentially, when they are acted on by the active forces and the
resistive forces of the whole body or part of a body subjected to the external active and
resistive forces and the internal resistive forces.
What are the axioms on which behavior of deformable member subjected to forces
depend?
1. First thing is equilibrium of forces. Fundamental laws of Newtonian mechanics are
used for the equilibrium of forces.
∑Fx = 0, ∑Fy = 0, ∑Fz = 0
∑Mx = 0, ∑My = 0, ∑Mz = 0
These equations must be satisfied for a body which is in space. In a two dimensional form,
these equilibrium equations reduces to
∑Fx = 0, ∑Fy = 0, ∑Mz = 0
32
2. Also the forces must satisfy the parallelogram of forces.
If we have two forces in the plane, normal and plane force, then their resultant should pass
through the diagonal of the parallelogram.
In case of forces or stresses in 3D, if we look into this parallelepiped, the resultant of forces
or stresses acting in the x, y and the z direction must be acting along the diagonal of this
parallelepiped.
So these are the two basic axioms based on which the forces act on the deformable body
are guided.
Also, the mechanical properties of the material are essential to be satisfied. These properties of
materials are to be established through laboratory experiments.
Hence the equilibrium of forces and mechanical properties are the main aspects of behavior
of the members subjected to forces.
33
34
The components are subjected to stresses due to external forces. Now, we will be evaluating
stresses in structural components in a systematic manner.
How do you solve given a problem and show the particular free body diagram of the problem
considering that the external forces and the resistive forces acting on the member. Once we
know the stress resultant from the equations of the equilibrium, we should be able to
calculate the stresses at different sections as we desire.
35
The approach for analysis of external forces should be through the development of free body
diagram for evaluation of reactive and internal forces and thereby evaluation of developed
stresses due to external forces.
The concept of stress has been already discussed which is at a particular smaller element. If an
intensity of the force is acting on an area, then force per unit area is called as the stress.
36
If we take a small element in which a stress is acting, then this stress multiplied by the area
gives the force called as the stress resultant (F).
F = ∫A (σ. dA)
And thereby, we assume that at every point it has the same behavior.
So at any section, the vector sum of the forces keeps the body in equilibrium and that is how
the stress resultant will be obtained for that particular section. So, our job is to evaluate this
stress resultant in order to compute stresses at that particular section.
37
We are interested in knowing the resultant stress vector in a particular section. Let us look into
a body. (Refer Slide Time: 14:22)
This is a body which is acted on by external forces. If we cut this particular body to a plane
which is perpendicular or rather parallel to the yz plane, then the normal drawn on this particular
plane will be parallel to x-axis.
When you draw a normal to any particular plane and if that particular normal coincides with
any of the axis, we designate that plane with the name of that particular axis.
For example, here we have cut this body through a plane parallel to y, z plane. So, if we draw a
normal on to this section, it is going to be parallel to x-axis and we designate this plane as x-
plane.
Now on this x-plane, at a particular point the resulting stress is R. If we take the component of
this stress R in three perpendicular axis direction, then we have the stress acting in the
direction of x which is normal to this particular section and as per the definition of
normal stress, this is the normal stress acting in the direction x.
If we take the component of R along y-axis or parallel to y-axis, then we get a stress acting in y
direction. Also, we have the component which is acting in z direction. The stress which is acting
parallel to y or in the y direction we designate this as the stress τ acting in the plane x in the
direction y which we call as τxy. And the stress acting in the plane x along z direction, τxz.
Thereby in this particular x-plane we have three stress components:

Normal stress - σx
Shearing stresses - τ xy and τ xz
38
Likewise, if we cut this body into a plane which is parallel to this z plane we cut along this then
we get three components of the stresses - σy , τyx and τyz
If we cut this body with a plane parallel to x, y plane and if we plot the three stress components
the stress which is normal to the plane gives out the n ormal stress σz , τzx and τzy
These are the nine stress components that we are going to get at a particular point. Now if this
particular body is cut in such a way that you take another plane which is at an infinite small
distance away from here and if we cut it off by two parallel planes then we can get a small
cubical element on which you can plot the stresses.
The stress on this particular plane the direction of x is the normal stress σx and shearing stress,
τxy and τxz.
Likewise, we have stress acting in the y-direction, the normal stress (σy) and for the positive
direction of x on the y-plane we have the shearing stress τyx (y-plane in the x-direction) and on
the y-plane in z-direction we have the stress τyz. This particular plane the normal to z we call it as
the z-plane and on this we have the stresses acting the normal to the z as σz.
39
On the z-plane, σz (in the z-direction), τzx (z plane, positive x direction) and τzy( z plane, positive
y direction). Likewise on the other three faces which are hidden from this side this face, this face
and this face also have the three components of the stresses which are σ in one plane and τ in two
planes.
In the plane normal with its normal acting in the negative x-direction, σx will act in that
particular direction. The face will have the shearing stress components, τxy (x plane, negative y
direction) and τxz (x plane, negative z direction).
Likewise on the y-plane, we have σy τyx and τyz
On z-plane, we have σz , τzx and τzy
Let us look into the state of stress at a point. As we have seen, the state of stress at a point is
represented by those nine stress components.
Now three stage state are represented by the three stress components like σx, τxy and τxz and
likewise in other planes. So all these three stress components are written on three mutually
perpendicular axis and they are represented by a term which we generally written as τij which is
called as a stress tensor.
40
So stress tensor is τij where i represents the (x, y, z) directions or the (x, y, z) plane and j
represents the three stress directions. So if we expand these on the x-plane ad when i is x we
have j as xyz, so the stress components are tau xx, tauxy and tauxz. When i is the y plane we will
have three components in x, y and z direction. So we will have tauyx, tauyy and tauyz. Likewise
when i is in the z-plane we will have three components in the x, y and z-direction. We have tauzx,
tauzy and tauzz. Now the components which are tauxx, tauyy and tauzz are normal to the plane. Let
us call them as sigmax, this as sigmay and this as sigmaz.
τxx τxy τxz

τij = τyx τyy τyz
τzx τzy τzz
τij = σx τxy τxz

τyx σy τyz
τzx τzy σz
So, we have the stress components σx, τxy and τxz which are acting in the x-plane; τyx, σy, τyz in
the y-plane and τzx, τzy and σz which are acting on the z-plane. These are the nine stress
components at a point.
41
Equality of Cross Shear
Let us assume that the dimensions of the body considered in the figure above are dx in the x-
direction, vertical height being dy and along the z direction, the width being dz.
Only the forces or the stress components that are going to cause the moment in z-direction are
represented in the figure above. Other forces have not been shown.
If we take the movement of all the forces about z-axis neglecting the body force components
as they would not cause any moment about z-axis, the moment expression can be written as
[Stress (τyx) * Area) * dy] - [Stress (τxy) * Area) * dx] + Body Force = 0
Clockwise Anti-Clockwise Neglected -> Zero
Thus, τyx.dx.dz.dy - τxy.dz.dy.dx = 0 => τxy = τyx
Similarly, τxz = τzx and τzy = τyz
This gives us that the cross shearing terms are equal. So if we look into stress tensor τij which we
had,
τxx τxy τxz
τij = τyx τyy τyz
τzx τzy τzz
Since, τxy = τyx , τxz = τzx and τzy = τyz , the stress tensor reduces to 6 stress components and has a
symmertrical form.
σx τxy τxz
τij = τxy σy τyz
τxz τyz σz
42
Elements in Plane Stress
If we write down the stress components in a two dimensional plane, then we call those stresses
as the elements in the plane stress.
Considering the xy plane,
The stress components which we will have here are σx, σy, τxy and τyx.
Since, τyx = τyx, we can simply call it τ.
Therefore we have normal stress components σx, σy and shearing stress τ.
Differential Equations of Equilibrium
Having known that the stress at a particular point which are combinations of normal stresses
and shearing stresses, let us look into that if we have a body and if we are interested to find out
the change in stress from one point to another, we need certain equations to be solved and those
equations are called as equations of equilibrium.
For example we have a body which is stressed and we want to find out the change in stress from
one point to another, we need the equations of equilibrium. As usual, we have x-axis, y-axis and
z-axis. Now on the x-plane (normal to which is parallel to x-axis), we have normal stresses known
as σx and two shearing stress components τxz and τxy.
Considering a plane which is at a distance of dx from this plane and has dimensions dy and dz,
the stress which will be acting on this will be,
normal stress = σx + (δσx/δx) dx
shearing stress component τxy which is varying from one end to another will be
= τxy + (δτxy/δx) dx. and τxz + (δτxz/δx) dx.
43
Considering a plane which is at a distance of dy from the y plane and has dimensions dx and dz,
the stress which will be acting on this will be,
normal stress = σy + (δσy/δy) dy
shearing stress = τyx + (δτyx/δy) dy. and τyz + (δτyz/δy) dy.
And similarly for the z-plane.
Now if we take the forces which are acting in the x-direction and sum them up. As per the
equations of equilibrium the summation of all the forces in the x-direction must be equal to 0.
If we write down the forces in the x-direction assuming X as the body force component in x
direction,
{ [σx + (δσx/δx) dx] dy.dz} - {σx.dy.dz} + { [τyx + (δτyx/δy) dy] dx.dz} - {τyx.dx.dz} +
{ [τzx + (δτzx/δz) dz] dx.dy} - {τzx.dx.dy} + X. dx.dy.dz = 0
We get, (δσx/δx) + (δτyx/δy) + (δτzx/δx) + X = 0

Taking equilibrium of forces in Y and Z directions, we get two more sets of equations as follows:
(δτyx/δx) + (δσy/δy) + (δτyz/δz) + Y = 0
(δτzx/δx) + (δτzy/δy) + (δσz/δz) + Z = 0
These are called the equations of equilibrium.
44
These equations of equilibrium can be written down in a two dimensional form as well.
Taking equilibrium of forces represented in the figure above in X and Y directions, we get two sets of
equations as follows:
(δσx/δx) + (δτyx/δy) + X = 0
(δτyx/δx) + (δσy/δy) + Y = 0
Stress Analysis of Axially Loaded Members:
Now, we know the stresses at a point, equations of equilibrium and how to evaluate those
stresses at different planes.
To evaluate the stresses in an axially loaded member: If we have a body in which we have a
force P acting in the axial direction,
45
Now if we want to evaluate the stresses at any inclined plane, let us cut this body by an
inclined plane. Drawing it's FBD, we have the body in this form shown in the figure below. Here
we have the resistive force P which is acting. The stress resultant on the inclined plane will
act in an opposite direction to equilibrate the body. Taking the components of this resultant
force, we get three forces of the stress component - one normal and the two shearing stress
components tau.
Concentrating on the two dimensional plane, if we take the axially loaded member
subjected to the load in the axial direction. Let us take a plane which is cutting this body in
inclined form and let us assume that this plane is making an angle of theta with the vertical. If
we take the free body diagram of this particular body, the resistive force acting on this body to
keep the equilibrium is P which will have two components : one along the normal (P cosθ) and
one along the plane of that particular section (P sinθ) as shown in the figure below.
Now, if we say that the cross sectional area of the body is A and that of the inclined section is A', then the
stress which is acting in the inclined plane are:
σθ = P cosθ/A' = P cos2θ/A
τθ= P sinθ/A' = P sin2θ/2A
46
So, maximum σθ = P/A, when θ= 0 degrees and
maximum τθ= P/2A when θ= 45 degrees
Eventually, τθ = σθ/2
This particular body is acted on by the force P. Eventually the resistive force will be P/2 and P/2.
The thickness being smaller, we ignore any eccentricity possibility for the transfer of forces.
This P/2 is called as the shearing force and this shearing force divided by this area which is acted
on between these two plates is called as the shearing stress. If we say the area is b * t then the
shearing stress is:
τ = P/2bt
47
Now, here we are given a problem where two plates are connected by two bolts for which
we have to evaluate normal stress, shear stress and the wearing stress which will be evaluated in
the next lesson.
48
Lecture - 3
Analysis of Stress - II
Welcome to lesson 3 on the course Strength of Materials. We are going to discuss about the
analysis of the stress. We have already looked into some aspects of stress analysis.
49
Now it is expected that once this particular lesson is completed one will able to compute stress
resultant and stresses in members subjected to axial forces, evaluate stresses at a point on a body
at any arbitrary plane, evaluate principal stresses and locate principal planes and also compute
stress invariants.
Hence the scope of this particular lesson includes: review of normal stress, concept of shear and
bearing stress, computation of stress on any arbitrary plane, concept of principal stress and
principal plane and concept of stress invariants. We discussed the types of stress and specifically
about the normal stress.
50
SHEAR STRESSES
We had noticed that if we take a body which is axially loaded by a force P and if we take a
section and draw the free body diagram, So at the chord section say “a-a” there will be resulting
stress component which we call as stress resultant or the resisting force P. At every point there
will be a stress component and the normal stress multiplied by the area will give the force.
So, F = ∫A (σ. dA)
While making this kind of assumption that every where state of the stress exists if the force acts
through the centriod of the section. We assume that the particle of the material at every
point contributes to the resistance of this external force and thereby we assume the homogeneity
of this material. We assume that at every point the same state of stress exists.
When a body is subjected to external forces which are trying to cause traction in the member
or trying to pull the member we call these kinds of forces and the stresses as tensile stresses
whereas when the external forces are acting on the member trying to push the member we call
this kind of external forces and the stresses as compressive stresses.
Let us look into the aspects of shear stresses. Let us assume that this particular body is
subjected to the action of external forces P and the resistive forces thereby will be P/2 and P/2.
The thickness being smaller, we ignore any eccentricity possibility for the transfer of forces.
The resistive force will try to cause stress at the contact between the two elements and this
contact area is so near which is the plan. When we look from the top, let us consider the
dimensions as “a” and this as “b” then we can define the shear stress(τ) as:
τ = P/2ab
51
BEARING STRESSES
Many a times we come across situations where some blocks are resting over another block and
transferring the forces from external sources. For example, if we have a body as shown above
in which, this is a block which is resting on a bigger block and the smaller block is subjected
to external load P. If the centroid of the top block is placed on the centroid of the bottom block,
then some normal stresses will be generated at the interface between these two blocks and we
designate them as bearing stress. By the term bearing we mean that the bottom block is
bearing the load of the top block. So, if the contact area between the smaller block and the bigger
block, is equal to Ac then the bearing stress(σb) can be written as:
σbg = P/Ac
In the above figure is another example which is the concept of the bearing stress. If we have a
rigid bar resting on two supports and is subjected to external force P. Now if we take the free
body diagram of this particular bar, the external force is P. So the resistive force at the support
point, assuming this P is acting to the centroid of this body is P/2 and P/2. This reactive force
will be in turn, be transmitted to the support and depending on the contact area we have, (e.g
a.b), then this force P/2 has contact area which is a(b). Hence the bearing stress that is σ bearing
is equal to, σbg = P/2ab
52
Stress Components on an Arbitrary Plane
Here are the different stress components that act on any arbitrary plane. Let us consider that
A, B, C are any arbitrary plane and O, X, Y and Z is the reference axis system. As we have
noticed earlier that the plane normal to which it coincides with the axis we designate that in the
name of the particular axis. Likewise this particular plane is the x plane on which the normal
stress σx acts.
Similarly, the plane OBC is normal to the axis that coincides with y direction which is y-plane
and we have normal stress σy on this plane. And the normal stress on the plane AOC i.e., the z-
plane is σz. Also, there are shearing stresses(τ) in those planes. For eg., on the x-plane in the y-
direction and z-direcion will have τxy and τxz respectively.
Let us assume that this arbitrary plane has a normal which is outward drawn normal, n. This unit
vector can be designated with reference to xyz-plane. Let us assume that a unit normal is drawn
here(see diagram). If this vector makes an angle of α with x-axis, beta with y-axis, and gamma
with z-axis then we define the cosine components in the x-direction as
nx = cos α; ny = cos β; and nz = cos γ.
Thereby the unit vector can be represented by:
nx2+ ny2 + nz2 =1
Let us assume that on this arbitrary plane we have the resulting stress vector as R and the
component of this resultant stress on this plane in the x, y, and z-direction be R x , R y , and R z .
Also let us assume that the area of the arbitrary plane is dA which is the area of the plane ABC.
Now, if we take the projection of this area on x-plane which is AOB. So,
Area(AOB) = dA.nx
Area(BOC) = dA.ny
Area(AOC) = dA.nz
53
Now if we take the summation of all forces in the x-direction, then we can write down the
equilibrium equation in x-the direction as:
Rx.dA - σx.dA nx - τyx dA.ny - τzx.dA.nz = 0
So,
Rx = σx.nx + τyx.ny + τzx.nz
Ry = τxy.nx + σy.ny + τzy.nz
Rz = τxz.nx + τyz.ny + σz.nz
These are the three resulting stress components. So the stress components on the arbitrary
plane which are acting in the x, y and z-directions are represented in terms of the stress
components in the rectangular co-ordinate system. This set of equations is normally designated
as Cauchy’s stress formula.
54
Now let us look into, if we consider a plane which has normal n and the direction cosines for the
normal are nx, ny and nz. Also, we assume that on this particular plane only the normal stress
acts in the direction normal to the plane. Hence if we take the components of this in the x, y,
and z direction then as we have designated before Rx as the resulting stress in the x-direction;
Ry as the resulting stress in the y-direction and Rz as the resulting stress in the z-direction, they
55
can be written in the direction cosines as: Rx = σn nx; Ry = σn ny; and Rz = σn nz.
Exactly in the same form the way we have evaluated Cauchy’s stress formula. Taking the
equilibrium equations in the x, y and z-direction we can compute the resulting forces in x, y, and
z-direction in terms of σn.
In the previous case we had forces as:

Rx.dA = σx.dA.nx + τyx.dA.ny + τzx dA nz
or,
Rx = σx nx + τyx ny + τzx nz
Also,
σnnx dA = σxdAnx + τyxdAny + τzxdAnz.
Hence,
σn nx = σxnx + τyxny + τzxnz.
56
The equations of equilibrium in the three directions x, y, and z can be rearranged and written
as:
(σx - σn) nx + τyx ny + τzx nz = 0;
τxy nx + (σy - σn) ny + τzy nz = 0;
τxz nx + τyz ny + (σz - σn) nz = 0.
We have already seen that
τyx = τxy; τzx = τxz and; τzy = τyz.
Now these three equations can be thought of as simultaneous equations containing nx, ny and nz
and we can evaluate the values of nx, ny and nz. Now, if we expand this particular equation we
will get a cubical equation in σn.
57
This is the cubical equation in σn:
σn3 - l1 σn2 + l2 σn - l3 = 0
And once we solve this cubical equation we are expected to get three roots which eventually will
turn out be real and we designate those roots as σ1, σ2 and σ3. And corresponding to each values
of σ we will get the values of nx, ny and nz.
So here we have the equations on the arbitrary plane on which the stress in absolutely normal and
we have observed that we can get simultaneous equations nx, ny and nz in terms of σx τxy, τyx and
τyz; and σx, σy and σz.
σn3 - l1 σn2 + l2 σn - l3 = 0
Lets look in the terms of I1, I2, and I3 in the above equation. For each of these σ values we can
compute the values of nx, ny, and nz. we can do that using the 3 equilibrium equations and using
the expression, nx2 + ny2 + nz2 = 1
So, for a trivial solution nx = ny = nz = 0 which is not really going to give us the solution
because nx2 + ny2 + nz2 = 1
Now for a non-trivial solution of the simultaneous solution we set the determinant of the
coefficients of nx, ny, and nz = 0
(σx - σn) τxy τxz
det. | τ xy (σy - σ n) τyz | = 0
τxz τyz (σz - σn)
Now, we get the cubical equation in

σn3 - I1σn2 + I2σn - I3
where,
I1 = σx + σy + σz;
I2 and I3 (shown in the figure below)
58
The plane on which this stress vector is fully normal is known as principal plane. This is
what we considered in the previous situation where we had taken the arbitrary plane and we
considered the stress vector which is along the normal and thereby we obtained the cubical
equations in σn and from which we obtained the three roots σ1, σ2 and σ3.
In this particular plane the normal stress is acting along the normal of the plane. So the plane on
which this stress vector is wholly normal is called as principal plane.
The stress on this principal plane which is absolutely normal is called as principal stress.
And since the stress acting is in the normal direction there are no tangential stresses, the
principal stress is the resultant normal stress so on a principal plane there are no tangential or
shearing stresses, they are 0.

59
Now we have seen the cubical equation in σn from which we have obtained three roots σ1, σ2 and
σ3. And we have looked into three coefficients I1, I2 and I3. We call these as invariants. It is to be
noted that the principal stress which we have calculated at a particular point remains the same
irrespective of the reference axis system we take.
In this particular case we have taken x, y and z as the rectangular axis system. Supposing at that
particular point if we take different axis system which is represented as x', y' and z' if we write
down corresponding normal stresses and shearing stresses as σx', σy' and σz' then we can observe
that the values of I1, I2 and I3 which are represented in terms of the normal stresses and shearing
stresses they remain the same because the principal stresses at that particular point remains
unchanged. That is why these coefficients I1, I2 and I3 are known as stress invariants.
60
Let us see how to solve these stresses in some physical problems? In this example here there are
two plates which are connected together by a bolt and it is subjected to a pull - external force P.
This is the plan of the two plates and if we take a section we cut the plate here and cut the plate
here and view from this side then the section looks like this.
Width of the plate = 200 mm

thickness of the plate = 10 mm
Force= 50kN
Now we will have to compute average normal stress at a section where there are no holes for
the bolts. So, if we cut the section and draw the free body diagram. At a particular section, the
resistive force for this external force 50kN which is acting through the centroid of this plate is R
and hence from the equilibrium of these forces R is equal to 50 kN.
Hence the normal stress σ at this particular cross section where there are no holes
σ = R/A = 50 x 103
200 x 10
σ = 25 N/mm2 = 25 x 106 N/m2
61
Also, we will have to compute the average shear stresses in the bolts. The force gets transmitted
from one plate to another through the bolted connection. If we draw free body at this interface,
the force P will be get transmitted and the two bolts will be subjected to this force P. Tese two
bolts of diameter 20 mm will be resisting the force P/2 and P/2.
The plate is subjected to load P and this P is transmitted to the top plate through the
interconnecting bolt. So the force which will be resisted by these bolts is half of P.
So the average shear stress in each bolt, τ average is,
τ = P/2
π/4 x d2
τ = 25 x 103
π/4 x 400
τ= 250/π mPa. So this is the average stress in the bolt.
Thirdly, we will have to compute the bearing stress between the bolts and the plates. When the
force is getting transmitted from one plate to another it is getting transmitted through these
interconnecting bolts.
Here two bolts are present and the plate is being pulled by force P. Now the transfer of force
from the plate to the bolts which are here when plate is being pulled comes in contact with the
bolt and there may be release in the contact between the plate and the bolt surface.
Basically the plate is resting on the curved surface of the bolt. On an average sense we
take the projection of this surface.
So the contact surface which we get is half the perimeter the projection of which is d and
the thickness of the plate at that particular interface. This is the area which is in contact with
the plate and the bolt.
The bearing stress is the function of the contact area so,
σbg = P/2
dt
= 25 x 103 N
20 x 10
=125 MPa.
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Here is another example where we are interested to evaluate the principal stresses and the stress
invariants. We have learnt how to compute the principal stresses from the cubical equations and
the stress invariant components. Now the state of stress at a point is given by this, this is the
stress tensor where
σx = 5 ; σy = 1 ; and σz = 1 and τxy = 1; τxz = 0; τyz = 0. So, if we compute the stress invariants,
as we have seen,
I1 = σx + σy + σz = -5 + 1 + 1 = -3
I2 = -5 - 1 + 1 - 0 + (-5) - 0 = -10
I3 = -6
Now,
σn3 - l1 σn2 + l2 σn - l3 = 0
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Now in this we have another example problem in which mass is hung by two wires AB and BC
and the cross sectional areas of these two wires are given as 200 mm2 and 400 mm2. And if the
allowable tensile stress of these wire material is limited to 100 MPa then you will have to
find out the mass M that can be safely supported by these wires. This particular problem can be
solved by taking the free body diagram of this.
To summarize what we have learnt in this particular lesson; first we recapitulated on different
kinds of stresses and those stresses are the normal stress, and the normal stress on an axially
loaded bar. What is the maximum normal stress that acts on an axially loaded bar is the axial pull
P or compressive force push by cross sectional area and cross sectional area which is minimum is
normal to the axis of the bar.
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Thereby we have seen the relationship between the normal stress corresponding shearing
stresses. We have evaluated the stresses on any arbitrary plane which we generally designate as
Cauchy’s stress formula. And from this Cauchy’s formula we arrived at concepts of principal
plane and principal stresses and we have said that the principal plane is the one on which the
stress is fully normal and thereby tangential stresses are at 0 and the shearing stresses in the
plane is 0. While computing the principal stresses we have seen different coefficients which we
designated as stress invariants I 1 , I 2 and I 3 .
We have noticed that I 1 , I 2 and I 3 are the functions of normal stress at a point which are sigma x ,
sigma y and sigma z and the corresponding shearing stresses at the particular point. We have seen
some examples to demonstrate how to evaluate stress at different points. We have tried to give
you the concept of normal stress, we have computed the normal stress at a particular cross
section, we computed the shearing stresses in the bolt, where the normal force which is acting on
the plate is transferred into the bolt cross section and then we have computed the bearing
stresses, the bearing stresses are acting at the contact area between the plate and the bolt and
finally we have computed the principal stresses and stress invariants.
65
Prof. S.K. Bhattacharya
Dept. of Civil Engineering, I.I.T. Kharagpur
Lecture No #4
Analysis of Stress III
Refer new slide 0:23
Welcome to the 4th lesson on the course Strength of Materials.
Slide 1-0:29
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We are going to discuss today certain aspects of Analysis of Stress, which we have discussed
partly in the previous lessons. .
Slide 2-0:40-1:41
In this particular lesson, it is expected that once we complete it,
 One should be able to evaluate stresses on any plane through stress transformation
equations
 Evaluate principal stresses and locate principal planes for two dimensional problems.
In fact in the previous lesson, we have discussed about the evaluation of principal
stresses in three dimensional planes. We will be discussing here evaluation of
principal stresses and location of principal planes for two dimensional problems.
 We will evaluate the maximum shear stresses at a point on a body for two
dimensional problems.
 Also, we will look into the concept of Mohr’s circle for stress and we will
demonstrate how to construct Mohr’s circle for stress.
67
Slide 3-1:41-2:21
Hence the scope of this particular lesson is the derivation of the transformation equation for
evaluation of stresses for two dimensional problems, evaluation of principal stresses and
maximum shear stresses; construction of Mohr’s circle. We look in to aspects of how we are
going to draw a Mohr’s circle for the evaluation of the stress at a particular point in a stressed
body. We will solve a few examples to demonstrate, how the stresses can be evaluated at a
particular point.
Slide 4-2:21
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Let us derive the transformation equations.
If we consider the stressed body at a particular point plane stresses in two dimensions, the
normal stress which is acting in the x-plane is  x , the normal stress in the y-plane is  y and
the shearing stress is  xy . We are interested now to evaluate the stresses on a plane, the normal
to which is at an angle of  with respect to the x-axis. The plane is considered in such a way
that the normal direction normal to the plane coincides with reference axis, which we denote
as x’ and y’.
Now let us look into the state of stress on this particular plane, if we take out this particular
wedge and if we designate this as A, B, and C, the stresses acting are normal stresses  x and
 y on the surfaces of wedge and the shearing stresses  xy . The normal stress in x’ plane is  x '
and correspondingly the shear stress is τx’y’.
Considering the unit thickness normal to the plane of the board, if we assume that the area on
line AC as dA, which is length AC multiplied by the unit thickness, the area on line AB can
be designated in terms of the area dA, which is dAcos  and area on line BC can be
designated as dAsin  . Hence the forces which are acting on these planes are the stresses
multiplied by the corresponding area will give us the force. Now, if we wish to write down
the equilibrium equations in the x ' direction and y ' direction then the equation looks like
this:
Summation of forces in the x ' direction ∑F x ' = 0

 x ˈdA –  x dA cos  cos  –  y dA sin  –  xy dA sin  cos  –  xy dA cos  sin  = 0
Writing the equation in terms of  x ’, we get,
 x ’ =  x cos 2  +  y sin 2  + 2  xy sin  cos 
Writing cos2  and sin2  in terms of cos 2  and 2 sin  cos  in terms of sin 2  , we can
write this as,
 x ’ =  x (1 + cos 2  )/2 +  y (1 – cos 2  )/2 +  xy sin2 
 x ’ = (  x +  y )/2 + (  x –  y )/2 cos 2  +  xy sin 2 
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So this is the stress in the x’-direction, the normal stress  x ’, which are written in terms of
stresses  x ,  y and  xy .
Similarly, if we take the equilibrium along y’-direction, ∑Fy’ = 0, we get,

τx’y’ = –  x cos  sin  +  y sin  cos  +  xy sin2  +  xy cos2  –  xy sin2  .
τx’y’ = – (  x –  y )/2 sin2  +  xy cos2 
So these are the equations for  x ’ and τx’y’ are the stresses on the plane which is at an angle
of  with respect to the x-axis. Similarly, if we want to evaluate  y ’, the normal stress in the
y’ direction, it is at an angle of  + 90° with respect to  x ’. So if we substitute in place of 
as  + 90° in the equation obtained for  x ’, then, sin (180 + 2  ) = – sin 2  and cos (180 +
2  ) = – cos 2  . Thus the equation for  y ’ will become,
 y ’ = (  x +  y )/2 – (  x –  y )/2 cos 2  –  xy sin 2  .
Slide 7-16:35
Thereby, it can be obtained that  x ’ +  y ’ =  x +  y
In the last lesson we have discussed that the stresses  x +  y + σz =  x ’ +  y ’ + σz’, which
indicates that irrespective of the reference axis system the summation of these normal stresses
70
are constant, which we called as stress invariants. So here this is proved again that the normal
stresses with reference axis is x’y’,  x ’+  y ’ =  x +  y = constant and so are the other
stress invariants.
Hence we have obtained the stresses in the direction which is at an angle of  as
 x ' = (  x +  y )/2 + (  x –  y )/2 cos 2  +  xy sin 2 
τx’y’ = – (  x –  y )/2 sin 2  +  xy cos 2 
So these are the transformation equations. That means we can evaluate stresses at any plane
which is oriented at an angle of  in terms of the stresses  x ,  y and  xy . And please keep in
mind that the rotation of the angle  we have taken anti-clockwise and this is a positive
according to our convention.
Slide 8-17:14
Now let us look into the position of the planes where the normal stresses are maximum. We
have obtained that the normal stress on a plane which is at an angle of  ,
 x ' = (  x +  y )/2 + (  x –  y )/2 cos 2  +  xy sin 2 
If we take the derivative of the normal stress with respect to  and equate it to zero, then
∂  x ’/∂  = 0
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– 2 (σx –  y )/2 sin 2  + 2  xy cos 2  = 0
Which gives, tan 2  =  xy /(  x –  y )/2.
Now this equation has two values of  , as tan (180° +  ) = tan  . Hence we have one angle
as 2  P and another at angle of 180 + 2  P, which will us two values.
Slide 10-19:52
So this is the derivative of the normal stress and this is the value of tan  and we will get two
values of this root which we have said 2  and 180 + 2  . We have designated these as, say,
2  P and 180 + 2  P. So in effect, when we transform from this into the stress part, we have
angle  P and 90 +  P that indicates that we have two planes which is at an angle of  P,
normal to this is the plane on which the normal stress is maximum, and then we have another
plane which is at an angle of 90◦ with reference to this particular plane because the other
plane is at 90 +  P. So these are the two normal directions where one will be the maximum
and the other one will be the minimum. These are the two normal stresses.
Slide 12-21:10
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Interestingly, if we look into that the expression, τx’y’ = (  x –  y )/2 sin 2  +  xy cos 2and if
we equate τx’y’ = 0, then we get
tan 2  = 2 τxy/(  x –  y )
which is similar to the expression which we have obtained for tan 2  setting the derivative of
the normal stress to 0. And since these two angles match, this shows the planes where we
have obtained the maximum principal stresses, maximum and the minimum principal
stresses, they coincide with the planes where the shearing stress is zero. And as we have
defined before that the planes on which shearing stress is zero, the normal stress is designated
as principal stress. Hence the maximum normal stresses which we have obtained, they are
nothing but the principal stresses, where the shear stresses are zero and their angles are
defined by  P where we have evaluated 2  P and 180°+2  P. So the maximum and minimum
normal stresses, they are nothing but the principal stresses.
Slide 13-22:45
Now while evaluating of principal stresses, let us evaluate the maximum values of the normal
stresses and the principal stresses. We have seen that this angle 2  P where,
tan 2  P =  xy /(  x –  y )/2.
Hence this value of this hypotenuse R = √((  x –  y )/2)2 +  xy 2).
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Now, cos 2  P = (  x –  y )/2R and sin2  p =  xy /R
If we substitute the values of cos2  P and sin2  P, in the expression of the normal stress,
which we have evaluated, which is,
 x ’ = (  x +  y )/2 + (  x –  y )/2 cos2  +  xy sin2  .
We get as the maximum stresses, so  x ’, maximum or minimum, which are nothing, but the
principal stresses  1 and  2 = (  x +  y )/2 + ((  x –  y )/2)2⨯(1/R) +  xy 2/R
σ1,2 = (  x +  y )/ 2 + R2 /R
This eventually gives us

σ1,2 = (  x +  y )/2 + √((  x –  y )/2 )2 +  xy 2
So this is the value of the maximum stress or one of the stresses we get.
Now we have obtained that,  1 = (  x +  y )/2 + √(((  x –  y )/2 )2 +  xy 2)
Slide 15-28:26
We have seen that the normal stresses are the constants summation of  x +  y =  x ˈ+  y ˈ.
So we can write.
1 +  2 =  x +  y
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Hence  2 = (  x +  y ) –  1
Or,  2 = (  x +  y )/2 – √((  x –  y )/2)2 +  xy 2.
Hence the stresses  1 or σ2 is given as (  x +  y )/2 ± √((  x –  y )/2)2 +  xy 2. And these
are the values of principal stresses, maximum and minimum principal stresses.
Slide 16- 28:42
Now having look into the maximum values of normal stresses, which are the principal
stresses, let us look into what will be the value of maximum shear stress.
We have seen shear stress on any plane,
τxˈyˈ = – (  x –  y )/2 sin 2  +  xy cos2 
If we take derivative of this with respect to  ,

∂τxˈyˈ/∂  = – 2 cos 2  (  x –  y )/2 – 2  xy sin2  = 0
Then,  xy sin 2  = – (  x –  y )/2 cos 2 
Or, tan 2  = (  x –  y )/2  xy
Here also as we have noticed earlier two values of  defining two perpendicular planes on
which the shear stress will be maximum and those angles being, 2  s and 180◦ + 2  s. So in
75
the stress body it will be  s and  s + 90, the plane on which shear stress will be maximum.
Now if we look in to the values of tan 2  s and compare with the values of previously
calculated values of tan 2  P we find that
tan2  s = – 1/tan2  P = – cot 2  P = tan (90° + 2  P)
Thus, 2  s = 90 + 2  P or  s = 45◦ +  P.
Slide 18-31:38
This indicates that maximum shear stress occurs in the plane which is at angle 45◦ with
maximum or minimum principal shear stresses. This is the value of tan2  evaluated, hence
we find that two mutually perpendicular planes on which maximum shear stresses exists; and
of maximum and minimum shear stresses form an angle of 45◦ with the principal planes is
just seen.
Now let us look in to the value of principal stress, where shear stress is at maximum. We
have already calculated that
tan 2  = – (  x –  y )/2  xy
If we place this in geometrical form, then the value of R again = √((  x –  y )/2 )2 +  xy 2
Likewise, cos2  s =  xy / R and sin2  s = – (  x –  y )/2R
If we substitute these values in the normal which is,
76
 x ˈ = (  x +  y )/2 + (  x –  y )/2 cos2  +  xy sin2 
Then, we will get the values of normal stress. Also we will get the values of shear stresses on
these planes. Now if you substitute these values we get,
 x ˈ = (  x +  y )/2
Slide 21-35:31
Also we know the values of shear stress as,

τx’y’ = – (  x –  y )/2 sin2  +  xy cos2 
If we substitute the values of sin2  and cos2  as above, then we will get,
τx’y’ = ((  x –  y )/2)2 1/R +  xy 2 /R
Thus, τmax = √(((  x –  y )/2 )2 +  xy 2)
As the minimum stress is the negative of the value obtained,

So, τ max or min = ± √((  x –  y )/2 )2 +  xy 2
Thus we have observed that the value of the normal stress on the plane where shear stress is
maximum is equal to (  x +  y )/2. Now if the normal stresses are the principal stresses then
 x is  1 , and  y is  2 , and this is being the principal stress  xy = 0, so τ max gives us the
77
value in the terms of principal stresses as (  1 –  2 )/ 2. This gives the maximum shear stress in
the terms of principal shear stresses.
Slide 23-38:10
Hence, we say that planes of maximum shear stresses are not free from normal stresses. As
we have seen in case of principal stresses, the principal stresses acts on the shear stresses are
0, whereas the planes on which the shear stresses are maximum there we do have normal
stresses and the value of normal stress is (  x +  y )/2.
Slide 24-38:45
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Now let us look into another representation or the evaluation of the stress from a concept
which is given by Otto Mohr of Germany in 1895 which we popularly designate as Mohr’s
Circle of Stress. As we have seen we have a stress body in which the normal stresses are  x
and  y and we have the corresponding shear stresses, now we can represent this stress
system in terms of this circle.
Slide 25-39:34
Now let us look in to the expression for normal stress and shearing stress,
 x ’ = (  x +  y )/2 + (  x –  y )/2 cos2  +  xy sin2  .
τx’y’ = – (  x –  y )/2 sin2  +  xy cos2 
From the first of this equation you can write this as

 x ˈ – (  x +  y )/2 = (  x –  y )/2 cos2  +  xy sin2 
Now if we square this equation and the second equation and add them up we get,
(  x ˈ – (  x +  y )/2)2 + τx’y’2 = ((  x –  y )/2 )2 +  xy 2
(As sin22  + cos22  is 1 and the other terms get canceled out)
This particular equation can be represented as (x–a)2 + y2 = b2. This particular equation is a
well known equation, which is that of a circle where the centre of the circle lies at the
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coordinates (+ a, 0) the radius of which is equals to b and x represents  x ’, and y represents
τx’y’. If we draw a circle whose centre is at (a, 0), where a = (  x +  y )/2 on the  x ’ axis
which is representing x, with radius of b = √((  x –  y )/2)2 +  xy 2 then we get the circle, and
that is what is represented as here in terms of Mohr’s circle. The centre of this particular
circle is at a distance of (  x +  y )/2 from the origin, which is the average stress. Any
particular point, point on this particular circle represents the value of (x,y) which is nothing
but the (σ,τ) at a particular orientation of a plane.
Hence this being  x and this being (  x +  y )/2, the distance here, this particular distance,
 x – (  x +  y )/2 =(  x –  y )/2. This particular distance is  xy . So eventually this particular
distance is the √((  x –  y )/2 )2 +  xy 2 which is that of radius which is b.
This particular point represents the maximum normal stress on which this normal stress is
acting; this is the minimum normal stress and from this plane we rotate 2  P angle, one of the
maximum normal stress plane, and if rotate by another 180◦, another plane representing the
maximum normal stress. This maximum normal stress we call as maximum principal stress
which we represented as  1 , and this we represent as minimum principal stress as  2 . This
particular point and this point in the circle represents the maximum value of the shearing
stress  xy = radius = √((  x –  y )/2 )2 +  xy 2. So +τ and –τ are the maximum and minimum
shear stresses. If we look into the plane this particular plane is representing principal stress
and this particular plane representing maximum shear stress and the angle between these two
is 90◦ which is twice of that in the body. As we have seen that the angle between the
maximum principal plane and the plane on which maximum shear stress acts is at an angle of
45◦ which is being represented here as 2  P = 90;  = 45◦. (Please refer to the lecture slides)
Hence from the Mohr’s circle we can observe that the maximum normal stress is  1 which
we have designated as maximum principal stress. The minimum shear stress is  2 , which is
minimum principal shear stress and at those two planes we have seen that no shear stress
exists. Because that being on the σ axis, the value of shear stresses is 0 and hence they are the
principal stresses.
Slide 25- 47:01
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Also, the maximum shear stresses is equal to the radius of the circle which is √(((  x –  y
)/2)2 +  xy 2) and the radius is nothing but equals to in terms of  1 and  2 has (  1 –  2 )/2
which is we have seen through our transformation as well.
Slide 26-48:05
If  1 and  2 are equal then, Mohr’s circle reduces to a point and there are no shear stresses
will be developed in the x, y-plane. And if  x +  y = 0, then, as we have seen, centre of the
circle is located at a distance of (+a, 0) which is on the axis and + a = (  x +  y )/2, the
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average stress. If  x +  y = 0, the centre coincides with origin as zero point at the σ τ as
reference axis.
Hence at any point, which is on any plane which is on the circumference of the circle which
is representing at any plane at the particular orientation, the values of which we will get are
the maximum principal stress as the τ and also maximum shear stress as τ. This we call as the
state of pure shear. Maximum and minimum principal stresses are also equal to the maximum
shear stress. These are the important observations from the Mohr’s circle.
Slide 27-49:36
Now let us look into how we construct a Mohr’s circle. Basically we need to do that, if we
know the stresses,  x ,  y and  xy at a particular point, then we should be able to evaluate the
stresses at any plane, which are  x ’, τx’ and τy’, from the orientation of the plane with
reference to the x-plane. Now those stresses can be evaluated, either from the transformation
of the equations as we have just seen or we can evaluate the stresses from the Mohr’s circle
as well.
Now let us look at how to construct a Mohr’s circle based on the given state of stress. Now
let us say that at a stress body, we know the stresses:  x ,  y , and  xy . As we have seen the
centre of the circle is located at a distance of (  x +  y )/2.
Now in this there are two ways of constructing a circle, one is either we can represent σ in
this direction and τ in the positive direction as we have noted earlier in that case, the angle
will be in a clock wise direction,  angle in the Mohr plane will be in clockwise direction
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which will be opposite to the convention which we have assumed while deriving this
transformation equation, where we take  in anti clockwise direction.
Slide 27-50:26
Another way to construct is we take σ in the positive x-direction and τ in the opposite
direction, in that case the representation of angle in the Mohr’s plane, is in anticlockwise
direction which matches with our transformation of the equation. So let us represent the σ in
the positive x-direction and the τ in the lower direction as positive. Thereby the angle will be
represented in the anticlockwise direction which is considered as positive and matches with
our physical stress system.
Now if we represent this stress σ and τ on this particular plane, thereby this particular point
on the circle represents this plane, plane-A, where the normal stress is σ and shearing stress is
τ. Likewise in the perpendicular plane we have stress as  y and shearing stress as τ which is
at an angle of 90◦, with respect to this A-plane. In Mohr’s circle if we go 180◦ with respect to
this, we get another point, which is plane-B were we have  y and  xy .
Now this if we take the centre, as this O, and radius as OA and OB, and plot a circle, this
gives us the Mohr’s circle where in this point represents the maximum normal stress  1 . This
represents the minimum principal stress which is  2 . Now if we are interested to find out
stress on any plane, whose normal to this particular plane is oriented at angle of  , now this
particular plane which is represented by this point A, from here it moves at angle of 2  , and
joins from the centre of this the point which we get on the circle represents the plane normal
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to which is at angle  from the x-plane. Thereby the stresses that act over here together is the
normal stress and the shearing stress on this particular inclined plane and that is how we
compute the stresses in the Mohr’s circle. (Please refer to the lecture slides)
Slide 28-54:35
Now having known about the principal stresses from the transformation equations and
through the Mohr’s circle let us look into some of the problems.
Let us understand how to evaluate the mass which is safely supported by the wires. Let F1 is
the force in BC and F2 is force in BA. If we draw the free body diagram of this whole part
then we have F1 in this particular direction and F2 in this particular direction and the mass
which is hanging from point B, let us call it this force as Mg. Let us take the orientation of F1
with x-axis as  1 and that of F2 as  2. From the given data, we can compute cos  1 = .6 and
sin  1 = .8; cos  2 = .923, and sin  2 = .385.
Now if we take the summation of horizontal forces as 0, which gives us,

F1cos  1 = F2 cos  2………………..(1)
Now it has been indicated that the maximum tensile stress that the wires can withstand as 100
MPa and cross sectional area of the two wires are given, thereby if we compute,
F1 = 400⨯100 = 40kN
And F2 = 20kN
From expression (1), if we substitute the values for cos  1 and cos  2, we find that
F2 = 40 × .6 / .923 = 26 kN, which is greater than 20 kN.
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So instead of using F2, let us use F1, we get F1 in terms of F2 as,
F1 = 20 × .923/.6, which is less than 40.
Hence if we take the summation of forces in the vertical direction, we get,

Mg = F1sin  1+ F2sin  2
Which gives, M = 3293.4 Kg.
Slide 31-58:34
You can look into this particular problem, you can compute the state of stress in
transformation equations. Also you can use the same problem to solve through Mohr’s circle
of stress.
Slide 32-58:43
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The questions which we have posed in the last time, they were quite straight forward. The
first one is the maximum normal stress and shear stress in an axially loaded bar, which we
know as P/A is the normal stress and P/2A is the shear stress and thereby τ = σ/2, half the
normal stress. We have discussed about stress variants and we know that the value of shear
stress on the principal plane is zero.
Slide 33-59:17
To summarize what we have done today in this particular lesson is developed the
transformation equation for evaluation of stresses for two dimensional problems; evaluation
of principal stresses and shear stresses, we have shown how to construct Mohr’s circle for the
evaluation of stress and some examples to demonstrate the evaluation of stresses at a point.
Slide 34-59:44
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These are the questions:
 What is meant X the state of pure shear?
 What is the co-ordinate of the centre of the Mohr’s circle and what is its radius?
 What happens when (  x +  y ) = 0 and  1 =  2 ?
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Lecture No #5
Analysis of Stress IV
Welcome to the 5th lesson of Strength of Materials. We will be discussing certain aspects of
analysis of stress in this particular lesson.
Slide 2-1:04
Now, it is expected that once this particular lesson is completed, one should be able to
evaluate stresses on any plane through stress transformation equations using Mohr’s circle.
We will be looking into some more aspects of it then evaluate principal stresses and locate
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principal planes at a particular point on the stress body. Also, one should be able to evaluate
octahedral stresses which we will look into in this lesson.
Slide 3-1:48
The scope of this particular lesson includes recapitulation of transformation of equations

which we have derived earlier, recapitulation of evaluation of stresses using Mohr’s circle.
We will be looking into some aspects of octahedral stresses; we will define octahedral plane
and stresses acting on such planes and then we will be looking into some examples of how to
evaluate the stresses at a particular point at a stress body.
Slide 4-2:24
We have discussed how to evaluate the stress on a particular plane which is inclined at angle
of  with respect to x-plane and these we have termed as transformation equations. If we
have a body which is acted on by the rectangular stress components, which are  x  y in the
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y-direction and the shearing stresses. We can compute stresses on any plane, the normal to
which it is making an angle  with the x-plane. This is what we have defined as the normal
stress on this plane as, σx’ and the shearing stress as  x ' y ' .
Slide 6-3:48
σx’ is given in terms of  x ,  y and  xy as

σx’ = (  x +  y )/2 + (  x –  y )/2 cos2  +  xy sin2 
The shearing stresses in that particular plane is,

 x ' y ' = – (  x –  y )/2 sin2  +  xy cos2 
And also the normal stress to the perpendicular plane to the x’ is,
σy’ = (  x +  y )/2 – (  x –  y )/2 cos2  –  xy sin2 
And eventually we have seen that the  x ‘+  y ‘=  x +  y which gives us the first stress
invariant.
Thereby we had calculated the principal stresses which are the maximum normal stress, the
maximum and minimum in two different planes it acts, and the magnitude of those principal
stresses are,
 1 = (  x +  y )/2 + √(((  x –  y )/2))2 +  xy 2)
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Slide 7-4:46
And the minimum principal stress,

 2 = (  x +  y )/2 – √(((  x –  y )/2)) 2 +  xy 2)
And the plane which gives us the maximum normal stress or the principal stresses can be
evaluated through the equation, tan2  P = 2  xy /  x –  y .
Slide 8-5:48
Also, we have evaluated the maximum shear stresses on planes and we had observed that the
maximum shear stress occurs in planes which are at an angle of 45° with the difference to the
principal planes. The magnitude of the maximum and minimum shear stresses are also
evaluated
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 max = + √(((  x –  y )/2)2 +  xy 2)
And,  min – √(((  x –  y )/2)2 +  xy 2)
The angle at which maximum or minimum shear stress occurs can be evaluated from the
normal stresses and the shear stresses. Also we had looked in to how to compute the stresses
at any plane, using the concept of Mohr’s circle apart from the equations of equilibrium. We
had used the equations of equilibrium to evaluate stress at a particular point; now we will
look into , how to evaluate any point using Mohr’s circle of stress.
Let us assume that, at a particular point in the stress body, the normal components of stress
which are acting, the rectangular stresses are:  x ,  y the normal stress,  xy the shearing
stress. Now if we like to represent them in the Mohr’s circle, last time we had seen that this is
the σ axis, this is the  axis. And we can denote the centre of the Mohr’s circle at a distance
from the origin which is at (  x +  y )/2, which was A, and we have denoted this particular
quantity as A.
This particular point on the Mohr’s circle denotes this plane in the physical space which is A,
and there by this particular point represents the normal stress  x and the shearing stress  xy .
This particular point represents this particular plane B, where the normal stress is the  y , and
this is  xy . (Please refer to lecture slides)
Now if we join these two lines which eventually pass through the center and in this Mohr’s
circle, the angle between these two planes is 180°, which is 2  and in the physical space
between these two plates is 90°; half of this particular angle. There by this particular point is
the maximum normal stress, this is the plane where maximum normal stress acts; this is the
plane where the minimum normal stress acts. From this particular diagram, we can observe
that the maximum normal stress which we generally denotes as  1 , this is nothing but equals
to the distance from the origin to the centre plus the radius. So this is (  x +  y )/2 and this is
the radius which is equals to this hypotenuse which is this square + this square (refer video
slide). And this distance is  x – (  x +  y )/2. And eventually this distance comes as ( x –
 y )/2 and this is  xy and hence  1 = (  x +  y )/2 + √((  x –  y )/2)2 +  xy 2. And this gives
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you the minimum principal stress which is this distance minus the radius, which will be (  x
+  y )/2 – √((  x –  y )/2)2 +  xy 2.
Slide 9-11:04
Now let us look into the given state of stress at a particular point, how to evaluate this stress
at a particular plane by constructing the Mohr’s circle.
Let us assume that we have a stress body where the stresses at a particular point are:  x is the
normal stresses in the x-plane and  y is the normal stress in the normal plane,  xy gives the
shear stress, which has positive shear this is on the positive y-axis in this plane; and this is on
the positive x-direction in this particular plane (refer video slide), and these are these
components  x ,  y and  xy . We take the direction of the shear stress downwards, to have
the compatibility of the rotational angle which is in an anticlockwise direction, which will be
represented in the anticlockwise direction in Mohr’s circle as well. Thereby the normal
positive stress and the normal positive shear stress on this plane,  x and  xy , if we represent
on the Mohr’s plane, let us assume that,  x >  y , then we have the plane which is
represented as  x and  xy as this particular point (refer video slide), where normal stress is
 x and shear stress is  xy . We can represent this particular plane on this Mohr’s plane
wherein the stresses are  x and  xy .
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Now please note here that the shear which is acting in the positive y-direction on x-plane we
have considered this as the positive shear. This particular shear along this complimentary
stress is causing the rotation in the anticlockwise direction which we denoted as positive
shear in the Mohr’s plane. Whereas the shear which is acting in the y-plane, this along the
complimentary shear on the other side is causing rotation in the clockwise direction.
Based on this we are calling this as a negative shear on this Mohr’s plane. If we try to
represent the normal and shear stress in the Mohr’s plane, we have positive  y and the
negative  xy , which represents point B, which is for this particular plane.
Now if we join these two lines as we have seen earlier, eventually this will pass through the
centre of the Mohr’s circle. And we have seen that the distance of the centre of the Mohr’s
circle from the  axis is equals to (  x +  y )/2, which is the average stress. Now taking this
as centre and OB or OA as radius if we plot the circle, eventually we are going to get the
Mohr’s circle.
Please note that the Mohr’s circle need not be constructed geometrically, if we can represent
them in this particular form, we can compute the other stresses directly from this diagram
itself. In this diagram, the maximum normal stress occurs at this particular plane and the
minimum normal stress occurs at this particular plane. And this normal stress we denote as  1
and this normal stress we denote as  2 .
From plane A if we move by angle 2  P we come to the plane where the maximum principle
stress is located. So, in the physical plane if we rotate by angle  P in the anticlockwise
direction this gives the normal and perpendicular to the plane where the  1 x acts. That is
how we decide about the planes for the maximum principal stresses and correspondingly the
maximum shear stress. Likewise the maximum shear stresses, will occur at this particular
point which is the highest point in this circle. And this is  max which is eventually equal to
the radius of the circle. This is the radius so this is the positive maximum shear and this is the
minimum shear which is negative of this radius. This gives us the values of maximum shear
stresses.
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Please note that, at these points where the maximum shear stresses occur there we will have
some values of normal stress which is in contrast to the one where we have the maximum
normal stresses where shear stresses are 0.
Now if we like to evaluate the stress at a particular plane from this Mohr’s diagram. This is
the plane, the normal to which is oriented at angle  with x-axis. Since this is the reference
plane, from this particular plane we move in the anticlockwise direction as that of the
physical plane by an angle of 2  ; this is 2  then the point which we get on the periphery of
the circle represents this particular plane. The corresponding stresses represent the normal
stress and this represents the shearing stress. That is how we compute stresses at any plane
through Mohr’s circle.
Slide 8-18:28
Here is a question:
What is meant by state of pure shear? Now at a point in stress body as we have seen that it is
acted on by the normal stress and the shearing stresses components, now in this particular
body or the stress body if we do not have any normal stress but we have only the shear
stresses then we say that this particular point of the stress body is subjected to pure state of
shear.
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Now if we look into Mohr’s diagram corresponding to this particular state of stress, we have
a stress body in which the state of stress is in the form shear alone, and this if we try to
represent in terms of the Mohr’s circle then this is our reference axis σ and  on this
particular plane where normal stress is 0, we have only  positive so normal stresses is 0 
is positive here, this is the point which represents this plane.
The perpendicular plane which is at an angle of 90° in the Mohr’s circle will be 180 where
normal stresses is 0 and we have negative shear of equal amount of magnitude so these are
the two points on the Mohr’s circle. Since  x and  y both are 0 so eventually this will be the
centre of Mohr’s circle. If we draw a circle with centre as this particular point and this radius
from O to A, we get the Mohr’s circle for this kind of stress which is acting. Thereby this
gives us the maximum value of normal stress which is  1 and this is the minimum value of
normal stress which is  2 .
Please note that here the values of  1 and  2 , which is in the opposite direction is equals to
the shearing stress  . So the maximum normal stress is  and the minimum normal stress
also is  , but it is the negative  . And if we look into the plane, now this is the plane which
is representing this particular face which is face A, so this is the plane which is representing
the face A and from here the plane on which the maximum normal stress acts is at angle of
90°, which is 2  P. So  P in the physical plane, it will be 45°. With respect to this if we draw
a normal which is at angle of 45°, the plane on which maximum normal stress acts is this.
Maximum normal stress is equal to  1 , which is equals to  . The other normal stress  2 will
be acting on the plane which is perpendicular to this but in the opposite direction which is  2
, which is negative  .
So, if we have a stress representation which is like you have the stress  here, the normal
stress which is acting in this plane, which is  here. This also represents the state of pure
shear. Mind that this particular plane is at an angle of 45° with reference to the x-plane.
So either we represent that at a point in stress body, the stresses are purely in the form of
shear or in the form of normal stresses, having the magnitude as that of a shear which is
normal tensile in the maximum normal stress direction and the compressive  in the other
normal direction. So this is state of pure shear. (Please refer to the video slides)
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Slide 10-23:54
Now what is the co-ordinate of the centre of Mohr’s circle and what is its radius?
By this time you have observed that the values of the radius and the position of the centre in
the Mohr’s circle which we have represented now, this is σ and this is  . The centre is
located at the distance of (  x +  y )/2. Based on geometry, we can easily obtain, the radius R
is equals √(((  x –  y )/2)2 +  xy 2). The centre is at the distance of (  x +  y )/2 and the radius
of the circle is √(((  x –  y )/ 2)2 +  xy 2).
Slide 12-25:11
Now what happens if  x +  y = 0 and  1 =σ2? If  x +  y = 0, it will be the state of pure shear.
If  1 =  2 , this reduces, means the circle reduces to point and there by there are no shear in
the particular plane.
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Slide 14-26:18
Having looked into the aspects and how to evaluate the stresses through equations of
transformations and through the Mohr’s circle let us look into some more aspects of stresses
which is known as Octahedral stress.
To find the octahedral stress, in fact the octahedral stresses are the stresses which act on the
octahedral planes, we will have to know what we really mean by octahedral planes. The
octahedral plane is the plane which is equally inclined to all the three principal axes of
reference. This is generally termed as octahedral plane. Now, if we look in to the reference
plane, it is said that the, normally we represent the stresses in terms of rectangular stress
component which are  x ,  y , and  xy with respect to x, y and z axis.
Slide 16-28:30
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Instead of representing in x, y and z form if we represent reference axis system which is
denoted by principal stresses  1 ,  2 and  3 then if we have plane which is equally inclined
to these three reference axis then we call this particular plane as octahedral plane. And since
this particular plane is equally inclined to these reference planes, the direction cosines of this
particular plane on these planes, nx, ny, nz, they are going to be same.
Thus, for octahedral plane, nx = ny = nz
Since, nx2 + ny2 + nz2 =1
Thus, nx = ny = nz = ±1/√3
Slide17-29:15
So this is the representation of the octahedral planes, in fact the planes which are equally
inclined with reference to the principal axes system, we get eight such planes. If  1 ,  2 and
 3 are represented by three mutually orthogonal axes, we will get eight such planes, which
are equally inclined to these three reference axis and three reference planes. That is why these
particular planes are called octahedral planes. So the stresses which act, the normal stress, the
shearing stresses which act on these octahedral planes, we call those stresses as octahedral
stresses.
Now for the computation of the octahedral stresses on the octahedral plane, we use Cauchy’s
stress formula which we have derived already. Where in at any plane which is having
outward normal n the resulting stress in the x-direction, y-direction and in the z-direction, can
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be represented in terms of the normal rectangular stress components:  x ,  y ,  z and the
corresponding shear stresses:  xy ,  yx, and  zx along with the direction cosines nx, ny, and nz.
Slide 18- 30:17
Now we have already seen that the octahedral planes are the planes which can equally
inclined to the three principal reference axes  1 ,  2 ,and  3 . Thereby if we take the stress in
the  1 direction, we will have only  1 and shearing stresses will be absent; because principal
stress, principal plane does not have the shearing stresses.
Slide 19-31:42
So if we take those components as,

 x =  1 ,  y =  2 and σz =  3 .
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The shearing stress components on all planes are zero, because those are the principal planes.
Now if we choose any plane having outward normal n on which the rectangular stress
components are  1 ,  2 , and  3 , then correspondingly the components of the resultant stress
from Cauchy’s stress formula will be,
Rx =  1 nx ; Ry =  2 ny and Rz =  3 nz.
So the resultant stress R2 in terms of  1 ,  2 and  3 will be,
R2 = Rx2 + Ry2 + Rz2 =  1 2 nx2 +  2 2 ny2 +  3 2 nz2.
Slide 20-32:58
Now if σ is the normal stress and  is the shearing stress on this plane, which we are defining
as octahedral plane, then the normal stress σ can be represented in terms of  1 ,  2 and  3
as,
σ =  1 nx2 +  2 ny2 +  3 2 nz
These we compute by writing the equations of equilibrium in the normal direction as we have
done in the previous cases. The shearing stress can be represented as,
 2 = R2 – σ2 = nx2 ny2 (  1 –  2 )2 + ny2 nz2 (  2 –  3 )2 + nz2 nx2 (  3 –  1 )2.
These two values σ and  are the stress on any plane, which has a normal n. Now for
octahedral planes, we have noted earlier that, nx, ny, nz are of the equal magnitude, nx = ny =
nz = ± 1/√3.
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Now if we substitute the values of nx, ny, and nz in this expression we can get the normal
stress on the octahedral plane,
σoct = (  1 +  2 +  3 )/3
Likewise,  oct
2
= [(  1 –  2 )2 + (  2 –  3 )2 + (  3 –  1 )2]/9
Or, 9 ×  oct
2
= 2(  1 +  2 +  3 )2 – 6 (  1  2 +  2  3 +  3  1 ).
Slide 21-35:26
If you remember we have defined the values of  1 +  2 +  3 as the sum of the normal stress
component as equals to the first invariant. So  1 +  2 +  3 = I1, the first invariant.
Similarly, This particular expression  1  2 +  2  3 +  3  1 is known as the second
invariant I2. So we can write down the expression for σoct and  oct in terms of these two
invariants I1 one and I2 which is,
σoct = I1/3
 oct = √2[(I12–3I2)1/2]/3
So we get the normal stress and the shearing stress on the octahedral plane. Now, if  1 +  2
+  3 = 0, for this particular stress condition, on octahedral plane we will not get any normal
stress and thereby octahedral plane will be subjected to only shearing stress and that is what
is represented through this expression.
102
Slide 22-37:41
Having known these transformation equations, the concept of the Mohr’s circle, and the
concept of the octahedral stresses acting on the octahedral planes, let us look into some
examples on how we compute stresses on any plane if we know the stress at a particular point
on a body through the rectangular stress components like  x ,  y and  xy in two dimensional
plane.
The problem is, the state of stress at a point in a body is represented here where we have  x
as 20MPa,  y as 30 MPa and the shearing stress as 20MPa. Now what we will have to do is
to find the normal and shear stresses acting on plane aa using transformation equations. So
we have to find out the stress on this particular plane. This particular plane is inclined to the
vertical at an angle of 30°. So, if we take the normal to this particular plane the normal makes
an angle of 30° with x-axis.
So, if we write down the transformation equations for the evaluation of the stresses the 2  =
60°. We have the stresses acting on a particular body at a point;  x as 20,  y as 30, and  xy
as 20MPa. We are interested to find stress at a particular plane which is at an angle of 30°
with x-axis.
We have  x = + 20,  y = + 30,  xy = + 20 and 2  = 60°
The transformation equation as we have observed is,

 x ’ = (  x +  y )/ 2 + (  x –  y )/2 cos 2  +  xy sin2  .
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 x ’ = (20 + 30)/2 + (20 – 30)/2 cos 60° + 20 sin 60°
= 25 – 2.5+20 × √3/2
= 22.5 + 17.32 = 39.82 MPa
(Refer slide time: 39:47 – 42:51)
Similarly we can compute the value of shear stress on that plane which is,
 x‘y‘ = – (σx –  y )/2sin 2  +  xy cos2 
= – (20 – 30)/2 sin60° + 20 cos60°

= 5 × √3/2 + 20 × 1/2
= 4.33 + 10 = 14.33 MPa
(Refer slide time: 43:10)
So this is the solution of this particular problem where we are computing the normal stress
and the shearing stresses.
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Slide 24-44:52
Let us look into this example 2 where we will have to solve this particular problem or rather
we have to solve this which is represented in 1 using Mohr’s circle of stress. In the previous
problem we used the transformation equations for the solution of the stresses at any plane.
Now we are going to evaluate the stresses on any plane using the Mohr’s circle of the stress.
If we look into the state of stress which we had we represent that as  x = 20 MPa,  y = 30
MPa and  xy = 20MPa. As we had represented in a Mohr’s plane, here this is σ axis, this is 
axis.
First of all if we locate the plane, where the normal stress is 20 and the shearing stress is 20
then we go in this direction as 20 and the positive shear stress as 20. Now this particular shear
stress is positive because the shear stress on this plane and the complimentary shear they are
making a rotation which is anticlockwise in nature which we call as positive, so this is 20 and
this is 20.
Let us represent this plane which is 90° with this x plane. Eventually in Mohr’s circle it is
180° so we represent  y and the  as negative,  is negative because the shearing stress on
this plane is causing a rotation which is clockwise in nature so this is negative  , this is  y
and this is  xy . If we join these two points, this particular point is eventually the centre of the
Mohr’s circle which is equal to (  x +  y )/2. Now if we plot Mohr’s circle, this is the point
representing x-plane and this is the point which is representing y-plane. This is the maximum
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normal stress which is  1 and this is the minimum normal stress which is  2 . Now we are
interested to evaluate the stress at a plane, which is making an angle of 30° with x-plane.
Eventually that will make 60° in the Mohr’s circle with respect to this. So with reference to
this line, say line OA if we represent that plane which is represented by this point say C, this
particular angle is 60°. Here we know this magnitude, we can compute this magnitude. This
is  x OO ‘ = (  x +  y )/2, which is equals to (20 + 30)/2, which is equal to 25 MPa.
Let us say this is A’, which is A. OA’ eventually is = (  x +  y )/2 –  x , which is  x is 20
here. Eventually OA’ = 5. And AA’ = 20. So the radius OA = √(202 + 52) = 20.62 MPa. Now
we are interested to find out stress at this particular plane, if we drop a perpendicular to the σ
axis, this will gives us the value of  x on this plane, that is the value of normal stress, let us
call as  x ’, if we call this as x’ plane, and this magnitude will gives us the magnitude τx‘y‘.
Now if we represent this angle by  , then  is equals to tan–1AA‘/OA‘. And AA‘ being 20
and OA‘ being 5, so this is tan–1 4 ≈ 76°. So if we represent this angle by  , then  = 180 –
76 – 60 = 44°. OC being the radius, then normal stress  x ’ = the distance OO‘ + radius cos
.
Slide 24-54:19
So the  x ‘ is equal to the central distance;  x = (  x +  y )/2 + R cos  . R = √[(  x –  y
)/2]2 +  xy 2 20.62, as we have seen. So  x ’ = (  x +  y )/2 = 25 + 20.62 2 × cos  , cos 44°
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is 0.72. So this is going to give us a value of 39.85 MPa, which is similar to which we have
computed through the transformation equation. The shearing stress on this plane,  x‘y‘ from
the Mohr’s circle, if you look into  x‘y‘ = R sin  = 20.62 × 0.7 = 14.43 MPa. This is similar
to the one which we have computed using the transformation equation.
From this you can compute the value of normal stress represented through this point which is
equal to (  x +  y )/2 = R. Now (  x +  y )/2 = 25, and R is 20.62, that will give the value as
45.62. σ1 = 45.62.  2 = (  x +  y )/2, this distance minus the radius which is 25 – 20.62
which = 4.38. We get the values of maximum and minimum normal stress or the maximum
and the minimum principal stresses. The value of the radius gives the maximum value of the
positive and negative shear, which is equals to 20.62 MPa.
So from the Mohr’s circle we can compute the stress at any plane and the maximum principal
stress and the minimum shear stress without even using the transformation equations and
without going for the geometrical construction of the Mohr’s circle.
Slide 26-55:45
The state of a stress at a particular point is shown in the figure. Determine the normal and the
shear stresses acting on the vertical plane using transformation equations.
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Slide 27-56:03
This is the state of a point in a stress at a body, you have to evaluate the principal stress and
the maximum shear stresses and the associated normal stress using the Mohr’s circle.
Slide 28-56:15
These are the values of the principal stresses at a particular point; you have to evaluate the
octahedral stresses.
108
Slide 29-56:25
So in this particular lesson, what we have done is we have recapitulated the aspects which we
have discussed in the particular last lesson, and we have evaluated the octahedral stresses and
also solved some examples to demonstrate the evaluation of stresses on any plane.
Slide 30-56:45
Here are some more questions:

 What happens to octahedral stresses when first invariant is zero?
 What is the value of the shear stress where maximum normal stress occurs?
 What is the value of normal stress where maximum shear stress occurs?
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Lecture No #6
Analysis of Stress V
Welcome to the Lesson Six of the course on Strength of Materials. In this particular lesson
we are going to discuss certain aspects of analysis of stress.
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Slide 1-1:0
Once this particular lesson is completed one should be able to understand the concept of the
stresses in polar coordinate system, you will be able to understand the concept of the stress
for axi-symmetric bodies which eventually can be derived from this polar coordinate system
of stresses. We will also look into how to evaluate stresses at different points.
Slide 2-1:35
This particular lesson includes the recapitulation of the lessons we discussed already such as
evaluation of stresses in polar coordinate system and examples for evaluation of stresses at
particular point in the stress body.
Some questions to be answered: What happens to octahedral stresses when first invariant is
0?
Now let us look into octahedral stresses. The normal stresses on the octahedral planes which
we had calculated σ octahedral = 1/3 (  1 +  2 +  3 ). We had defined the octahedral planes
111
as the planes which are equally inclined with the principal axis reference system. And thereby
the stresses which are acting  1 ,  2 and  3 in the rectangular stress system and the
octahedral stress as defined is 1/3 (  1 +  2 +  3 ) which is the summation of the normal

stresses in three dimensional stress system, this is called as first invariant.
Slide 3-1:57
If you remember τoct2 = 2/9(  1 +  2 +  3 )2 – 6/9 (  1  2 +  2  3 +  3  1 ).
Hence as it has been asked if (  1 +  2 +  3 ) = 0 then eventually the normal stress on
octahedral plane, σoctahedral = 0. So, if the first invariant is 0 then the octahedral normal stress
is equal to 0, only shear stress will exist on the octahedral plane.
Slide 3-4:17
Now the second question which was posed was: What is the value of the shear stress where
maximum normal stress occurs?
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The third question is: What the value of normal stress is where maximum shear stress occurs?
Probably these two questions can be answered through the same diagram. If you remember
the last time, we had shown how to plot the Mohr’s circle. This is the σ-axis and this is the 
-axis. Now, if we draw the Mohr’s circle of stress, the centre of the Mohr’s circle from  -
axis is given as (  x +  y )/2 and the maximum value of the normal stress at this point in this
particular plane we normally designate as  1 , and the minimum value of the normal stress is
 2 . So, if you note in these two planes where the maximum and minimum normal stress acts
the value of the shear stresses are 0. So the plane where the maximum normal stress acts there
the value of the shear stresses are 0 and these planes are called as principal planes. If you note
the maximum shear the value of the shear stress is that of the radius of the Mohr’s circle is 
max. If you note here that in this plane we have the normal stress which is equal to this
particular magnitude (  x +  y )/2. So, from this diagram itself you can answer both the
questions. The planes where the normal stresses are at maximum the shear stresses are 0 and
the planes where shear stresses are maximum there normal stresses exist and the value of
normal stresses are (  x +  y )/2.
Slide 6-6:57
Let us look into aspects of how to evaluate stresses in polar coordinates?
So far we have discussed about the rectangular stresses in a body where we have assumed
that the boundaries are straight boundaries.
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Now there are several cases where other than the straight boundaries we get problems, we get
structural elements where the surfaces are curved and to represent the stresses on those
curved surfaces. It is ideal to represent them in terms of a coordinate system which can be
expressed in terms of radius and the rotational angle  which we call as cylindrical axis or
polar reference axis.
If we have cylindrical body of this particular form, in this we have earlier seen the reference
axis system as x, y, and z. Now if we select a point here on this body, let us say this is P, the
coordinate of this particular point can be described by these coordinates x, y and z. Also, this
particular point can be represented through another reference system which if we project this
point on this xz-plane and draw a line over here and if we define this particular angle as 
and its projected length as vector r and this distance as y then the coordinate of this particular
point can be expressed as a function of r,  , and y. This is with reference to the Cartesian
system x, y, and z and this particular reference is with reference to the polar coordinate
system which is r,  and y. Now, if we look into the plan of this or the cross section of this,
then if we draw two radial lines from the centre, let us say that this particular radial line is at
an angle  , then these two radial lines make a small angle of d  .
Now if we take a small element over here and try to look into the stresses that will act then
we will have two planes, this particular plane normal to this plane is in the direction of the
radius; we call this as the r-plane. Over these we will have the stresses which are acting as the
normal stress and so is this, which we call as  r . The stress normal to this surface acting
along the circumferential direction is call that as   .Also we will have the tangential stress
on this plane as well as on this plane and we will have tangential stress in the radial direction
as well. (Please refer to the lecture slides)
This tangential stress which we defined as the shearing stresses is τ on the r-plane acting in
the direction of  , we call this as  r and the other tangential stress on the  -plane is   r ,
eventually  r =   r . So we define the state of stress on this particular body at a particular
point is equal to  r the radial stress, the tangential stress is   , and the shearing stresses  r .
If a particular body at a point is subjected to these stresses then how we arrive at the
equations for equilibrium.
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Slide 7-11:45
Here is the representation of state of stress at a particular point in a stress body, and as we
have designated that this particular stress which is acting normal to the r-plane, let us call that
as  r . Let us assume that this particular distance is dr. The first radial line let us call, this is at
distance of  , and the small angle made by these two radial line is d  . The radial distance
from the origin to the first part of the element, let us call that as r. Hence the stresses which
are acting  r is the normal stress, the tangential stress is  r , and the circumferential normal
stress as   .
So the stress which is acting on this surface, since it is at a distance dr, while deriving the
equilibrium equations at the particular point with reference to the rectangular Cartesian axis
system if you try to find out the stress at two different points then there is incremental
stresses which is,  r + (∂  r /∂r)dr. Likewise, the tangential stress which is the shearing stress
is equal to  r + (∂  r /∂r)dr. On this we have   , so on this particular surface the normal
circumferential stress is equal to   + (∂   /∂  )d  and the shearing stress which is acting
on this surface is  r =  r + (∂  r /∂  )d  . Also, if we draw a tangent at this particular point
please note that normal stress on this surface makes an angle of d  /2.
If we take the equilibrium of forces in the radial direction and in the tangential direction we
can get the equations of equilibrium. Now on this particular plane, the area on which this
particular stress acts is (r + dr) d  and rd  . If we assume the thickness of this particular
element perpendicular to the plane of this board as unit, then area of this particular surface is
equals to (r + dr) d  × 1 and this multiplied by the stress will give the force in this particular
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plane. Similarly the force on this particular plane is  r × rd  × 1. Also we have the
tangential stresses on this surface which are in the radial direction and   will have the
component in the tangential direction and also in the radial direction and the component in
the radial direction will be   (sin d  /2) and d  being small we can approximate sin d  /2 =
d  /2. (Please refer to the lecture slides)
So, if we write down the equations of equilibrium in the radial direction then the equations
we get are:
(  r +(∂  r /∂r) dr) (r+dr) d  –  r r d  + (  r + (∂  r /∂  ) d  ) dr –  r dr – (   + (∂   /∂  )
d  ) dr × d  /2 –   dr d  /2 = 0
Hence on simplification this gives,

 r r d  + (∂  r /∂r) dr × r d  +  r dr d  –  r rd  +  r dr + (∂  r /∂  ) d  dr –  r dr –
  dr (d  / 2) –   dr d  /2 = 0
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If we simplify this equation further and divide the whole by dr d  then what is left out is,
∂  r /∂r + (1/r) (∂  r /∂  ) + (  r –   )/r = 0
This is the equilibrium equation in the radial direction.
Similarly, if we take, equilibrium of the forces in the circumferential direction then we can
write down the equation as
(   + (∂   /∂  ) d  )dr –   dr + (  r + (∂  r /∂r)dr) (r + dr) d  –  r r d  = 0.
This gives the expression finally after simplification as,

∂  r /∂r + (1/r) (∂   /∂  ) +  r /r = 0
Slide 10-24:21
These are the equations of equilibrium and in this particular case we have not accounted for
the components of the body forces, both in the radial and circumferential direction we have
neglected the body forces.
Hence we have,
∂  r /∂r + (1/r) (  r /∂   r ) + (  r –   )/r = 0……………………….(1)
∂  r /∂r + (1/r) (∂   /∂  ) +  r /r = 0……..…………………………(2)
These are the two equations of equilibrium which are explained in reference to the polar
coordinate system.
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Slide 11-25:19
Thereby from this we can find out the stresses that are referred in axi-symmetric body. We
encounter several kinds of structural elements where the stresses or the boundaries may not
be perfectly straight; you can have curved boundary over which there could be stress which
can be radial stress or which can be described by the stress  r and   and if the loading on
such body is symmetrical then we have a perfectly symmetrical body or loading is perfectly
symmetrical in its vertical direction.
Then if we take any cross section or any longitudinal section for that matter, if we take
section through the diameter at every section the level of the stress will be the same. Hence it
shows that the stresses at any of these sections are independent on wherever we take the
section, so the stresses are independent of  and these kinds of bodies are called as axi-
symmetric bodies. That means these bodies are perfectly symmetrical with reference to the
vertical axis. For such bodies if the loading also is vertical and symmetrical then any cross
section we take, at each section the same state of stress exists. This kind of stress and the
body we call as axi-symmetry bodies.
So the bodies which are perfectly symmetrical referring to its vertical axis we call them as
axi-symmetry bodies and for axi-symmetry bodies if they are loaded symmetrically then the
stress components do not depend on  . Therefore, any longitudinal section we take the shear
stress components are absent, because we have the symmetric deformation and thereby the
shear stress components do not exist.
118
If we take the absence of the shearing stresses then the equilibrium equation reduces to,
∂  r /∂r + (  r –   )/r = 0 , where only the normal stresses exist and the shearing stresses are
absent.
Slide 12-28:09
We have tried to give an outline of the state of stress if we refer them in terms of the polar
coordinate system. Earlier in a stress body we have looked into that, if we have the
rectangular components of the stresses  x ,  y , and  xy we looked into how to evaluate the
stresses at different points and on different planes. Now, if we try to represent the stresses on
any plane in a polar coordinate system where the normal stresses  r ,   , and shearing stress
 r exist we have seen how to write down the equations of equilibrium.
Here if you look in this particular point in the stress body the stresses given are; on a
horizontal plane the normal stress is 60 MPa, on a particular plane which is inclined with
reference to this horizontal plane is 45°, the normal stresses are 50 MPa; the shearing stress is
40 MPa; and on this horizontal plane we have shearing stress as 30 MPa. What we will have
to compute is the normal and shear stresses which are acting on the vertical plane using
transformation equations.
Here the given values are,

 y = +60 MPa and  xy = 30 MPa
 x ’ = 50 MPa and  x ' y ' = 40 MPa.
We will have to compute what is the value of  x which is acting on the vertical plane and
correspondingly what is the shearing stress τ. These are the two values we have to evaluate.
119
As per transformation equations on any plane,
 x ’ = (  x +  y )/2 + (  x –  y )/2 × cos 2  +  xy sin 2 
Now in this particular problem the stress on the inclined plane is given as  x ’ and  x ' y ' and
normal to this particular plane is at an angle of 45°.
So  = 45°, thereby 2  = 90°
Thus, 50 = (  x + 60)/2 + (  x – 60)/ 2 × 0 +  xy × 1……………….. (1)
The second equation is  x ' y ' = 40
Thus, 40 = – (  x – 60)/2 × 1, or
–  x + 60 = 80, or
 x = – 20 MPa
if we substitute in this equation (1), this gives,

50 = 20 +  xy , or
 xy = 30 MPa, which is the shear stress component in the horizontal plane.
So, if we draw the element now on which the stresses act we have on this as  y , now we
have evaluated the  x and also  xy . On this plane which is at an angle of 45° with the x-plane
on which the  x ’ and  x ' y ' acts. These are the values of  x ;  x gives you – 20. Here if you
see I have made a mistake that the stress is – 20 so that indicates that the normal stress will be
acting in the opposite direction, it will be a compressive stress, whereas  y is acting in the
positive direction. Here  xy is positive so the direction of  xy is in the positive direction of y.
Here is another problem. This particular problem states that these are the stresses acting with
the rectangular axis system which are  x ,  y , and  xy and we will have to evaluate the
principal stresses, maximum shear stresses along with the normal stresses. We will have to
use Mohr’s circle to evaluate these quantities.
120
Slide 14-35:20
Here if you look into the normal stresses which is acting in the x-plane is compressive in
nature having magnitude of 30 MPa.
 x = – 30 MPa and  y = + 10 MPa
If you note the direction of the shearing stress it is opposite to the positive y-direction. Also
this particular shear along with the complimentary shear on the other face is causing rotation
in the clockwise direction which according to our sign convention is negative. If you
remember in the Mohr’s circle, we said that the shearing stresses which are causing
anticlockwise rotation is positive, since here this is the clockwise rotation so these are
negative shear. So, on this particular surface, since this is causing anticlockwise, this
particular shear is a positive shear.
Now if we try to represent these in the Mohr’s circle then let us see how it looks like.
This is the reference axis system and this is the σ + and this is –σ, this is + τ and this direction
is –  . Now on the x-plane we have  x = – 30MPa which is this direction and  xy = –20 so
this is the shear, so we get the point somewhere here, which is  x = –30 and  = –20. Then
we have in the perpendicular plane the y-plane which is 90◦ with reference to the physical
plane, here in the Mohr’s plane it will be 180◦ and we have +  y = 10 MPa, and we have + τ
= 20 MPa.
Now if we join these two points this is where it crosses the σ line, we get the centre of the
Mohr’s circle. So with this as centre O as the centre and OA as the radius we draw the circle.
121
This gives us the Mohr’s circle of which the centre is this particular point and as you know
the distance of the centre form the τ-axis (  x +  y )/2.
Now here
 x = – 30
 y = + 10
So centre will be at (– 30 + 10)/2 = –10 MPa with respect to origin.
As we have evaluated earlier that distance OO’= (  x –  y )/2 = (– 30 – 10)/2 = – 20
So from here to here is 20, and this is  xy which is also 20. So the radius or this particular
distance OA = 202  202 = 400  400 = 28.28
Now, we are going to evaluate the principal stresses.

 1 = (  x +  y )/2 + √(  x –  y )/2)2 +  xy 2 = –10 + 28.28 = 18.28 MPa
 2 = (  x +  y )/ 2 – √((  x –  y )/ 2)2 +  xy 2 = –10 – 28.28 = –38.28 MPa
From this particular diagram, if we look into that, this is the value of the radius and this is the
plane, where we get the value of maximum value of the shear stress and this is the plane
122
where you get the minimum value of the shear stress. Now at this particular point, the value
of the normal stress is this which is (  x +  y )/2 = – 10 MPa in this particular problem.
Therefore the maximum value of shear stress = radius = 28.28 MPa.
So  max = 28.28 MPa and the corresponding normal stress on this particular planes where the
maximum and minimum share stress occurs, that is equals to the (  x +  y )/2 = – 10 MPa.
So these are the values which we get, they are:

The maximum principal stress  1 = 18.28 MPa;
The minimum principal stress  2 is = – 38.28 MPa;
The maximum shear stresses  max = 28.28 MPa;

The normal stress which acts on the maximum and the minimum shear stress = –10 MPa.
We can evaluate the position of these planes, the maximum, and minimum normal stresses
with reference to the plane. Now this is the plane which is representing the vertical plane,
normal to the plane which coincides with the x-axis, which you call as x-plane.
Now, with reference to this particular plane, if we go in the anticlockwise direction this
particular angle will give us the value half of which is the orientation in the physical plane
123
which locates the maximum principal stress and perpendicular to that is the plane where in
this minimum normal stress acts. These are the values and that is how we can compute the
stresses using Mohr’s circle.
Slide 16-46:50
Here is another problem. We already know that the octahedral stresses are the stresses which
acts on the octahedral plane and octahedral plane are the planes are equally inclined with
respect to the principal axes,  1 ,  2 ,and  3 axes system.
124
Now, if we know the values of principal stresses at a point, we can compute the values of
octahedral stresses. Now,
 1 = – 2 + 10 MPa
2 = 1
 3 = – 2– 10 MPa
And we will have to evaluate, the values of octahedral stresses.
Now as we have seen in the beginning itself, that

σoctahedral = 1/3 (  1 +  2 +  3 ) = 1/3 ( – 2 + 10 + 1 – 2 – 10 ) = –1 MPa.
For τ oct,
9 (τ oct)2 = 2 (  1 +  2 +  3 )2 – 6 (  1  2 +  2  3 +  3  1 )
Substituting all the values and on simplification, we get,
78
 oct = = 2.944 MPa
3
Here is another problem, this is the supporting structure which supports a billboard, many a
times we use boards, sign boards on which the advertisements are put and these boards are
supported by some steel structures and these boards are subjected to the wind pressure.
125
Slide 18-50:55
The wind pressure when it comes on the board eventually it transfers the load on to the
supporting structure, hence this is one of the supporting structures in which we have
framework and all the members are connected in the pin joint and this is the force which is
acting on this member. Now our job is to find out the stress in each of these members from
this particular force. What we need to do is, first we evaluate forces in each of the members
which are arising from these external forces, and thereby we can compute the stress since the
cross sectional area of the member is given, force divided by the area will give us the stress.
If we assume this angle as  , then this being 6 from the similar triangle we get this as 3, so
eventually this is also  , and if we drop a perpendicular this is also  , and this is also  and
the values of cos  is 4/5. This particular hypotenuse, this being 3, and this being 4, is 5 so is
this, this is also five, so the values of cos  = 4/5 and value of sin  = 3/5. Now what we
need to do is to draw free body diagram and evaluate the forces.
One section we can take here and draw the free body diagram, and another section we can
take here and draw the free body diagram and we can compute the forces. Once we compute
the forces, we can find out the stresses. You try to compute the stresses for this particular
problem.
In this particular lesson we tried to look into the stresses which we have evaluated earlier
with reference to Cartesian system  x ,  y and  xy .Also, we have tried to look into that if a
body which is does not have the straight boundary and there are curved boundary, how to
represent the stresses  r ,   and  r which are in terms of polar coordinate systems.
126
Slide 18-54:06
And also from there we have seen how to evaluate stresses for the axi-symmetric bodies and
also we looked in to some examples to demonstrate how we can evaluate stresses at any point
on the stress body either using transformation equations or by the use of the Mohr’s circle.
We also tried to see how to compute octahedral stresses on a particular, on a particular stress
body; keep in mind this octahedral stress is useful when we talk about the evaluation of the
stress in the inelastic when we go beyond the elastic strain.
Slide 19-54;51
This particular lesson was last in the series of the module stress analysis. We have computed
or we have looked into the six lessons in the particular module stress analysis. These six
lessons if we look into chronologically, in the first lesson I tried to give you the general
concept of kinds of forces and what really is the meaning of subject strength of material, so it
was introduced to you. Subsequently the second lesson we had I tried to give you the concept
127
of normal and shearing stresses and you know how to evaluate the equations of the
equilibrium from the stresses that are acing in the Cartesian system,  x ,  y and  xy .
Slide 20-55:32
In the third lesson we have tried to evaluate stresses on any arbitrary plane, if we have any
plane which is oriented with the value of  with reference to x-plane and thereby we arrived
at values of the stresses which we have defined as Cauchy’s stress formula. We tried to
evaluate the maximum normal stresses which we defined it as principal stresses, and these
principal stresses which we are acting in the principal planes, we have tried to locate them in
this particular lesson.
We have demonstrated that through few examples.
Slide 21-56:39
128
In the fourth lesson we have evaluated the stress on any plane using transformation equations,
in fact we have discussed this lesson as well. How to evaluate stress any plane using
transformation equations or using Mohr’s circle?
In the fourth lesson we have discussed in detail how to construct a Mohr’s circle if we know
the stresses at a particular point in a body. In the fifth lesson we tried to give you the concept
of octahedral stresses and also we looked into how to evaluate the stress at a particular point
in the stress body at different planes.
As you know the concept of the octahedral stress, that this particular stress or the stresses
which act on the octahedral planes which are inclined equally with the principal axes system
and these stresses are useful when we talk about the evaluation of stress in the inelastic stage.
Slide 22-58:04
In this particular lesson, we tried to give you the concept of stresses in the polar coordinate
systems that you have already looked into.
Now having looked into these aspects of stresses here are some questions to answer:
 What are the equations of equilibrium in Cartesian coordinate system of a stressed
body?
 What are the equations of equilibrium in polar coordinate system of a stressed body?
 What is the value of maximum shear stress if  1 = 10MPa, the maximum principal
stress, and the minimum principal stress  2 = 0?
129
Slide 23-58:17
130
Prof. Sriman K Bhattacharyya
IIT Kharagapur
Session 7: Analysis of strain - I
Welcome to the first lesson of the second module which is on analysis of strain. In the first
module we discussed about stresses and we have seen various aspects of stresses. Now we
are going to discuss certain aspects of strain.
Slide 1-1:07
Slide 2-1:11
After completion of this particular lesson one will be able to understand the concept of
axial strain, the concept of normal strain and strain at a point in a stressed body. One will
be able to understand the relation between stress and strain, which is very important when
we talk about the strength of material, is not only the stresses but the relation between the
stress and the strain is important. One will be able to understand the concept modulus of
elasticity which we need for the analysis as we go along.
131
Slide 3-1:55
We will evaluate normal strain and strain at a point. We look into the relationship between
stress and strain and thereby the Hooke’s law which are defined for the elastic body and
then the different terms which we get in the stress and strain relationship and the modulus
of elasticity.
Slide 4-2:49
Before we start looking into the aspect of the strain let us look into the questions. The
first question is what are the equations of Cartesian co-ordinate system in a stressed
body?
132
Slide 5-3:10
The equations of equilibrium in Cartesian co-ordinate system are
∂  x /∂x + ∂  xy /∂y + X = 0
∂  xy /∂x + ∂  y /∂y + Y = 0
here x and y are the body force components.
133
Now as you know  x and  y are the normal stresses to the x and y direction and  xy is
the shearing stress component. So these two define the equations of the equilibrium in two
dimensional system.
Slide 4-4;11
The second question posed was, what are the equations of equilibrium in a polar coordinate
system of a stressed body?
Slide 6-4:23
134
The equations of equilibrium in polar co-ordinate system, this particular aspect was
discussed in the sixth lesson of the module one, wherein we defined stress components, the
radial stress, σr, the circumferential stress, σϴ and we have seen how to derive this
equations of equilibrium.
The radial directional stress is σr, the circumferential stress, σϴ and consequently we are
sharing stress component which are  r . And in a polar coordinate form these are the
equations of equilibrium
∂σr/∂r + (∂  r /∂ϴ)/r + (σr – σϴ)/r = 0
∂  r ∂r + (∂σϴ/∂ϴ)/r +  r /r = 0
These are the two equations which defines the equations of equilibrium in polar co-ordinate
system for two dimensional stress analysis.
Slide 4-5;40
The third question was, what is the value of maximum shear stress if  1 = 10 MPa and
 2 =0?
Let us look into, if you remember the Mohr’s circle of stress in which we had σ axis and
the τ axis. Now in the Mohr’s circle, the maximum stress is  1 , and the minimum stress is
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 2 . Now radius of this circle is defined as the maximum value of the shearing stress, which
is τmax. And τmax = (  1 –  2 )/2
In the given problem,  2 = 0, and  1 = 10

τmax = 10/2 = 5 MPa
These are the three questions which were posed and the answers for these were defined.
Let us look forward into strain analysis.
Slide 8-7:21
Now we are going to look in to axial normal strain. Now let us assume we have a body
which is acted on by force P, length of the body let us assume as L. When a body is
subjected to either change in the temperature or subjected to the forces, it undergoes
deformations, and in strength of material we are interested to look in to this deformation
and we try to define a quantity in terms of this deformation.
Let us assume after deformation, the length is L+δ. Thereby δ is the deformation or the
extension of the body. Now we will define a quantity, which is the ratio of this deformation
to the original in the length and is generally designated as ∈.
∈ = δ / L and this is known as strain.
The load/the force which is acting on the body is in the axial direction and we assume
that the deformation is uniform along the length of the body.
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And there by everywhere the strain is same. Also as we looked in to earlier, when the body
is subjected to axial force, we get a stress which we call as normal stress which is the stress
normal to the cross section of the body. In line with that, we define that the strain or the
deformation which is along the axis has the axial strain, since to compare with the normal
stress we call this strain as normal strain.
So the strain associated with the normal stress is called normal strain and we define this as
elongation per unit length. Now as this is the ratio of two lengths, basically this is a
dimensionless number quantity and thereby there are no units as such.
However, it is customary to define strain in terms of the ratio of the lengths, say meter by
meter or millimeter by millimeter for a body. Accordingly, sometimes we say the units of
strain as millimeter by millimeter. And this strain is defined in terms of a number and
sometimes we define this in terms of percentage as well.
Now the strain when we are calculating for the deformation δ, we are assuming that this
uniform deformation in the entire length of the bar; then we are assuming the strain on an
average sense over the entire body.
If the deformation is not same everywhere and if the deformation varies along the length
of a bar. then the way we have computed stress at a point in a stress body, we compute
strain also in a stress body.
Slide 9-10:42
137
Now let us look into this particular figure where a bar which is fixed at one end is subjected
to a pull P. Now let us assume that we are interested find out the strain at a point A within
this body which is at a distance of x from the fixed end.
To evaluate strain at a point in a stress body, what we do is consider an imaginary fiber, let
us say AB, which is of length dx or Δx.
This bar when it is subjected to pull P the fiber also is stretched or deformed and let us
assume this is the stretched fiber which was originally Δx, let us say this as A’ B’ and the
length of this stretched fiber is Δx + Δδ
Thereby the extension of this fiber is Δδ.
And as we have defined, for this particular fiber the strain,
∈ = Δδ/Δx
And strain at this particular point A is
Δδ dδ
∈ = lim Δx = dx
𝑥→0
Hence, dδ = ∈dx
So if the length of the member is defined as L, then over the entire length the deformation
is
𝐿
δ = ∫0 dδ
𝐿
δ = ∫0 ∈ dx
This deformation if the strain varies along the length of the bar. If we have uniform strain
everywhere then,
δ
∈=
L
If it is not uniform, then
𝐿
δ = ∫0 ∈ dx
That is how we compute the strain at a point.
138
Slide 10-14:51
In strength of materials, we have seen how to calculate the stress at any point in a stressed
body and we have seen various components of the stresses.
Now we have defined a quantity which we call as strain, strain at a point or strain on an
average sense, if it is uniform over the length of the bar. Now what we need to do which is
of relevance in Strength of Materials is the relationship between stress and the strain.
Now for evaluating the relation between the stress and strain, take a body, apply a tensile
pull in the body, and we apply this load gradually over the bar. For each increment of the
load, we try to find out how much deformation the body undergoes.
If this is a bar as shown in the figure above, we have formed a section in different cross
section forms. The end parts are called as the grip, which is inserted in the tensile stress
equipment and the whole bar is pulled. Now, we fix up a length which is in between this
bar, which is little away from this grip, so that the length on which we focus our attention
is not affected by the variation of the load in the grip zone. And this length on which we
focus our attention we call this as the gauge length. So this is the initial distance between
the two predefined bars and this we call as gauge length.
139
And as I said this length we consider between the bar and little away from the grip zone so
that this particular zone is not affected by the force distribution or the stress distribution in
the grip zone.
Now if we apply a pull on this bar gradually, as we have seen the bar will under go
deformation and there by there will be change in the gauge length and if we measure that
increment or the deformation, then we can compute the strength.
And as we have seen earlier the stress for a body which is subjected to an axial pull, the
normal stress is the axial pull divided by the cross sectional area. So for each increment of
the load, we can compute the stress, we can compute the correspondingly the strain and
then we can plot a graph to establish the relationship between the stress and the strain.
Slide 11-18:14
Now if look in to the plot between the stress and the strain, the plot is something like shown
in the figure above. In this particular figure, this axis represents the strain and the y-axis
represents the stress.
Now plot each increment of the load, we compute the deformation, there by we get the
strain. And for several such points we plot it, on a steel bar this is the profile we get a
different stage of loadings.
Now for this particular figure there are various terms indicated with it. We have
proportional limit, then elastic limit, yield point, the ultimate strain or ultimate stress, this
particular point, actually is wrong. This is not normal, this should be nominal and this is
the nominal failure strength. Now here if you note it that we compute the stresses here with
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reference to the original cross section of the bar which we have computed. If you can
visualize, when we are pulling this bar or when we are applying a tensile pull, as it deforms
the cross sectional area of the bar reduce, now the stress a we know is stress divided by the
cross sectional area, the cross sectional area as we take the original cross sectional area,
and accordingly we get the profile of this curve. If we take the actual area, load divided by
the actual area then the stress value will be different from this. In fact, from this particular
point configuration is some thing like this. Now the stress when you compute reference to
the original cross sectional area of the bar, we call those stresses as the nominal stresses
and correspondingly the nominal strain.
Otherwise if we compute the stresses with reference to the change cross sectional area of
the bar, we call that stress as true stress and the corresponding strain as true strain. So here
what we have plotted is the nominal stress and the strain.
Now the meaning of this proportional limit is, up to the level of proportional limit, the
stress is proportional to the strain. So we say the stress, σ is proportional to the strain ϵ.
Now this particular point elastic limit is the point, up to which if the load is applied on the
body and if it is released the body comes back to its original state and that we call as the
elastic limit of the body.
But if we apply load and go beyond the elastic limit, and if we release the load the specimen
will not come back to its original shape and some amount of deformation is permanently
set in the body and that we call as permanent state.
And yield point is the point, when the body starts yielding. It goes beyond the elastic limit,
the plasticity starts forming in the section.
And if we keep on applying the load at that particular point in fact increasing the load, the
bar deforms and the extension/the deformation becomes excessive and reaches the stress
which we call as loading down on the load when the bar fails and that how we get failure
stress which is less than the ultimate stress.
What is the maximum stress a bar can attain? We call it ultimate stress and this particular
point is the failure stress. Now in the bar these two points proportional limit and the elastic
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limit vary. It is difficult to distinguish and we consider that up to this level, this up to the
elastic limit, the stress is proportional to the strain. If we remove this proportionality
constant, σ is written as constant times E, which is constant for that material and this is
what we know as Hooke’s law. Up to the proportionality limit or up to the elastic limit, the
σ∝ϵ
or
σ=Eϵ
where, E is called as the constant of proportionality or the modulus of the elasticity, which
is an important parameter in the Strength of Materials and this is constant for the material
We are considering Hooke’s law during the evaluation of the stress and the strain, which
is at the elastic limit, the stress is proportional to the strain or,
σ=Eϵ
Slide 12-24:23
So we have seen the Hooke’s law which is up to the proportionality limit, the stress is
proportional to the strain and thereby we get
σ=Eϵ
We have seen the elastic limit, if the bar is loaded and is allowed to extend and if the bar
is within the elastic limit, if we release the load, the bar is expected to come back to its
original state.
142
The permanent set is, as the member yields, as it reaches to yield stress then plasticity forms
in the section, then if we release the load, as we have seen in the case of elastic material
when the bar is still within its elastic limit the bar comes back to its original position but
once it starts yielding, then if we release the load, the bar does not come back to its original
position and some amount of deformation sets permanently in the body and that is what we
call as permanent set. Yield point again is the point where the material starts yielding or it
goes beyond the elastic limit and plasticity starts setting in the member.
Slide 13-25:52
Well these are some of the stress strain relationship for different materials.
If we take concrete specimen, apply tensile pull in tensile stress equipment, and then we
get the profile similar to as shown in the figure above, which is the stress strain relationship.
If we take materials like aluminum, cast iron or high carbon steel we get the profile as
shown in the figure above and these are necessary to know the relationship between stress
and strain by the modulus state of elasticity so that we can compute the stress and can
compute the strain and we can establish the relationship between stress and strain in a body
when the material is used either for some equipment or the machine part or in structural
body where we interested to find stress and strain. We need to know the relationship
between stress and strain material that with which the machine part or the structure is
composed of.
143
Slide 14-27:07
Now as we have seen in the previous figure, in the first figure, in this particular figure as
you have seen that we have defined yield point.
In this particular zone, this particular curve shows that we have defined yield point. So
corresponding to this stress we know that this is the yield stress we defined as  y but as
we have seen in the subsequent figure that we do not have any defined yield point and in
strength of material when we deal within the elastic limit we need to know the what is the
value of the yield stress beyond which the member will start yielding.
So we try to limit our stress when we deal with elastic level of analysis. We like to limit
over self to the elastic level, so we need to know what is the value of the yield stress?
But from this kind of stress strain distribution, it is difficult to know the value of the yield
stress. Now to compute the value of yield stress we do is to observe that the strain
corresponding to the yield stress value is the order of 0.2%, this is 0.002 is the strain.
Now if we draw a tangent to the curve at this particular point, which we call it as initial
tangent and if we draw a line at 0.2 % strain and if draw a line parallel to initial of the
tangent, the point where it cuts the curve, the stress strain curve, the corresponding stress
we call as yield stress and this yield stress is normally we designate as proof stress.
144
So for the material where we apply a tensile pull and plot a stress strain curve and
corresponding to that stress strain curve if we do not get a defined yield point,
corresponding to which we are interested to find yield stress then we compute the yield
stress in the direct way corresponding to point two percent of strain and this stress we call
as proof stress or the yield stress of that particular material.
Slide 15-30:04
Well as we have seen earlier, in case of the stresses when a bar is subjected to axial pull
we have computed the stress which we have defined as the normal stress, the stress which
is normal to the cross section of the bar and the load is acting perpendicular to the cross
section through the axis of the bar.
Now for an axially loaded bar, if we are interested to compute the strain, let us assume that
this particular bar say is fixed at this end, the length of this bar is L and is subjected to pull
P, thereby if the δ is the extension then the strain,
ϵ = δ/L
And we consider that for this particular bar, this analysis you carry out is within the elastic
limit of the bar.
And we have seen right now in the stress strain relationship that within the elastic limit of
the bar is the stress is proportional to the strain. And we write σ = E.ϵ
145
Hence from this equation we can write the deformation, δ = σ L/E
As we know that this is a bar which is axially loaded and the load is acting through the
axis of the bar. At any cross section, normal stress,
σ = P/A
So, δ = PL/AE
So for an axially loaded bar if we know the axial pull, if we know the cross sectional area,
if we know the length and if we know the material with which this bar is made of, for which
we know the modulus of elasticity then we can compute what will be the deformation in
the bar.
Considering that every where the strain is same, however the strain is not everywhere, if
there is the variation of the strain as we have seen in the previous calculation that the strain
or the deformation.
As we have seen that,
𝐿
δ = ∫0 ∈ dx
And, σ = E ϵ
𝐿 P
So, δ = ∫0 dx
AE
Now if P and cross sectional area are different then we get deformation different at different
points. But if the axial load P and the cross sectional area A remain same, if there is no
change then we get the same expression which is P/AE.
If the P/AE is constant then,
P 𝐿
δ = AE ∫0 dx
δ = 𝑃𝐿/𝐴𝐸
However, if there is variation in the P, area A and the length of the bar then we get different
deformations at different points and correspondingly the strain value will be different. That
is how we calculate deformation in the axially loaded bar.
146
Slide 17-35:40
Having defined this strain we have looked in to the concepts of stress in the module one,
now we defined he quantity called strain, we have established the relationship between
stress and strain and within elastic limit we have seen in the axially loaded bar, how we
can evaluate the deformation if we know the load and if the strain is uniform and what is
the relation between deformation and the load corresponding to the cross sectional area of
the member and in terms of the modulus of elasticity of the material and if there is the
variation of the load, if there is the variation in the cross sectional area, then it is expected
that the deformation to be different and accordingly the strain will be different at different
point.
Let us once again look at an example related to evaluation of stresses at different points.
Now this is the truss member in which, which is supporting the bill board. Billboard is
supported by two which are stress and cross sectional area of all the members.
147
Call this as A, this point as B this is then C and this is D and this as E. Now we are interested
to know the stress in each member when the particular board is subjected to a load and the
area, they are the forces which are acting, 3 kN at A and 6 kN at B, so what we need to do
is to evaluate first the forces in each member and once we can compute the forces in each
member. So when the supports are pin jointed, we have the axial force in each member and
this axial force at each member area will give out the stress, that us what we are interested
in, to calculate the stress in each member.
Now from this triangular configuration,
AB = BD = 4m
DE = 6m
So, the distance BC = 3m
So, if angle BAC = θ
Now if we take a section as shown in figure, then the horizontal force acting at A is 3 kN.
FAC sin θ = 3 kN
148
sin θ = 3/5
FAC = 5 kN
If we take the vertical equilibrium of the forces so,
FAC cosθ = FAB
or
FAB cosθ – FAB =0
FAB = 5 x 4/5
FAB = 4 kN
Now, if we look in to the direction of the forces as we have assumed over here, this is the
force in the joint. Member AC is subjected to like this, which is compressive in nature.
Thereby the member AB is on the tension and so this is the tensile force.
The member AC and member AB is subjected to a force of 5 kN and 4 kN. So these divided
by the cross sectional area, 5 kN divided by 100mm2 will give us the stress in FAC and
correspondingly 4 kN/100mm2 will give me the stress in FAB.
Likewise, we have to compute the forces in BD, BC, CD, CE. Supposing if we take or cut
the structure from here and take the free body of the upper part of it then we get a
configuration which is like this here as shown in the fig:
We can compute forces if we take the moment of all the forces with respect to joint C
149
So, FBD = 4 kN
And again this is at a joint B at this direction(downward), so the member the force will be
in this particular direction (as shown in fig.) so this gives us again a tensile pull, so this is
a tensile force.
So this force divided by the cross sectional area will give me the stress in the member. Now
this angle BAC = θ and this is also θ and again we can take the horizontal and the
equilibrium forces of all the forces and we can compute the value of FCE and FCD and
thereby,
FCD = 5 kN and this is a tensile pull and
FCE = 10 kN, which is compressive force.
And so we have seen AB, AC, BD, CD, CE and the member which is remaining is BC.
If we take the equilibrium of joint B,

FBC = 6kN which is a compressive force.
Once we get force in each of this member, force divided by cross section area will give me
the stress in each member. That is how we compute the stresses in the member.
Now by stating that the truss joints are pinned means that the forces transmitted in each
of these members are purely axial in nature.
150
Slide 19-45:46
Having discussed that particular problem related to the evaluation of the stress as we had
discussed in the previous module, how to compute stresses at a point in a stress body, now
in this particular lesson we have seen how to compute the deformation in a member for an
axially loaded member or there is variation in the load of the cross sectional area, what is
going to be deformation in the member along with the length of the member.
Now let us look into some examples; how do you compute these deformations if the forces
in the member is known, we know the cross sectional area of the member and we know the
material property which is of the elasticity of the material. Now in this example, we have
steel rod, which is having cross sectional area of three hundred millimeter square and the
length of the bar is one fifty meter, is suspended vertically from one end.
The rod supports the tensile load of 20 Kilo Newton at the free end we will have to find
out the elongation of the rod. Or first we will have to find out the deformation. The value
of E is given as 2 × 105 MPa. So it us like you have a bar of length 150m and it is supported
at one end, it is hung from the top and at this free end this bar is subjected to a load of 20
Kilo Newton, the length is 150m.
151
So we are interested to compute that what is going to be the elongation of the bar because
of the axial pull. Bar is going to be stretched or it is going to deform, so we are interested
to know how much this bar under go deformation because of the axial pull which is acting,
one end is fixed and the other end is pulled. Now here as we have seen deformation,
δ = PL/AE
where, P is the axial pull acting in the bar, L is the length of the bar, A is the cross sectional
area of the member, which is uniform here and E is the modulus of elasticity of the material.
So, P = 20 kN = 20 × 103 N
L = 150m = 150 × 103 mm
A = 300 mm2
E = 2 × 105 N/mm2
𝑃𝐿 20×103 ×150×103
δ = 𝐴𝐸 = 300×2×105
δ = 50mm
So 50 mm of elongation, this particular bar will be under going because of this load.
Slide 20-49:42
Now let us look in to another example problem, this is interesting, because here we have a
bar, a plastic bar is in the elastic limit, and in this we have variable cross section. The bar
cross section is not uniform as in the previous case.
152
The segment AB is having area of 1000m2, segment BC is having 1000m2 and segment
CD is of 1000m2. Now for such kind of system, we need to look into whether the whole
bar is under the action of equilibrium of the forces or not.
We look into a bar which is subjected to the action of axial force of 400 kN in the positive
x-direction. In the negative x-direction which is 100 + 100 + 200 = 400 so this is in
equilibrium.
Now if we take the free body of different part of this particular bar, then we can find out
that what is the amount of forces that is each segment is subjected to. Now let us take a
section somewhere in segment AB as shown in figure, let us call section 1-1 and if you
take free body of this, this particular segment is subjected to pull of 200 kN, and as we
have seen the free body in our module one, the opposing force will also be 200 kN.
If we take section in segment BC, section 2-2 and if you take the free body part of it, then
here we have force 200 kN at the right side and, and 400 kN acting in the other direction,
so the resulting force 200 Kilo Newton acting in the opposite direction, if we balance this
has to be 200 kN.
Third segment is being pulled which has compressive force of 200 kN and if we take the
free body of this part, then we have the free body part is like this, this is 200, this is 400
and this is 100, so 100 + 200 on this side and 400 on this side, so it has to be balanced by
153
hundred on this side. So this particular member is subjected to 100 here and 100 here which
is under compression.
So the first part, this part is under tensile pull of 100 Kilo Newton and central part is under
compression of two hundred Kilo Newton, the third part is in the compression of 100 Kilo
Newton.
Now for these if we compute, if we calculate the deformation for the three segments we
can find out the total delta as the sum of summation of PL/AE. As in each of these three
segments the cross section area over these stretch, over this cross sectional area of
particular section remains same. So we can write this equation for the three segments as,
𝑃1 𝐿1 𝑃2 𝐿2 𝑃3 𝐿3
Δ= + +
𝐴1 𝐸 𝐴2 𝐸 𝐴3 𝐸
Now for the second segment this P2 is negative, this is compressive, if we call P1 which is
tensile as positive, for the third segment P3 is compressive, and negative.
200×103 ×2000 200×103 ×1000 100×103 ×1000
Δ= − − = 1mm.
1000×2×105 2000×2×105 1000×2×105
Slide 21-56:07
Here is another problem which is aluminium bar with cross sectional area of 160mm2
carries the axial loads, you have to compute the values of deformation to compute.
154
Slide 22-56:19
Now to summarize, this particular lesson included concept of strain at a point and axial
and normal strain, stress-strain relationship and the relevance of different point in the
stress strain curve, example to demonstrate how to evaluate the strain and the
deformation stress body.
Slide 23-56:41
Here are some questions:
What is meant by elastic limit?
155
What is the difference between nominal stress and true stress?
How will you evaluate strain in a bar with gradually varying cross section?
156
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Prof. Sriman K Bhattacharya
Dept of Civil Engineering
I.I.T Kharagpur
Lecture# 08
Analysis of Strain-ll
(Refer slide Time – 00:46)
Welcome to the second lesson of the second module on the course of Strength of
Materials. We will be discussing the Analysis of Strain II and in the last lesson we
introduced the strain after discussing the different aspects of stresses in module 1.
(Refer slide time: 01:08-01:58 )
In this particular lesson it is expected that once it is completed, one should be able to
understand the concept of axial and the normal strain in a stressed body of variable cross
section.
In the last lesson, we discussed about the strain, the axial strain, the normal strain in a bar
which is of uniform cross section.
In this particular lesson we are going to discuss that if a bar is of variable cross section
then what will be the strain in that particular body?
157
To understand the concept of shearing strain also one should be able to understand the
concept of shear modulus and Poisson’s ratio.
Hence, the scope of this particular lesson includes recapitulation of the previous lesson.
In the lesson what we have discussed, in the first one, we look into it through the question
and answers. Then the evaluation of axial strain in a body of variable cross section.
Evaluation of shear strain and shear modulus and subsequently, the evaluation of
Poisson’s ratio. We will see the meaning of Poisson’s ratio and the evaluation of
Poisson’s ratio in the body which is subjected to through loading and undergoing stresses.
(Refer slide time: 02:39-11:06)
Well, before we proceed let us look in to the questions which I had posed last time. The
first question which was posed was what is meant by elastic limit? Now let me explain
this with reference to the figure.
158
(Refer slide time: 02:58- 13:28)
If you can remember last time I had demonstrated that the stress strain relationship is of
this particular form where this x-axis represents strain and the y-axis represents stress.
Now say that if we keep on applying load on a bar in an axial manner, if we apply a
tensile pull to a bar gradually, the bar will undergo deformation and thereby you exceed
that for a bar which is subjected to axial pull how to compute the strain corresponding to
that part or each increment of the load.
If we compute the strain for a particular load and compute the stress corresponding to that
load, we can get a plot of stress versus strain. Now up to a particular limit if we keep on
applying the load, on removal of the load, the bar is expected to come back to its original
position.
But beyond a point if we keep on applying the load, the state of stress and the strain in the
bar will be such that it will not come back to its original position after the removal of the
load.
Now the limiting point up to which on removal of the load the material comes back to its
original position, we call that as elastic limit and this is what is indicated over here and
159
up to that limit we expect that the stress is proportional to the strain which is popularly
known as the Hooke’s Law.
Second question was what is the difference between nominal stress and True stress?
When you compute the stress that any point in the stress strain curve, the stress at any
point is given by the applied load divided by the cross sectional area.
When we take the original cross sectional area, the stress thereby which we get P divided
by cross sectional area, we call that stress as nominal stress.
Whereas we are applying the load in the specimen and beyond elastic limit the power is
expected to have a reduced cross sectional area.
If we calculate the stress based on this reduced area will get, P divided by the actual cross
sectional area which is little higher than the stress, this is higher than the nominal stress
and that stress p divided by actual cross sectional area is called as True stress. So, P
divided by the original cross sectional area is a nominal stress, and P divided by the
actual cross sectional area will give us the True stress.
Now the third question posed was, how you will evaluate strain in a bar with gradually
varying cross section.
Now today’s lesson is based on this that before we go on this particular question, first let
us look into how we perform test on a tensile specimen in tensile pulling equipment. This
experiment is primarily the tensile testing of a HYSD bar. HYSD stands for the High
Yield Strength Deformed bar, commonly termed as tar steel. We are interested to
primarily evaluate three aspects of it, the yield strength of the bar, the ultimate stress and
the percentage elongation the member undergoes.
160
The bar will be tested under constant axial pull and the load will be applied till the
member fails. The whole length of the bar has been divided into a number of segments
and each segment measures 40mm. After the specimen is tested, after failure, we will re-
measure the lengths and will see the how much extension this individual segment has
under gone which will give us the measure of elongation that the material has undergone.
The objective of this particular test is to evaluate again the yield stress of the material, the
ultimate stress at which it fails and the elongation it undergoes which gives us the
measure of the ductility of the specimen.
This is the control panel from which the load will be applied to this particular specimen at
a constant rate till the member fails and the type of load that is being applied on to this
particular specimen is a tensile pull.
Now we look into how the load is being applied on the specimen till its failure. After the
bar has been tested if we look into the failure of the bar, we will see that one side has
been found shape of a cone and the other side is that of a cup and this kind of failure is
generally called as cup and cone failure.
If we look into the whole length of the bar you will find that the centre part, it has under
gone extension and because of elastic deformation the length has been extended.
161
In the beginning we had divided the whole length of the bar and the segment of 40mm
now if we measure the extended part of that particular segment now, after it has
elongated we find that this particular length which was originally 40mm is now 54mm.
This indicates that this particular bar will be extended by 14 mm. This gives us the
measure of percentage elongation and thereby the ductility of the material.
This is the experiment which has been performed on a bar applying a tensile pull and
then snapped at a point and the type of failure we observed we call as the cup and cone
failure.
If you remember in the last lesson we were discussing the if we apply at tensile pull in a
bar, the body is expected to undergo deformation gradually and at certain points of time it
undergoes failure and that is what this is represented in this stress strain curve.
The stress strain curve says that if we apply load gradually up to elastic limit, if we
release the load the load the member comes back to its original position. But we keep on
applying the load it undergoes through the maximum stress and then fails at a lower
value. This part we call it as a failure stress and this part, the maximum stress, we call as
ultimate stress.
Also, in the last lesson we said that in a particular area in the bar we generally reduce the
cross sectional area from the entire original area. The purpose of that is to concentrate the
failure in that particular zone so that we can observe how the failure is occurring in that
particular member.
In this particular experiment there we have not reduced the cross sectional area as such
but we are applied a pull to the bar but the whole bar was marked with segments of 40
mm.
After the application of the tensile pull the segmental lengths which was originally 40
mm was measured again and the segment in which the failure had occurred we measured
the extension which we found to be around 14 mm.
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Now this gives us a measure of how much elongation the member can undergo before it
really fails.
(Refer slide time:13:29 – 18:39)
Here is the third question:
What happens if we apply axial pull in a bar for which the cross section is no longer
uniform but varies gradually as that of this particular one as it is indicated in this
particular figure.
In the previous lesson we said that if we apply an axial pull P in a bar it undergoes
deformation and from its original length L, it becomes L + Δ. And this extension Δ we
had seen how to compute.
Now if instead of having such uniform cross section if the cross section of the bar is
varying as shown in the figure above, say we have an area here which is A1 and the cross
sectional area here is A2 and this bar is having subjected to an axial pull P, we assume
that this area is varying linearly between A1 and A2 over the length L.
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Now this cross sectional area of this bar can be of cylindrical type thereby we can
compute diameter, diameter could be varying, or we can have a rectangular cross section
in which the thickness is uniform and thereby because of change in the width, the cross
sectional area is varying.
Now at any cross section which is at the distance of x from the left end, the cross
sectional area of this bar is going to be equal to,
A = A1 + (A2 - A1/2) x/L× 2
A = A1 + (A2 - A1)x/L
So this is cross sectional area over this particular segment. Now, if we like to find out the
elongation of this particular bar which is δ. As we have seen in the last lesson,
δ = PL/AE
Since here the cross section is varying at every segment we may take a small segment
which is
δ = PL/AE
δ = ∫ P/AE dx
A is function of x which is varying from 0 to l now we substitute the value of A here
which is the function of x and integrate it over the length which will give me the
deformation δ.
Also sometimes we can compute the extension by considering the whole of the bar into
number of segments. If we divide the whole bar into a number of segments and if we
consider one of the segments. On an average, this is area A1 this is area A1’. On an
average here we can say the area is average of this area and this area by two which is
constant over this particular segment.
Here, we are adding something and here we are subtracting something. Therefore. on an
average this satisfies for the whole segment.
For these if we compute δ for this particular segment likewise we can compute δ for each
of these segments and if we sum them up we get the total δ for the whole of the bar.
164
But since we are dividing the whole bar in to a number of segments, it is expected that
and we are approximating that the area is average of the two ends, so it is expected that
we may get a little error in to it .
However, we can compute instead of going for a rigorous calculation, we can sometimes
compute the elongation in the bar in this manner. However, for e precise analysis the
deformation δ should be computed in this expression.
(Refer slide time:18:42-19:50 )
If a bar is fixed at one end and it is been pulled by an axial pull P this is of length L.
When the bar is been pulled it is undergoing extension this is the extension δ And we
have seen how to compute this extension as a function of this axial pull P in terms of the
cross sectional parameter A and the length L. Now when this is being pulled, the bar
undergoes deformation in other directions as well.
In fact when it is being pulled or elongated in axial direction it undergoes contraction in

other directions.
165
If it is stretched by an axial force then there is a contraction in the transverse dimensions
as well.
Poisson demonstrated that the ratio of this transverse strain to the axial strain is constant
for stresses within proportional limit.
So within elastic limit, within proportional limit where stress is proportional to the strain
the transverse strain which we get because of these axial pull, the ratio of this transverse
strain to the axial strain or longitudinal strain is constant and these particular constant is
called as Poisson’s ratio. Therefore when
(Refer slide time: 20:41- 21:37)
166
the bar is being pulled by axial force p it undergoes deformation in the axial direction. If
we call this as x direction then it undergoes deformation in the x direction and thereby the
strain which it will designate by έ we call the x direction strain as έx which we can
compute in terms of P, L, cross sectional area and modulus of elasticity of that member.
Also, it undergoes deformation from its original, if these dot line is that the deformed
configuration so from its original depth the depth also deduces thereby it undergoes some
deformation over here δ’.
So the deformation as Poisson had observed is that these deformations in the transverse
strain the transverse strain to the axial strain remains constant for stresses up to the
proportional limit and this is what we designate as Poisson’s ratio commonly designated
as μ sometimes it is designated as the Greek symbol μ as well. So μ is called as Poisson’s
ratio.
(Refer slide time:22:16 – 23:28)
For uniaxial loading when the bar is subjected to uniaxial pull in the x direction then as
defined by the Poisson’s ratio it is equal to the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain.
Here we have introduced a negative sign in this particular expression and this indicates
that when the bar is being pulled in the axial x direction in the other direction it is
undergoing contraction and that is why this negative symbol has come over here.
167
The negative sign indicates that an elongation in the axial direction causes contraction in
the transverse directions and the transverse strain is uniform throughout the cross section
and is the same in any direction in the plane of cross section.
An important point to be noted is that the transverse strain which could be the y and z
direction is uniform throughout the cross section and is the same in any direction in the
plane of cross section.
(Refer slide time: 23:29-28:59 )
So this leads to the fact that for uniaxial loading, that means a bar when it is loaded in the
x direction with an axial pull P, the contraction or the deformation in the y and z direction
are same. So the strain in the y direction, έy is the same as that of έz .
As we said that in all directions it is the same,
έy = έz = - μ έx
where μ is the Poisson’s ratio.
So lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is equal to the Poisson’s ratio so there by the
lateral strain the y or in the z direction are equal to the Poisson’s ratio times the axial
strain.
In the previous lesson we have seen that when we relate the stress to the strain after the
proportional limit or after the elastic limit the stress,σ is proportional to the strain or
σx = E έx
Thereby the strain,έ = σx/E
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And the strain in the transverse direction, έy = έz = - μ έ x = - μ σx/y
Now this particular concept can be extended to a planar body. If we take a planer body in
which we have the stresses normal stresses σx and σy and if we say that it is original
dimension is Δx and Δy, now when there have been pulled they will undergo extension.
When it is being pulled in the axial direction that is the x direction it will undergo
elongation in the x direction and it will undergo contraction in the y direction. When it is
being pulled in y direction it will undergo elongation in the y direction and there will be
contraction in the x direction. Now if we take independently that when it is undergoing
elongation in the x direction which is έx = σx/E and correspondingly the strain in the y
direction έy = - μ σx/E as for the definition of the Poisson’s ratio.
This is the case when σy is not there the planar element is being pulled by the axial pull in
the x direction. When the plate element is been pulled in the y direction and having no
load in the x direction it will undergo elongation in the y direction and thereby there will
be contraction in the x direction as per the Poisson’s definition. So when it is being pulled
by σy we have the strain έy = σy/E and correspondingly έ x = -μ * σy/E.
Now if we consider the case when these plate element is been subjected to σx and σy
simultaneously when it is under the action of whole in the x as well as y direction then we
can superpose the effect of this individual results because we are within the proportional
limit or within the elastic limit and as a result we an superpose the results of the two and
thereby the έ x finally is for simultaneous action of σx and σy = έx from σx/E which is the
direct effect and because of y = - μ * σy/E and likewise έy = σy/E - μ * σx/E. These are
the strain in the simultaneous action of axial pull both in the x and y.
(Refer slide time: 29:00 - 31:38)
169
Now having looked into the strength in the axial direction when it is acting only in one
direction or acting in the two directions, where in we have the strains έx έy. We discussed
the stresses we encounter, the stress which is in the x direction in the y direction and also
the body undergoes at a point a stress which we call as a shearing stress which acts
between the two planes.
If we look into such a case where a particular body is subjected to, for example this body
is fixed at this particular end and it is subjected to a horizontal force p which is acting on
this plane let us assume that this plane has deformed as something like this may be this
length is L, this width is B hence the force which is acting on this plane will cause a
shearing stress, τ = P/LB. This is the shearing stress.
Now in this, this particular body is fixed at this particular end and this horizontal planar
force will try to cause a deformation in this particular body and this is expected that it is
deform state it will undergo deformation as shown in this dotted line. Now why this
deformation the angle which we get here this we call as the shearing strain and denoted
by the symbol γ.
So γ is the shearing strain and this is what is defined here, the shear strength is defined as
the change in right angle of a body. You see that when this particular body which has
right angle over here after the action of this planner force which is causing deformation in
170
this body undergoes a deformed state and thereby this right angle undergoes the
deformation and this angular deformation is turned as the shearing strength and generally
it is measured in radians due to the applied shear stress.
Now as we had observed in case of the stress and the strain, in an actual pull up to the
proportional limit or up to the elastic limit the stress is proportional to the strain.
Likewise here the shear strain also is proportional to the applied shear stress. So in an
elastic body up to the elastic limit the shearing strain is proportional to the applied shear
stress or the shear stress we designate it by τ and shear strain we designate that by γ. So τ
is proportional to γ within elastic limit and thereby if you remove this proportionality
constant we can say τ = G γ and this proportionality constant G is commonly known as
shear modulus or many a times we called that as Rigidity modulus.
So the G is the shear modulus
G= τ/γ
So the shearing stress by the shearing strength gives as the shear modulus G. This is an
important result where we look into how as we go along to apply this or to evaluate the
stress or the strain in a body when they are subjected to different kinds of loading.
171
Here are some example problems based on the aspects discussed earlier.
An aluminium bar which is having a cross sectional area of 160 mm2 carries the axial
load as shown over here. We will have to compute the total change in length of the bar
and the modulus of elasticity E is given as 70 GPa.
If you remember we had solved one problem which is similar to this but we had different
cross sectional areas for the different segments in which we had computed the extensions
of the different segments and finally we added the extensions to get the final elongation
in the bar.
In this particular case also since there are variations of the loads at different points the
first thing that should be checked is whether the applied loads keep the body in
equilibrium or not.
If we look into that 35 Kilo Newton is acting in the negative x direction, 10 kilo Newton
is acting in the negative x direction, so total force that is acting in the negative x direction
is 45 kilo Newton and the positive x direction 15 kilo Newton and 30 kilo Newton forces
are acting. So thereby this body is in equilibrium under the applications of the forces in
the bar.
172
Last time when we had solved a similar example if you remember what we need to do is
we have also from this point to this point let us say this point is A, this is B, this is C, this
is D.
Now from A to B, 35 kN is being applied at A and if I take a cut just before application
of this 15 kilo Newton load, then to keep this bar in equilibrium we will have to have the
resisting or the reactive load which is 35 kN of this application of the load, it extends or
elongates the bar so the extension of this bar under the application of 35 kilo Newton will
be
δ = PL/AE = 35 × 103 × 800 / 160 / 70 × 109 = 2.5 × 10-6 mm.
Now this particular bar since it is undergoing axial pull, the tensile pull so this is a
positive elongation.
Now let us look into the free body of this particular segment.
Just after the application of this force if we cut the bar then we have a forcing system
something like this, here we have 35 kilo Newton at this point we have 15 kilo Newton.
Now 15 kilo Newton is acting in the positive x direction 35 kilo Newton is acting in the
negative x direction so the balance is 20 kilo Newton on this side. So to make this part in
equilibrium look to 20 kilo Newton often on this side so this will make the body of this
particular free body in equilibrium.
For the middle segment, the part of the body immediately after application of this load to
the point prior to the application of this load will have a force system which is something
like this.
Since 20 is acting in the -x direction so the resistive 20 will be acting in +x direction and
so for balancing this it has to act in this form thereby this bar will undergo stretching
because of this 20 kilo Newton load.
173
For the third segment, 10kN is acting in –x direction. So,10 kN resistive force would be
turned in +x direction.
In the first segment we have seen that has undergone an extension of 2.5 ×10-6 mm.
For the second segment,
δ = PL/AE = 20 × 103 × 1000 / 160 / 70 × 109 = 1.785 × 10-6 mm
So this is again an extension because it is a tensile pull which is acting in this particular
segment so this is going to give the extension of the bar.
For the third segment,
δ = PL/AE = 10 × 103 × 600 / 160 / 70 × 109 = 0.535 × 10-6 mm
And this is negative because it is a compressive force acting in this particular segment
and thereby it is undergoing a contraction.
Finally the total elongation of the bar, δ = δ1 + δ2 + δ3
Now let us look into another example problem which is quite interesting. Here we have a
rigid bar AB which is being supported by a steel rod AC which is fixed at or used at this
particular point and cross sectional area of this particular steel rod is 100 mm2.
174
Now what we are interested in is to find out that how much vertical displacement this
particular point undergoes because of the application of this load 10 kilo Newton, this
angle is 45° and this length of the rigid bar is given as 2.5 m. Now this particular bar
being a rigid one because of the application of this load, this bar, the steel rod will
undergo extension or contraction which will cause the movement of this particular point
from which you need to find out the vertical displacement.
To know how much deformation the steel rod undergoes we need to take a free body of
this particular joint and compute the forces. Now if we take the free body of this joint A
we have we have the 10 kilo Newton force which is acting.
We have the bar AB and we have the steel there. Let us call this force as FAC and this as
FAB and this angle is 45°, now if we resolve this FAC in the vertical direction taking the
summation of vertical forces has equals to zero that will give us the
FAC sin 450 = 10 kN
thereby FAC = 10 √2 kN.
If you take the component of this or if you take the summation of horizontal force as 0 if
you take the summation of horizontal force as zero, then,
FACcos 450 = FAB
FAB = 10 √2 × 1/√2
FAB = 10 kN
In this bar it will be FAB is a compressive force and FAC in the joint the forces acting in
this direction so in the bar it is acting in this form so it is a tensile force so this is tensile
pull in the bar FAC, Because of this strain which has been applied on this bar, the body is
expected to undergo elongation now our job is to evaluate this elongation because of the
application of this tensile pull which is tend to group to kilo Newton. So let us compute
that how much elongation this bar AC undergoes.
Now the δAC = P L/AE
P = 10 √2 kN = 10√2 × 103 N.
We will have to compute the length AC, now we know length AB we know this angle,
so,
175
AC × cos 450 = 2.5 m
LAC = 2.5 √2 m = 2.5 √2 × 103 mm
δAC = 10√2 × 103 × 2.5 √2 × 103 / 2 × 105 = 2.5 mm
So the extension of this particular steel rod = 2.5 mm.
Now the interesting part is that these particular bar AB being rigid, now when this rod
extends it will try to pull this particular joint or displace this particular joint from this
position to some other position and this bar being rigid this will rotate considering these
particular point as the center of rotation.
So if this particular point rotates, it is expected that it will take circular r. Now what we
are interested is to find out the vertical displacement of this particular point. Now
assuming that this rigid bar undergoes a movement in a circular path and this
displacement the deformation being small this circular r we assume as a straight one. If
we take this deformation if you call as ΔA.
if we take the component of this ΔA along AC and perpendicular to AC then this
perpendicular segment will indicate the rotation of this deformed AC and this particular
part will reduce stretching of the bar or the steel rod AC. So this is the extension of the
steel rod AC this is the final position and this particular movement indicates the rotation
of the bar AC so this particular joint we will finally come down to this point. Now we
have already computed that how much extension this particular steel bar AC has
undergone, δAC = 2.5 mm.
This is our δAC and what we are interested is the value ΔA

Now, δAC = ΔA sine450
ΔA = 2.5 * √2 = 3.54 mm.
So the vertical displacement of point A or this joint A = 3.54 mm. Here you can see that
how we can apply the expression for extension. Because of the application of the load in
our system where two bars are connected, a rigid bar is held by an extensible bar which is
producing the deflection of this particular joint. (Refer slide time: 52:34 - 54:32)
176
Let us look into another problem where the bar is no longer uniform but it has a variation
along the length of that bar on this end the diameter of the bar is given as 20 mm the
other end it is given as 30 mm and it is being pulled by a load 30 kilo Newton, what we
need to do is determine the elongation of the tapered cylindrical aluminum bar caused by
this 30 kilo Newton axial load where E is given as 72 GPa.
We have to discuss on how to compute the elongation in a bar where the cross section is
no longer uniform, but it is varying along the length of the bar so applying that concept.
Now what we do is that at any cross section which is at a distance of x along the length of
the bar we try to find out what is the diameter so the diameter d at this particular point
which at a distance of x = (20 + 30 – 20) x/L.
Here L = 400 mm = 20 + 10/400 so x/40 mm. This is the diameter which we have at this
particular location and since it is varying at every point this diameter is changing as a
function of x.
177
So we compute Δ = P L/A E now, here this bar is undergoing an axial pull with a load of
30 kilo Newton so we have restricted this over the length L which is 0 to 400, P = 30 kN.
Since we are taking the diameter of small segment which is dx so A is a function of x and
we have a value of E. This if we integrate then we get the extension of the bar.
I have another problem which is the applications of the concept of shearing strain. There
are 2 rubber pairs, there are 3 steel plates of 10 mm thickness and 2 rubber pairs are
attached to this steel plates in between the steel plates which is of the rubber pair
thickness is 50 mm and the length of these plates and the rubber pairs are 200 mm the
width of this rubber pairs which we look into in the third dimension this distance is 100
mm.
178
Here when this central bar is being pulled the rubber is undergoing deformation. Here it
has been told that, determine the displacement of the metal plate considering the
deformation of rubber pad only.
Since this rubber pad is connected with this when this is being pulled the pad is
undergoing deformation and thereby this will try to be pulled in this form.
Now add these interfaces between the steel plate and the rubber pad, there will be a
shearing force which would be acting on this plane which will try to cause. If we take a
line here this particular line we will try to undergo a movement which will cause a
shearing strength in the body.
Now 10 kilo Newton force is acting on this steel plate thereby we have two surfaces on
which this can the shearing force can get distributed so half the force will be acting on
this surface and half of the force will be acting on this surface and thereby there will be a
strain angle and if we can compute this strain angle then we can compute this
deformation.
The stress which will be acting is equal to the force which is acting in this place divided
by the area and the horizontal pull which is acting at the interface is equal to the half of
this load which is 5 kilo Newton
So the shearing stress, τ = 5 * 103 / (200 * 100) = 0.25 MPa
So this is the shearing stress which is acting and as we know that shearing stress divided
by shearing strength is equals to a shear modulus G.
So we can compute the shearing stress, γ = τ/G = 0.25/150
So this gives as a value of shearing strain γ and once we know γ, γ times this thickness
will give the movement that it undergoes.
So thickness 50 mm × γ will give us the deformation this bar will undergo because of the
deformation in the rubber band.
179
Let us summarize: This particular lesson included the concept of axial strain in a body
with variable cross section, the concept of Poisson’s ratio and then the concept of shear
strain and shear modulus and some examples to demonstrate the evaluation of
deformation in a stressed body.

What is Poisson’s ratio and what is the range of its values?
What is shear modulus and what is its unit?
How will you evaluate strain in a three dimensional stressed body?
180
Prof. S.K.Bhatacharyya
Dept. of Civil engineering,
I.I.T., Kharagpur
Analysis of strain – III
(Refer Slide Time: 00:45 – 00:48)
(Refer Slide Time : 00:55 - 01:15)
Welcome to the 3rd lesson on module 2 on analysis of strain. This particular lesson we have
designated as analysis of strain 3. In the last lesson, we have discussed certain aspects of strain. In
this particular lesson we will be discussing some more aspects of strain.
181
(Refer Slide Time: 01:15 - 01:50)
It is expected that after this particular lesson is completed, one will be able to understand the
concept of normal strain in a three dimensional stress body and thereby we can go for the
generalization of Hooke’s law.
One should be able to understand the concept of determinate and indeterminate systems, also one
should be able to understand the concept of compatibility which will eventually arise out of this
indeterminate system which we are going to discuss subsequently.
182
This particular lesson includes the recapitulation of previous lesson which we will be doing
through the questions which we posed last time. We will be discussing those questions and
eventually it will give you the recapitulation of the previous lesson, evaluation of axial strain in a
three dimensional stress body, concept of determinate and indeterminate systems and thereby the
compatibility criteria, how it will arise out from that particular system and finally the evaluation
of forces for indeterminate systems.
The first question is:
What is Poisson’s ratio and what is the range of its values?
183
Now if we remember, last time we discussed that if a body which is subjected to axial pull (is held
up at one end and is being pulled by axial load P eventually, the bar extends or elongates and this
elongation we had indicated by δ and thereby there is contraction on the other sides.
Now the French scientist Poisson demonstrated that the ratio of this strain which is the transverse
strain to the axial strain is constant for stresses within the proportional limit and this particular
constant is designated as Poisson’s ratio.
So, for as the definition of the Poisson ratio is concerned, that is the ratio of the lateral strain to the
longitudinal strain and if you remember we had designated this μ as the transverse strain to the
longitudinal strain and remember that we had put this particular sign as negative because where
this is being pulled by an axially tensile pull, then there is contraction on other sides and this
negative sign indicates that there is contraction.
Similarly if this particular bar is subjected to an axial compressive force where the length in the
axial direction is going to shorten thereby the other two directions is going to increase and
eventually that shortening of the axial length is being designated as negative to the expansion of
the other two sides and that is why this negative sign comes in.
184
We said that what is the range of its values; now is what is its ratio for different material, where
there is very small range of values, generally the values vary between .25 to .35 for some limiting
materials, we get values in the range of around .1 or for some material we get in the range of .5
which is that of rubber.
And in fact .5 is the limiting value at the other side in the sense that the range of the values in
general we can say between .1 to .5 and most of the material lies between .25 to .35.5 is the
maximum value of the Poisson’s ratio.
185
What is shear modulus and what is its unit? (Refer Slide Time : 06:24 - 07:59 )
The shear strain in an elastic body is proportional to the applied shear stress. Now this is the body
which is acted on by this is subjected to the surface force and there by the shear stress,τ is equal to
the applied load /the cross-sectional area.
τ = P/A
Within the limit of the proportionality, the shearing stress is proportional to the shearing strain
which we have designated as γ.
So, τ ∝ γ
τ=G×γ
where, G is termed as shear modulus and has the unit similar to the unit of modulus of elasticity
which is in Pa (i.e. N/m2) or MPa (i.e.106 × N/m2) or GPa.
(Refer Slide Time : 08:04 - 08:12 )
186
The 3rd question is; how you will evaluate stain in a three dimensional stress body? (Refer Slide
Time: 08:13 - 11:29)
Let us assume that there are the three directions x,y,z and correspondingly as we have defined the
stress components σx, σy and σz.
Now as we have seen earlier that when a bar is subjected to axial pull, the stress at any cross section
is Px/A which we have designated as normal stress σx and correspondingly the strain in the axial
direction is εx.
As per Hooke’s law, εx = σx/E
187
Also we have noted from the concept of Poisson’s ratio, that if we have axial load acting in the x
direction only and thereby there is strain in the x direction as εx the strain in the other two direction
y and z direction are,
εy = εz = -μ × εx
Also, if we consider that the body subjected to the axial load in the y direction instead of the x
direction, that means we have a bar which is subjected to load P in the y direction, the stress at any
cross-section is P/A and let us call that stress as σy because P is acting in the y direction.
Now because of this application of the load, there is strain in the y direction which we designate
as Εy and that is going to be equal to according to the Hooke’s law is σy/E. Now due to Poisson’s
effect, then the strain in the x and z direction will be
εx = εz = -μ × εx =-μ × σy/E
and
εy = εz = -μ × εx =-μ × σx/E
Likewise, if we assume that the body is acted on by force, P in the z direction, then the stress at
any cross section, we call that as σz = Pz/A. Also the strain corresponding to that in the z direction
is εz = σz/E.
188
As we have seen in the previous cases that when it is acted on by the load P either in the x direction
or in the y direction, we could compute the strains in the other two directions. In the present case
also when it is subjected to axial pull in the z direction and is the strain which is acting in the z
direction is εz, the corresponding strain in the x and y directions are εx and εy
εx = εy = -μ × εz =-μ × σz/E
Hence if we combine all three cases together, if we propose them since we are considering the
body with in the elastic limit. Hence if this proposition is valid we can combine them together with
the individual results.
If we join them together, we will get the same effect when all these are acting simultaneously so
in that particular case when all the three are acting
we can write then the strain in the x direction εx = σx/E because of the load which is acting in
directly that and the strain which we are getting in the x direction because of y and z direction is
εx = (σx/E) –(μ × σz/E) –(μ × σy/E)
εx = (σx/E) –μ(σy + σz)/E
εy = (σy/E) –μ(σx + σz)/E
εz = (σz/E) –μ(σx + σy)/E
189
Now if we reduce this three dimensional form to a two dimensional one giving the x and y plane,
then the stresses which will be acting σ x and σy and eventually σz = 0.
In that particular case, we will get
εx = σx/E –μσy/E
εy = σy/E –μσx/E
This results we have seen it earlier so this is in fact in a generalized form of Hooke’s law which is
applicable in case of a three dimensional body in three direction Εx Εy Εz.
The strain in the three direction can be represented in terms of the stresses σx σy and σz and in terms
of the modulus of elasticity, E.
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These are the aspects we discussed.
Now let us look into the important aspects which we do come across in many problems related
to different fields which we designate as statically indeterminate problems. Now when we talk
about statically indeterminate problem naturally we will first know what we really mean by a
determinate system we have seen earlier that we have 3 states of equilibrium equations in statics
there is ∑of horizontal forces are 0 ∑vertical forces are 0, ∑moments are 0. These are the equations
of equilibrium.
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If we consider any system from which we can evaluate the reactive forces by using these
equilibrium equations we call those systems as statically determinate you see if equilibrium
equations are adequate this is important that equilibrium equations are adequate to evaluate the
reactive forces then the system is called as determinate.
Let us look into some example.
We have a rigid bar which is pinned at this particular end and is held up by a rod and is subjected
to a vertical load P, now if we draw the free body diagram of this particular configuration removing
this supports the free body diagram it will look like this.
This bar being pin connected is subjected to axial loads only hence there is axial pull Pb and these
are the reactive forces R and H and this the external load P. This is the free body diagram of this
particular system in the figure above.
Now in this particular free body diagram the unknown forces are the reactive forces R, H and the
axial pull in the member Pb.
So these three parameters can be evaluated from the equations of static that means if we take
∑horizontal forces = 0 ∑vertical force = 0, ∑moment = 0 and if we apply these 3 equations for
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this; we can evaluate R H and P radically from these equations. Hence this particular system is
statically determinate.
Now let us change the configurations of this particular system later.
This is connected by two wires of this particular form. Now these rods will undergo extension
because they are subjected to axial pull when this particular load will be acting.
Now if we try to plot the free body diagram of this particular system,
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this is the rigid bar pinned over here, this is subjected to the reactive force vertical and horizontal
as before here we have the applied load P, now two rods which are supporting this bar will have
axial pull in the rods.
So there are forces which are reactive forces R, H and let us call this as P1 and P2 which are under
the action of the axial load P or the transverse load P. Now in this particular case, if we look into
we have 4 unknown reactive forces R, H, P1 and P2 and since we have only three equations of
statics this particular system cannot be solved using these equations of equilibrium alone. Hence
there are systems like this where you cannot solve or evaluate the unknown forces based on the
equations of equilibrium alone or equations of statics alone. Now you need an additional equation
here over and above these three equations to solve these unknown reactive forces.
So this is what is indicated here; if the number of unknown forces in a system exceeds the number
of equilibrium equations then the system is called statically indeterminate system.
The system is indeterminate because we cannot solve the unknown forces using the equations of
equilibrium but then it does not mean we cannot evaluate the unknown forces for those
indeterminate systems so for the solution of this indeterminate systems, will have to find out ways
by which we can generate additional equations from which we can solve this particular unknown
reactive forces.
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So the indeterminate problems are the ones in which a statically indeterminate problem always has
geometric restrictions imposed on its deformation.
In fact from this, the compatibility criteria comes in, the indeterminate system always gives rise to
geometric restrictions and these geometric restrictions when expressed mathematically gives rise
to the equation of compatibility.
We have seen that we have three equations of equilibrium which has statistical equations of
equilibrium, over and above if we write down the equations of compatibility which do arise from
this geometric restrictions for the deformation, this equation of compatibility along with the
equations of equilibrium will lead us to the system of equations from which you can solve the
unknown reactive forces in the indeterminate system.
Now you can distinguish between a determinate system and indeterminate system. Once again a
determinate system is the one for which the unknown reactive forces can be evaluated based on
the equations of equilibrium.
And for indeterminate systems we cannot evaluate the unknown reactive forces based on the
equations of equilibrium alone and for that we need to have additional equations depending on the
number of unknown reactive forces you have and those additional equations do generate from the
equations of compatibility.
And the equations of compatibility can be written down in terms of the geometrical constraints of
the restrictions which we impose in terms of deformation. So, compatibility conditions provide
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additional equations for evaluating unknown forces and thereafter we can adopt this Hooke’s law
to express the deformation in terms of forces.
Because we first write down the compatibility criteria based on the deformation and then we adopt
Hooke’s law to relate the deformation to the forces and finally we get equations from these
compatibility criteria which help us to solve the unknown reactive forces.
Now let us look into the problems where such indeterminacy comes in but before that let us look
into some example problems which we already discussed.
Determine the elongation of the tapered cylindrical aluminum bar caused by the 30 kilo Newton
axial load and the value of E is given over here and in this particular problem, it is given that the
diameter of this bar at this place is 20 mm and the diameter at this end is 30 mm and over the
length of 400 mm it is varying gradually.
Now our job is to find out the deformation to find out the elongation of the gradually varying
member.
And if you remember we have discussed how to compute the elongation in such members since
the cross section is varying at every position.
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Hence the cross sectional area is not constant and we cannot compute directly δ from the
expression PL/AE, where A is no longer a constant parameter over the length l. Hence what we
need to do is that we got to compute
δ = ∫ Pdx/A(x)E
Now if we take a section which is at a distance of x from the left end, then the diameter at this
particular section d = 20 + 30 so 30 − 20 is the value at the end.
d = 20 + (30 – 20)/2 × x/400 × 2
This is the diameter at this cross section which is at a distance of x from the left end.
A = π/4 × (20 + x/40)2
400
30 × 103 × dx × 4
𝐴=∫ 𝑥
0
π (20 + 40)2 × 70 × 109
400
120 × 10−6 dx
𝐴= ∫ 𝑥
72𝜋 (20 + 40)2
0
Let,
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𝑥
𝑧 = 20 +
40
𝑑𝑥
dz =
40
30
40 dz
𝛿= ∫
z2
20
4800 × 10−6 1 1
𝛿= ( − )
72𝜋 20 30
δ = 3.53 x 10-7
(Refer Slide Time: 32:20 - 32:50 )
competition for the value of the Δ for the varying diameter. So, for a member which is tapered and
if we know the diameters at its two ends then we can compute the amount of elongation the member
will be undergoing.
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The next example is in terms of the indeterminate problem. Now here a bearing plate connected
with a copper rod is placed inside an aluminum sleeve as shown in figure so here this is the bearing
plate and this bearing plate is connected with a copper rod going inside so this is the copper rod
and this is the aluminum sleeve.
This is placed inside an aluminum sleeve as shown in figure the copper rod is 0.05 mm longer than
the sleeve so this gap is 0.05 mm so the copper rod is longer than this sleeve by 0.05 mm.
Now we will have to find the maximum safe load that can be applied to the bearing plate. On this
plate the maximum load P that can be applied has to be computed. The cross-sectional areas of
copper rod and aluminum sleeve are 1000 mm2 and 2000 mm2
E values of copper and aluminum are 1.4(105) MPa and .7(105) MPa. Allowable stress in copper
is 100 MPa and that in aluminum is 50 MPa. The maximum permissible stress in aluminum and
copper are given. The cross-sectional area for the copper and the aluminum sleeve are given.
Now our job is to compute that what will be the value of P which can be safely transferred on top
of this bearing plate. Let us look into the
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free body diagram of this particular system.
If we cut off the sleeve at some distance from the top, then this is the bearing plate the copper rod
is attached with this. And this is acted on by load P. Now when the rod will get compressed and
cover up the distance .05 mm, eventually it will touch the sleeve so this bearing plate along with
the copper rod it has compressed cover up covered up that 0.05 mm gap between the sleeve and
the copper rod.
That much of compression as or the deformation has undergone into the copper plate and
eventually the bearing plate is going to touch on the sleeve and when the bearing plate will be
touching the sleeve, then the load which is acting on the bearing plate will be transmitted to the
sleeve.
So at this free body diagram, if we now transfer the reactive forces, the reactive forces go as acting
on this. They are the force in this copper bar and the forces in the combined form in the sleeve.
These two together, let us call that the load in the aluminum. We have these two forces Pc and
Paluminum which are being generated because of the externally applied load P. So if we write down
the equilibrium equation so equilibrium of this particular system is that,
P = Pc + Pal------- equation 1.
In this particular system we cannot have any other equilibrium equation. So we have only one
equation of equilibrium and there are two unknown forces and they are Pc and Pal the two unknown
forces and one single equation.
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Hence we cannot solve this particular system unless, we have an additional equation and this
additional equation can be generated from the comparative criteria in terms of the deformation and
then we can solve for these two unknown forces.
So now let us look into what is going to be the comparative equation in this particular case. Let
me look into another free body diagram of the top part of the system.
This is the bearing plate along with a copper rod and the sleeve is in this location and this is the
gap since copper rod is 0.05 mm greater than the sleeve.
This is an excess rated from and let say after deformation, the bearing comes in this particular
position hence the deformation that copper rod undergoes is this much this we call as Δc and in the
process when copper rod deform to this extend and if this is the position where the bearing plate
has come, then the deformation which is existing in the or which has occurred in the aluminum
is this much this we call as Δaluminum.
From this particular configuration, we can write Δc = Δaluminum + 0.05 mm. So this is the criterion
which is getting developed from the compatibility of the two systems that initially when the load
is applied on this bearing plate, first the bearing plate along with the copper rod has to be deformed
to the extent of 0.05 mm. Then the load gets transferred on to this sleeve.
Then the sleeve deforms and this is the final level of the deformation and if these total deformation
we call as Δc , then Δc consist of two parts; one is this 0.05 mm gap which has to be made up by
the copper tube at the rod along with the deformation of this sleeve.
Δc = Δaluminum + 0.05 mm ---------- This is the compatibility equation.
𝑃𝐶 𝐿𝐶 𝑃𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑙
= + 0.05
𝐴𝐶 𝐸𝐶 𝐴𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑎𝑙
𝜎𝐶 𝐿𝐶 𝜎𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑙
= + 0.05
𝐸𝐶 𝐸𝑎𝑙
𝜎𝐶 × 250.05 𝜎𝑎𝑙 × 250

= + 0.05
1.4 × 105 0.7 × 105
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0.00179 𝜎𝐶 = 0.00357 𝜎𝑎𝑙 + 0.05
𝜎𝐶 = 1.995 𝜎𝑎𝑙 + 27.93
𝜎𝐶/𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 100 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑎𝑙/𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎
So, if we limit the value of 𝜎𝑎𝑙 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝐶 = 1.995 × 50 + 27.93 = 127.68 MPa
Since the maximum allowable stress in copper is 100 MPa, we cannot afford to go for stress up to
this level.
Thus, if we limit the value of 𝜎𝐶 = 100 𝑀𝑃𝑎,
100= 1.995 𝜎𝑎𝑙 + 27.93
𝜎𝑎𝑙 = 36.13 𝑀𝑃𝑎
So by allowing the copper rod to go up to its limiting value of 100MPa, the maximum stress that
can be generated in the aluminum sleeve is 36 MPa which is well within the allowable limit of
the50 MPa stress.
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Hence the safe load that can be transfer on the bearing without causing any distress to the member
is,
P = Pc + Paluminum
P = 𝜎𝐶 × 𝐴𝐶 + 𝜎𝑎𝑙 × 𝐴𝑎𝑙
P = 100 × 1000 + 36.13 × 2000mm2
P = 172.26 kN
So the load which can be applied on the bearing must ≤172.26 kilo Newton and thereby the
maximum stress that can be generated in the copper rod is 100MPa but the aluminum sleeve will
not go up to50 MPa.
But it will be well within 50MPa and thereby the whole system will be safe.
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Let us look into another example of such indeterminate system.
Here AB is a rigid bar, AB is supported by A pinned at B and by two rods. These bars is pinned at
B is supported by two rods which are at a distance of .8 meter and 1.8 meter from B. This rod is a
steel rod of length 1 m and this is aluminum rod of length 2 meter and this bar is subjected to a
load of 100 kilo Newton at the point A.
Now we will have to find out the stress in each bar or each rod and the cross sectional area of those
bars are given steel bar is 500 mm2 and that of aluminum bar is 300 mm2 and the value of E are
given as 2(105) and as .7(107) MPa for the steel and the aluminum and let us assume that the weight
of this bar is negligible.
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Let us write down the free body of this system and write down the equations of equilibrium and
absorb what happens.
If we take the free body this is the rigid bar pinned at this end acted on by two rods they are steel
and aluminum and at these end we have the reactive forces for the pin and at these end the load
100 kilo Newton is acting.
Now if we like to find out the forces let us take the moment of now here we have 1, 2, 3, 4 unknown
parameters and we have three equations of equilibrium. Hence we cannot solve it means statically
determinate one or using the equations of equilibrium.
Hence we will have to have an additional equation which are generating from the equation of
compatibility and the equations of equilibrium if we take the moment about B, then
100 x 2.5 = Ps x 0.8 + Paluminum x 1.8
So the equilibrium equation is
0.8Ps + 1.8 Paluminum = 250
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Now from the compatibility if this load is acting at this end and this is the pinned end this will
undergo; the bar will move in this particular form and this will move in the form of a circle with
the center of this particular point.
Now this being a smaller deformation, we consider this arc as a straight length; hence this is a
triangular form. At these locations this bar will undergo deformation and let us call this
deformation as Δs and the deformation here as Δaluminum.
Hence the compatibility is that Δ from this particular triangular configuration. We can write
Δs/0.8 = Δaluminum/1.8
So this is the compatibility relation
If we write in terms of the Hooke’s law, so
Ps Ls/As es. = .8/1.8 × Paluminum
Eventually we get, Ps = 4.233 Paluminum, this is the second equation.
Thus, Paluminum = 48.2 kN
Ps = 204.04 kN
These are the forces acting in these two rods and once we know the forces that are acting then the
stresses can be known.
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The stress in the aluminum bar stress in aluminum rod = Paluminum/Aaluminum
Stress in Al bar= 48.2 x103 / 300 = 160.7 MPa
Stress in steel rod = Psteel/Asteel = 204.40 x 103 /500 = 408.08 MPa.
Now here though the stresses level of stresses appear to be little higher may be beyond the limiting
capacity of this material.
However, theoretically we are computing what are the values of the stresses if the limiting values
are given, we can always compare and we can say whether this is safe or unsafe, whether the
system will be able to withstand this load or not that we can always compute.
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Now we have another problem which is a similar type but of little variation that the rigid bar AB
of negligible weight is supported by a pin at B and by two vertical rods of aluminum and steel; we
will have to find out the vertical displacement of the 50 kilo Newton weight at this location, how
much displacement it undergoes etc, the parameters of these members are given.
To summarize the whole thing we can say in this particular lesson, we had included the concept
of strains in a three dimensional stress body and concept of determinate and indeterminate systems.
Now we clearly know what we really mean by determinate system and indeterminate system and
thereby
how to arrive at the compatibility criteria to solve the unknown reactions in indeterminate systems
and the examples to demonstrate the evaluation of forces in indeterminate system.
208
Here are some questions to be answered:
What is meant by indeterminate system and how is it different from determinate ones? What is
meant by compatibility equation and what will be the effect of temperature variation in a stressed
system?
209
Prof.S.K.Bhattacharya
IIT Kharagpur
Lecturer #10
Analysis of Strain IV
Welcome to the 4th lesson of module 2 which is on analysis of strain part 4. In the previous
lesson we discussed some aspects of analysis of strain. In this particular lesson we are going
to discuss some more aspects of strain analysis.
Let us look into those aspects.
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After completing this particular lesson it is expected that one should be able to understand the
concept of strain due to change in temperature. We have discussed about the aspects of strain
and we have seen how to compute strain at a point in a body and in a member when it is
subjected to axial pole.
Now let us discuss some aspects of development of strain due to change in temperature. Also,
one should be able to understand the concept of thermal stresses. Earlier we discussed about
the determinate and indeterminate systems where we find that we need additional criteria to
evaluate the internal forces which we termed as compatibility condition.
211
This particular lesson includes recapitulation of the previous lesson.
Let us look into some of the aspects. It is evaluation of strain in a body due to variation in
temperature. we will be looking into the concept of thermal stresses and indeterminate system
such as this change in temperature, the strain which is caused due to change in temperature,
whether this is determinate system or indeterminate system and subsequently we will evaluate
the stresses due to change in temperature in different systems.
Questions:
What is meant by indeterminate system and how is it different from determinate ones?
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In indeterminate system the number of unknown forces is more than the number of equilibrium
equations available and those kinds of systems are called as statically indeterminate system.
We have seen what is meant by equilibrium equations and what the solution of such systems
is; we have seen that we need additional criteria to be brought in so that we can evaluate the
unknown forces and the way it differs from the determinate system. The equilibrium equations
are adequate to evaluate the reactive forces or the internal forces, we call those kind of system
as determinate system and these distinguishes between the indeterminate system and the
determinate system.
The 2nd question was, what is meant by compatibility equation?
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Let us look into the definition of compatibility. As we had seen last time that statically
indeterminate problem has geometric restrictions imposed on its deformation and the
mathematical expression of such constrains of the restrictions are known as the compatibility
equations.
Let us look into this particular example which is quiet common.
You must have seen that the vertical members made out of concrete are provided with some
steel bars if we cut a cross section here and look from the top then the section looks like this.
Let us assume that the cross section of this vertical member is a square one with the sizes of
the sites as A.
This particular cross section of the member is provided with 4 steel rods, if bearing plate is
connected to the top of this member and it is subjected to the load p onto top of the plate. If we
take a free body diagram, if we cut the member here and take the free body of the top bar, the
free body diagram looks like this, where the top force is p and for the equilibrium of the whole
system, we will have the forces generated internal forces which will be exerted by the concrete,
let us call that as p c and the steel rods in a combined form as p s so the equilibrium condition
demands that P = Pc + Ps.
As you can see here, that we have two unknown parameters Pc and Ps and we have only one
equilibrium equation, hence the two unknowns from one equation cannot be evaluated and
hence we need an additional condition which you call as a compatibility criteria.
When we put the restrictions on the deformation and convert that in terms of mathematical
expression we call that particular condition as the compatibility condition.
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Similarly, here
when the load is applied onto this member, the deformation of the concrete and steel, these two
different materials which are placed in this particular diagram or in this particular member, the
deformation of concrete and the deformation of steel should be same.
If we say that the deformation of concrete is Δc this should be deformation in steel. In other
words we can say the strain in concrete equals to strain in steel.
Now we convert this strain right in terms of stresses using Hooke’s law which we call as the
constitutive relationship between the stress and the strain and that will give us another
condition for forces between the concrete and the steel.
Now that we have one equation from here, we get another equation from here and using these
two equations, you can solve for Pc and Ps.
So this particular condition that P = Pc + Ps is termed as equilibrium equation and another

equation in terms of forces which are generated from the second half equation where strain in
concrete equals to strain in steel we call these as compatibility equations.
And as you can absorb here that the restrictions on the deformation, we have said that the
deformations of concrete and deformation of steel is same and based on that this compatibility
criteria has been derived.
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The 3rd question was,
What will be the effect of temperature variation in a stressed system? This is the aspect which
we are going to discuss about.
Strain due to temperature:
This is known that, if a body is subjected to temperature variation then it undergoes changes
in its dimensions. This volume expands if there is an increase in the temperature or it contracts
if there is decrease in the temperature.
In general, this change in temperature, if the temperature is uniformly increased or decreased

you get same amount of expansion or contraction in the body and this is tropic in nature.
216
The variation in temperature causes change in the length of the member which you call as
deformation and that deformation leads to strain in the body.
The strain due to variation in temperature is given by this particular expression, epsilon T is
the strain due to change in temperature and ΔT is the change in temperature.
Let us say if the initial temperature is T0 the final temperature = T then ΔT = T − T0 and α is a
term which is known as the coefficient of thermal expansion.
So the strain due to temperature variation is given as α(ΔT) for T - T0 and ΔT is (+ve) when
we take this expansion or there is a (+ve) change in the temperature, where there is a raise in
the temperature we call ΔT as (+ve), when there is a decrease in the temperature we call that
as (−ve) or contraction of the body.
Uniform change in temperature throughout the body causes uniform thermal strain. This is
important to know that there is strain which is developed in the body due to change in
temperature; we call that as thermal strain.
Supposing this is a body which undergoes change in temperature, if it is free to move, this will
undergo expansion or contraction depending on the change in the temperature.
If temperature rises it will expand, if temperature decreases then it will contract. If it is not
restricted or constricted by any actions from outside it will undergo movement and it will
undergo strain.
If we take the characteristic length of this particular member as L or for that matter any of this
length which undergoes deformation then the deformation ΔT of that length can be given as
the strain(length).
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And strain as we have seen due to temperature = α(ΔT) so the deformation ΔT because of
temperature is α(ΔT) L where L is the dimension of the body which we are concentrating on.
If the thermal deformation occurs that if it is allowed to move freely then there is no possibility
of inducing any stress in the member as there are no internal forces induced if thermal
deformation is allowed to occur freely.
There will be strain induced but there will not be any stress in the member.
As there are no internal forces being developed naturally there will not be any stresses.
But since it is undergoing deformation, either this is expanding because of the change in the
temperature or raise in the temperature or it is contracting because of decrease in the
temperature. So there is movement, there is deformation in turn there is strain but since the
movement of the body is not restricted there is no internal forces that are getting generated.
Hence there will not be any stresses in the member.
That is why it says that strain will be induced but no stress will be developed. Total or partial
restriction of deformation induces internal forces, if this particular body which is free to move
due to change in the temperature.
Supposing if I hold this body from two sides and do not allow this to move since it will try to
expand it, will exert pressure on this support and as a result the body will be subjected to some
internal forces and thereby there will be stresses induced in the body. If total or partial
restrictions are imposed on these deformations, then they are going to resist these forces due
to thermal expansion or contraction and thereby there will be stresses caused by these internal
forces and these stresses.
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Generally designated as thermal stresses, you must have notice that in many times is structures
will provide a gap between two structural elements. We allow the structural member to move
expand or contract due to the variation in temperature, you must have noticed in the railway
tracks are not continuous, some gaps are maintained at certain distance interval.
Due to change in the temperature on the railway track, the track undergoes expansion. If those
gaps are not kept, then the rail track will be subjected to tremendous amount of stresses
The forces developed due to the changing temperature, causes forces if they are restricted and
these forces cannot be determined from equilibrium equations as we have seen earlier. Since
we cannot determine the internal forces which are getting developed due to change in
temperature, we call this kind of systems as indeterminate system according to the definition.
As we have seen earlier, for the systems which we can evaluate the internal forces based on
the equations of equilibrium, we call those systems as determinate system, but if we cannot
evaluate the forces which are getting developed due to change in the temperature from the
equilibrium equations, then we call this system as indeterminate system, hence statically these
kinds of thermal stresses are induced in the member.
Basically, statically indeterminate and we need to use the equation of compatibility for the
solution of these forces for evaluating the internal forces.
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If we summarize the statically indeterminate problems, we need the equilibrium conditions the
equilibrium conditions has to be satisfied and that is either in a local concept or in a global
sense or the whole structure.
Secondly, the geometric compatibility has to be satisfied if we get more number of unknowns
than the number of equilibrium equations available. They are known as compatibility
conditions or correspondingly compatibility equations which give us additional information
based on which we can solve the unknown forces.
Thirdly, we have written down the compatibility in terms of the geometric deformation and we
have related the strain parameter to the corresponding stress parameter using Hooke’s law.
And this relationship between the stress and the strain is generally referred as the constitutive
relationship which in this case is based on Hooks law we are arriving at the constitutive
relationship.
These three are the essential parts for the solution of statically indeterminate problems.
First one is equilibrium equation, second one is the compatibility equation and Third one is the
constitutive relationship which gives us the relationship between the strain and the stress and
thereby we can write down the equations in terms of forces.
We have one equation which you have written in terms of equilibrium criteria. We have another
equation which we have written in terms of compatibility criteria from which we can solve for
unknown internal forces.
So, solution of equilibrium and compatibility equations for unknown forces using equilibrium
and compatibility criteria
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Having known about this different kinds of strains that is getting induced into a body either
when they are subjected to external loads or they are subjected to change in temperature, let us
look into some of the examples of that how do we evaluate these forces?
The example which was given earlier was a rigid bar A, B of negligible weight is supported
by a pin at B and two vertical rods. They are hung from the top and connected to this bar, find
the vertical displacement of the 50kN weight which is placed at this particular point which is
at a distance of 1meter from end A.
So we will have to find out the displacement of this particular point where this 50kN weight is
hung, the cross sectional area of steel bar is 300mm2, this is the steel bar of length 2meter and
this is the aluminum bar of length 1meter.
The cross sectional area of steel bar is 300mm2 and that of aluminum is 1,000mm2. The
modulus of elasticity of steel Es = 2 x 105 MPa, and modulus of elasticity of aluminum is
0.7x105 MPa.
We will have to find out the vertical displacement of this particular point from where the 50kN
were designed.
The first thing is that we will have to write down the equations of equilibrium. If we take the
free body of the whole system
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this is the rigid bar A, B and this is connected by a pin at end B.
We have one vertical rod connected, this end we have another vertical rod connected at this
end, this is made up of steel, this is made of aluminum.
Let us call the force in the aluminum rod as p aluminum and the force of the steel as ps and the
50kN load is hung at this point which is at a distance of 1m, this is 1m, this is 50kN.
Now if we take of even this B end part of it, we will have the reactive component, the vertical
force and the horizontal force, let us call this as R and H.
Since we do not like to evaluate R and H, we are interested in Ps and Pal because we would like
to find out how much force these rigid rods will be subjected to.
Let us take the moment of all these forces about point B, so summation of all the forces with
B = 0,
Pal x 1+ Ps x 3 = 50x2
Pal +3 Ps = 100 ------------ equation 1 (equilibrium equation)
We are not looking into other equations which are summation of vertical forces as 0 and
summation of horizontal forces as 0 from which we will get R and H since we are interested
to evaluate under this.
Because we have four unknown parameters Ps, Pal, R and H, these are the four unknown forces
and we have three equations which are summation of horizontal force as 0, summation of
vertical force as 0 and summation of moment at this point equals to 0.
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In this particular equation we see that we have two unknowns and one equation from which
we cannot really solve these unknown forces. Therefore we need an additional criteria or
additional condition from which we can evaluate these forces.
If we look into the deformation of this member, this particular bar A B is a rigid one. Since
this is subjected to a load 50kN this will undergo a movement in a circular path considering
point B as a center and since the deformation is small this circular approximate as a straight
one and we join this line, this gives us an excorticated form of a deformation. This point
undergoes deformation here; this point undergoes deformation here, also this point has
deformed to the step.
From this triangular configuration, if we call this deformation as δal and this deformation as δs
then from this triangular configuration we can write,
δal/1 = δs/3
Now we have one equation of equilibrium. We had obtained another equation which is
corresponding to the compatibility of the deformation which we call as compatibility equation.
So, equation two is the compatibility equation.
Next thing which we will have to do is impose the constitutive relationship.
That means first you write this deformation in terms of strain and that we relate to the stress.
this if you write in terms of load or rather the stresses we can say that
𝑃𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑙 1 𝑃𝑆 𝐿𝑆
=
𝐴𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑎𝑙 3 𝐴𝑆 𝐸𝑆
𝑃𝑎𝑙 × 1000 1 𝑃𝑠 × 2000

=
1000 × 0.7 × 105 3 300 × 2 × 105
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7
𝑃𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃
9 𝑠
Pal +3 Ps = 100 ------------ equation 1 (equilibrium equation)
7
( + 3 )𝑃𝑠 = 100
9
𝑃𝑠 = 26.45 𝑘𝑁
7
𝑃𝑎𝑙 = × 26.45 = 20.63 𝑘𝑁
9
𝑃𝑆 𝐿𝑆 26.45 × 103 × 2000

𝛿𝑠 = = = 0.882 𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝑆 𝐸𝑆 300 × 2 × 106
Once we note the steel rod and the aluminum rod they are subjected to the load Ps and Pal which
we have evaluated.
Hence we can compute that how much deformation this particular bar will undergo and how
much deformation this bar will undergo. Since we are interested to evaluate the deformation
of this particular point, if we know the deformation of this particular bar and from this
triangular configuration we can compute how much deformation this particular point will
undergo. Hence
The deformation of the point where the load is acting say Δ at load point, where 50kN load is
acting this
δ = 2/3 x 0.882mm = 0.588mm
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I am sure that you could calculate the values, you can check the values whether the matching
with this solution or not, let us look into another example based on the aspects which you have
discussed today that due to the change in the temperature there will be deformation in the
member and that causes stresses in the member which we call as a thermal stress.
In this particular example
we stated that a bronze bar which is a 3m long bar, let us call this as A B with the cross sectional
area of 320 mm2 is placed between two rigid walls. This is one wall this is another wall placed
in between these two at a temperature of −20°C.
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There is a gap between the edge of the bar and the wall the edge of this bar and the wall, there
is a gap of 2.5 mm.
Now what we will have to do is, we will have to find out the temperature at which the
compressive stress in the bar will be 35 MPa given the value of α which is coefficient of thermal
expansion as = 18 x 108/°C and the value of modulus of elasticity given is 80 GPa when the
temperature goes off from -20°.
As there is an increase in the temperature the bar will expand since there is a gap between the
wall and the bar first due to expansion, the bar will touch the wall till that particular time.
Since it is free to move, it will not experience any stress but further extension beyond the
touching of the wall, the wall will not allow the bar to move so naturally, there will be the
stress induced in the bar.
What we will have to find out is that, we can allow maximum value of this stress to go up to
35 MPa and we will have to find out that temperature which will allow this expansion of this
bar to cause the stress within this body as 35 MPa.
So if we draw a free body diagram.
then it will be easier to visualize that how the whole process is undertaken.
In such problems where we try to evaluate the stresses due to change in the temperature and
where such restrictions are imposed like the bar is fixed between the walls or the bar at this
point is not allowed to go beyond a certain value.
We try to first remove either personally at the whole the restrictions allow the bar to move
freely due to change in the temperature.
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We calculate that how much deformation undergo because of the change in the temperature
and then if there would have been restrictions then to bring back to its particular position, how
much force we need to impose on that we try to evaluate that and that is what is the
compatibility criteria.
We allow it to move freely thereby there will be deformation because of the change in the
temperature and now we impose some external force to bring back to deformation to its original
position, thereby, how much force we need to put to bring back the member to its initial form?
We evaluate that and if we compare these two from these we can drive at an expression which
we generally call as compatibility equation. That is what we need to do in this particular case
We have the bar and on this side it is fixed to the wall, here we have one restriction which is
another wall but there is gap between the wall and the bar.
When the temperature goes up from -20° to some value T which we do not know which we
need to evaluate, initially when it starts expanding it goes up to the wall without any problem
and till that time since it is not experiencing any abstraction the bar we will expanding freely
and thereby there will be strain but there will not be any stress in the bar.
Let us remove this wall and allow this bar to move freely and because of the change in the
temperature it will move.
This particular expansion is δ. This δ which is total deformation has two parts: one is this initial
2.5 mm which was unrestricted movement and then subsequently it will be encountered in the
wall. Since I have removed the wall so this is also moving freely and let us call this particular
distance as δ’ so
δ = δ’+ 2.5
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Our job is to find out the temperature. Since the increase in the temperature is going to cause
the deformation of the bar we will have to find out how much temperature we can allow so that
when it will be encountering this wall it will be subjected to a compressive force, it will be
subjected to a stress and the restrictions imposed on this particular case is that the stress level
can go up to 32 MPa.
Therefore till the time it reaches 35 MPa the temperature is allowed to increase, as soon as it
goes to 35 MPa we cannot increase the temperature further because then the material may not
be able to withstand that amount of increasing temperature.
That means when I have removed this particular wall and allowed the bar to move freely
naturally the second consideration which is a realistic situation is that I will have to apply some
force on this bar and bring back this deformation to this particular stress so that the member is
between these two walls. that means these additional deformation δ’ which is getting caused
from the wall to this end has to be brought back to this particular position and for that I will
have to apply a load p and this load is going to cause a stress in the bar = P/A.
And the stress is to be limited to 35 MPa and under that consideration we will have to find out
what is the value of T so that the stress level is exactly 35 MPa.
If we calculate the compatibility equation from this particular concept from the concept of
deformation if we compute the compatibility criteria, then what we can do is the Δ =
deformation which you are getting in the bar which you have designated as Δ because of the
change in the temperature.
The initial temperature was – 20°, the final temperature is T so the ΔT the change in the
temperature =
ΔT = T − (–20) = T + 20
The strain, ∈T = α x ΔT
or deformation due to change in temperature which we have called as ΔT = α x ΔT x l.
δ = 18 x 10-6/°C x (T + 20) x 3000
δ = δ’ + 2.5
2.5 + δ’=18 x 10-6/°C x (T + 20) x 3000
δ’ = 54 x 10-3 x (T + 20) − 2.5
Now this δ’ which is being caused from the wall to this end and this particular part has to be
brought back to this particular wall level by applying this force P so,
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δ = Pl/AE =54 x 10-3 x (T + 20) − 2.5
35 X 3002.5 / (80 X 103) = 54 x 10-3 x (T + 20) − 2.5
T + 20 = 70.62
T = 50.62 C
So, if the temperature goes up to 50.6°C from -20 then the bar will be experiencing a stress of
35 MPa and that is the problem.
If you allow the bar to undergo a change in the temperature from − 20 to 50 + 50 to 62 the bar
will be experiencing a stress of 35 MPa.
But the interesting part of this to be noted here is that
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this value of T we have arrived at from the criteria where we have equated the deformation
part of the bar. Initially, allowed the bar to deform in such away that undergoes movement
freely over the 2.5 mm and then it hits wall and then keeps on increasing because that there is
a change in the temperature but when it is giving the thrust on the wall is giving a reactive
force which is causing as internal stress in the member.
We have derived these equationS based on the deformation compatibility which we call as the
compatibility equation and so the change in the temperature is basically an indeterminate
system and we solve the problem in terms of indeterminate form (Refer slide time: 52:18 -
53:55)
Let us look into another example where a rigid block of mass M is supported by the three
symmetrically placed rods and the ends of the rods were leveled before the block was attached.
They are in the same level, we will have to determine the largest allowable value of M that can
be this bar, can carry cross sectional areas of steel and copper rods are 1200 and 900 mm2 then
modulus of elasticity of steel is 200 GPa modulus of elasticity of copper is 120 MPa and
permissible stress for copper is 70 MPa and that of steel is 140 MPa. These are the two copper
bars and this is the steel bar of length 240 mm and length of the copper bar is 160 mm and they
are placed at 1meter interval symmetrically placed. Before these blocks were placed they were
on the same level.
After the block is placed we will undergo deformation. What we will have to find out is that
how much weight we can put so that they are within their stresses, their stresses do not go
beyond these values.
Let us write down the equilibrium equation
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This is the bar or the block whose mass is M so the load that it transmits on those three bars
equals the weight of it which is M x g. We have the three bars placed, central is the steel one
and two copper rods, let us call the load that will be carried by steel rod as Ps and those of
copper by Pc.
So we can write down the summation of vertical forces as 0
W = Ps + 2Pc --------- (1) equation of equilibrium.
The compatibility equation, next equation which is here, also you see unknown parameters are
Ps and Pc and of course we have to find out W in terms of these.
We need another equation which is in terms of its deformation compatibility.
And since the block is placed when the bars are uniform and is expected that it will be in the
same level the strain in the copper bar or copper rods will be equal to the strain in steel or the
deformation that the bars will undergo such as the strain in the steel bar will have the same
value of the strain in the copper bars.
ϵc = ϵs
Pc x Lc/Ac. x Ec = PsLs/AsEs
Pc = 27/40 x Ps
Here another criteria is to be noted that the maximum value of Pc and Ps can be evaluated from
the given stress.
Since the allowable stresses on these rods are given, the maximum load that the rods can carry
equals the stress in the rod multiplied by the cross sectional area.
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Ps = σc x Ac.
So from these we compute the value of W and from the criteria that from the maximum value
of steel rod if we compute we will get
W = 789.6kN or
mass = 80.6 x 103 kgs
whereas from the other criteria from the limiting criteria for Pc
mass = 22.6 x 103 kgs.
Since we are getting two values and out of these this is the lowest one, therefore this is the
maximum value we can apply beyond which if we apply that the value of the stresses in the
bar will not exceed the permissible limits.
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We have another problem similar to the previous problem. We got to determine the lengths of
the two copper rods so that stresses in all the three reach their allowable limits simultaneously.
In this case, we are allowing the stresses in the bars to reach their limiting values
simultaneously then what should be the length of the copper rods?
Also we have another problem which are related to this thermal or temperature changes in the
member that all members of the steel truss shown in this figure have the same cross sectional
area. If the truss is stress free at 10°C, determine the stresses in the members at 90°C, for steel
α = 11.7 x 10-6/°C and E = 200 GPa.
To summarize in this particular lesson, we have included the concept of strains due to change
in temperature, we have included the concept of thermal stresses, we have seen the steps to
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evaluate unknown forces for indeterminate systems and then we have looked into some
examples to demonstrate the evaluation of stresses due to change in temperature.
We have some questions, what are the steps for the evaluation of unknown forces for
indeterminate systems?
What is the expression for thermal stress?
Is the evaluation of thermal stress in a stressed body a determinate one?
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235
Lecture No #11
Analysis of Strain V
Welcome to the 5th lesson on module 2 which is on analysis of strain part 5. In the last lesson we
had discussed certain aspects of strain which are caused due to the change in the temperature.
Now in this particular lesson we are going to look into some more aspects of a strain which are
caused due to change in temperature especially in bars or assembly which are made out of
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different materials. Also, we will look into certain aspects of misfit or lack of fit. Once this
particular lesson is completed, it is expected that one should be able to understand the concept of
strain due to change in temperature in compound bars. Also, one should be able to understand the
concept of misfit which we call occasionally as lack of fit and pre strains and thereby the pre
stresses which are basically indeterminate systems so we will look into the aspects on these.
Hence the scope of this particular lesson includes the recapitulation of previous lesson.
Evaluation of strain in compound bars due to variation in temperature, then the concept of misfit
and the pre strain and thereby the pre stresses. We will also look into the evaluation of stresses
due to change in temperature in different systems and also due to pre strain in the systems.
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Here are some answers for the questions asked earlier.
What are the steps for the evaluation of unknown forces for indeterminate systems?
If you remember last time we differentiated between the determinate system and the
indeterminate systems and we categorized the steps that are necessary for carrying out or
evaluating the unknown forces for indeterminate systems.
Now let us look into the steps that are necessary.
Number 1 is the equilibrium equation or the equilibrium conditions and these conditions or the
equilibrium equations can be written down if we draw the free body diagram of the system
given.
And as we have seen when we had solved several problems we had taken the free body of the
whole system and then from the free body diagram of the system we can write down the
equations of equilibrium which states that summation of horizontal forces are 0, summation of
vertical forces are 0 and the moment with respect to a point is equals to 0 in the system and that
gives us the equilibrium criteria.
Secondly, the second step which is necessary for the solution now is, if the system is statically
determinate then from the equations of equilibrium we can solve the system. But if the system is
indeterminate then we need to solve or we need to write down the geometric compatibility which
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gives rise to the compatibility equation and this compatibility equation can be arrived at if we
draw an exaggerated sketch of the deformation pattern.
As we have seen through several examples though the deformation is small when we had drawn
the exaggerated view of the deformation it becomes clearer that how the system is deforming and
it becomes easier to write down the conditions thereby which we call as the compatibility
condition which leads to the compatibility equation. Once we write down the equations of
equilibrium, equations of compatibility and then with the help of the constitutive relationship
which gives us the relation between the strain and the stress we can write down in terms of the
forces.
So we have equations of equilibrium written down in terms of the forces; we have the equations
of compatibility written down in terms of forces through the Hooke’s law or the equations of
constitutive relationship. So once we have these two sets of equations, we can solve for unknown
forces so the solution of equilibrium and compatibility equations are utilized for the solution of
unknown forces. These are the steps that are necessary for the solution of indeterminate problem.
Now the second question which was posed was; what is the expression for thermal stress?
Now before we evaluate the expression for thermal stress let us look into the definition of
thermal stress. As we had defined last time the total or partial restriction of deformation induces
internal forces which resist forces due to thermal expansion and these stresses caused by these
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internal forces are termed as thermal stresses. If you remember that if you take a body and if this
is allowed to undergo change in temperature, if it is not restricted or constrained, it will move or
expand if the temperature rises. But then if we do not allow this bar to move freely that is if we
put some restrictions, then the expansion will be restricted and thereby the internal force will be
induced into the system.
Now the stresses that are induced because of these forces, which has been caused due to the
thermal expansion or due to the change in the temperature is called as the thermal stress. So, to
evaluate the value of the thermal stress let us look into the expression which we had derived for
the strain or which we have written down for the strain.
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Strain due to variation in temperature which is ΔT the final temperature minus the initial
temperature is given as, εT = α. ΔT
Now, if the deformation due to temperature is written as, δT= εT.L = α.ΔT.L
This is the deformation of the member. Now when the body is allowed to move freely that means
it is undergoing expansion due to rise in temperature and we call that expansion as δT. If we do
not allow this expansion to happen in this member that means we are putting some restriction. So
thereby we are imposing some force into it which will bring back this deformation to its original
position and because of that this deformation δT should be equal to the deformation generated
because of the applied force which is equal to .
So .L
Now the parameter P/A, the force divided by the cross sectional area we can write as stress, σ,
So, σ = E.α. ΔT.L/L,
Or, σ = E.α. ΔT
So, σT, due to change in temperature, = E.εT = E.α.ΔT
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material, α is the coefficient of thermal expansion and
ΔT is the change in temperature. So this is the expression for the stress due to the thermal effect
or thermal stress.
Let us look into the last question which we had posed which is the evaluation of thermal stress in
a stressed body a determinate one. The variation of the temperature is basically not possible to
solve using equations of equilibrium and hence they are not statically determinate.
So forces developed due to temperature changes cannot be determined from equilibrium

equations only and thereby these particular kind of systems are statically in indeterminate or
where there is a change in the temperature in the system when we evaluate the forces because of
that or when we evaluate the thermal stresses due to change in temperature, the system is
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statically indeterminate. We need the help of compatibility equations so that we can solve the
stresses due to temperature change.
What will be the effect of change in temperature or what is the effect of thermal stress in
compound bars?
Compound bars are the ones where we have a system made out of materials of different types
thereby their thermal expansion or contraction is of different magnitudes. Now if we look into a
system which is quite common like bolt with the bolt head and the outer sleeve. Bolt is having a
threaded part and washer plate is provided at the end. Now the whole assembly is allowed to
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undergo a change due to temperature; let us say that there is a rise in the temperature the whole
system undergoes change in temperature and let us assume that the thermal expansion for the
outer sleeve is larger than the central bolt. So if we say the coefficient of thermal expansion for
the sleeve is αS, so αS > αB. When this whole system is undergoing a change in the temperature,
to look into how much stresses that is getting generated in the system because of the change in
the temperature.
Let us proceed step by step; first we remove the head of the bolt and allow the sleeve and the bolt
to expand freely because of the change in the temperature. In the second figure as it is shown that
we have removed the bolt head and allowed the whole system to expand freely. As a result since
the thermal expansion coefficient of the outer sleeve is larger than the bolt inside it is expected
that the outer sleeve will undergo more expansion than the central bolt, since it is free to move it
has expanded. Let us say that the expansion of the sleeve from its original position is equals to δ1.
which is due to the change in the temperature given as
δ1=αS.ΔT.L
Consequently the bolt also will undergo expansion, but, since the thermal expansion coefficient
is less than the outer sleeve it will have relatively lower value than δ1 and let us call that as δ2.
So,
δ1=αB.ΔT.L.
Now, when they are not constrained or not restricted, they freely expand and having expansion or
the deformation is δ1 and δ2, but, since the bolt head is present it is not allowing it to move freely
as a result there will be forces generated and thereby stresses generated. Now the force in the
central bolt and the outer sleeve will be such that they come to a common position, thereby the
central bolt will have a tensile pull and the outer sleeve will have a compressive force, these two
forces are equal in fact this and this in a combined form will be equals to this. So in effect if we
impose these two forces their effect is zero. So as a result they will come to a common position
which will be the stressed position for the whole system. It has expanded freely by δ1 the outer
sleeve now because of the compressive force that is getting applied on the outer sleeve, this will
come back to the position from this position to the final position here, a third figure indicates the
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final position of the outer sleeve and the central bolt, where both are in the same line having the
same deformation.
Now to bring back to this particular position from the free expansion of the outer sleeve this
much is the deformation that is required to be brought back by application of this compressive
force, let us call that as the sleeve force Ps. So if we call this as δ3,
δ3= PSLS/ASES, which is the amount of deformation that will be generated in the sleeve because
of the application of this force Ps.
Now to bring to this particular position to the central bolt we need to apply a tensile pull so that
that is elongated by this much of amount. This is the position after thermal expansion and this is
the position where we need to bring this bolt in. Therefore this is the amount of deformation that
is undergoing in the bolt which is equal to δ4,
δ4 = PBLB/ABEB.
So these are the four deformations that at different stages. No, let us call the final deformation as
δ. As δ1 was the free moment of the sleeve because of the temperature and it has been brought
back to the final state by application of the force PS which is δ3. So the final position delta for the
outer sleeve is,
δ = δ1 – δ3
For the central bolt the free thermal expansion was δ2. Now to bring this to the final position of
the combined system it has to be expanded further by application of this tensile pull PB which is
δ4. So the final deformation in the whole assembly of the compound,
δ = δ2 + δ4
So we can write the compatibility equation now as
δ = δ1 ̶ δ3 = δ2 + δ4…………… (1)
In addition to this we need to have the equation of equilibrium. For this system, if we look into
the equation of equilibrium, the forces which had been applied to bring back to its final form
which is.
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PB = PS………………………… (2)
If we substitute the values of δ1, δ2, δ3 and δ4 we write them down in terms of forces and α1, αB
and αS, finally we can write down the expression for using these two equations PB = PS and the
expression for deltas, which we can convert in terms of forces, we can evaluate values of PB and
PS, which are in terms of α, ΔT, the length and the cross sectional area of the members and the
modulus of elasticity of the material that is being used. Once we know the values of PB and PS,
we can compute the stresses in the members. We can compute the final value of delta which is,
δ = δ1 ̶ δ3 or δ2 + δ4,
which will give the value of δ, which is the final deformation in the whole assembly.
So, from the values of PB and PS we can calculate the values of stresses which are σB and σS;
σB= PB/AB and σS = PS/AS
So in the process we can compute the values of the stresses and also we can evaluate the value of
the deformation δ for such compound system.
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Now let us look into another term we call as misfit or another term which we call pre strain.
Many a times we get such structural system consisting of several members now it may so happen
that any of the members of the whole structural assembly are not the exact length as it should be.
Either it is longer or it is shorter. Now if that happens, when we try to assemble the whole
structural system using these individual members, the length which is shorter or longer causes
some problem in the assembly. This is what is termed as misfit, it is not fitting appropriately in
the system and that is why this particular term misfit comes in.
If the structural system is a determinate one, let us say we have one bar which is pinned at this
end and this bar is connected by another bar and connected at this position. Let us assume that
this AB and this is CD.
Now, if this particular member of the structure CD, if it is not exactly to the length as it should
be; let us call this length as L, if this particular member is having some defect and the length is
not perfectly L, either it is smaller or larger. Eventually this member is not going to fit in the
whole structural system and this we generally designate as misfit.
Now, many a times, off course, this misfit is introduced in the system intentionally, many a times
it is required to have a system where we like to introduce some kind of strain beforehand. When
we introduce this misfit in the system, thereby we try to introduce some amount of strain before
really it is loaded and thereby subjected to strains. So when we form such structural system
where we introduce the strain beforehand, we call that particular system as pre strained system
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and thereby from the strain, the stresses can be evaluated and we call those kinds of systems as
pre stressed system. One of the examples which are very common is the spokes in a bicycle
wheel where the spokes are in fact strain beforehand so that the whole wheel remains in position.
If they are in loose form it will collapse.
Coming back to this example when this particular system is a determinate one this misfit is not
going to cause any problem to the structural system. That means if this particular member cd is
longer, then what adverse can happen is the bar ab may have some geometric imperfection in
terms of rotation.
It may not look straight as it should be or if the length is shorter than l, then it might so happen
that the horizontal bar will no longer remain horizontal but it may rotate to certain extent but in
the process what is going to happen is that the whole structural system will not be subjected to
any kind of strain or stresses.
On the contrary if we look for structural system which is indeterminate and if we have any
member which is shorter or longer than its actual length then that induces strains or the stresses
in the system.
So, if we consider an example where the system is an indeterminate one let us look into that; say
we have a bar which is connected at this point and we have two bars connected at this point and
lect us name different points as A, B, C, D, E and F.
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Now let us assume that the length of both bars CD and EF are L. Now if one of these bars CD is
longer than the length L then there will be problem that we cannot fit in the member CD in the
whole structural assembly. As a result what is going to happen is that if we like to fit in that
longer bar in the whole system what we need to do is, we stretch this whole assembly fit in the
bar CD in its position and place them in position and release this force.
As a result what is going to happen is the whole of assembly the bar EF bar AB. They will be
subjected to some amount of strain and there will be stresses induced in the bar. So, if the system
is indeterminate one, if we have length of the member not exactly as we desire then there is a
possibility that the structural system will be subjected to some amount of strain and these strain
or the stresses are pre introduced in the system before the system is loaded or any loads are
applied on that system. This is what we call as pre strains or pre stressing and many a times we
introduce this kind of pre straining or pre stressing in the system intentionally to avoid some
problem in some situations, which we will look into at related stage.
Then let us see the consequences if we have this kind of misfits or pre strains.
The simplest way to introduce these pre strains or the pre stressing in the system is the use of the
bolts. Many times we encounter this kind of a bolting system or the nut bolt system which is
shown here. This is the bolt having the nut here and this is the bolt head. Now, when this nut is
rotated if we start from one point and rotated to one complete round the nut moves forward and
this moment is over a length in the threaded part of it which we commonly term as pitch. So, if
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we look into that threaded part which we have in this form when the nut is rotated in and around
the threaded part the nut moves ahead and when it moves from one point to the other by giving a
complete 360° rotation it moves ahead over these two peaks which we designate as the value p
which you call as pitch. If there are n number of turns if we turned the nut by n then the total
movement of the nut if you call that as δ, it is going to be equals to n times the pitch p.
Another system which many a times are used is known as the turnbuckle. In the turnbuckle what
will happen is that the threaded part is introduced on either side and this particular system which
is a turnbuckle which, once it is rotated both the threaded part moves. Once the central part of the
turnbuckle is rotated, since we have threads on either side both sides move forward or backwards
by one pitch.
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So if we have one turn, one complete turn of the turnbuckle then we have two movements which
is equals to 2p. If we rotate the turnbuckle n times then the total moment which we expect of the
threaded part is equals to 2np. In case of turnbuckle the deformation delta of the central part or
the threaded part we can call it as is equals to 2np.
Many a times some deformation is introduced in the system by using the turnbuckle and we
introduce some amount of pre straining or pre stressing in the member. If we have this kind of
pre straining in the system then the evaluation of the effect of such pre straining or the evaluation
of the stresses are exactly same as that of the effect due to temperature change. So the way we
have analyzed a system for thermal stresses due to change in temperature, we carry out exactly
similar steps to evaluate the effect of such pre straining system or in other words we write down
the equations of compatibility and equation of equilibrium and then we relate the strain to their
stresses through constitutive relationship and we evaluate the unknown forces and thereby the
stresses that is introduced in the assembly.
Now let us look into that, if we introduce this kind of pre straining then how do we get the
stresses in the system? Let us say we have an assembly where we have a central shaft which is
made out of copper and we have two steel wares on two sides, where two turnbuckles are
introduced.
Now in the first instant as we have done in the case of thermal analysis, in the case of the
evaluation of the stresses because of the change in the temperature, we go exactly in the similar
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steps to evaluate the stresses due to such pre straining. We removed this head which is the rigid
head or rigid plate. Now if we remove that and let say we introduced n number of turns in the
turnbuckle. Both the turnbuckle is turned in times so that there is shortening of the bar. That
means the threads move inside, so since the pitch, as we have defined as p because of the turning
of one revolution of the turnbuckle. So both the threads are moving by p, so n number of turns is
there so total deformation is equals to 2np. So let us call that this deformation,
δ1 = 2np.
Now this is the original position of the central copper bar. Now if we like to look for a system
wherein we will pull this sleeve or the steel ware to a position and compress this central copper
to a position where they will come to a common position, then the steel ware will be extended
because of the pull and because of the compressive force the copper bar will be compressed so
the final deformation should be the same in both because of the tensile pull that we are going to
apply on the steel ware, which is,
δ2 = Ps.Ls/AsEs
So this is the deformation that has been occurring in the steel bar because of the application of
the force Ps. The compressive force which is being applied into the copper bar if we call that as
Pc then the deformation,
δ3 = Pc.Lc/AcEc
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The final deformation, δ3, which is from original length to reduced length,
δ3 =δ1 – δ2
So this is the compatibility criteria, which is occurring because of the application of the pre
straining in the system. Also the equilibrium equations if we write that we have two steel wares
which had been pulled by a force Ps and we have the central copper bar which is been
compressed using the force Pc. Therefore in an equilibrium situation,
Pc = 2Ps
So, now we have the equation of compatibility, which is δ1 – δ2 = δ3 which can be written in
terms of Ps and Pc and we have equilibrium equation which is Pc = 2Ps, which we can call it as
equation of equilibrium and these two equations in combination will give us the values of Pc and
Ps. Once we know the value of Pc and Ps we can compute the stresses in the copper bar and the
steel ware and thereby we can compute the final deformation that will be occurring in the whole
assembly.
Similar to the one as we have done in case of evaluation of thermal stresses we can evaluate the
stress and the deformation in an assembly where we introduce pre straining or the pre stressing in
the system.
Here is a problem to be solved. We have a rigid block of mass m which is supported by three
rods: two copper rods and one steel rod, one steel central steel rod and two copper rods here and
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here. Off course we had evaluated the stresses, it was asked to evaluate the largest value of m
which we evaluated from the criteria that the deformation of the copper bar is equals to the
deformation of the steel bar or δc = δs that is the final deformation which will happen in the
system.
The criteria of equation of equilibrium are that the mass is being supported by three bars. So we
had written down the equation of equilibrium and the equation of compatibility and the
compatibility criteria comes from the δc. The deformation in the copper bar is equals to the
deformation in the steel bar and finally they will be in the same length, it will be a level surface.
We had solved that we had evaluated the value of m now subsequently it is told that we need to
determine the lengths of the two copper rods.
We will have to find out the length of the two copper rods if it is different from one sixty so that
the stresses in all three reach their allowable limits simultaneously. Now the point to be noted is
that in the previous stage we had evaluated the value of m from the criteria that the deformation
in the member is same. Thereby since they are of different lengths, different strains and
correspondingly different stresses we would like to find out what should be the length of the
copper rod, so that both steel and the copper rod reach to the limiting value of their stresses.
So the allowable stresses for these two members are given for copper and steel and they are 70
MPa and 140 MPa. Now if we have to utilize the full stress of these two elements then what will
be the length L of this particular bar?
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Now let us look into that, if we go into the full limiting stress then what will be that value of the
forces that they can undergo. Load that can be carried by the steel bar,
PS = σall × AS = 140 × 1200 = 168 kN
Similarly the maximum load that can be carried by the copper bar,
PC = σall × AC = 70 × 900 = 63 kN
So, these are the values that the rods, three rods, the copper rod and the steel rod that they can
carry. If we go up to the limiting value of those two rods, then we can compute still considering
that the deformation of these members will be the same from those particular criteria, we can
find what length we need to achieve the full utilization of the two bars. So, from the
compatibility criteria,
δc = δs, which gives us, PCLC/ACEC = Ps.Ls/AsEs
If we compute, this comes as,
(63×103×LC)/(900×120×103) = (168×103×240)/(1200×200×103),
Which gives, LC = 288mm
So the length of the copper rod if it is changed from earlier 160 mm to 288 mm then either both
the rods or all three rods the two copper rods and the steel rod will reach their limiting values or
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their limiting stresses 140 MPa and 70 MPa simultaneously, So for that we will have to make the
length of the copper rods as 288 mm.
Here is the second example in fact this is the example which we had set last time this is a truss
which is undergoing change because of the change in the temperature. All members of the steel
truss have the same cross sectional area and the truss is stress free at 10°C. Now we will have to
determine the stresses in the members at 90°C. The coefficient of thermal expansion for steel is
11.7×10-6/°C and the value of E is 200 GPa.
So we need to evaluate the stresses in the member when the temperature rises to 90°C. Now here
this system is not subjected to any forces as such but is undergoing change in temperature and
obviously the supports are unyielding or do not have any effect because of the change in the
temperature.
Now as we have done before we need to compute the equations of equilibrium, we need to write
down the equation of compatibility and then we write down the constitutive relationship between
the stress and the strain so that we can evaluate the unknown forces as the stresses induced
because of the change in temperature is indeterminate. If we look into that because of the change
in the temperature, the members will undergo elongation because the temperature is rising from
10 to 90°C. Thereby as we know that
δ = α.ΔT.L
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Since this is the length of this inclined member, let us call that A, B, C and D. Length of member
AB and BD, they are 3m. So the length of member BC,
LBC = AB sin30° = 3sin 30° = 1.5m
Now if we take the free body diagram at this particular point at joint B then we have three force
components that are acting FBC, FBD and FBA. Now if we take the summation of horizontal forces
equals to 0 then it will give us
FBA = FBD
and summation of vertical forces with 0 will give us,
FBA cos60° + FBD cos 60° = FBC.
So, the equilibrium equation will give us
FBA = FBD
FBC + (FBA cos60°) + (FBD cos 60°) = 0
As FBA = FBD, so the equation will reduce to,
FBC + FBA = 0
Thereby, FBC = – FBA.
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Here because of the change in the temperature the central member is undergoing extension or
there is a tensile force in the bar FBC then FBA and FBD will be subjected to compressive forces.
So the whole structural system having three bars will undergo expansion because of the
temperature which is equal to α.ΔT.L is the deformation because of temperature and because of
the forces that is getting generated as they are constrained, they are not free to move, they will
have tensile and compressive forces for which there will be deformation and if we equate that we
will get the equation of compatibility.
So, deformation in central bar BC = δBC (thermal expansion) + FBCLBC/AE
Now For bar BD or we have the deformation equals to δBD or δBA, which is again due to
temperature which is α.ΔT.L and for the force for the compressive force, we will have
FBD.LBD/A.E.
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Now if we look into the deformation configuration of joint B and if we exaggerate that let us say
this is the original position of B this undergoes deformation and comes to this particular point.
This was the original direction of the members and this is the deformed direction of the members
which are BD and BA. Now this is the deformation that has been caused by member BC which
we have called δBC and if we drop a perpendicular here, this is the length of the inclined member,
basically it should move in an arc which is in a circular form but since the deformation is small
we are taking this as a straight one so if we drop a perpendicular here, this is the deformation
which is undergoing in the inclined member one.
Since the deformation is small, we can write,
δBC cos60° = δBD
Substituting the respective values, we get
αΔT.LBC + FBCLBC/AE = 2(αΔT.LBD ̶ FBDLBD/AE)
From this since we know the relationship between FBC and FBD. So the only unknown is the force
FBC and all other parameters are known so we can compute the value of FBC from which we can
calculate the stress. Once we know the value of FBC so forces in the members FBC, FBD and FBA
are known and force divided by the cross sectional area. Now since the cross sectional area is the
same that will give us the stresses in the member.
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We have another example which is, we have a compound bar wherein we have three materials
bronze, aluminium and steel of length 800 mm, 500 mm and 400 mm and they are combined
together and put within the two fixed walls.
Initially they are stress free now we will have to find out the stress in each material on each part
of this bar of the compound bar which is made out of bronze, aluminium and steel, when the
temperature drops by 30°C. So initially from some temperature it drops by 30°C. Considering
that these walls do not deform. We will have to find out how much stress this bar undergoes
because of the drop in the temperature. Now because of the drop in temperature the way we have
analyzed before if we compute the stresses that means if we remove one of these rigid walls then
this bar will be free to expand or contract because of the change in the temperature. Since here
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temperature is reducing, is dropping down so this bar will undergo contraction. Let us say this is
the position where this bar comes from its original form. So this is the deformation δ.
Now what we need to do is that to bring this bar in position, we will have to apply a tensile pull
in this which you call as P. Now this deformation when we calculate because of the change in the
temperature as we know the deformation is α times ΔT times L and over the length whole length
L, we have three parts 800, 500 and 400. So we can compute the values individually and
calculate δ. So after computing δ, you can find out the value of P and equate this to the total
strain is equals to the strain due to P.
So calculate this, next time we are going to discuss on this particular problem
We have another problem, what stresses will be produced in the steel bolt and copper tube if we
allow a quarter turn of the bolt pitch of the bolt is given as 3mm and area of cross section is
600mm2 and with this parameter you need to compute the value of this stress.
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In summary we discussed the concept of strain in compound bars due to change in temperature,
we have seen the concept of misfit pre strain and pre stresses and some examples to demonstrate
the evaluation of stresses due to change in temperature and pre straining.
Here are some questions;

 What is meant by misfit and what are its consequences?
 What is the principle of double acting turnbuckle and what is the pitch of a bolt and how
is it related to the displacement of the nut?
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Lecture No #12
Analysis of Strain VI
Welcome to the 6th lesson on module 2 which is on analysis of strain.
In the last lesson we have discussed some aspects of strain which occurs due to change in
temperature material and we had looked into the aspects of lack of heat in a system and the
stresses and strain which is generated thereby. And in this particular lesson we are going to
discuss some more aspects of strain analysis.
(Refer slide time: 01:22 -01:44)
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It is expected that once this particular lesson is completed, one should be able to understand the
concept of plane strain at a point in different axes system other than reference axis. In general
when we refer to the strain, we refer in terms of εx, εy, γxy in plane strain. If we orient the axes
system other than the rectangular axis system which we consider then what will be the difference
in strain value. One should be able to understand the concept of transformation equations in fact
for evaluating the strain at different orientation of axes. We need to evolve the equations which
we term as transformation equations for evaluating normal and shearing strain. Thereby we will
come across the maximum value of the normal strain which in analogous with the traces we will
term them as principle strain. So we will look into how to evaluate the values of principle strain
and at which orientation this principle strains act at that particular point.
Hence this particular lesson includes recapitulation of previous lesson.
In fact as we have done in the past, we will be discussing the questions and in the process we
will recapitulate the aspects which we had looked into.
Evaluation of plane strain at a point on different axes system using transformation equations and
thereby the concept of principle strains and principle angles will generate from these equations of
transformation and we look into some examples for the evaluation of strains at a point due to the
different orientation of axes system from the rectangular axes system.
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(Refer slide time 03:35: 3:50)
Well let us look into the answers to the questions which we have posed in the last lesson. The
first question was what is meant by misfit and what are its consequences?
(Refer slide time 03:51: 3:57)
In any system, if a particular member of a particular length is manufactured or fabricated in such

a way that it varies from its original length then there is a problem of fitting that particular
member into the whole structural system and that leads to some problems. If the system is a
determinate one, the geometrical arrangement of the whole structural system will be in problem
but there would not be any stresses or strains generated within that particular system. But if the
structural system is an indeterminate one, then this length of the member which is not right
which could be longer or shorter can induce strains and thereby stresses in such members and
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thereby if a member of a structure is fabricated different from its intended length then the
member will introduce imperfection in the geometry of the structure. Now this is commonly
referred as misfit or lack of fit now for a determinate system no strains or stresses are produced
except that there will be change in geometry. This aspect we have discussed last time.
Let us say we have a bar which is supported at point B and we have one member here connected
at point D and let us name them as member AB and CD. If this member CD which is of length L,
if length differs, i.e., if it is shorter or longer than L then when we try to fit in this particular
member CD into whole assembly there is a possibility that by changing the geometry of this
system, for example if CD is longer than L then this member may undergo rotation over here to
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accommodate the longer length of CD. So in the process the geometry of the whole system AB
and CD which is consisting of these two members will be different than as expected because the
geometry of this system looks like this bar will no longer be horizontal but it will be inclined.
But in the process no strains or stresses will be introduced in this member.
But if we have a system which is indeterminate, then this particular misfit will lead to pre strain
or pre stress.
The next question posed last time was, what is the principle of a double acting turn-buckle?
(Refer slide time 07:35 : 08:15)
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Now if we remember that we introduce the lack of heat by introducing or turning this kind of
system which we call as turn-buckle. On one side if the whole assembly is rotated on right hand
side, we have a thread on the left hand side also we have a thread. It is like the whole thing is
rotated and there will be movement of the screw towards inside or if we are rotating on the other
side the screw will move outside. Thereby there will be change in the length of the whole screw
assembly system either inside or outside.
Since in one turn both the screws moving and as we had defined last time that by one turn of a
knot or by one turn of this turn buckle, the movement of the knot for one 360° revolution, the
movement we call as pitch which we had defined as p, now if we give a turn buckle by one full
revolution then both the screws are moving by one pitch. So thereby there is a total movement of
the whole turn buckle by an amount which is 2p. If we have n number of turns given n × 2p will
be the total movement of this turn buckle. So that deformation δ or the deformation which we are
introducing by turning this turnbuckle will be equal to 2np. This is the system or the principle on
which it works which can be introduced where we need to introduce the tensile or the axial pull
or we like to reduce the length by turning the screws of the turnbuckle.
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Now the third question similar to the second one is what the pitch of a bolt is and how is it
related to the displacement of the nut?
(Refer slide time 10:18 – 11:26)
Let us look in to this nut bolt assembly, having the nut, bolt and bolt head. When we turn this
nut, this nut is turned on for one full revolution of 360°. The nut moves along the length of the
threaded part by these two peaks and these consecutive two peaks in fact is denoted by letter p
which we call as pitch. So one movement or one turn of the nut over the full circle moves the nut
by a distance p and this is what is the displacement of the nut by giving a full circle turn along
the threaded part of the bolt.
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Now let us look into the strain that we are looking for at a particular point. We are defining the
strain with reference to the rectangular axes system as normal strain in the x direction as εx,
normal strain in the y direction as εy and the normal strain in the z direction as εz.
Now it is similar to the situation as we had in case of stresses. The strain at a particular point in a
loaded structure varies according to the orientation of the axes. If we have a rectangular axes
system then what stress we are expecting?
For example, we are interested to evaluate the stress strain at this particular point. Now at this
particular point the strain which we are referring with reference to the rectangular axes system εx
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and εy, if we try to find out the strain at this point at a different orientation of the axes; let us call
this as axes x1y1. Now the strain corresponding to εx1 and εy1 will be different from εx and εy.
Our objective is to find out the strain along this orientation or in the orientation of the axes which
could be in the general form as θ at any orientation with reference to x-y plane, so that we can
compute the strain at that particular point at different orientation.
Hence it is necessary to derive the transformation equations for evaluating strain in any direction
at that particular point in terms of strains in reference axes system. Before we go in to the
evaluation of transformation equations, let us look into what we really meant by the plane strain
condition.
At a particular point the strains are represented in a particular form. The normal strains acting on
in the x direction is εx, in the y direction is εy and in the x direction is εz. Thus, we have the
strain components which are εx, εy and εz the normal strains and the sharing strains are γxy, γyz
and γzx. So these are the six strain components which will be acting at this particular point with
reference to this rectangular axes system. Now if we like to represent the strain on a plane which
is the z plane having x and y axes the strain that will be existing will be εx, εy and γxy and rest of
the strains like εz = γyz = γxz = 0. So this particular condition of strain we term as plane strain
condition. That means these strains will be acting in this plane either in the front part or at the
backside which is represented by this x and y axes system which is basically the z plane.
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Now in this plane, if we like to find out the strains corresponding to three different directions, in
the x direction when it is stretching. If we say this length as dx, then it will undergo stretching
which is εx.dx, where εx being the strain and dx being the original length then the elongation is
εx.dx or it can have stretching in the y direction this length is dy so this stretching is εy.dy, where
εy is the strain in the y direction. Or if we have the shearing strain which is γxy, then the
extension is equal to γxy.dy, if we call this depth as dy. So these are the extensional aspects,
which are related to the plane strain conditions.
(Refer slide time 15:56 – 17:16)
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Now let us look into the transformations. If it is oriented at an angle of θ with reference to x axis
then we are interested to find out the strains we should look into how to compute it and what are
the corresponding equations which we term generally as transformation equation.
Now x and y are the reference rectangular axis and the strain corresponding to these directions
are εx and εy as we are defining. We are interested to evaluate the strain at this point with
reference to the axes system x’ and y’, which is at an angle of θ with reference to x axes.
Let us consider different cases which are corresponding to the plane strain situation in which
elemental length is dx and dy. Now we consider that the axis x’ lies along the diagonal of this
element which we have considered of length dx and dy. Thereby this diagonal direction is our x’
axis and perpendicular to that is our y’ axis. When this element is getting stretched in the x
direction the extension in the x direction is given by the length which is equal to εx.dx, where εx
is the strain in the x direction.
As we know strain is equal to δ/dx, so original length multiplied by εx will give you the
extension δ. If we are interested to know how much extension this diagonal has undergone with
reference to this εx. Now this particular angle is θ as we have defined that x’ axis is lying along
the diagonal. Hence x’ axis is making an angle of θ with x. If this is the horizontal distance εx.dx
then the extension of the diagonal is horizontal distance times cosθ, which is equal to εx.dx cosθ.
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Let us call that diagonal is of length ds so originally it had a length of ds and it is undergoing an
extension which is in terms of εx, which is εx dx cos θ because of the extension in the x-
direction.
Now let us look into what happens if it undergoes strain in the y direction and thereby the
shearing strain. Here in the y direction it is undergoing extension thereby the extension which is
given by this particular length from its original form length is equals to εy.dy. So εy.dy is the
extension of this element and because of this stretching the diagonal, which was originally of
length ds now, is getting changed. Now the horizontal extension is given by εy.dy sinθ, as εy.dy
is the vertical extension and the component along the diagonal direction is εy.dy sinθ
Now, similarly the element which is of size dx.dy undergoing a sharing strain and because of
sharing strain it is having the sharing strain angle which is γxy. Thereby the diagonal which was
originally of length ds is undergoing extension. So the extension which is this stage is given by
now this particular extension because of shearing strain is equals to γxy.dy and the extension in
the diagonal is equals to is given by γxy.dy cosθ.
So we have three extensions of the diagonals obtained now. In the previous case, where it was
getting stretched in the x direction, we have the extension as εx.dx cos θ. In case of stretching in
the y direction or strain in the y direction we have extension of the diagonal as εy.dy sinθ and the
shearing strain the stretching of the diagonal is equal to γxy.dy cosθ.
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Hence, total stretching of the diagonal,

Δd = δεx + δεy + δγxy
= εx.dx cos θ + εy.dy sinθ + γxy.dy cosθ
Now εx’, the strain in the x’ direction is nothing but the strain in the diagonal is equals to the
extension of the diagonal divided by its original length, i.e.,
εx’ = εd = Δd/ds = εx.dx/ds.cos θ + εy.dy/ds.sinθ + γxy.dy/ds.cosθ
Now if we look into the diagram, from which we have evaluated this extension, dx/ds = cos θ,
dy/ds = sin θ. Hence the above equation becomes,
εx’ = εx cos2 θ+ εy sin2 θ + γxy sin θ cos θ.
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So, εx’ is the strain in the x’ direction, in terms of the strain εx, εy and γxy. Now this expression
further can be simplified as follows,
εx’ = εx (1 + cos2θ)/2 + εy (1 – cos2θ)/2 + γxy/2 (2sinθ cosθ)
= (εx + εy)/2 + (εx – εy)/2 cos 2θ + γxy/2 sin 2θ
So this is the final expression for εx’ or the strain in the x’ direction in terms of the strain εx, εy
and γxy.
Similarly we can compute the value of εy’ from the expression of εx’. Now since the y’ axis is at
90° with reference to x’, so if we place θ as θ + 90°, we can get the strain in the one y’ direction,
which εy’. So we can write,
εy’ = (εx + εy)/2 + (εx – εy)/2 cos(180°+2θ) + γxy/2 sin (180°+2θ)
Now, cos(180°+2θ) = – cos 2θ and sin(180°+2θ) = – sin 2θ, so the above expression becomes,
εy’ = (εx + εy)/2 – (εx – εy)/2 cos 2θ – γxy/2 sin 2θ
And interestingly, if we note here that if we add this εx’ + εy’ this gives us,
εx’ + εy’ = εx + εy
If you remember that when we had evaluated the stresses at a point with reference to different
orientation of axes we had seen that the total stress values remain constant. The values of σx + σy
= σx’ + σy’, if it is oriented at a different angle and the same thing holds good for the strain as well
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as the strain with reference to rectangular axes system, εx + εy = εx’ + εy’ with reference to x’ and
y’ axes.
These are the values which we have just now seen that
εx’ = εx cos2 θ + εy sin2 θ + and γxy sin θ cos θ
or, εx’ = (εx + εy)/2 + (εx – εy) cos 2θ/2 and γxy sin2θ/2
and,
εy’ = εx sin2 θ + εy cos2 θ – γxy sin θ cos θ,
or εy’ = (εx + εy)/2 – (εx – εy) cos 2θ/2 – γxy sin2θ/2
So these are the values of the strain with reference to x’ and the y’ axis. Since we said that, under
plane strain condition we have three strain components which are εx, εy and γxy. So under the
changed or the oriented axes system with reference to x’ and y’, we will have the strains which
are equivalent to the plane strain situation which are εx’, εy’ and γx’y’ and γx’y’ we call as the
shearing strain with reference to x’ y’ axis.
Now, let us evaluate the value of the shearing strain with reference to x’ y’ axis. As we know that
sharing strain is the angle which is changed from its original ninety degree position. If we have
two reference axes which is at 90° with each other the shearing strain causes the change in this
90° angle.
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Let us assume that we had a line oa, which was originally lying along this o x’ now and a line ob
originally, which was lying on the line oy’. Now because of the shearing strain, they have
undergone a change and let us call this changed angle as α and this changed angle as β, thereby
the total change is α+β, is the shearing strain γx’y’. So γx’y’ = α + β.
Now what we need to do is, corresponding to the three changes that we have seen in case of
plane strain, corresponding to stretching in the x direction, stretching in the y direction and
because of the shearing strain, the diagonal which is along the x’ axis had undergone changes. If
we join those angles together, we will get the final position of the diagonal. Similarly the line
which is along oy, it has come to position ob. so there is a change in the angle from ox’ oy’ to oa
and ob. This changed angle will give us the value of the shearing strain.
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Now to compute those angles, let us go back. We have already seen that extension in horizontal
direction is εx dx and stretching of the diagonal was εx dx cos θ. Let α1 is the angle that has been
changed because of this stretching. So α1 = εx dx sin θ/ds.
Please note that that this particular angle is undergoing a change in the clockwise direction. Let
us look in to the deformation that we are getting corresponding to the other two cases. Now in
this particular case the deformation which we have the diagonal this is the original length ds and
because of the stretching in the y direction this has taken this particular form.
Let α2 is the change in angle due to this extension. This angle change is in an anticlockwise form,
whereas in the previous case, it was in the clockwise direction and the horizontal stretching of
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this particular element is εy dy. So the stretching of diagonal is equal to εy dy cos θ/ds will give
the value of angle α2.
Similarly when we have the sharing strain the diagonal was original length of ds and the
extension of this length in terms of the shearing strain is γxy dy. Again, γxy dy sin θ/ds will give
us the angle α3 which is again in the clockwise direction so this is equal to α3. Therefore we have
3 angles α1, α2, α3. It should be kept in mind that angle α1 is in the clockwise direction angle, α2
is in anticlockwise direction and angle α3 is in clockwise direction.
When we are computing the strain here, which is we have designated as a and this particular
angle is α which is in an anti clock wise direction, so,
α = – α1 + α2 – α3
So this state value gives in the anticlockwise direction. If we substitute all the corresponding
values, we get the value α as,
α = – εx dx sin θ/ds + εy dy cos θ/ds – γxy dy sin θ/ds
Now again dx/ds = cos θ and dy/ds = sin θ. So this expression turns out to be,
α = – εx sin θ cos θ + εy sin θ cos θ – γxy sin2 θ
Now note that this is the value of the angle α. Similarly we will have to compute the value of β
which is taken by the length ob from it is original position of oy’. So α + β sum will give me the
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angle γx’y’. Now β can be computed from the expression of α itself, by placing θ as θ + 90°. Also
note the fact that α is computed in an anticlockwise direction, whereas β is in a clockwise

direction.
So if we substitute for θ as θ + 90°, now writing down for β, which is,

β = εx sin(θ+90°) cos(θ+90°) ̶ εy sin(θ+90°) cos(θ+90°) + γxy sin2(θ+90°)
The signs have been changed because β is clockwise and α was anticlockwise. The above
equation can be simplified as,
β = – εx sinθ cosθ + εy sinθ cosθ + γxy cos2 θ
So if we add α and β, we get the value of γx’y’. Thus,
γx’y’ = α + β
If we substitute the values of α and β and further simplify it by converting all the angles in the
form of 2θ, we will finally get,
γx’y’/2 = – (εx – εy) sin2θ /2 + γxy cos2θ /2
So this is the value of the shearing strain γx’y’.
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Now from this, we can compute the values of the principle strains and the angle of principle
planes, which is given by twice 2θp and the principle strain as ε1 and ε2. This is similar to the one
which we computed for the principle stresses and the principle angles. If you remember when we
had computed the stresses we evaluated them in the same form, and this gives us the value of
principle strains and the principle angles.
Here is a problem to look at. The compound part which is made out of bronze, aluminum and
steel are supported between these two supports and the stress in each of these material is to be
computed because of the drop in the temperature by 30°C and here what is to be noted is that the
walls do not yield and the properties of the cross sectional area of the bronze part, cross sectional
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area of aluminum part, cross sectional area of steel part are given and corresponding thermal
expansion coefficients and the modulus elasticity values are given.
Now here the point to be noted is that, if we remove this support then if we allow these bars to
undergo changes because of the change in the temperature then there will be shortening because
that is a reduction in the temperature so there will be deformation in delta which will be negative.
Now we will we will apply a force P to pull this bar and bring it to this particular position and
thereby there will be stresses.
Deformation δ = (19.0×10-6×30×800) + (23×10-6×30×500) + (11.7×10-6×30×400)

= ̶ 0.9414mm ( ̶ ve as it is shortening)
When we pull this by load P then the this shortening of 0.9414mm is to be compensated by the
force which is P×L/AE, which is,
̶ 0.9414 = (P×400)/(600×200×103)+ (P×500)/(1200×70×103)+ (P×800)/(2400×83×103)
From this we get the value of P = 70.8×103N, which is tensile.
Hence the stresses which we get and the stresses which we get from this are in the bronze part
σbr = 29.5MPa,
σal = 59.0MPa, and
σst = 118MPa, which will be P divided by respective cross sectional area.
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Now let us look into the second problem which will be the stresses that will be produced into this
steel. When there is a quarter turn of the bolt there is a nut here and this nut is given a quarter
turn then and the pitch of this bolt is 3mm. This is the threaded part, now area of cross section is
given of the copper also is given this the steel bolt and these are the copper tube.
Now this is given a turn and then naturally the copper is under compression, the bolt is tensed so
we will have to find out that what the stresses are which will be induced in this assembly because
of the turning of the nut.
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Since the turn is 1/4th, so n = 1/4th

p = 3mm
So, δ = n × p = 0.75mm
Now, force equilibrium gives that the compression in the copper sleeve is equal to the tensile pull
in the steel bolt. So Ps = Pc, which is the equilibrium criteria
The compatibility gives that the deformation is same, which gives that the deformation exerted
by the nut minus the extension of the steel should be equals to the compression of the copper
tube. This gives,
δ ̶ PsLs/AsEs = PcLc/AcEc
Substituting all the values gives, Ps = 80.43 kN
As, Ps = Pc, so stress in the bolt,

σb = Ps/As = 133.4 MPa
and the σ in the copper sleeve is
σc = Pc/Ac = 66.7MPa.
Therefore these are the stresses that will be induced into the bolt and the sleeve. So here we have
the equation of equilibrium which is Ps = Pc and the compatibility equation is that deformation
that has been created by the nut minus the strain because of extension of the bolt equal to the
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strain that is being induced in the sleeve. So both of these criteria give us the solution for Ps and
P c.
We have another example problem. Later on let us discuss about the state of plane strain at a
point in a body given by εx = 340 × 10-6, εy = 110 × 10-6 , γxy = 180× 10-6
What you need to do is that, determine the strain components if the axes are oriented at an angle
of 30° with reference axes in anticlockwise direction and also determine the principle strain. We
need to compute it. We have reference axes strain εx, εy and with this reference axes the site of
axes is oriented at an angle of 30° in an anticlockwise form. So you will have to find out the
strain at that particular point. Since it is the state of plane strain. You got to evaluate the strain εx’
εy’ and γx’y’ and also we will have to find out principle strains ε1 and ε2.
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To summarize this lesson included the concept of plain strain at a point for different orientation
of axes system. With reference to rectangular axes system we have to plot plane strain the three
different strains as εx, εy and γxy. Now at that particular point for different position of any
rectangular axes system which is oriented at an angle of θ with reference to x and y we can
compute the values of strain in terms of those εx, εy and γxy and those strains we have termed as
plane strain.
These strains which we evaluate in other reference axes in terms of εx, εy and γxy we call them as
transformation equation.
Concept of principle strains and principle angles:
As we did in case of stresses, from the stress we can compute the values of principle strains and
principle angles, which we have done here. Also we have solved some examples. Off course this
example which we have posed last time for the evaluation of the strains in a system which is
subjected to thermal expansion. Also, I have set one problem in which we got to compute the
value of the strain with reference to the rectangular axes system in axes which is oriented at an
angle of 30° with x in anticlockwise form. Now we know how to compute the stresses with
reference to that change of orientation of the axes system.
These are the questions:
What is the purpose of transformation equations?
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From this discussion you will be able to understand why we really need the transformation
equation to be derived, what is the need for that, etc., which you should be able to answer.
How you will derive the value of maximum normal strain?
You should be familiar with this particular part maximum normal strain with reference to the
stresses.
How will you find the value of maximum shear strain at a point called plane strain condition?
This is also in a similar line with the stresses.
We have computed the values of maximum and the minimum shear when in a loaded structure at
a particular point. We evaluated the stresses and thereby we had computed the principle stresses,
we had computed the value of the shearing stress and we had computed maximum and minimum
sharing stress exactly in the similar line as we have done here.
We have computed the transformation equations, we have computed the principle strain, and we
have computed the principle angle. Now we can compute the maximum shearing strain and the
angles for the maximum shearing strain in which the maximum and minimum shearing strain
will be acting. This is the question that how will we find out the maximum shearing strain at a
point for plane strain condition corresponding to the strains εx, εy and γxy?
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The answers to these questions will be given in the next lesson.
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Lecture No #13
Analysis of Strain VII
Welcome to the 7th lesson of module II on the course on Strength of Materials and this
module and the lesson is on Analysis of Strain part 7.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:53 to 01:50min)
In the previous lesson on Analysis of Strain, we had looked into some aspects of
evaluating strain at a particular point at a different orientation. If we have axes system
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oriented differently from the rectangular axes system then how do you compute the
strains with reference to those axes system?
Once this particular lesson is completed one should be able to understand the concept
of principal strain and maximum shear strain at a point and their orientations with
respect to the rectangular axes system. One should be able to evaluate strains at a
point using transformation equations and Mohr’s circle of strain.
Let us look into the transformation equations today which we have already discussed.
Also as we have looked into, in case of stresses we can evaluate stress at a point using
Mohr’s circle. We see that we can evaluate strain as well using Mohr’s circle of
strain.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:08to 03:50min)
Hence the scope of this particular lesson includes the recapitulation of previous lesson
and we will discuss the answers to the questions that I posed last time which will give
you an overview of the previous lesson. Evaluation of strain at a point for different
axes orientation; principal strains, shear strains and their orientation In fact with
respect to the rectangular axes system as we looked into, the strain at a particular
point varies, if the axes system differs from the rectangular axes system, which is x, y
and z. Also we will be looking into the evaluation of principal strains, the evaluation
of shear strains and their orientations with reference to the rectangular axes system
through transformation equation which we have dealt with to a certain extent last time
and also will introduce the concept of Mohr’s circle of strain similar to the line of the
Mohr’s circle of stress.
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Then will look into some examples for the evaluation of strains at a point for plane
strain condition. That means if we know εx, εy, γxy, then how to compute strain at a
point if we have different axes orientation and how to compute the principal strains
and how to compute the shear strains and their orientations with respect to rectangular
axes system.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:51 to 04:11min).
Let us look into the answers to the questions which I had posed last time. The first
question which was given was what is the purpose of transformation equations? Now
that we had derived the transformation equations now we will look into what is the
purpose of this particular equation.
(Refer Slide Time: 04:12 to 05:03 min)
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At a particular point if we are interested to evaluate the strains in terms of the strains
which are known in the x direction, y direction and shearing strain i.e. εx, εy and γxy.
Then in this particular point if we like to evaluate the strain with reference to another
axis system which is oriented at an angle of θ with reference to x axis and let us say
this is x’ and y’ axes then what will be the state of strain at this particular point? Will
they still be εx, εy and γxy or will they be different?
Through transformation equation we tried to evaluate the strains at that particular

point with reference to different axis system which are x’ y’ in this particular case. So
the purpose of the transformation equations is to evaluate the strain at different
orientations with reference to the rectangular axis system x and y.
The second question was how will you derive the value of maximum normal strain?
Please note here that we are going to find out the value of the maximum normal
strain. We had computed the value of normal strain at a particular point when the axes
system is oriented at an angle of θ with reference to x and y. Now what we need to do
is that to first find out the value of the maximum normal strain and the location where
that occurs.
Now the transformation equations we had derived,

εx’ = εx cos2 θ+ εy sin2 θ + γxy sin θ cos θ, where θ is the angle which is oriented in an
anticlockwise form with reference to the x axis.
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εx’ can also be written as,
εx’ = (εx + εy)/2 + (εx – εy)/2 cos 2θ + γxy/2 sin 2θ
And also if we substitute for θ as θ + 90°, then this gives us the value of εy’, which is,
εy’ = (εx + εy)/2 – (εx – εy)/2 cos 2θ – γxy/2 sin 2θ.
And the shearing strain with reference to x’y’ axis which is,
γx’y’ we have written in terms of γx’y’/2 = – (εx – εy) sin2θ /2 + γxy cos 2θ /2.
Now let us look into, that if we have to find out the maximum normal strain, now this
is the normal strain εx’ which is acting in the x direction. To do that if we take the
derivative of this strain with respect to θ we can get the value of the angle at which
the maximum normal strain will be oriented.
(Refer Slide Time 08:02 to 09:47 min)
Let us look into that aspect first. Now,

εx’ = (εx + εy)/2 + (εx – εy)/2 cos2θ + γxy/2 sin2θ
Now if we take the derivative of this with respect to θ,

dεx’/dθ = (εx – εy)/2 (– sin2θ) + γxy /2 (2 cos2θ)
To get the maximum value, dεx’/dθ = 0, thus,
(εx – εy)/2 (– sin2θ) + γxy /2 (2 cos2θ) = 0, which gives,
tan 2θ = γxy /(εx – εy)
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Now let us call this angle with the θp. The maximum normal strain we generally
designate as principal strain. As we had done in case of stresses the maximum normal
stress and the minimum normal stress are designated as principal stresses but here the
strain values are the maximum normal strains. We call as principal strains and their
orientation angles are denoted with θp.
Now this particular equation has two solutions, one is 2θp and tan 180+2θp, which is
also the same value. So we will have two angles; one is θp and the other one is 90+θp
in the physical plane.
(Refer Slide Time from 010:37 to 14:27 min)
So these give us the orientation of the direction along which the normal strain will be
maximum. Now if this is the orientation along which normal strain is the maximum
then what is the value of the corresponding normal strain which is the maximum
normal strain?
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We have obtained that
tan2θp = γxy /(εx – εy)
If the angle is 2θp, perpendicular is γxy and base is εx – εy, so the hypotenuse will be,
denoting it as R, where,
R = √ ((εx – εy )2 + γxy 2)
From here, cos2θp = (εx – εy)/R and sin2θp = γxy /R. If we substitute the value of cos
2θp and sin 2θp in the expression for εx’ that will give us the maximum value of the
normal strain. So let us call that as ε1, then,
ε1 = (εx + εy)/2 + [(εx – εy)/2] (εx – εy)/R + (γxy /2) (γxy /R)
= (εx + εy)/2 + [(εx – εy)2 + γxy 2]/2R
As we know that the numerator (εx – εy)2 + γxy 2, this is nothing but R2, so,
ε1 = (εx + εy)/2 + R2/2R

= (εx + εy)/2 + R/2
= (εx + εy)/2 + (1/2) √((εx – εy )2 + γxy 2)
This is the value of the maximum normal strain acting at that particular point.
Here if you look into the shearing strain γx’y’ is given as this, now we have already
looked into the angle at which the maximum normal strain occurs is,
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tan2θp = γxy/(εx – εy)
In this particular expression for shearing strain if we substitute for γx’y’ = 0, this
expression leads us to,
tan2θ = γxy /(εx – εy).
This indicates that the angle at which the maximum normal strain occur the shearing
strain is zero at that place. In case of stresses the plane along which the maximum
normal stress acts at that particular plane the shearing stress is zero. In similar line
here where the orientation at which we get the maximum normal strain which we are
calling as principal strain then in that element the shearing strain is zero, where
maximum normal strain occurs.
Now, we have seen that the tan2θp = γxy /(εx – εy) and corresponding to the angle of
2θp, we get the value of ε1 or εmax. Now if we substitute as 180° + 2θp as the other
angle and substitute for cos and sin we can get the value of ε2 or εmin, which is,
ε2 = (εx + εy)/2 2 √((εx – εy )2 + γxy 2)
So the ε1 or ε2, the maximum and the minimum normal strain are given as,
ε1,2 = (εx + εy)/ 2 ± √ ((εx – εy )2 + γxy 2)
The third question was how you will find the value of maximum shear strain at a point
for plane strain condition. Now let us look into this particular answer that how we are
going to compute the value of maximum shear strain.
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As we have seen the shearing strain at any orientation which is oriented at an angle of
θ with reference to x axis,
γx’y’/2 = – (εx – εy )/2 sin2θ + γxy /2 cos2θ
Now we take the derivative of this with respect to θ and eventually this gives as,
dγx’y’/dθ = – (εx – εy )/2 (2 cos2θ) + (γxy /2) ( –2sin2θ)
For maximum and minimum shearing strain, dγx’y’/dθ = 0, which gives us,
tan2θ = – (εx – εy)/ γxy.
In the previous case we evaluated the maximum normal strain and we had the value of
angle 2θp as γxy /(εx – εy) and in this particular case when we are taking the derivative
of the shearing strain with respect to θ, we are getting the value of the angle which we
are calling as the angle for the shear, θs, tan 2θs = – (εx – εy)/ γxy.
In general we can write, tan 2θs = – 1/tan 2θp = – cot2θp and this we can write as
tan(90°+2θp). So 2θ = 90°+2θp. Hence θs = 45° + θp. This shows that the angle at
which the shearing strain is maximum that orientation is 45° with respect to the
orientation with reference to the principal axes strain.
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So the direction along which maximum normal strain occurs, where we get ε1 which
is the maximum εx, if we orient by another 45°, we will get the values of maximum
and minimum shear strain.
As tan 2θs = – (εx – εy)/ γxy, so the hypotenuse will be,
R = √ ((εx – εy )2 + γxy 2)
Hence the value of cos 2θs = γxy/R and sin 2θs = – (εx – εy)/R. Now if we substitute
the values of cos 2θs and sin2θs in the expression for γ which is,
γx’y’/2 = – (εx – εy)/2 sin 2θ + γxy /2 cos 2θ, then we will get,
γx’y’/2 = (εx – εy)2/2R + γxy2/2R
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Eventually again (εx – εy)2+ γxy 2 = R2, and hence the value of maximum shear stress,
γmax = √((εx – εy )2 + γxy 2).
Similarly in the case of the maximum normal strain we had two angles 2θp and
180°+2θp, here also we have two angles 2θs and 180°+2θs and if we substitute
corresponding values, we will get the value of maximum and minimum shearing
strain, which is,
γmax,min = ±√((εx – εy)2 + γxy 2)
So, this is the value of the maximum and the minimum shearing strain corresponding
to the plane strain condition.
Now as we have evaluated the strain at a point, if the reference axis is oriented at an
angle of θ with reference to the rectangular axis system x and y we have seen how to
compute the value of the maximum normal strain which we have called as the
principal strain, we have see how to compute the value of the maximum shearing
strain and the orientations of the principal strain and shearing strain through the
angles θp and θs. As we did in case of stress evaluation at a point we had calculated
the values of the maximum normal stress which we called as principal stress, we
calculated the maximum shearing stresses and their orientations with reference to the
rectangular axis system.
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Now as we did in case of stress evaluations we had evaluated at any orientation
through transformation equations, also we had evaluated stresses at a point at any
orientation through Mohr’s circle of stress. In case of strain as so long we have
calculated the values at a point at different orientations the normal strains and
shearing strains the maximum value of the normal strain the principal strain and the
maximum shearing strain through the use of transformation equations. We can find
out the strain at any orientation at a particular point using Mohr’s circle of strain.
Now we will look into the concept of Mohr’s circle of strain. Before we get into that,
let us look into the sign conventions of different strain components. As we have seen
that positive normal strain is basically the elongation per unit length. When we said
that εx is the strain in the x direction we referred to the extension or the elongation in
the x direction. Likewise when we are talking about the positive strain in the y
direction it is its elongation in the y direction. When we are talking about the negative
strain both in the x and y direction basically they are under compression.
So, positive normal strain is the elongation per unit length and compressive normal
strains are considered as negative. In case of shear strains, this is little different than
the normal strain. They are positive when the angle decreases and negative when
angle increases. Based on this particular definition of positive and negative shears we
can say that positive shear stress cause positive shear strain and the vice versa.
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Now let us look into the figures then we will more clear. Now in this figure if we look
into a small element of length dx and dy, at a point where the member is undergoing
strain. Now this is the extension and if the strain in the direction is εx, we write this as
εx.dx. As this is the elongation and we call this is as positive strain. In this case the
compression of this element is denoted by this dotted line and this is again, εxdx but it
is gone in the opposite direction or it has compressed. So here, εx is negative.
Now in the y direction the element is elongated and it has taken this particular
position. So this extension is equals to εydy and here since it is elongation we call this
εy as positive. In this figure again this element’s length is dx and this is dy. Now here
this part has come to this particular position wherein again the compression of this
element is equal to εydy but since it has undergone compression, so εy here is
negative. That is how we define the positive and negative normal strain.
In case of shearing strain as we say that the angle decreases then this was the position
x and y and from this x and y position this was the element dx and dy, here this is
oriented in this particular form thereby the angle which was 90° before is getting
reduced. Hence this shearing strain is called as the positive shear strength and here in
an anticlockwise direction it is moving in this form and here in a clockwise direction
it is moving in this position and this we call as γxy/2 and γxy /2. Now if you remember
last time when we were computing the values of γx’y’, which was the summation of
two quantities α and β and α was the orientation of x axis in the position OA and β
was the orientation of y axis along OB and the sum of α and β gave us the value of the
shearing strain γx’y’. Here the position from OA and OB is moving to this position and
thereby the angle is decreasing and we call this shearing strain total γxy /2 + γxy /2
which are γxy as the positive shearing strain and this is the position that the element is
going to take because of the shearing strain.
Now if you remember, we discussed about positive shear. Now if we draw the
shearing stress in an element, the direction of positive shear stress is this on this phase
and on this phase it is downwards, on this phase it is in this direction and on this
phase it is in this direction.
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Now this positive shear as we had taken in case of the construction of the Mohr’s
circle this upward shear along with this complementary shear causes an anticlockwise
rotation and this shear along with the complementary on the other phase causes
clockwise rotation. This anticlockwise rotation we had taken as positive and the
clockwise one we had taken as negative. Now this positive direction of shear tries to
deform the element in this direction, this direction of positive direction tries to deform
the element in this direction and that is why this is positive strain.
In contrast if we look into the strain which is the negative one here the angle between
the two axes OX and OY was in 90° and now because of the strain it has increased.
This increase is due to shearing strain and this we define as the negative shear strain
so this is again γxy/2 and this is γxy/2.
Please note that in the previous case this moment was in the anticlockwise direction
but in this particular figure it is in the clockwise direction and here it was in a
clockwise direction and here it is in an anticlockwise direction. So anticlockwise
movement in Mohr’s circle we will consider as positive as before and clockwise
direction we will consider as negative as before. This is the configuration which
shows that this particular element which was of length dx and dy in the initial stage
undergoes deformation in the x direction as given here, and it undergoes deformation
in the y direction as given here and also it has shearing strain. So the final position
after undergoing the εx, εy and γxy, this is the position that it is going to take. So this
particular configuration corresponds to εx, εy, γxy where all are positive.
In this figure again if we look into this particular element which is originally again of
length dx and dy it undergoes strain but in the opposite direction or it gets
compressed. So this is the negative εxdx and again here in this direction this is the
deformation it gets compressed which is εydy and it has a negative shearing strain and
because of that the angle increases and when we combine all three strains it takes the
shape in this particular form.
So this particular configuration is corresponding to εx, εy and γxy, where all three
quantities are negative. This is the sign convention which we follow and we will be
following this convention while plotting the Mohr’s circle for the strain. Exactly in
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the similar line we did in case of stress evaluation we will be computing the strain
identically using the Mohr’s circle of strain.
Now here let us say we have strain at a point or in a small element are εx, εy and γxy
and from this configuration you can make out that all quantities are positive; εx is
positive εy is positive and γxy is positive. So if we take these quantities we can

compare our relationship with the stresses and in case of stresses at any orientation x’,
it was written as a function of  x ,  y , and  xy .
Now here in contrast to this the normal strain εx’, we are writing in terms of εx, εy and
γxy/2. If you look into the expression for εx’ and σx’, we will find,
σx’ = (σx+σy)/2 + (σx – σy)/2 cos 2θ + τxy sin 2θ
and
So in place of τxy, we have γxy/2, in place of σx we have εx and in place of σy we have
εy, otherwise the expression is identical.
Now let us find out how you compute the strain at any orientation with reference to
this x and y at a particular point. If we know the strain at a point which is given by εx,
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εy and γxy, we are interested to find out strain at that point which is at any orientation
at an angle of θ in an anticlockwise form with respect to x so we need to find out εθ
and γ also in that orientation in θ.
Last time in the x axes for stresses we had written down in σ, but here we write this
strain for ε and the y axis instead of τ we write this as γ/2 axis. From here if we plot
the value of εx and γxy/2 then we get one point in this plane which we call as Mohr’s
plane, also εy and γxy/2. If you remember that γxy /2 when we were looking into the
sign convention from x it is oriented at an angle of γxy /2 in the anticlockwise form
which we are calling as positive and in the y direction it is oriented again by γxy /2 in
the clockwise direction which is the opposite to this.
If we have plotted γxy in this particular position, now here we take εy and γxy/2. So
this is the distance which is εy and this is γxy/2 and this point is at a distance of εx
from origin and this is γxy /2. Now if we join these two points and when they cross the
epsilon axis then it denotes the centre of the circle and this line is the diameter of the
Mohr’s circle.
If we look into this particular triangle and this particular triangle now this is equals to
this, this is equals to this and this is equals to this so the distance from here to here
this particular distance is divided equally by this particular point. From O to A, this
distance is εx, from O to B the distance is εy, so the distance AB = εx – εy and the
central point from O you call this as O’. So O’A or O’B, O’A = O’B = (εx – εy)/2.
Hence the distance of the centre from the origin, this particular distance is equal to
OA – AO’, the distance OO’ = OA – AO’. Now OA = εx, so this is equal to εx – AO’
= (εx – εy)/2. So this – (εx – εy)/2 gives the value of (εx + εy)/2. So the distance from
the origin to the centre is (εx + εy)/2.
Now if we look into this particular circle, if we take this O’ as the centre and OC as
the radius and if we plot a circle eventually we get the circle which we call as the
Mohr’s circle for strain wherein the axis in the x direction corresponds epsilon and the
axis in the y direction corresponds to γ 2.
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This is the point which represents the value of the maximum normal strain and this we
designate as ε1. This is the value of the minimum normal strain and this we designate
as ε2, also this is the value which gives us the maximum value of the shearing strain
which is equal to the radius of this particular circle.
So if we know εx, εy and γxy then we can compute the value of ε1 then compute the
value of the ε2 and the shearing strain. Now, from this you can make out the value of
ε1, which will be equal to the distance OO’ plus the radius. From this particular
diagram O’A and C from this particular triangle CA’= γxy /2 O’A = (εx – εy)/2. This
distance is (εx – εy)/2. So the distance CO’, which is the radius is equal to √((εx – εy )2
+ γxy 2). So, the value ε1 = OO’, which is (εx + εy)/2 + √((εx – εy )2 + γxy 2).
So this gives us the value of ε1, which we have seen already through transformation
equations and ε2 will be OO’ minus the value of the radius. So once we substitute this
as minus we will get the value of ε2 and this is the radius which is equal to the plus
and minus that gives us the value of the shearing strain. So using Mohr’s circle of
strain again we can compute the values of the principal strains ε1, ε2 and the
maximum value of the shearing strain.
Let us look into how to plot the Mohr’s circle of strain if we know the normal strain
components εx, εy and γxy. For this particular element at a point we have the values of
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this element as dx and dy and the strains in the x direction as εx, in the y direction as
εy and the shearing strain as γxy. Now if we know these components our job will be
evaluate the strains at this particular point the maximum normal strains, the maximum
shearing strains and their orientations.
For example, if we have a set of rectangular axis which is oriented at an angle of θ

with reference to x and y axes then what are the values of the strain corresponding to
those orientations can also be evaluated using the Mohr’s circle.
Now let us look into that if we know the value of εx, εy and γxy at a particular point in
a plane strain condition then how we can extract the other information using Mohr’s
circle of strain. As we discussed in case of stresses regarding the direction of the axis,
remember that you said this is the positive x direction in which we call this as ε. Now
in the γ/2, we put the y in the downward direction as positive, the reason behind this
was that if we are interested to evaluate the strains at a particular direction which is
oriented at an angle of θ in the anticlockwise direction then we can keep the same
orientation of angle anticlockwise in the Mohr’s plane and to make this compatibility
we consider the direction of gamma in the downward direction.
If we consider the gamma positive in the upward direction then this orientation of
anticlockwise in the physical plane will be clockwise in case of the Mohr’s plane.
Now to keep the clarity between the physical one and the Mohr’s plane we keep the
axis direction as positive for ε on the right hand side and γ 2 in the downward y
direction. Now assuming that the normal strain εx is greater than the normal strain εy
we know εx, εy and γxy so we choose a point say εx and γ 2 and this is a point on the
Mohr’s plane. Another point we get corresponding to a value of εy and
correspondingly the γ 2. So this distance is εx and this is γxy/2, this is εy and this is
γxy/2. If we join these two points it crosses the epsilon axis at this particular point and
this is the diameter of the Mohr’s circle and this is the centre of the Mohr’s circle.
Now with this if we plot the circle we get the Mohr’s circle of strain. Now
corresponding to this particular circle the value of the maximum normal strain is this
which we have denoted as ε1, the minimum normal strain is this which we have
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denoted as ε2 and the value of the maximum shearing strain positive shear strain is
this and value of negative shear strain maximum or the minimum shear strain is this.
Now this is the point which denotes the maximum normal strain ε and this particular
point is oriented at an angle of 2θp with reference to this, now this is our reference
line where εx γxy occurs so from this particular reference line let us call this as OA so
if we orient by an angle of 2θp then we get the position for the maximum normal
strain. Then if we orient from the position of the maximum normal strain by 180° then
we get the position for minimum normal strain. These are the values of ε1 and ε2 and
this is the angle which gives us the value of maximum normal strain which is 2θp in
the Mohr’s plane and in the physical plane it will be θp.
Now if we are interested to compute the strain at any orientation which is at an angle
of θ with reference to x then we plot an angle 2θ from this particular reference line
and if we go in an anticlockwise direction, if this is the line which represents 2θ and
this particular point gives us the value of a corresponding normal and the shearing
strain.
So this is value of ε, the normal strain at θ and this is the corresponding value of γθ/2.
And if we go in the opposite direction diametrically opposite point, this will give the
value of εy εθ or εθx and εθy and correspondingly this value is γθ/2. In this particular
plane this θ is oriented at an anticlockwise fashion with θ and here also in the Mohr’s
plane we go in the anticlockwise direction by 2θ to locate that particular orientation in
the Mohr’s plane and that is why we consider the direction of ε axis and γ axis in this
form so that this compatibility between the orientation is maintained.
Also if you note that this is the orientation along which the maximum and the
minimum shear strains are occurring so they are with reference to this particular
reference plane which will be at an angle, this is – θs and from here again if we orient
by 180° we will get this. Now from θp this is the position of the maximum normal
strain and this is the position of the maximum shearing strain and these two make an
angle of 90° in the Mohr’s plane and hence these two directions make an angle of 45°
in the physical plane and that we have seen through the transformation equations.
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So what you observe here is that the state of transformation equations as we have
derived for evaluating strain components at any orientation with reference to the
rectangular axis system xy corresponding to the plane strain condition εx, εy and γxy,
we can achieve similar results through this Mohr’s circle of strain as we have
observed in case of the Mohr’s circle of stresses before.
Having looked into this let us look into the problem example. If we know the state of
strain at a particular point then how do you compute the values of the other strains at a
particular angle or the principal strain? Now the state of plane strain at a point in a
body is given by εx as positive, εy as this which is positive and γxy also as positive.
Now determine the strain components if the axes are oriented at an angle of 30° with
reference axis in anticlockwise direction and also determine the principal strains.
If we like to compute the values corresponding to the given values we have,

εx = 340 × 10–6,
εy = 110 × 10–6,
γxy = 180 × 10–6
Now from the transformation equations we know,
Now if we substitute θ is 30°, so 2θ is 60°, then we will get,

εx’ = 225 × 10–6 + 115 × 10–6 × (1/2) + 90 × 10–6 × (√3/2) = 360.44 × 10-6
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So that is the value of εx along the direction which is oriented at 30° with reference to
the x direction. Correspondingly,
εy’ = (εx + εy)/2 – (εx – εy)/2 cos 2θ – γxy/2 sin 2θ
Substituting the corresponding values, we get,

εy’ = 89.36 × 10–6
So if we add εx’ and εy’, this will eventually be approximately equal to 450×10–6, it
should ideally be 450 × 10–6, which is equal to εx + εy.
Now, γx’y’/2 = – (εx – εy 2 sin2θ + γxy/2 cos2θ
If we substitute the values which gives us,

γx’y’ = –109.2 × 10–6
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So initially we had the element which is in this form and we had a strain which is
positive in the x direction, we had a strain which is positive in the y direction so this is
the positive strain and then γxy also is positive which means the angle is reducing.
This is the position of the element and in this particular case when we are computing
the strain at 30°, we have εx’ as positive, we have εy’ as positive, we have γx’y’ as
negative and hence if we plot that you can get the configuration corresponding to that
particular element. Well, we will deal with this in the next class.
The next problem is that solve the same problem as we have given in one. But using
Mohr’s circle of strain, compute the principal strain direction and maximum shear
strain.
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The next example is that an element of material in plane strain is subjected to strains
of these. We got to evaluate the principal strain and the shear strains and also strain at
an angle of 75°.
The fourth problem is that the strain at a point for an element is given by these values.
We will have to determine the principal strain and maximum shear strain using
Mohr’s circle of strain.
Well, this particular lesson included the concept of plane strain at a point and for
different orientation of axis system, concept of principal strains, shear strains and their
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orientations using transformation equation and Mohr’s circle and examples to
evaluate strains at a point using transformation equations and Mohr’s circle.
And look into these questions:

 What is the value of the shear strain where normal strain is at maximum?
 What is the value of normal strain where shear is at maximum?
 What is the relationship between the orientation maximum shear strain to the
orientation of maximum normal strain?
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Lecture No #14
Analysis of Strain VIII
This is the 8 lesson of module 2 which is on Analysis of Strain. We have already discussed
quite a few aspects of analysis of strain.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:59 – 01:04 min)
Today we are going to discuss some more aspects of analysis of strain. It is expected that
once this particular lesson is completed one should be able to understand the concept of strain
gages and strain rosettes and their uses in evaluating strain and stresses at a point.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:35 – 01:37 min)
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One should be able to understand the relationship between elastic modulus and shear
modulus, how we relate the elastic modulus to the shear modulus and then consequently the
concept of bulk modulus.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:41 - 02:30 min)
As the scope of this particular lesson includes the recapitulation of previous lesson we will be
answering the questions posed last time. Then concept of strain gages and strain rosettes, use
of strain rosette values in evaluating plane strains and stresses will be discussed. We will also
discuss how the rosette dilutes the strains which we evaluate or measure through the use of
strain rosette and how they are used to compute the values of strains and stresses at a point.
Then the relation between elastic constants and then the concept of bulk modulus will be
dealt, and we will be solving few examples for evaluation of strains at a point from the given
information.
(Refer Slide Time: 2:33 min)
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Let us look into the answers of the questions which we posed last time.
The first question is what is the value of shear strain where normal strain is at maximum?
Probably the first and second questions can be discussed together.
What is the value of normal strain where shear strain is at maximum?
Let us discuss these two questions through the Mohr circle of strain. If you remember last
time we had discussed that we can plot the Mohr circle for evaluating strain at a point.
Now if we have an element which is subjected to strain let us say this is reference x axis and
this is y axis, the strain is εx, εy and the shearing strain is γxy, now we can plot them in the
Mohr circle and this is the point this being the positive strain axis and this is the positive γ/2
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axis, this particular point represent the positive εx and γxy/2 and this particular point which is
diametrically opposite to this particular point represent εy and – γxy/2.
This is the center of the Mohr circle which is at a distance of (εx + εy)/2 and this particular
point gives us the maximum normal strain which we normally denote as ε1 the maximum
principal strain. And as you can absorb from this particular point and from this diagram, at
this point the value of shearing strain is zero. So along the axis where the principal strain or
the normal strain is the maximum the value of the shear strain is zero.
Consequently if you look into the Mohr circle the maximum value of the strains are at this
particular point and at this particular point. This is the maximum positive shear strain and this
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is the minimum because magnitude-wise they are same but only it is negative. This is γxy
maximum. The point where the shear strain is the maximum the corresponding normal strain
is equal to this and this normal strain is equal to (εx + εy)/2. Therefore along the axis where
the shear strain is maximum the corresponding normal strain is (εx + εy)/2. This answers the
first two questions.
The third question is what is the relationship between the orientations of maximum shear
strain to the orientation of maximum normal strain?
Last time we discussed this aspect. The principal angle 2θp for the maximum principal strain
can be located using the expression γxy/(εx – εy). In the Mohr circle if we try to locate the
principal plane, this is the position of the maximum normal strain and if this is the reference
plane or reference point where strain is εx and γxy/2 from this particular orientation which is
along the x direction if we move anticlockwise by 2θp we get the point of maximum strain.
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In the physical space if we move in anticlockwise form by an angle of θp this gives the
direction of the principal strain ε1 and the expression for measuring this angle θp is tan 2θp =
γxy/(εx – εy). Consequently we had seen that the expression for evaluating the angle for
maximum shear strain which is tan 2θs = (εx – εy)/γxy.
Now, tan 2θs = ̶ 1/tan 2θp = ̶ cot 2θp = tan (90°+2θp)
Hence 2θs = 90 + 2θp and consequently the solution for this can be 90°+θ and (90° + θ)+180°
will be another angle. So the relationship between the orientation of shear strain which is θs =
450+θp. That means if we know the direction of the principal strain from that if we orient by
45°, we can get the direction for the maximum shear strain. This is the relationship between
the orientations of shear strain to the orientation of principal strain direction. These two
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directions are interrelated and they are at 45° apart in the physical plane which is at 90° apart
in the Mohr circle of strain.
Have looked into these questions now, let us look into the aspects which we are going to
discuss today: the concept of the strain gage and consequently the term which is called as
Strain Rosette. Many a times what we need to do is that experimentally we need to measure
the strain at a point in a stressed body and that can be done using a device, which we call as
Strain Gage. Electrical resistance strain gage is one such device using which we can evaluate
strain at a point in a stressed body.
The mechanism of this particular strain gage works with a wire which is pasted on a paper
base and this can be fixed onto the stressed body as the body undergoes strain or deformation
the gage also along with the body undergoes deformation and thereby there is a change in the
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resistance of that particular wire which is evaluated in terms of the strain and that is the basic
principal. The strain gages can be used for measuring strain at a point or specifically the
normal strain at a point in a particular direction. This is the configuration of the strain gage as
shown here where this particular area is the backing strip over which the wire is placed and
this is the gage length of the strain gage. Various sizes of the strain gages are available, they
range between 2mm to even 40mm to 50mm size. Depending on the usage depending on the
type of strain we are looking for or the accuracy in the strain we are looking for we use such
gages to measure the strain at a particular point.
From this particular strain values we need the normal strain εx, εy, γxy and if we have those
information then we can compute the value of principal strains ε1, ε2; we can evaluate the
stresses from those strains. So if measurement of strain at a point using such strain gages is a
useful aspect in Strength of Materials.
In a plane strain we need to have three quantities. They are: εx, εy and γxy. And if we can have
these quantities then we can compute the strain values, which are ε1, ε2, the principal strains,
they are directions, the maximum shearing strain which is γmax, and once we have the values
of the principal strains we can compute the values of principal stresses as well which are
related between the strains and the strain.
Therefore we can evaluate the stress at that particular point. But the point is the strain gage
which we use can be used for measuring the normal strain. If we place the strain gage along
the x-direction we can get the value of εx and if we place them in the y-direction we can get
the value of εy but the problem is with the γxy.
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We cannot measure the shearing strain γxy directly as we can measure the normal strain εx and
εy using the strain gages oriented in that particular direction because strain gage gives us the
normal strain at that particular point so we can evaluate εx and εy but measurement of γxy is
difficult.
Therefore we take an indirect path to evaluate γxy so that we can utilize this information for
evaluating principal strains and thereby the stresses. The indirect path is like this, what we do
is that if we install strain gages along three directions, let us call this is direction a, this is
direction b, and this is direction c.
Now if we place strain gage along Oa, Ob, and Oc then we can get the normal strains εa, εb
and εc in three directions. Let us assume that the direction Oa is oriented at an angle of θa with
reference x-axis and likewise Ob is oriented at an angle of θb with reference x-axis, and Oc is
oriented at an angle of θc with reference x -axis.
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If we have this information, if you remember, we calculated the transformation equations as,
εx’ = (εx + εy)/2 + (εx ̶ εy)/2 cos2θ + γxy/2 sin2θ
In this case, x’ direction with θ, the εa is corresponding to θa, εb is corresponding to θb and εc

is corresponding to θc. Now, if we substitute for θa, θb, θc correspondingly we can get the
values of εa, εb and εc and this is what is done over here.
(Refer Slide Time 15:19 min)
εa = (εx + εy)/2 + (εx ̶ εy) cos2θa/2 + (γxy sin2θa)/2……….…………(1)
εb = (εx + εy)/2 + (εx ̶ εy) cos2θb/2+ (γxy sin 2θb)/2……...…………..(2)
εc = (εx + εy)/2 + (εx ̶ εy)cos 2θc)/2 + (γxysin2θc)/2………………….(3)
We have three equations: equation 1, equation 2, and equation 3 and out of these three
equations we know the value of εa, we know the value of εb, and we know the value of εc.
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Also we know the orientation angles θa, θb and θc. Since these three parameters or six
parameters are known εa, εb and εc are known; consequently θa, θb θc are known. The
unknown parameters εx, εy and γxy can be evaluated from these three equations. Therefore we
can compute εx we can compute εy, and we can compute γxy from these equations. Once we
know εx, εy and γxy then using these three quantities we can evaluate strain at any orientation
as we desire as we have seen either using transformation equations or using Mohr circle or
we can evaluate even the principal strains and consequently evaluate principal stresses from
the material properties.
When we use the strain gages together to measure the strain at a particular point we call that
assembly as the strain rosette; the formation of three gages together is termed as strain
rosette. These angles shown as θa, θb and θc can be chosen according to our own convenience
and normally the angles used are the 45° or 60° and now this is called as a 45° strain rosette.
Here two angles used are; θa is 45° and θb is 45°. Now along the x-direction we have oriented
a, along 45° we have b, along 90° we have c. Since εa are the strain along a is coinciding with
the x axis, so, εx is εa directly. Likewise since this particular gage c is oriented in the
direction of y the εy = εc; so directly we can get the values of εx and εy from the measured
strain value of εa and εb. What we need to do is evaluation of γxy. Again if we go back to the
transformation equation which is
Now θ here is 45°, so sin90° is 1, cos90° = 0,

εb = (εa + εc)/2 + γxy/2.
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So from this, it gives,
γxy/2 = εb ̶ (εa + εc)/2
So we get the value of εx, εy and γxy from the measurement of this particular type of strain
rosette which can be utilized for evaluating the strain or the principal strain at that particular
point and those principal strains can be utilized for evaluating stresses at that particular point.
Another kind of strain rosette is oriented at an angle of 60°, again the whole assembly the
three strain gages fixed in this particular form can be fixed on the surface where we like to
measure the strain, and at that particular point we are measuring strains in three different
directions which are oriented at an angle of 60° with reference to the different x axis.
This is reference x-axis and now the y-axis here is in this direction; so let us call this as
direction a, this as b, and this as c.
So as usual since the strain in the gage a is in the x-direction, so εx = εa. Now here neither the
gage is oriented in the direction y so εy we cannot get directly and we cannot evaluate the
value of γxy directly as we have seen earlier so we have to find the values of εy and γxy from
the measure strain in the direction of b and c.
To evaluate the strain value at εy and γxy we make use of the transformation equation which is
again,
Thus,
εb = (εx + εy)/2 + (εx ̶ εy)/2 cos120° + γxy/2 sin120°
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Likewise we evaluate the strain in the c direction εc , which is,
εc = (εx + εy)/2 + (εx ̶ εy)/2 cos240° + γxy/2 sin240°
Once we substitute the values of that then we get two equations in εb and εc and we have two
unknown parameters εy and γxy and these two can be solved and if we solve that we will get
the values of εy and γxy in terms of εb and εc. We have again three quantities εx, εy and γxy in
terms of εa, εb and εc and that was our objective as to find the values of εx, εy and γxy in terms
of εa, εb and εc and that was what our objective: to find out the values of ɛx ɛy and γxy in terms
of εa, εb and εc and these are the three normal strains which we have measured at a point based
on which we can compute other quantities as we desire.
This is another important aspect wherein we need to relate the quantity which is E which we
call as modulus of elasticity to the quantity G which we call as the modulus of the rigidity.
We have already seen the definition of E and G earlier and now we like to relate these two
quantities E and G.
Let us look into state of stress at a point where the stresses are all shearing, stresses acting at
that particular point in this element. Here the normal stresses σx and σy = 0 and the shearing
stresses are τxy. If you remember this kind of stress distribution is called as the state of pure
shear. This aspect we have discussed earlier when we discussed about the stress at any point.
So this is a state of pure shear.
Now if we try to plot this stress in the Mohr circle, and as we have seen, this is our σ-axis and
this is our τ-axis and now on this particular plane σ the normal stress = 0, when we have only
positive τxy which is causing anticlockwise moment and correspondingly if we place σ this is
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σ axis, σ is 0 and we have positive τ so this is a point which can be represented by this
particular stress value and in the perpendicular direction again σy is 0, so we have normal
stress 0 and negative of τ which is this particular point. So considering this as the center let us
call this o as center and OA or OA’ as the radius and now if we draw the circle this gives us
the Mohr circular stress corresponding to the pure state of shear at a particular point.
In this diagram this is the maximum normal stress which we call as σ1 and this is the
minimum normal stress which we call as σ2. Please observe that the maximum stress point
OO’ or the minimum stress point OO’’ are of the same magnitude which is equal the radius of
the circle. The radius of the circle is τxy. so σ1 = τxy and σ2 = ̶ τxy and this is the element
where the principal stresses σ1 and σ2 are acting. Now this aspect must be noted, we have
seen consequently when we were evaluating the direction for the principal strain. We have
seen that the direction of the principal stress at a point and direction of the principal strain
match. In fact they are oriented at an angle of 45° with reference to the reference x-axis.
Hence the principal strains and principal stresses occur in the same direction. This is quite
important. We know that in this particular point if we would like to find out the strain ε1 we
can compute that,
ε1 = σ1/E ̶ µ (σ2/E)
This is the plane state of stress that is acting in this σ1 and σ2. And if we like to evaluate the
strain σ1 /E is the direct strain and µ (σ2/E) is because of the Poisson effect.
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Now if we substitute for the value of σ1 and σ2, as we have seen that σ1 = τxy and σ2 = ̶ τxy,
Hence,
ε 1 = τxy/E ̶ µ ( ̶ τxy)/E = 1+ µ (τxy/E)………………….(1)
We have seen that the strain at any direction

εx’ = (εx + εy)/2 + (εx ̶ εy/2) cos2θ + γxy/2 sin2θ
Since the direction of principal stress coincides with the direction of the principal strain then
also that we have noted that σx = σy = 0, so since normal stresses are zero and the
corresponding normal strains are also 0; εx = 0 and εy = 0, hence the first term is 0.
Now since the direction of the principal strain is, θ = 450, so cos90° is 0 and thereby sin90°,
so the strain in the principal direction,
ε1 = γxy/2
Now the relation between the shearing stress and the shearing strain can be related through
the shear modulus using the Hooke’s law. So,
τxy = G(γxy), where τxy is the shearing stress and G is the shear modulus.
Hence, γxy = τxy/G, which gives,

ε1 = τxy/G………………………….(2)
Now, if we equate equation 1 and 2, in the first place we have,

1 + μ(τxy)/E = τxy/2G,
which gives,
G = E/2(1 + μ)
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This is the relationship between the shear modulus G and the elastic modulus E through the
term Poisson’s ratio. This is the relationship between E, G, and τ.
Now please note that these are the three quantities E, G, and τ these three elastic constants are
necessary for evaluating deformation at a particular point but out of these three quantities two
are independent and one can be evaluated in terms of the other two.
These are the expressions which we have just derived. It is written over here,
ε1 = (1 + µ) τxy/E
εx’ = (εx + εy)/2 + (εx ̶ εy) cos 2θ/2 + γxy/2 sin2θ
Now, for εx = εy = 0 and 2θ = 90°, we get, ε1 = γxy/2 = τxy/2G, which ultimately gives,
G = E/(2(1+ µ))
This is the relationship between E and G through the term Poisson’s ratio µ is the Poisson’s
ratio.
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Let us look into another quantity which we define as bulk modulus. Many a times we need to
know the volume change at a particular stressed body and if we try to find out we generally
come up with another constant K, which we call as bulk modulus which is related to the
change in the volume in a stressed body.
Now let us look at a point where a small body which is having a dimension dx, dy, and dz. So
the volume of this particular small element,
Vo = dx.dy.dz
Now after this particular element has undergone strain there will be extension in all three
directions and thereby there will be change in the volume. Let us say that the strains in the x,
y, and z directions are ɛx ɛy and ɛz and thereby the extensions in the x direction will be εx.dx);
and the extension in the y direction will be εy.dy; and the extension in the z direction will be
εz.dz.
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The changed volume accordingly will be,
V’ = (dx + εxdx) (dy + εydy) (dz + εzdz)
= dx dy dz (1 + εx)(1 + εy) (1 + εz)
= Vo (1+ ɛx + ɛy + ɛz + ɛx ɛy + ɛy ɛz + ɛx ɛz + ɛx ɛy ɛz)
Now since the strain is small ɛx ,ɛy ,ɛz, they are small quantities, so the product of these
quantities, ɛx ɛy and ɛx ɛz and ɛy ɛz and ɛx ɛy ɛz, we consider them as zero or insignificant. So
the above equation becomes,
V’ = V0 (1+ ɛx + ɛy + ɛz)
(V’ ̶ V0)/V0 = ɛx + ɛy +ɛz
Now V’ ̶ V0 is the change in the volume ΔV, thus,

ΔV/V0 = ɛx + ɛy + ɛz = e
This we denote by quantity e. Infact this is known as dilatation that the change in volume per
unit V0 is unit then change in volume ΔV gives e. So dilatation is the quantity which is called
as the change in volume per unit volume and which is represented in terms of strain as ɛx + ɛy
+ ɛz.
Now we know the relationship between the strain and stress which is,
ɛx = σx/E ̶ µ(σy + σz)/ E
ɛy = σy/E ― µ(σx + σz)/E
ɛz = σz/E ― µ(σx + σy)/E.
Now, e = ɛx + ɛy + ɛz
= (σx + σy + σz)/E ̶ 2µ(σx + σy + σz)/E = (1 ̶ 2µ)(σx + σy + σz)/E
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Now, if we take that small body from which we evaluated this quantity, and if we say that the
stresses acting on this particular body σx σy and σz are all of magnitude p acting in the
compressive direction on all sides then it is called as the state of hydrostatic pressure. That
means a body is subjected to pressure from all directions. So thereby the σx σy and σz are of
equal value and they are of magnitude p and this particular state of stress in a body we call as
state of hydrostatic pressure.
If we replace the value of σx σy and σz in terms of p then since it is acting in the compressive
direction they are minus so σx = ̶ p; σy = ̶ p and σz = ̶ p, then,
e = ̶ 3p(1 ̶ 2µ)/E, and,
̶ p/e = E/3(1 ― 2µ)
And this particular quantity ( ̶ p/e) is normally designated as the bulk modulus, K. So K is
related to this elastic modulus E and Poisson’s ratio µ as K = E/3(1 ̶ 2µ) and this is what has
been discussed here.
These are the expressions as we have derived right now that,

e = ɛx + ɛy + ɛz
e = (1 ̶ 2 µ) (σx + σy + σz)/E
e = ̶ 3(1 ̶ 2μ) p/E, when the element is subjected to the state of hydrostatic pressure that in
all directions it is subjected to p and because of this the state of stress σx + σy + σz = ̶ 3p.
This gives us the expression,
̶ p/e = K = E/3(1 ― 2µ).
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This term is defined as dilatation which is the change in volume per unit volume for a small
infinitesimal strain which is given by this expression e.
Now let us look into this example problem. After looking into the aspects of strains as
discussed through transformation equations, through Mohr circle, and also we have seen
usage of strain gages and the strain rosettes from which we can find out the values of normal
strains in different directions which can be utilized for the evaluation of the principal strain at
a particular point from which we can compute the values of principal stresses.
Last time I solved one example using the Mohr circle of strain. Now the values of ɛx is given
as this, ɛy as this and γxy as this. What you need to do is to compute the values of the principal
strains and their directions and also the maximum shearing strain based on these data using
Mohr circle of strain and we will have to find out the strains at a direction which is oriented
at 300 in an anticlockwise direction with reference to the x-axis.
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Now, let us plot the Mohr’s circle and then it will be clearer that how you can solve this
particular problem
Now given values are

ɛx = 340 × 10-6,
ɛy = 110 × 10-6, and
γxy = 180 × 10–6
If we plot this in the Mohr circle, vertical is γ/2 direction and horizontal is ɛ direction. Now,
we will choose the points as ɛx = 340 and γ/2 = 90; we have another point ɛy = 110 and γ/2 = ̶
90. As per the norm of the Mohr circle we join these two points and thereby this gives us the
center of the Mohr circle. And if we plot the circle considering this as center and this as
radius we get the circle. This particular point gives us the point of maximum normal strain
which we define as ɛ1 and this is the minimum normal strain which we define as ɛ2.
Now, in this figure this is ɛx, this is ɛy, hence this is (ɛx ― ɛy)/2 and thereby this distance is (ɛx
+ ɛy)/2. Now the values of this if we calculate (ɛx + ɛy)/2 = 340 + 110 = 450, hence 225 × 10–6
then (ɛx ― ɛy)/2 = 230/2 = 115. Now the normal strain ɛ1 will be the distance from O to O’
plus the radius. The radius can be computed from this triangular configuration where let us
call this as A and this as A’. Now AA’ = γ/2 = 90×10-6 and this distance is (ɛx ― ɛy)/2 = 115.
So the radius R = √(90×10-6)2 + 115 2 and this gives us a value of 146×10-6. Now this quantity
is with 10-6, which I am keeping silent here, so R = 146×10-6.
So the value of maximum normal strain ɛ1 = OO’ + radius R and OO’ = (ɛx + ɛy)/2 which =
225. So 225 + 146, this gives us the value of the normal strain maximum which is 371;
371×10-6 is the maximum normal strain. The minimum normal strain ɛ2 is equal to this
particular distance again is the distance from O to O’ minus the radius so OO’ is again 225 ―
radius is 146×10-6, this gives us the value of 79×10-6. So these are the values of the maximum
normal and the minimum normal, the principal strains.
Now, we need to know the orientation of the principal strains and this is the reference x axis
 xy
where the normal ɛx and two positive occurs. Now from here, if you rotate by angle 2θp,
2
this gives us the position of the maximum normal strain and from this particular triangle
O’AA´, we can get tan 2θp, tan 2θp = AA /O’A’ and that gives us the value of which is AA´ is
90 and O’A = 115. So 90/115, tan inverse gives us the value of 38; 2θp = 38° and thereby θp
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=19°. So this is the orientation along which the maximum principal strain occurs. Now what
we need to do is to evaluate the strains at a direction which is oriented at an angle of 30° with
reference to the reference x-axis. So if it is oriented at an angle of 30° in the Mohr’s plane, it
 xy
is twice the θ, so it is 60°. Now with reference to the positive ɛx and if we orient by 60°
2
so this is the 60° point and if we join the line from center to this we get this particular point
which is the direction where we need the strain and this will give us the value of this is the
normal strain, and this is the value of the shearing strain γxý´ /2.
Now this particular angle is 38° and this total angle is 60°; so 60 ― 38, this is if we call this
as α = 22°. Now if we can compute the value of a, and this distance b, then we can find out
 xy
the normal stress which is OO’+ b and shearing strain is ; xý´/2 = a or which is ― a that
2
is negative in the Mohr’s plane. So if we compute those two values now this is the radius R
cosα will give us this particular distance and Rsin α will gives us value a. So once we know
the value of a and b we can compute ɛx and γxý´.
Now let us compute the values of a and b.
Now a = R sin 22° = 146×10-6 (sin22°) = ― 54.7×10-6 and writing this as a minus because it
is in the negative direction. So γx’ y´ in fact the shearing strain is twice of this so ― 190.4×10-6
is the shearing strain.
Now the distance b = R cos 22° = 146×10-6 cos 22° = 135.37×10-6. So ɛx´ = OO’ distance =
(225 + 135.37) ×10-6 is the normal strain and ɛy´ consequently will be the minus of this which
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is diametrically opposite = 89.65×10-6 and γxy is equal to this. So these are the values of the

strain and maximum shear strain is equal to the radius of the Mohr circle = 2×146; is the
2
radius so 2×146×10-6 = 292×10-6. So these are the values of the strain quantities. (please refer
to the lecture slides)
(Refer Slide Time:52:56 - 53:29 min)
Once this particular element undergoes strains, now this is the configuration which we
expect. In the initial stages we have ɛx as 340 and ɛy as 110 and we had the positive shear
which is denoted by this as 180 and we had the orientation of the element as the initial strain.
Finally when it is rotated at an angle of 30°, it has ɛx’ ɛy’ and γx’y’ is negative so the angle here
increases and this is the form which it takes. This is the final shape of the body after it has
undergone the strain. And when it undergoes the principal strain, the principal strain direction
is 19°. This is the direction of ɛ1 and this is the direction of ɛ2 and both are positive and here
there is no shearing strain. So this is the shape that is going to take place.
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Well we have another example which is similar type that any element a material in plane
strain is subjected to strains ɛx is 48×10-6; ɛy is 70×10-6; γxy is 420×10-6. We will have to
evaluate the strain at an element which is oriented at an angle of 75° with x-axis in
anticlockwise direction and the principal strains and the maximum shear strain using Mohr’s
circle. This is exactly the similar way you should do as we have done for problem 1.
Now, the other example wherein, this is also identical. We have ɛx, ɛy and γxy. The strains at a
point for an element of material in plane strain are of this form where ɛx is 120×10-6 which is
positive, ɛy is negative is ̶ 450×10-6 and the shearing strain also negative ̶ 360×10-6. We
will have to determine the principal strains and the maximum shear strain using Mohr circular
strain. This is also being similar to the previous problem, I am leaving this for you to solve.
Now let us look into this particular problem, which is based on the aspects we have discussed
today where the strain readings from a 45° strain rosette are ɛa is this much, ɛb is this much,
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and ɛc is this much. If E = 200 GPa and μ = 0.3, what will be the values of the principal
stresses.
Now as we have seen that we have rosettes which are oriented in three different directions
this is ɛa, this is ɛb, and this is ɛc; and as you have seen that
ɛx = ɛa, ɛy = ɛc and γxy/2 = ɛb ̶ (ɛa + ɛc)/2
Now from this we can get the values of ɛx, ɛy, and γxy and we can compute the values of the
stresses.
Now, for the given data,

ɛa = 300×10-6,
ɛb = 600×10-6, and
ɛc is 100×10-6;
γxy/2 = [600 ̶ (300 + 100)/2] ×10-6 = 400×10-6
Now if we plot these in a Mohr circle with the values of ɛa = ɛx and ɛc = ɛy, Now this if we
plot in the Mohr’s circle, we have ɛx as 300 and γxy/2 = 400. We have ɛy as 100 and γxy/2 is
400 and if we join this together we get the center and if we plot the circle, we get the Mohr
circle of strain and this is the value which is ɛ1 and this is the value which is ɛ2. Now this
distance = (ɛx + ɛy)/2, which is 300 +100 = 400/2 = 200 and this distance (ɛx ― ɛy)/2, which is
(300 ― 100)/2 = 200/2 = 100. So R = (√(1002 +4002))×10-6 = 412.3×10-6. Hence the value of
ɛ1 = (200 + 412) ×10-6 = 612×10-6 and consequently ɛ2 = (200 ̶ 412) ×10-6 = ̶ 212×10-6
So once we have the value of ɛ1 and ɛ2, as you know the value of ɛ1 = σ1/E ― μ σ2/E and
consequently ɛ2 = σ2 /E ―μσ1/E. Now from this if we substitute the value of ɛ1 and ɛ2, we can
get the value of σ1 and σ2.
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Summary:
In this particular lesson we have included the concept of strain gages and strain rosettes, and
some of the relationships between the elastic moduli and these are the question set for you.
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Lecture -15
Application of Stress by Strain
Thin-walled Pressure Vessels - I
Welcome to the first lesson of third module which is on thin-walled pressure vessels part one
which is on the application of stress and strain.
In the last two modules, we had looked into the aspects of analysis of stress and analysis of
strain at a point in a stress body as to how we compute the stresses and strain?
Now we will look into the applications of this stress and strains at a point in thin-walled pressure
vessels. The pressure vessel has wide industrial applications. In many industries we use this kind
of vessel where the pressurized air or water is used. It is necessary to evaluate the strains and the
stresses at any point on the surface of pressure vessels. We will also look into how to compute
the strains and stresses on the body of such pressure vessels.
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Before we go into the analysis of pressure vessels let us look into aspects which we discussed in
the last module. Module-2 was devoted to on analysis of strain and we had 8 lessons, so let us
quickly look into those lessons which we covered in Module-2.
The module of analysis of strain includes 8 lessons. The 1st lesson was on the concept of normal
strain, the strain at a point and stress strain relationship. The 2nd lesson was devoted to the
aspect of normal strain in a variable section. In the first lesson we discussed the normal strain in
a uniform body. If the body is having a variable section then what will be the strain in it and
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correspondingly the shearing strain in it. We also discussed the concept of rigidity modulus in
the second lesson.
In the 3rd lesson, we had introduced the concept of generalized Hooke’s law and the
determinate and indeterminate system were discussed. Thermal effects on strains and stresses
were discussed in Module-2 and the fourth lesson. Thermal effect on compound bars and
the misfit and correspondingly the pre-strain and pre-stresses was dealt with in the 5th lesson
of Module-2.
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In the 6th lesson we discussed the transformation equation and we had discussed this aspect in
the first module of stress as well wherein we say, at a particular point if you are interested to
compute the values of stress and thereby the strains then we need to use the transformation
equation if we orient the axes system from the rectangular axes system.
That is what was discussed in Module-2 lesson 6 in 2.6 where we had introduced the concept of
transformation equation and thereby how to evaluate the principal strain. Then we saw the
concept of Mohr’s circle of strain, how to compute the strain at different orientations at that
particular point where we know the rectangular strain components ∈ x , ∈ y , ϒ xy how to compute
the values of principal strain and strain at that particular point at different orientations. If you like
to compute we can do it through the use of Mohr’s circle of strain and that is what was discussed
in lesson 7.
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In the 8th lesson we introduced the concept of strain gage and strain rosettes. Thereby at any
point it is easier to measure the strain and it is difficult to measure the stresses when we talk
about a stress body. We can measure the strains and thereby from those measures of strains we
compute the stresses. But as we have seen we measure the strains in the normal direction as the
normal strain. Therefore out of three strain components ∈ x, ∈ y, ϒ xy it is very difficult to
measure ϒ xy (the shearing strain). Hence, we take an indirect way to measure ϒ xy by using
strain gauges in three directions which we have called as strain rosettes. From the measured data
of strain rosettes, we can compute the strains of ∈ x, ∈ y, ϒ xy. Using these strain components we
can compute the principal strains and thereby the principal stresses.
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This is what was discussed in lesson 8 Module-2. Also, we looked into the relationship between
the elastic constants which were E, G and mu.
This is the summarization of the Module-2. It is expected that once this particular lesson is
completed, one should be able to understand the concept of stress and strain in thin-walled
cylindrical pressure vessels. Here we are concerned with two aspects, one is the vessel is
subjected to internal pressure and this internal pressure is over and above the external
pressure. By overcoming the external pressure on the vessel, the internal pressure is working
and thereby there will be the stresses generated in the vessel and we are interested in
evaluating those stresses.
Secondly, this is a thin-walled structure and this means that the thickness of the wall is very
small so that the stress variation across the thickness is significantly small or we neglect that.
Hence the thin-walled pressure vessel is of importance and we will look into how to compute the
stresses in such vessels.
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Thereby we will evaluate stresses and deformation in the thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessels
subjected to internal pressure because of the content in the container.
As we keep going through we will be looking into the aspects of previous lessons or
recapitulation of previous lessons which we will be doing through the question answer session.
We will look into the answers for those questions which I had posed for you in the last lesson
and thereby will be scanning through the aspects which we had discussed in the previous lesson.
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Also, we are going to derive the formulae for evaluating stresses and strains in thin-walled
cylindrical pressure vessels. In this particular lesson we will be concentrating on the cylindrical
type of pressure vessels and subsequently we look into different categories of pressure vessels.
We will also look through a few examples for evaluation of stresses, strains and deformations in
such pressure vessels. These are the two main aspects that we will be doing in this particular
lesson.
Let us look into the answers to this questions which I posed last time. The first question is
how you will evaluate principal stresses at a point from measured strain using a rosette.
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When we try to measure stress at a point, we cannot directly measure the stress. Hence we
measure strain at that particular point and thereby we compute the values of stresses. The strain
component as we have ∈x, ∈y, ϒxy under a plane strain situation we cannot measure ϒxy directly,
instead we measure indirectly and from there we compute the values of principal strains. Now let
us look into how that is done.
In the previous lesson we had discussed that this is the x direction and this is the y direction. We
can use these kinds of strain gauges which can measure the normal strain. If we place these types
of gauges in the x direction and y direction, we can measure the strain∈ x, ∈ y, but we need three
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quantities∈ x, ∈ y, ϒ xy for evaluating the principal strains. Since we cannot measure ϒ xy directly
what we do is that we place three strain gauges in three different orientations. Let us call this
directions as a, b and c oriented at three different angles; θa, θb and θc respectively. And thereby
employing the transformation equation which is:
∈a = (∈x + ∈y)/2 + ((∈x’ + ∈y') cos2θ)/2 + (γxy Sin 2θa)/2
can be employed to evaluate strain along a, b and c which are ∈a, ∈b and ∈c. Keeping in mind
that ∈a is acting along 'a' which is at an orientation of an angle θa with reference to x axis. Hence
in the place of θ we will substitute θa , for ∈b the orientation is along θb and for ∈c the orientation
is along θc.
So, if we substitute that we can get the equations in form shown above where we have three
equations ∈a, ∈b and ∈c and they are oriented at an angle of θa, θb and θc. In these three
equations, we know ∈a, ∈b, and ∈c since we are measuring strain along a, b and c. Also, we know
θa, θb, θc as these are predetermined orientations along which gagues will be placed.
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So the only unknown quantities are ∈x, ∈y, ϒxy which we can evaluate from above three
equations. Once we know ∈ x, ∈ y, ϒ xy now we can compute the values of ∈ 1 and ∈2 as a
function of ∈ x, ∈ y, ϒ xy.
So, we can evaluate the value of ∈1 and ∈2 from ∈x, ∈ y, ϒ xy. And as we know the direction of
principal stresses and direction of principal strain coincides. So we can compute the values of
principal strain from the principal stresses. So these above equations are the values of σ1 and σ2
in terma of ∈1 and ∈2.
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How many elastic constants are necessary for analyzing deformation and how many are
independent?
Now we have seen that when we are trying to compute the stresses and the strains, we require
three constants which are E, G and μ which are the modulus of elasticity, shear modulus and the
Poisson’s ratio respectively. When we were relating shear modulus with elastic modulus, we
saw that out of these three elastic constants necessary for analyzing deformation in a stress body,
two are independent and one is dependent on the other two. G can be evaluated once we know
the value of E and μ.
G = E/2(1+μ)
The third question is can you infer on the maximum value of Poisson’s ratio from the
expression of bulk modulus?
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Let us look into the bulk modulus. Dilatation is defined as the change in volume per unit
volume.
E =∆V/V
where
∆V = change in the volume
V = original volume
If V = 1, then E = ∆V
Now in the expression for the change in volume or the dilatation we have the Poisson’s ratio μ.
There are other terms here which are 'E', elastic modulus and 'p', the hydrostatic pressure acting
at that particular point in the small element. Now p is the stress which is acting in all directions
in place of σx, σy and σz. These are the values of p which are called as the state of hydrostatic
pressure. That means that element is subjected to a compressive stress from all sides and it is
under the state of a compressive force.
So if you look into this particular expression where

e = - 3(1 - 2μ)p/E
The minus indicates that it is under compression.
Now if , μ ≥ 0.5 ,then (1 - 2μ) becomes negative which means, 'e' becomes positive which
indicates that ∆V is increasing i.e., the volume is increasing.
In the physical state, a particular element is subjected to hydrostatic pressure from all directions.
Thereby σ x = σ y= σ z= - p and now this is trying to compress the body.
So μ ≥0.5 shows that the body is expanding which is contradictory to the physical state.
So the maximum value of μ = 0.5
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Pressure vessels are the containers in which the gas or liquid is put under pressurized condition
and thereby it exerts pressure in the internal surface of the container and if that internal pressure
is higher than the external pressure the body will be experiencing stresses and basically there will
be tensile stress in the body. Our objective here is to evaluate those stresses in such pressurized
containers. We use compressed air in most applications and another example of this type of
pressure vessel is the water flowing through a thin-walled pipe.
What is stated here is that the pressure vessels are closed structures containing liquid or gas
under pressure. And we have qualified the terms pressure vessels with thin-walled because the
thickness of the wall or the thickness of the container wall is sufficiently small. It is so small that
the variation of the stress across the thickness is insignificant and thereby we consider that there
is a state of stress which is on the surface in two directions and the third direction stress is 0.
For those vessels for which the thickness is so small that in comparison to the other dimension
that the ratio of r/t ≥ 10 where 'r' is the radius of the cylindrical tank and 't' is the thickness.
So if r/t ≥ 10 , then we call those kinds of vessels as thin-walled vessel.
The term ten or number 10 here actually is considered because it has been observed if r/t ratio
exceeds 10, then the error in the stress level is the minimum and thus it is considered the
limiting value for thin-walled vessels.
Also, the internal pressure must exceed the external pressure otherwise there will be other
kinds of problems.
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Basically in pressure vessels, we try to go for a simplified analysis which is based on the
effect that the internal pressure exerts pressure or the forces on the body and thereby the body
is subjected to stress. That is why we try to analyze how much stress the body undergoes when
the container is subjected to pressure but we neglect other effects such as effects of the external
loads, the weights of content and the weight of the container.
Also, when we try to compute the elastic deformation of such a container this needs the
application of generalized Hooke’s law. We have seen this where we compute the strain in
terms of stresses in a generalized Hooke’s law form where
∈x = σx/E - μ.σy/E - μ.σz/E
These are the generalized Hooke’s law application and we take the applications of these for
analyzing strains and thereby the deformation in the pressure vessels.
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We can have different forms of pressure vessels but in this particular lesson we are concentrating
on pressure vessels which are of cylindrical form. If we have a cylindrical pressure vessel which
is exerted by pressure inside which is more than the external pressure then what will be the state
of stress that will be acting on such containers?
Let us look into one such configuration that this is the cylinder, if we cut this cylinder by two
planes AA and BB and also we are cutting this cylinder along this center half then we get a
configuration as shown in the figure below.
Here, t is the thickness and r is the radius of this cylindrical and r/t ≥ 10 and we call this kind of
cylindrical form as thin-walled cylinder.
Now, here internal pressure will be exerted by the content on the walls. Here,
t = thickness of the cylinder
ri = internal radius
ro = external radius
σ1 = stresses acting in the circumferential direction
σ2 = stresses acting in the longitudinal direction
P = pressure exerted by the content on cylinder walls
P = σ x area
If we take the distance between the two cuts AA and BB as 'L' which is this length of the
segment and if we are computing stress for this particular length, then
P = σ1 . t . L
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We can compute the values of σ1 in two ways.
One is, if we take this thin wall part and we say that this is subjected to the pressure, p from
inside. Now if we consider a small element which is at an angle of θ making an angle dθ, then
the force which will be exerted here is, = p.r.dθ.L which is acting over the length L.
If we take the component of this force in the horizontal direction which is, p.r.L.dθ cosθ acting
over the whole of this segment.
So, π/2
2P = 2 ∫ p.r.L. cosθ dθ = p.r.L
0
σ1.t.L = p.r.L
σ1 = pr/t -- circumferential stress
Circumferemtial stress is acting along the circumference of the cylinder or sometimes we

call this as Hoops stress.
We can compute this directly as well.

Now here again,
P = σ1 . t . L
Also, P = projected length over which this force is acting x internal pressure
P = 2r.L.p
So,
2σ1.t.L = 2 p.r.L
σ1 = pr/t -- circumferential stress/ hoop stress
Though initially I stated two values of r where one is ri and ro, but since the thickness of the
vessel is very small we consider that there is little variation between the internal radius and the
external radius and we consider the radius(r) as internal radius and compute the stresses .
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Now for σ2 acting in the longitudinal direction, let us take the section here shown in the figure
below. Here you see that we have internal pressure is acting on the cylinderical surface and the
thin wall which is subjected to the longitunal forces as represented resisting this internal one.
The pressure which is exerted by the content inside the pressure vessel is,
P' = p πri2
So, from the whole of the cylindrical surface with external radius ro if we subtract the internal
part with the ri, then the force given by the walls is,
P' = σ2 (πro2 - πri2)
This force is going to resist this internal pressure is exerted by the content. So.
p πri2 = σ2 (πro2 - πri2)
p πri2 = σ2 π(ro - ri)(ro + ri)
p πri2 = σ2 π t (ro + ri)
Also approximately, ro = ri = r, so, p πr2 = 2 σ2 π t r
σ2 = pr/2 t -- Longitudnal Stress
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Now we have obtained the longitudinal stress is in fact that half of this circumferential stress.
So if we know the internal pressure, if we know the radius of the cylindrical vessel, if we know
the thickness of the wall, we can compute the stresses; the circumferential stress and the
longitudinal stress. The circumferential stress or the Hoop stress and the longitudinal stress
are basically tensile in nature.
Having looked into the concept of the stresses in the cylindrical vessels, let us look into some of
the problems. Here are some problems with reference to the stress system or with reference to
the Mohr circle of strain and the transformation equation. Let us also look into the examples of
the pressure vessels.
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Now let’s us look into how you compute the values of the principal strains such as the
maximum shear strains and the strains which are at orientation which is oriented at an angle of
75 degrees with reference to the x-axis.
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Here is the first example. What is stated here is that an element of material in a plane strain
condition is subjected to
∈x = 480 x 10-6
∈y = 70 x 10-6
γxy = 420 x 10-6
Now lets us look into how you compute the values of the principal strains such as the
maximum shear strains and the strains which are at orientation which is oriented at an angle of
75° with reference to the x axis.
Now, let me draw the Mohr circle corresponding to the state of stress which is given
∈x = 480 x 10-6
∈y = 70 x 10-6
γxy = 420 x 10-6
If we try to plot the Mohrs circle based on these values of strains then we have, let us say the x-
axis is ϵ axis and y-axis is +ve γxy/2. Now we can plot the points, (∈x, γxy/2) and (∈y, γxy/2).
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If we join these two points together, the line (AA’) crosses the ∈ axis at point O, which we call
as the centre of Mohr’s circle and considering OA’ or OA as the radius, we can draw the Mohr
circle as shown in the figure above.
Here point X indicates the value of maximum strain which is the principal strain, ∈1. Point Y is
the minimum normal strain which we call as ∈2, and as you have seen the distance of the
center(O) from the origin(O’), OO’ is (∈x + ∈y)/2 and the distance B and B’ is (∈x - ∈y)/2.
OO’ = (∈x + ∈y)/2 = 480 + 70 = 550/2 = 275 x 10-6
OB = OB’ = (∈x - ∈y)/2 = 410/2 = 205 x 10-6.

AB = 210 x 10-6.
Thereby from this particular triangular configuration, OAB,
AB = 210 x 10-6 and OB = 205 x 10-6
Therefore, OA = Radius (R)= 210 2052 2
x 10-6 = 293.5 x 10-6.
Hence, the principal strains, ∈1 and ∈2,
Maximum principal strain, ∈1 = OO’ + R = (∈x + ∈y)/2 + R
∈1 = (275 x 10-6) + (293.5 x 10-6) = 568.5 x 10-6

Minimum principal strain, ∈2 = O’O – R
∈2 = 275 x 10-6 – 293.5 x 10-6 = – 18.5 x 10–6 (negative sign is there because this value
is to the left of origin in the mohr circle.)
Maximum shearing strain, γmax
Maximum value of the R = γmax/2
293.5 = γmax/2
So, γmax = 2R = 587 x 10-6

Now let us look into the angle. Since X is the point of the maximum principal strain the angle
from the reference point is this which is 2Θp
Now, tan2Θp = 210/205
2Θp = 45.70
Θp = 22.850.
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This is the orientation along which the principal strain acts. Now we will have to
compute the value of strain with reference to axis.
We have the reference axis x and y. So, now we have to find out the state of strain at an
orientation of the axis which is 750 in an anticlockwise direction with reference to x. We will
have to find out the strain along X1 and Y1, now when we take 750 in the reference plane, it
becomes 2Θ in the Mohr plane = 1500.
From this particular reference point, OA if we go to 1500 anticlockwise, the point will give us
the state of stress which is oriented at an angle of 750 with reference to X axis. From OA to
reference point = 1500
2Θp = 45.70
Reference Point to OB = 900
So, if we call the angle as α, then α = 150 – 45.7 – 90 = 14.30
So, α = 14.30
Now from here if we drop a perpendicular from the reference point, then the perpendicular
distance from reference point to the Y-axis will give us ∈75 and perpendicular distance from P to
X-axis is going to give us the value of γ/2.

If we take a point diametrically opposite to the reference point, we will get ∈y.
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If we know that the angle α = 14.30, and this is R then we can compute the horizontal distance ‘a’
and the vertical distance ‘b’ as shown in figure.
Now let us calculate the value of a and b.
So a = R sin(14.3) = 293.5 x 10-6 x sin 14.30 = 72.5 x 10-6
b = 293.5 x 10-6 x cos14.50 = 284.4 x 10-6.
Once we know a and b then the
∈x1 = OO’ – a = 275 – 72.5 x 10-6
∈y1 = OO’ – a = 275 + 72.5 x 10-6
γx1 y1/2 = R’ = b
γx1 y1 = 2b = 2 x 284.4 x 10-6 = 568.8 x 10-6.
So these are the values of strain ɛx1, ɛy1 and x1y1 with reference to the axis which is oriented at
an angle of 750 with reference to the reference x and y plane.

So those are the values of the strains and the principal strains and the maximum shearing
stress we have seen how to compute it.
Now this is the orientation/ the final form of the reference plane.
When we have the orientation for the principal plane which is Θp = 14.30.
Now ∈2 was -ve and that is why it is compressed in one direction and elongated in the other.
Therefore this is the form of the principal strain.
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Now let us look into the second problem as shown in the figure above.
Now if we plot the values of the Mohr’s circle or if we plot the Mohr’s circle based on the
values given here, note that here we have the values of
∈x = 121 x10–6
∈y = - 450 x 10–6
γxy = - 360 x 10-6
Now if we plot the Mohr Circle in a similar manner as the previous problem, we find out that
∈1 = 172 x 10-6
∈2 = – 502 x 10-6
γmax = 674 x10-6
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Here is the third problem which is related to the example as discussed today.
Let us look into the values of the stresses as we compute.
Circumferential stress/ hoop stress, σ1 = pr/t
Longitudinal stress, σ2 = pr/2t
P = 1MPa, r = 1500 mm and t = 10 mm.
Hence σ1 = 1 x 1500 / 10 = 150MPa
σ2 = pr/2t = σ1/2 = 750MPa.
The σ2 acts in the longitudinal direction of the vessel which is longitudinal stress and σ1 acts in
the circumferential direction.
Now if we like to find out the increase in the diameter then it means you must know how much
strain it is undergoing in the circumferential direction. So we are interested to evaluate the strain
in the circumferential direction which we call as ∈1
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Now ∈1 = σ1/E – µ σ2/E = 0.6375 x 10-3
So this is the value of strain it is undergoing. Now we can write this strain in the
circumferential direction as
∈1 = (2π(r + Δ) – 2πr)/2πr = Δ /r.
Δ = ∈. r
Hence the increase in the diameter, 2Δ = 2 x 0.6375 x 1500 = 1.912 mm.
(Refer Slide Time: from 58:50 - 59:09)
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Here is another problem set for you which as shown in the above figure. (Refer
Slide Time: 59:09 - 59:11)
(Refer Slide Time: from 59:12 - 59:14)

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Summary:
We have discussed the concept of stresses and strain in thin walled cylindrical pressure vessels.
We have also discussed Hoop stress and longitudinal stresses, evaluation of
deformation using generalized Hooke’s law and examples to evaluate stresses, strains and
deformation in thin walled cylindrical pressure vessels.
(Refer Slide Time: 59: 30 - 59:48)
The question set for you is:

What Hoop stress is and how is it related to longitudinal stress in cylindrical pressure
vessels?
What is the value of in plane shear stress and are the stresses same in spherical vessels as
well as we seen in cylindrical vessels?
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Prof. S. K. Bhattacharya
Dept. of Civil Engineering
I.I.T., Kharagpur
Lecture No #16
Application of Stress/Strain - Thin Walled Pressure Vessels - II

Welcome to the lesson of module which is on Thin Walled Cylindrical Pressure
Vessels, in fact this is Thin Walled Pressure Vessels part 2.
In the last lesson we discussed about the Cylindrical Pressure Vessels and in this lesson
we are going to discuss some more aspects of pressure vessels. This is, thin walled
pressure vessels part 2 which is the application of stress and strain.
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It is expected that once one goes through this particular lesson they will be clear on the
concept of stress and strain. You will be able to understand the concept of stress and
strain in a spherical pressure vessel. In fact, in the last lesson we had discussed about
cylindrical pressure vessels and here we will be dealing with the spherical pressure
vessels. Also, one should be able to evaluate stresses and deformation in thin walled
spherical pressure vessels.
Hence the scope of this particular lesson includes the recapitulation of previous lessons or
the previous one which we had discussed on thin walled cylindrical vessels.
Here we will be dealing with the spherical vessels and we will be deriving the formulae
for evaluating stresses and strain in spherical vessels which is subjected to internal
pressure. Then we will be solving few examples for evaluating stresses and strains and
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thereby deformations in pressure vessels. We will be looking into these examples both in
terms of cylindrical pressure vessels as well as the spherical pressure vessels.
Let us recapitulate the previous lesson through these questions.

The first question which was posed is what is hoop stress and how is it related to
longitudinal stress in cylindrical pressure vessels.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:16- 07:07)
Now let us look into how we computed hoop stress or the circumferential stress and the
longitudinal stress.
In the cylindrical pressure vessels along the circumferential direction, if we take the free
body of half of the cylindrical vessel then the stress, then the resulting force in
circumferential direction is,
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P= xtxL
If the internal pressure is p, then the force exerted by the internal liquid is, = p × 2r × l
If we equate these two,
p x 2r × l = ×t×l
pr
=
t
is called as circumferential stress or hoop stress.
Also, in the longitudinal direction if we call the stress as , then the pressure exerted by
the content, P = p x A = p × πr2
And on this periphery (on the wall) that is, = xA= x 2πr t
Now if we take the equilibrium of this,
p × πr2 = 2πr t × .
pr
Longitudinal Stress/ Axial stress, = .
2t
Hence = /2.
Now the second question posed was what is the value of in Plane Shear Stress? This
particular term is important the in plane sheer stress in cylindrical pressure vessels.
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Now let us look into with reference to the expression which we are computing here.
pr pr
Circumferential stress , = and we have longitudinal stress =
t 2t
Now on this surface if we take a small element on the cylindrical surface and we plot
and
Now let us say is in the x direction, so,
= and = .
Also, 
If we plot these stresses in Mohr circle, x-axis is our axis, y axis is the axis
Since there are no sheering stresses, so, if we plot these values, so both and lie on
axis only and the center of these two, i.e., O will give the center line of the Mohr
circle.
If radius = OA= OA’, we plot the circle AND this will give the Mohr circle of stress.
From this the value of the shear stress, maximum is
=( - )/2.
pr pr
So = ½ ( pr/t– )= so this is the value of in plain sheering stress.
2t 4t
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The third question posed was will the stresses in the cylindrical pressure vessels be the
same as in the spherical pressure vessels.
This particular question will be answered through the lesson we are going to discuss
today. In fact, we will see how to compute the stresses in a spherical pressure vessel.
Here are some aspects to look into before we go into the discussion on Spherical Pressure
Vessels. The pressure vessels are the closed structures which contain the liquid or gas
under pressure. We called these vessels as the thin walled vessels where the thickness of
r
the wall in comparison to the other dimension is much less where ratio r is the radius
t
of the vessel to the thickness of the wall and if it is more than 10 then we call those kind
of vessels as thin walled vessels because the stress distribution across the thickness is
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negligibly small and we assume that same stress exists or the stress distribution in the
vertical direction is 0.
Also, for stresses to exist in these kind of vessels the internal pressure must be greater
than the external pressure otherwise we will experience different kinds of problems in
such vessels. So the internal pressure must be more than the external pressure.
We had also looked into these aspects that analysis is based on the effect of internal
pressure only and we are neglecting the other effects such as the effect of the external
loads and the weights of the content and the container weight. So we are neglecting these
aspects and basically we are simplifying our analysis on the presumption that the stress
that is being induced in the vessel is primarily because of the pressure that is being
exerted by the content of the container. Lastly the analysis of such vessels for elastic
deformation needs the application of generalized Hooke’s Law.
When the containers are subjected to pressure from inside by the liquid content or the
gaseous content the vessels are subjected to tensile stresses. So we are computing stresses
as a function of the internal pressure and once we get these stresses then we can compute
strain utilizing or using the generalized Hooke’s Law from which we can compute the
deformation in the vessels.
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Let us look into the aspects of how you compute the stresses in a spherical vessel. Now,
the above figure shows a spherical vessel which is different from the cylindrical vessels.
In the previous lesson we had discussed a cylindrical vessel which is a one dimensional
substance long in comparison to its cross sectional dimension and thereby we had stresses
in the circumferential direction as well as in the longitudinal direction.
In this particular case, the spherical vessel is uniform everywhere having the same radius
with respect to the centre so if we cut across the sphere through the centre, at any
orientation if we pass the plane we will get a similar type of situation for spherical
vessels.
In that sense the spherical vessel is a little different from the cylindrical one. Now let us
look into how to compute the stress from the internal pressure.
If we cut across the vessel through the center, then the plan of this spherical vessel is
shown in the figure above. The pressure which is exerted by the content inside is p.
Let. internal radius is and the external radius is ro and t is the thickness.
The thickness of this container is so small that practically we take ro = ri = ri
The same aspect or the same concept holds good in this particular case also that the
thickness of the cylinder or thickness of the sphere being small the internal radius of the
spherical vessel is equivalent to the outer radius and we deal with only one radius which
is the internal radius. Henceforth for all calculations we will deal with the internal radius
only.
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If we take equilibrium of the forces, if we cut across vertical section through the sphere
and if we look into this force distribution, then the force exerted by the content P is
P=p  πr2
If we say the stress which is acting on the periphery of the sphere is , then the force
which is being registered,
P= x π(ro2 – ri2 ) = x π(ro2 – ri2 ) = x π (ro + ri ) (ro – ri) = x 2πr x t
Thus,
= pr/2t.
In this particular case we have only this stress which is acting everywhere. So, in a sphere
wherever we take a section through the centre of the sphere we get identical situation
which is a little different from the cylindrical form. So whichever section we take in that
we have the stress ; hence we do not distinguish between two stresses and so both
in x and y direction if we take a small element on the surface of the spherical body then
we have and as the same, they are .
In fact if we look into this particular small element which is acting on the surface of the
spherical body, now in the x direction we have , in the y direction also we have so
everywhere the same state of stress exist in the case of spherical pressure vessel and the
pr
stress is equal to where p is the internal pressure, r is the internal radius of the
2t
spherical vessel and t is the thickness of the wall.
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Therefore the wall of pressurized spherical vessels is subjected to uniform tensile stresses
in all directions. As we have seen wherever we cut across in a spherical vessel we get the
same kind of distribution and as we have equated the resistive force × 2πrt is equal to
the pressure exerted by the content multiplied by the area on which the surface is exerting
pr
which is πr2 and if we equate these two we get = .
2t
This is identical; whichever section you orient and in whichever angle it is as long as it
passes through the centre of the sphere you are going to get same stress. Everywhere the
wall experiences the same state of stress in case of spherical vessels. So, the wall of the
pressurized spherical vessel is subjected to uniform tensile stresses in all directions.
This is the difference between the cylindrical pressure vessels and the spherical pressure
vessels.
This was the question posed last time:
Will you get the same stresses in case of spherical vessels as we get in case of cylindrical
pressure vessels?
Now the answer to this is that, it is not really the same as we get in case of cylindrical
pressure vessels.
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Cylindrical pressure vessels are being different in form in comparison to the spherical
pressure vessels. In case of cylindrical pressure vessels you get the axial stress, the
longitudinal stress as well as the circumferential stress.
Now in this particular case, the sections, since it is identical everywhere the same state of
stress exists and thereby the same amount of tensile stress exists in case of spherical
vessels.
Let us look into some of the examples of cylindrical and spherical vessels.
This is the example we have seen already but let us look only into the last part which
says, what is the change in the diameter of the cylinder caused by the internal pressure?
pr
= =150 MPa
t
where p = 1 MPa, r = 1500 and t = 10, and
pr
= = 75 MPa.
2t
Based on these we had computed the strain and we need to use the generalized
Hooke’s Law to compute the strains from the stresses. So we have computed and
where is the circumferential stress or the hoop stress and is the longitudinal stress.
The is acting in the x direction so let us call as and as . Hence from these if
we like to compute the strain using generalized Hooke’s law then strain = /E – ×
/E.
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So this is the value of strain it is undergoing. Now we can write this strain in the
circumferential direction as
∈1 = σ1/E – µ σ2/E = 0.6375 x 10-3
Now what happens is that when this is being pressurized the peripheral size of the
cylinder expands; so there is a change in the radius or the diameter. Now if we assume
that there is an extension of Δ in the radial direction then we can write down the strain
and epsilon which is in the peripheral direction as
2 (r  )  2 r 
= = .
2 r r
So this strain which is also in the circumferential direction is called as

So =
r
where Δ is the extension in the radius.
Δ =  × r = 0.6375(10-3) × r × 1500
Δ = 0.956 mm. Hence this is the extension in the radius.
Now the question was that how much elongation the diameter undergoes, so it will be
twice of this Δ which is the extension in the diameter of the cylinder. So the extension in
the diameter can be written as extension or the elongation in the diameter of the cylinder
equal to 2Δ = 1.912 mm. This is the answer of the question which was discussed last
time.
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This was a cylindrical steel pressure vessel subjected to an internal pressure of 1 MPa,
radius of the cylinder is 1500 mm and the thickness of wall is 10 mm. Last time we had
computed the values of hoop stress which is the circumferential stress and the
longitudinal stresses in the cylinder. Now we have calculated the change in the diameter
of the cylinder which is being caused by this internal pressure.
(Refer Slide Time: 26:58 -28:56)
Now let us look into an interesting problem stated in the figure above.
We have pressure from inside which is being exerted at a pressure of 1 MPa and also the
whole assembly is undergoing a change in the temperature which drops at 50°C. Also
please note that the deformation of the cylinder is caused by the wire because of the pull
by the wire, the aluminum wire is connected to the cylinder and if the wire is under
compression or tension it is going to deform the cylinder. The deformation of the cylinder
is because of the change in this wire tension or compression that is neglected. also one
point to be noted is that both these elements the aluminum wire and the steel pressure
vessels are undergoing change in temperature simultaneously.
So if this happens then what will be the stress in the wire?
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Let us look into this particular example.
First let us compute the value of what happens in the wire because of the change in
temperature. Now mind that both the aluminum wire and the vessel are undergoing
change in the temperature and at the same time because of the content inside the vessel it
is exerting pressure on the wall. Because of that, the aluminum wire will be subjected to a
tensile pull.
Let us see what happens if there is a drop in the temperature. We have seen this already
in the analysis of strain; what happens in a structural system because of the change in the
temperature.
Let us say that this is the aluminum wire which is taut in the steel vessel. Now, to
evaluate the effect of the change in the temperature what we can do is that we can release
this wire from the vessel. That means if we delink the wire from the vessel and allow the
wire to undergo the changes and since the temperature drops here there will be
contraction of the aluminum wire.
This is the original length of the aluminum wire which is across the diameter and that is
equal to 2000 mm. Let us assume that because of the change in the temperature it
undergoes deformation. Now the decrease in the length of the aluminum wire will be,
δAl = α × ×L
δAl = 23.4(106) × 50°C × 2000 = 2.34 mm.
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Since both aluminum and steel are undergoing change in the temperature the steel
cylinder also will undergo deformation because of the change in the temperature. And
change in the temperature in the steel cylinder is,
ΔSt = α × L =; = 11.7 × 10-6 × 50 × 2000 = 1.17 mm
Here one aspect is to be noted that when the cylindrical vessel is undergoing change
because of the temperature there is a change in the periphery of the cylinder and because
of that there will be change in the diameter.
If there is a strain in the peripheral direction then the change in the length in the radius
=  × r.
Likewise the change in the diameter of the cylindrical vessel will be the d × . So we
can compute the change in terms of the change in the diameter as well.
Now having discussed this particular problem exclusively from the evaluation of strain
and thereby the stresses from thermal point of view, if you remember that we had taken
down the compatibility where the compatibility is this that the aluminum wire is
undergoing contraction by 2.34 mm, steel is undergoing a contraction by 1.171 mm so
there is a gap of 1.17 mm between these two so we try to pull the aluminum and we try to
compress the steel so that they come to a common place and thereby we evaluate the
compatibility and then the corresponding equilibrium equation.
But in this particular problem it has been stated that because of the change in the
aluminium wire because of the induction of the stresses that is because of these thermal
changes the cylinder is not going to deform so only the aluminum wire has to be stressed
and put back in its original position.
As we have seen from this evaluation the aluminum contracts by 2.3/mm whereas the
steel contracts by 1.17 mm so this balance 2.34 – 1.17 = 1.17 this aluminum wire has to
be pulled and then get connected with the cylindrical vessel.
So the extension that has to be applied to the aluminum wire is 2.34 – 1.17 mm = 1.17
mm.
This is the first part of it, this is because of the temperature, let us keep this in mind that
the aluminum wire is subjected to a tensile pull wherein we will have to apply an
extension of 1.17 mm.
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If we try to compute the change that is necessary for pressure, as the cylinder is
undergoing internal pressure it will be exerting pressure on the wall the wall is subjected
to tensile stress and because of the stresses the circumferential hoop stress and the
longitudinal stress there will be a change in the diameter. Now let us look into how much
change it undergoes because of these pressures.
pr
The circumferential pressure, =
t
pr 1.0 1000
= =  100MPa .
t 10
And the longitudinal stress is = pr/2t
pr
= = /2 = 50MPa .
2t
Circumferential strain, = /E – /E
100 0.3  50
= (103) - = .5(10-3) – 0.075(10-3) = 0.425(10-3)
200 200 10 3
This is the strain that it is undergoing the circumferential direction. As we have seen in
the previous example that due to the circumferential strain there will be a change in the
diameter which is equal to d times this strain.
So the change in the diameter Δ = × d = .425(10-3) × 2000 = 0.85 mm.
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So, if you look into this we have two kinds of extension that we have obtained now in the
wire.
In the first case we had the extension that is occurring in the aluminum wire. Because of
the drop in the temperature the extension is being exerted on the wire and because the
aluminum wire is contracting more in comparison to the steel hence it is subjected to a
pull and that extension is coming as 1.17 mm because of the change in the temperature.
Now subsequently as we have looked into, because the cylindrical vessel is subjected to
internal pressure it is undergoing another extension in the diameter direction = .85 mm.
So the total extension that the aluminum wire will be subjected to is 1.17 + 0.85 mm.
Hence the total extension that the aluminum wire will be undergoing = 1.17 + 0.85 mm =
2.02 mm.
2.02
Strain in the aluminum wire =
2000
2.02
Stress in the aluminum wire = × 70 × 103 = 70.7 MPa
2000
So this is the stress that the aluminum wire will be undergoing because of the change in
the temperature as well as because of the internal pressure that the content is exerting on
the cylindrical vessel and in the process the aluminum wire is also getting extended and is
subjected to the tensile stress.
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This is the example that we have seen and these two were in respect to the cylindrical
vessel. Let us look into the problem which is for spherical vessel which we have
discussed today. A rubber ball is inflated to a pressure of 80 kPa and at that pressure the
diameter of the ball is 208 mm and the wall thickness of this ball is given as 1.2 mm. The
rubber has the modulus of elasticity as 3.5 Mpa and μ = 0.45, so we will have to evaluate
the maximum stress and strain in the ball. This is a rubber ball which is inflated to a
pressure of 80 kPa and the diameter in that inflated position is 208 mm. Now we got to
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compute the value of maximum stress and the strain in the ball. This is the problem of a
spherical vessel.
Let us compute the values of the stresses in this it is given that the spherical ball is
subjected to a pressure, p =80 kPa = 80(10-3) MPa
Ball diameter, d = 208 mm
Thickness of the ball, t = 1.2 mm
Modulus of elasticity, E = 3.5 MPa
Poisson’s ratio, μ= 0.45. We will have to compute the value of maximum stress and
thereby the maximum strain.
pr  80  10  104 
3
In the case of spherical vessel the stress = =  3.47 Mpa .

2t  2  1.2  MPa
As we have seen when we try to compute the strain, in the spherical form on the surface,
if we take a small element and if we write down the stresses then we have and and
in this particular case both and = .
So in terms of the generalized Hooke’s law if we try to write down the value of strain
then strain = = ( /E) – (μ × /E).
Now in this particular case, = =
This is the maximum stress that the wall will be subjected to.
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So, in terms of that maximum stress if we compute the strain that the wall will be
subjected to, is as a function of that particular maximum stress which is given by this
expression
1 –  1  0.45
× 3.47.
= =
E 3.5
= 0.545
Now let us look into another example of a spherical ball or a spherical vessel where we
have a spherical steel pressure vessel of diameter 600 mm and thickness 10 mm coated
with a brittle lacquer and that cracks when the strain exceeds 200(10-6). What internal
pressure will cause the lacquer to develop cracks?
If we have a spherical vessel or a container, in case of measuring the strain on a particular
stressed body we fix up the strain gauge so that we can acquire the strain data from the
surface. Many a times what is done in vessels like cylindrical vessels or spherical vessels
are on the surface of these vessels we put some coating called as a brittle coating.
When internal pressure is exerted on such vessels the surface undergoes strains and
thereby the stresses and because of such strains or expansions the coating which is put on
the surface of the vessels undergo a crack because of being too brittle. These cracks
indicate that the pressure vessel has gone to a limit of a particular strain if we know the
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strain value at which this coating cracks. This is one way of carrying out some
experimentation onto what extent a pressure vessel has been strained.
This is one such example where the coating has been applied onto this spherical vessel
and because of this pressure some kind of cracks are generated on this lacquer.
Now it has been checked that at a limiting strain of 200(10-6), the lacquer cracks. If we
apply this lacquer onto a spherical surface then what is the maximum internal pressure
that we can apply on this pressure vessel so that the initiation of the cracking in the
lacquer tells us that this is the maximum value of the pressure you can apply onto this
particular vessel.
We can carry out the experiment and keep on applying the pressure. As soon as we see
that there is generation of the crack we know that it is the maximum value of pressure
that can be applied and this can be computed numerically through this example.
Vessel diameter = 600 mm
Thickness = 10 mm
E = 205 GPa
μ = 0.3
Limiting Strain, = 200(10-6)
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Let us look into the numerical exercise of this.
pr
In the case of spherical vessel the stress, =
2t
Now the value of p is unknown,
pr p  300
So, = = = 15p.
2t 2 10
x  y (1   ) (1.03)15 p
Also, =  = = .
E E E E
As it is said the lacquer cracks at a strain of 200(10-6). This the limiting value of the
strain. The lacquer can take a strain of 200(10-6) beyond which it cracks. And if we
calculate the value of pressure corresponding to that and limit our pressure below that
then it will not be strained to the desired extent.
0.7 15 p
Keeping = 200(10-6) =
205 103
200 106 103
Thus, p =  3.905MPa .
0.7 15
If we allow this much of pressure within that particular vessel, then the strain will be up
to a limit of 200(10-6).
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Let us look into another example of this particular category where we have the spherical
vessels; a spherical weather balloon is made of 0.2 mm thickness fabric and that has a
tensile strength of 10 MPa and the balloon is designed to reach an altitude where the
interior pressure is 2000 Pa above the atmospheric pressure. We will have to find out the
largest allowable diameter of this particular balloon. The thickness of the balloon is 0.2
ml and the tensile strength of the fabric has 10 MPa.
If we look into the stress in this particular balloon, is limited to 10 MPa which means
the fabric can withstand a tensile strength of 10 MPa. The thickness of the fabric is 0.2
mm and the pressure to which this is applied is 2000 Pa.
We will have to find out largest diameter of this particular balloon that we can adopt.
pr
As we know; = ,
2t
2000 106  r
10 MPa =
2 10
Thus, r = 2000 mm = 2 m
Or, diameter = 4 m
As we can see here the limiting stress which is given for the fabric with which the
balloon is composed of is given as 10 MPa. That is the maximum amount of tensile stress
that can be applied onto the fabric. The fabric has a thickness of 0.2 mm. So if we apply
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the internal pressure in 2000 Pa and then we try to apply the pressure then we try to find
out up to what extent we can go for what diameter of the balloon. As we see, we can go
up to a diameter of 4m for such a problem.
Let us summarize what we have learnt in this particular lesson. We have learnt the
concept of stresses and strain in thin walled spherical pressure vessels. In fact in the
previous lesson we had introduced the concept of cylindrical pressure induced in a
cylindrical pressure vessel. Here we have seen the stresses induced in spherical pressure
vessels.
Now you are in a position to compare how the stresses get induced because of the internal
pressure of the content, either the liquid or the gas for which the vessel is subjected to the
stresses.
We also looked into the evaluation of deformation using generalized Hooke’s law, we are
computing the value of the stresses on the pressure vessel surface which are and in
case of cylindrical pressure vessel and which is uniform everywhere in case of
spherical pressure vessel.
Once we compute the values of these stresses then we can compute the value of strain
based on these stresses and these strains can be computed using the generalized Hooke’s
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law which is ( /E) – (μ × /E). Based on that you can compute the value of the strain at
any point based on the stresses.
We have also seen some examples to evaluate stresses strains and deformation in thin
walled pressure vessels both in terms of cylindrical and spherical.
Here are some of the questions:

What is the value of maximum strain in spherical vessels, what is the value of in plane
shear stress in spherical vessels?
As we have seen in case of cylindrical pressure vessels, what is that value in spherical
pressure vessels?
Are the stresses same in spherical vessels as observed in cylindrical vessels?
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Lecture No. #17
Application of Stress/Strain – Thin Walled Pressure Vessels–III

Welcome to the third lesson of module three, this is on thin walled pressure vessels. We have
looked into some aspects of thin walled pressure vessels in the last two modules. In this
particular lesson we are going to look into some more aspects of thin walled pressure vessels.
This is on thin walled pressure vessels part III which is of course on the application of stress
strain.
(Refer Slide Time: 01.19 – 01:22)
It is expected that when one goes through this particular lesson they should be able to understand
the concept of volumetric strain in thin walled pressure vessels.
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In the previous lessons, we had looked into some aspects of cylindrical pressure vessels and
spherical pressure vessels and how the strains are generated when it is subjected to internal
pressure. Because of changes in the strain or change in the deformity, the cylindrical members of
the spherical vessels undergo changes in their volume. We would like to evaluate the strain in
terms of the volume. So change in volume over the original volume is known as the volumetric
strain.
What is the value of those for different pressure vessels? One should be able to evaluate stresses
and deformation in thin walled pressure vessels and appreciate difficulties.
We will look into some aspects, especially when we discuss about the combination of spherical
and cylindrical vessels. What are the problems related to deformation and what are the aspects to
be looked into, when one goes for the detail analysis or design of such vessels.
Hence, the scope of this particular lesson includes the recapitulation of previous lesson which we
do generally through the question and answer session.
We will also look into the answers of the questions which I had posed last time.
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Thereby we will be able to recapitulate the aspects which we have discussed in the last lesson.
We will be deriving the formulae for evaluating volumetric strain in thin walled pressure vessels,
both cylindrical and spherical type.
Then, we will be looking into some examples for evaluation of stresses, strains and deformations
in thin walled pressure vessels. These examples also will be related to cylindrical or spherical
type pressure vessels.
Questions asked last time is as follows:
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What is the value of the maximum strain in spherical vessels? In the last lesson we had discussed
aspects of the spherical vessels. If a spherical vessel is subjected to internal pressure, how does
the deformation take place and consequently what are the stresses and strain that occur in the
spherical vessel.
Now let us look at, what is the value of maximum strain.
We had evaluated the values of the stresses. For a spherical system or the spherical vessel of this
kind the stress that exists is σ in both the x and y direction. The resistive force,
P = σA = 2πrt
where r is the internal radius of the sphere or spherical vessel and t is the thickness of this
particular vessel.
The pressure that is being exerted by the content inside the container,
P = p(πr)2
When we equate these two we get the value of the stress
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pr
σ=
2t
This being a spherical vessel wherever we take a section through the center we get identical type
of stresses. Hence on this particular element we have the value of normal stress as σ both in the x
and y direction. Based on this stress, if we like to compute the strain in the x direction
x  
x    1 
e e e
since, σx = σy = σ
The second question posed was; what is the value of in–plane shear stress in spherical vessels?
For the in–plane stress in cylindrical pressure vessel if you have the values of σx and σy as σ1 and
σ2, where σ1 was the circumferential stress and σ2 is the longitudinal stress then if we take these
two stresses we can compute the strain and in–plane shear stress.
pr pr
In terms of these stresses now σ1 = and σ2 =
t 2t
pr
In case of spherical vessel, σ = .
2t
In the case of a cylindrical vessel, the shear stress is (σ1 – σ2)/2
In this particular case since both σ1 and σ2 are the same or σx = σy = σ, hence the value of the in–
plane shear stress in case of spherical vessel is 0.
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The third question was, are the stresses same in spherical vessels as observed in cylindrical
vessels?
We need to look into the derivations we had done for both cylindrical as well as spherical
vessels. If we look into these, we can immediately get the answer for the difference between the
two.
In case of cylindrical vessels, the circumferential stress
σ1 × t × l = P × 2r × L
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pr
Therefore, σ1 = Pr/t and the longitudinal stress, σ2 = .
2t
pr
In case of spherical vessel we have only one stress which = σ = .
2t
Please note that in case of cylindrical vessels, σ2 = σ1/2
pr
In case of spherical vessel, stress = which is again half of σ1.
2t
pr
Maximum normal stress in cylindrical vessel = σ1 =
t
pr
maximum normal stress in spherical vessel =
2t
Therefore, the maximum normal stress in case of spherical vessel is half of that of cylindrical
vessel. This aspect probably can be appreciated more through a diagram below.
If we look into the longitudinal stress, in case of cylindrical vessels, σ2, then we see that along
the longitudinal axis, the stress does not contribute to the equilibrium of the pressure which is
being exerted on the curved surface by the content of the liquid.
Only circumferential stresses resist the internal pressure and hence the value is larger whereas in
the case of spherical vessels, we get the stress from both the directions.
(Refer slide: 12:20 – 12:26)
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That means the stress or the pressure which is being exerted by the content of the spherical
vessel is being resisted by the vessel in all directions. As we have seen in both the cases the
cylindrical as well as the spherical vessel, the pressure which is exerted on the curved surface is
equal to the normal to the surface.
And since the wall is thin the variation of the stress across is negligibly small and we disregard
that. Hence we have a bi–axial state of stress which is in terms of σ1 and σ2. In the case of the
cylindrical pressure vessel this longitudinal stress does not really contribute much to the
equilibrium of the curved surface. Whereas in case of the spherical vessels, the curved surface or
the stresses from both directions comes from the resistance of the pressure exerted by the
content.
And in the cylindrical pressure vessel, the stress is more when compared to the spherical vessel.
In the case of spherical vessel, we have uniform tensile stress over the entire surface which is
normally called as the membrane stress.
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If we have a vessel which is a combination of cylindrical vessel and at the two ends we have
spherical parts, this becomes is a combination of cylindrical and spherical vessel.
Stress in cylindrical part (σ1) > Stress in the spherical part(σ)
Also, deformation in cylindrical part (δ) > Deformation in the spherical part(δ1)
The problem arises at this particular junction where the container is a combination of the end of
the cylindrical part and the starting of the spherical part. At this particular junction we have
larger deformation from the cylindrical end and we have smaller deformation from the spherical
end.
As a result, there is a mismatch in the deformation at that particular junction. As far as the whole
assembly is concerned there should be continuity of the element, there will be some other kind of
stresses generated apart from the stresses we are discussing over here. When we go for the
design of such systems one should be careful in selecting the sizes as well as concentrating on
the type of stresses that gets induced at that particular junction and accordingly the thickness has
to be decided.
These are some of the problems that can arise in case of such pressure vessels where you have
the combination of cylindrical and the spherical pressure vessel.
For the time being we assume that geometrically there we will be smoothness and we will have a
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similar kind of pressure existing. Thus the corresponding deformation can be evaluated directly
without considering the change in other kinds of stresses.
When you have a liquid inside a container whether it is a cylindrical or spherical vessel, it
undergoes change in the diameter thus there is a change in the volume of the container.
If a volume of a cylindrical or spherical vessel undergoes a change then we should be in a
position to compute the changes in the volume.
As we have defined strain in the case of a linear element, the extension to the original length is
the strength i.e. ratio of the extension or the deformation to the original length is the
deformation. In case of volume change we define the change in volume to the original volume
as the volumetric strength.
Let us look into how you are going to evaluate the volumetric strain in cylindrical or spherical
vessels.
Let us look into the evaluation of volumetric strain for cylindrical vessels:
Volumetric strain, e = ΔV/V
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We can evaluate this volumetric strain as a function of the pressure, radius of the vessel,
thickness of the vessel and correspondingly the values of the material constants e and μ.
Let us look into the evaluation of this volumetric strain. If we consider a cylinder of length L,
radius r (Assume the internal radius = r and length = L).
After deformation, the change is (r + Δr) in the radius and consequently (L + ΔL) is the change
in the length after the content has exerted pressure and the dimensions have undergone some
changes in terms of deformation.
If these are the changes then,
 r   r  L   L   r2 L
2
ΔV/V = .
 r2 L
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V  (r   r)2 ( L   L)   r -2 L
e= =
V  r 2L

ΔV/V = [(r 2  ( r)  2r  r) (L   L)  r 2 L]
r L2
1
ΔV/V = [r2L + Lδr2 + 2rLδr + r2δL + δLδr + 2(rδrδL) – r2L]
r2L
This r2L and r2L gets cancelled, and δr being small, if we neglect the multiplication of δr× δL
and δr2, then
1
ΔV/V = 2
[2rLδr + r2δL]
r L
r L
ΔV/V = 2 +
r L
ΔV/V = e = 2 ∈1 + ∈2
r L
Now as you can realize that is the strain in the radial direction for cylindrical vessel and
r L
is in the longitudinal direction which makes the change in the original length.
Also, ∈1 is the strain in the circumferential direction and ∈2 is the strain in the longitudinal
direction.
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So the volumetric strain e = 2 ∈1 + ∈2
Also, ∈1 = σ1/E – µ σ2/E
∈2 = σ2/E – µ σ1/E
pr pr
σ1 = and σ2 =
t 2t
pr pr pr pr
So, e = 2 [ –μ ]+[ –μ ]
t .E 2.t.E 2.t.E t .E
2 pr  pr
e= (1 – ) + (½ – μ)
t .E 2 t .E
pr 1 2
e= [2–μ+ ]
t .E 2
pr 5 – 4
e= [ ]
t .E 2
V pr  5  4 
The = this is the volumetric strength in case of cylindrical pressure vessel
V 2.t.E
now.
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(Refer Slide Time: 24:45 – 25:01 )
Likewise, we can compute the volumetric strain for spherical vessel given by
V 3 pr (1   )
e= = and we can compute the value exactly in the same way as we just now did.
V 2.t.E
Supposing if we have spherical vessel for which internal radius is again as r and because of
internal pressure there is a change in the radius which is (r + ∆r)
Hence, the value of volumetric strength is
V
e= = [4/3π(r + δr)3 – 4/3πr3]/ 4/3π r3
V
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e = 4/3 π [(r +δr)3 − r3]/4/3(π r3)
e = (1 / r3) [r3 + 3r2δr + 3r(δr2) +δr3 – r3)]
Again with the same logic that ∆r being small we neglect the value of δr2 and δr3 so,
e = 3r2δr ÷ r3
r
e = 3( )
r
r
Since, ( ) = radial strain
r
Thus, e = 3 
(1   )
Also,  = 3 
E
pr
In case of spherical vessels, σ =
2t
3(1   ) pr 3(1   ) pr 3 pr
e= = × = (1   )
E 2t E 2t 2tE
This is the value of the volumetric string in terms of the internal pressure, the radius and the
thickness modulus of elasticity and the Poisson’s ratio.
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3 pr (1   )
e=
2.t.E
Now we know the value of volumetric string for a cylindrical vessel and for the spherical vessel.
We looked into the difficulties we encounter when we go for a combination of a spherical and
cylindrical vessel at the junction where there is a mismatch in the deformation and to make the
geometrical compatibility or if we have a smooth deformation over there then there will be
additional stresses which has to be taken into account when you go for the design of such
vessels.
Let us look into the examples related to the cylindrical and spherical vessels. Now, the first
example is that a spherical stainless steel tank having a diameter of 400 mm is used store
propane gas at a pressure of 2.4 MPa. Now the yield stress of steel in tension is 112 MPa, the
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value of e is given as 200 GPa and the Poisson's ratio as 0.028. Also it is stated that the normal
strain in the vessel should not exceed 1000  106 so under these constraints we have to determine
the minimum permissible thickness of the tank. So a spherical tank is used for storing gas.
Now certain parameters are given, the diameter is given but the thickness is not given so we will
have to find out the thickness of the tank if the tank has to contain this gas that the pressure is
subjected to maximum stress of the limit given and the maximum strain limit given. So from
these two criteria we have to evaluate the value of thickness.
Let us see how to compute the value of the thickness. The diameter of the tank given is 400 mm,
the pressure inside = 2.4 MPa, the stress limitation the maximum tensile stress that can be
applied on the vessel = 112 MPa, the value of e = 200 GPa (Giga Pascal), μ = 0.28 and also it is
stated that the strain limitation is 1000(10−6).
If we compute the stress, since there is a limitation on the stress as well as on the strain we have
to compute the thickness of the vessel from two considerations.
First we have to compute the maximum stress that can be generated because of the pressure
exerted by the content and from there we will get one thickness, also when the vessel is subjected
to internal pressure there will be strain on the surface and there is a limitation on the strain value
as well and corresponding to that strain we will get another thickness.
Now we have to go for the thickness which you will satisfy both the criteria.
First let us look into with reference to stress.
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So maximum stress that can be generated in a spherical vessel, σ
pr 2.4  200
σ= = = 112 MPa.
2t 2t
t = 2.143 mm
x  y 1  
As we know  = – =( ) .
e e E
Since,  x =  y = σ
1  0.28 2.4  200

Here the value of Poisson’s ratio  =  .
200 103 2t
And this strain cannot exceed the value of 1000(10–6) = (10–3)
So,
0.72  2.4
10–3 =
2 103  t
Thus, t = 0.864mm.
Now we have two values of thicknesses, one is corresponding to the verification of the maximum
strain value and the other one is corresponding to the satisfaction of the stress criteria. So if we
have to satisfy both, if we go for the lower thicknesses there is a possibility that the stress level
here will be higher and as a result it will not satisfy this criterion. But if you go for higher
thickness then it will satisfy the strain criteria. So the thickness of the vessel to be adopted is t =
2.143 mm so that it satisfies both the criteria of stress as well as the strain. The maximum value
of the stress requirement is 112 MPa and the maximum value of the strain requirement is 10–3.
These two can be satisfied if we use the higher thickness between the two which is 2.143 mm.
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(Refer Slide Time: 36:03 – 36:07.)
Now, let us look into another example problem wherein we have a circular cylindrical steel tank
which contains a volatile fuel under pressure. Now a strain gage A is fixed at this particular
location. Now that gage records the longitudinal strain in the tank. Here we have a cylindrical
tank, this part is the cylindrical part and on this there are hemispherical ends attached to the tank
and this contains of volatile fuel inside it which exerts pressure.
On this cylindrical surface there is a strain gage mounted. This strain gage transmits the
information to a control room about the strain on such vessels. Now it is indicated that the
ultimate shear stress in the wall of the tank is 41 MPa.
Since the operator is recording at the control room he is getting a constant record of the strain.
Now what you need to find out is at what strain the operator should reduce the pressure so that
the stresses in the vessel does not go beyond this limiting capacity.
So that is what is being controlled. In the vessel we had fixed a strain gage and the strain gage
data is being transmitted to the control room.
Now the content is a giving a pressure inside and because of that the strain is changing thereby
the stresses are changing. Now there is a limiting value beyond which there is a possibility where
the whole thing may burst. So the operator who is controlling that has to keep an eye so that the
strain value goes beyond the particular value it is under rest and the pressure has to be reduced
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inside the container.
So we have to compute that value of the strain for which the operator should reduce the pressure
and the value of e is given and the value of the Poisson’s ratio is given here.
(Refer Slide Time: 38:16 – 38:32 )
Now let us look at how we compute the value of the strain at which the operator should send the
signal that is to be stopped or the pressure is to be reduced.
E = 205 GPa
μ = 0.3
As we know in case of spherical vessel or cylindrical vessel the value of σ1 and σ2 can be
computed in terms of the pressure and if you take a small element we have σ2 in the longitudinal
1   2
direction and σ1 in the circumferential direction and the in-plane shear stress τ = .
2
Now the maximum shear stress = 41 MPa
so the value of this stress differential σ1 = 82 MPa
pr
Now, we know that in case of cylindrical vessel σ1=
t
where p is the internal pressure, r is the radius internal radius and t is the thicknesses and
pr
longitudinal stress, σ2 =
2t
σ2 = σ1/2
τ = (σ1− (σ1 /2))/2 = 82 MPa
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So, σ1 = 164 MPa.
And σ2 = 82 MPa.
On the cylindrical vessel we have a strain gage fixed in the longitudinal direction which will
record the strain in the normal longitudinal direction.
So we have to compute the value of the strain in terms of the stresses.
So the strain in the longitudinal direction which we are calling as  2 is in line with the stress σ2
the
∈2 = σ2/E – µ σ1/E
Now σ2 = σ1/2
Thus, ∈2 = σ1/2E – µ σ1/E
∈2 = σ1/2E (1/2 – µ)
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∈2 = x (0.5-0.3)
205 103
∈2 = 0.16 x 10–3
So, as soon as the operator records the strain going closer to 160 x 10–6, the operator should
reduce the pressure from the cylindrical tank so that the stress level does not go to the limiting
value of that particular material with which the vessel has been fabricated.
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Let us look into the third example; a cylindrical water tank has a 6m diameter. Let us take this as
our internal diameter only which is 6m as 6000 mm and the thickness of the tank wall is 10 mm.
Now if the working tensile stress is 48 MPa the limiting stress on the vessel is 48 MPa, find the
maximum height h to which the tank may be filled.
Use  of water unit weight of water as 1000 kg/m3.
Now this particular tank is filled up with water. This height h is to be determined up to which if
we fill it up the maximum stress that can be allowed to go in the tank is up to 48 MPa. So this
height has to be evaluated from this particular criterion of the stress. Let us look into how to get
the value of h if we limit our stress to 48 MPa.
The values which are given here are; the diameter of the tank is 6m which is 6000 mm. Now the
value of t the thickness of the wall is 10 mm, the limiting stress, the working stress of the wall or
the vessel = 48 MPa. So this is the limiting value σw the working stress that is limited in the tank
is 48 MPa, the unit wet of water  is 1000 kg/m3.
In that particular tank as the water level is going up there will be change in the pressure which
will be exerted by the water. this is the tank and as the water level is going up to level h the
maximum pressure which will be exerted by the water =  w(h)
So we got to compute the value of the stress with reference to this maximum pressure so that the
maximum stress can be evaluated either time and corresponding to that we can find out the
height because corresponding to the maximum pressure the maximum stress will be generated
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and of course as the pressure is reduced the stresses will be different.
Here  = 1000 kg/m3

So,  .h = 1000(h) kg/m2
 .h = 10000 h N/m2 = the pressure p
pr
Normal stress, σ1 =
t
Pressure, p = 10000 × h
Radius, r = 3000 ,
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Thickness, t = 10.
Now this is the magnitude of the stress and the maximum normal stress is limited to 48 MPa
because it cannot go beyond that then the member will fail or the tank will fail.
So,
pr
48 = = 10000 × h × 3000 / (10 × 106)
t
3.h107
48 =
107
H = 16 m
So if the height of the water goes up at the level of 16m then it can push the pressure level up to
48 MPa. If we like to keep the pressure in the tank wall up to 48 MPa then the maximum height
up to which we can pour water is 16 m.
Let us look into another problem.

Here we have a pressure vessel which is basically a cylindrical pressure vessel, this is the
cylindrical part having 600 mm in length and is connected with a hemispherical end. The two
ends are hemispherical having a diameter of 400 mm and the diameter of this particular
hemispherical end is the external diameter. The cylindrical pressure vessel with hemispherical
end caps is made of steel.
The vessel has uniform thicknesses of 20 mm and an outer diameter of 400 mm. Now when the
vessel is pressurized to 4.5 MPa, now determine the change in the overall length of the vessel.
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This is the length of the vessel originally. Now we will have to compute that because of this
pressure 4.5 MPa which is exerted on the vessel how much increase in the length occurs because
of this internal pressure?
So this is what is to be computed to determine the change in the overall length of the vessel. The
value of e = 200GPa and μ = 0.3. Now let us look into the evaluation of these particular values
that how much is the elongation or change in the length.
The outer diameter of the vessel, douter = 400 mm
Thickness = 20 mm
p = 4.5 MPa
E = 200 GPa, μ = 0.3.
Thus, rinner = 180 mm which is this minus the thicknesses.
First let us look into the cylindrical part and then subsequently we will go to the spherical part.
For the cylindrical part the change in the length will be the elongation in the longitudinal
direction. So we got to compute the strain in the longitudinal direction and then correspondingly
find out the strength and then look into the hemispherical end and know what change it is in the
radius.
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pr 4.5 180
For the cylindrical one if you look into; the value of σ1 = = = 40.5 MPa.
t 20
σ2 = σ1/2 = 20.25 MPa
 2  1
2 = – = 0.0405 x 10–3
E E
 = δl/l = 0.0405 x 10–3
L = 600 mm
So, change in the length δl = 0.0243
This is the change in the length in the longitudinal direction for the cylindrical part. Now let us
look into what is the change in the two hemispherical ends or what is the change in the radius
and that will give us the total change.
pr
In the hemispherical end we have σ = = 20.25 MPa
2t
1 
And correspondingly,  = ( ) = 0.0708 x 10–3
E
r
Therefore, strength  = = 0.0708 x 10–3
r
 r = 0.0255 mm
delta r the change in radius = this times the original radius which is 180mm and since we have
two hemispherical end so it is twice of this value and this comes as = 0.0255 mm.
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Hence the total change in length = δl + δr = 0.0498 mm. So this is the total length in the change
as we get in the in this particular vessel.
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We have another example which is a thin walled cylinder 4.5m long, 500 mm internal diameter
and 5 mm wall thicknesses is prevented from axial displacement. Here the cylinder is not
allowed to move in the axial direction so it is restrained and thereby there is a change in volume
and this is corresponding to the volumetric strain.
(Refer Slide Time: 55:16 –55:26)
So determine the maximum tensile stress and the increase in the internal volume. You go to
compute the volumetric strain and thereby the change in the internal volume for this particular
vessel.
Now to summarize what we had discussed in this particular lesson is that we have looked into
the concept of volumetric strain in thin walled pressure vessels. So in this particular lesson we
have looked into, for cylindrical or spherical vessels how the volumetric strain occurs or change
in volume occurs.
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Then we have observed on some aspects on the deformation when specifically the cylindrical
and spherical vessels are combined together what are the problems we encounter.
Then we have looked into some examples where we could compute the values of strains and
thereby the stresses and the deformations in the vessels.
And also of course we have assigned one problem which is related to the change in the
volumetric strain.
With this particular lesson in fact we come to the conclusion of this particular module. In this
particular module we had three lessons. Now this particular module is on thin walled pressure
vessels and it consisted of three lessons.
In the first lesson we had introduced the concept of what is meant by thin walled pressure
vessels, what are the kind of stresses it gets induced to and we had discussed that aspect with
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reference to the cylindrical pressure vessels.
Consequently, in the second lesson we discussed again with reference to thin walled pressure
vessels but with a specific reference to the spherical vessel that what are the kinds of stresses and
strain occurs and thereby what are the deformations in spherical pressure vessels.
Finally, in today’s lesson we discussed the volumetric strain with reference to the cylindrical and
spherical vessels and thereby some critical observations on such kinds of pressure vessels and
how to take care of that and that we have discussed through several examples related to both the
cylindrical and spherical vessels and the combinations of that.
Now some questions are set for you.

The first question is, how you will define a thin walled pressure vessel which is quite clear. Now
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from this lesson you can find out the definitions for a thin walled pressure vessel.
(Refer Slide Time 57:37 – 57:47)
What is the nature of stresses in thin walled pressure vessels?
What is the relation between the volumetric strain and maximum strain in spherical vessels?
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I.I.T. Kharagpur
Lecture No.18
Torsion - I
Welcome to the first lesson of Module 4 which is on Torsion I.
In the last three modules we discussed about the aspects of stress, strain, and application of
stress and strain on thin walled pressure vessels. If a bar is subjected to an axial pull it is
subjected to a normal stress which we have seen as load divided by the cross sectional area.
Consequently we have seen that if the bar is subjected to axial pull it undergoes deformation
to its original length which we have defined in terms of strain.
In this particular lesson we are going to look into, that if this particular bar is subjected to
another kind of force which we term as a twisting moment or torsion then what are the effects
of torsion on such bars? It is expected that, once this particular lesson is completed or once
someone goes through this particular lesson one should be able to understand the concept of
twisting moment and its effect on bars of circular cross sections.
Now we will be concentrating on the bars which are of circular cross section and in this
particular lesson we will be looking into the bars of solid circular cross sections.
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Also one should be able to understand the concept of shear stress which gets generated due to
torsion, and one should be in a position to evaluate stresses and deformation in solid
circularbars which develop due to torsion.
Hence, the scope of this particular lesson includes the recapitulation of previous lesson. We
will be discussing the questions posed last time in the form of answers. We will be deriving
the formulae which are necessary for evaluating the stress and the deformation in bars of
solid circular cross sections which arise due to the application of the twisting moment or the
torsion and then we will be looking into some examples for the evaluation of stresses and
deformations in solid circular bars.
In the previous lesson of the third module we were discussing the aspects of thin wall
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pressure vessels and we have seen some questions related to that. The first question was to
define a thin walled pressure vessel. That is an important question because the previous
module was devoted to this. You should know how to define a thin walled pressure vessel.
A thin walled pressure vessel may be defined in this particular form. Basically, thin walled
pressure vessels are the closed pressurized containers and when these pressurized vessels are
subjected to internal pressure they are subjected to stresses. We classify these pressure vessels
as thin walled pressure vessels. When the thickness of such a vessel is sufficiently small
compared to the radius of the container the stresses are almost uniform throughout the
thickness.
Across the thickness of the pressure vessel there is no change in stresses. If you consider the
thickness the change in the stresses is significantly small and that is the reason we call these
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particular types of vessels as thin-walled vessels. It has been observed that, if the radius to
thickness ratio, r/t ratio ≥ 10, then the stress distribution across the thickness of the wall is
significantly small.That means we can presume that, the stress will be the same or uniform
and we consider that as a thin walled pressure vessel.
So to define it precisely, we should say that when the thickness of the wall is sufficiently
small compared to the radius so that the stresses are almost uniform throughout the thickness.
These vessels are termed as thin walled pressure vessels and the criteria is that, if r/t or the
radius by thickness ratio ≥10 then we call those kind of vessels as thin walled pressure
vessels.
The second question was: what is the nature of stresses in thin walled pressure vessels? In
the case of thin walled pressure vessels the nature of the stresses is tensile. We have already
discussed the type of stresses that are generated in pressure vessels. They are basically the
tensile stresses which occur on the surface. In the case of cylindrical pressure vessels it is
tensile stress along the circumference. We have called it as circumferential stress or hoop
stress, and in the longitudinal direction we have the stress called longitudinal stress. Both the
stresses are tensile in nature. So as in the case of spherical vessels we have seen that the
stresses which get generated in any direction are tensile in nature. So the stresses which
develop in thin walled pressure vessels are tensile in nature.
The last question was, what is the relation between volumetric strain and maximum strain in
spherical vessel? Here is an example in relation to the derivation of the strain. We had defined
the volumetric strain e as the change in the volume to the original volume which is defined
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V
here as, e = . Now we had derived this as the radius r and because of the pressure it
V
undergoes deformation and becomes r + δr. Thereby the change in the volume because of r +
δr over the original volume gives us the expression for the volumetric strain ε which we get
as 3 × εr where εr is the normal strain which is developed because of the stresses.
In the spherical vessels if we take a small element we have the stresses developed into it in
 
any direction which is equal to σ. Hence the strain at any point can be written as –
E E
(1 −  )
which is bi-axial in nature. So this becomes ε = . In the place of ε this is what has
E
3(1 −  )
been substituted over here and this is what you see over here . So this is 3εr and σ
E
pr 3 pr (1 −  )
being if we substitute that then it becomes e = so basically the relation
2t 2.t.E
between the volumetric strain and the normal strain is e = 3εr. This is the basic relationship
and finally we arrived at this expression in terms of the pressure, the radius of the vessels,
Poisson’s ratio, thickness of the vessel, and the modulus of elasticity.
Having discussed about the pressure vessels, the nature of the stress we generally encounter
and how do we define a thin walled pressure vessel, and then the relationship between the
volumetric strain and the normal strain in a spherical vessel now let us look into another
example. If a bar is subjected to an axial pull, it is subjected to a stress which we have
defined as normal stress which is nothing but equal to the load applied divided by the cross
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sectional area. Likewise in the second module we saw that if a bar is subjected to a load it
undergoes straightening elongation or compression or shortening which we have defined in
terms of strain which is deformation to its original length.
Suppose we have a bar which has a circular cross section and it is a solid bar as shown here,
now if this bar is subjected to a load of a particular form which we generally call as a couple,
these are the forces which are acting at different directions. Now if we say that the difference
in the distance between these two being d, and if we call the force applied as p, then this
particular bar which is fixed at one particular end will be subjected to a moment, the
magnitude of which will be p.d.
This particular moment is acting about the axis which is perpendicular to the cross section,
and is acting about the x-axis, the other two axes being y-axis and the z-axis. Now, suppose a
section or a particular member is subjected to a moment about an axis normal to the cross
section and is acting about the axis perpendicular to the plane of this board then the moment
is acting about this particular axis called as the twisting moment or torsion.
Now we derive here the relevant formulae on certain assumptions, and these assumptions are
that the circular section (the cross section) remains as it is. It does not get deformed and
thereby there are no strains in the cross section, there is no strain along the length and the axis
of the member, and hence there are no deformations. Only because of this application of
twisting moment the cross section undergoes rotation and that deformation is defined in terms
of rotation of this cross sectional part. If this particular member is fixed at this end and if we
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take one length on this particular surface then let us see how it rotates because of the
application of this twisting moment and let us find out the consequence of that.
Now let us look into another kind of loading which we have applied. Here we have another
load z applied in this particular form. This is also coupled which is acting at a distance d
again. This is also going to cause a twisting moment or a moment about the axis
perpendicular or along the length of the member in this particular form acting in a clockwise
direction. Hence this is also a twisting moment but the direction of this is different from the
direction of the first one.
Now let us look into these two directions and analyze it. In the first case, when we had the
moment which was acting about the x axis, it was acting in an anticlockwise direction. If you
look into this particular figure here this is the axis and the twisting moment is acting in an
anticlockwise form. Here it behaves in the form of a right hand screw and as the moment is
acting in this form the direction of axis is towards the thumb. This is called the positive
twisting moment where the vectorial direction is in the x direction.
So the moment is acting in the bar in the form where the thumb is directed towards the
positive x axis, and this we call as the positive twisting moment. Whereas when we consider
the moment acting in a clockwise form the thumb goes opposite to the positive x direction
called as the negative twisting moment and the corresponding rotation as a negative rotation.
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Hence, if you look into this particular figure where we have the twisting moment acting in a
clockwise form and the vectorial direction of this twisting moment is opposite to the positive
x direction. This is the negative twisting moment and that is the positive twisting moment.
That is how we define the convention of these particular twisting moments of the torsions.
We can either represent this twisting moment in this form negative twisting moment or in
terms of vectorial direction notation where both the notations represent the positive torsion
also defined as a negative twisting moment. Consequently for this we can either give a
twisting moment in this form known as negative twisting moment or a vectorial direction
notation in this form also known as negative twisting moment.
This is how it gets rotated when a twisting moment is applied on the bar which was initially
straight. This is how it gets rotated. Here this end being fixed it moves and then forms an
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angle over here. This particular original radius is getting changed or there is an angular
change over here, and this is what we will be looking into while deriving the formulae for
torsion.
Coming to the units of moments here the unit of the force is Newton and the distance is
written in meters. Hence the twisting moment or the torsional moment which you have has
the unit Newton meter, Nm.
(Refer Slide Time 10)
Let us look into this particular configuration which is again a solid circular bar, the cross
section is a circular one and it is solid. It does not have any hollowness in such a system. If
this particular bar is subjected to a positive twisting moment then what happens to this
particular system?
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We have one length of this particular bar as AB. Here this particular bar is fixed and let us
call this point as B. Now this is fixed at this particular end and it is subjected to a twisting
moment T at its end. Because of the application of the twisting moment it will undergo
rotation and this helix line will be formed and thereby the radius of the cross section r will
simply change and there will be a deformation angle which we call θ. Because of the
application of the twisting moment, the radius vector changes, the angular section moves and
there is a change in the angle which we call θ.
Now, here are some assumptions which we make. The circular cross sections remain plane
and perpendicular to the axis of the shaft. There is no change in the circular cross sections
and they remain plane before the application of twisting moment. Since there is no change in
the cross section, there is no deformation and hence there is no strain developed into the cross
section so the cross sections do not deform.
Secondly, the distance between the cross sections does not change and hence the axial strain
is absent. Since there is no change in length of the member, there is no deformation, and
thereby there is no strain in the axial direction.
These are the assumptions we make based on which we derive the relationship between the
twisting moment and the deformation.
Now let us look into how we derive the relationship between the twisting moment and the
angle of rotation. Because of the application of this twisting moment, the length which was
originally straight forms this helix, and thereby there is a change in angle called as θ.
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If we cut a segment from this particular length, let us call this as length dx, also what we do
is, out of the whole circular bar we cut off some top portion and take a smaller core. Let us
assume that the smaller core is having a radius rho ρ. Originally this particular bar has a
radius r and the core which we are looking into has a radius rho ρ.
Now if we concentrate on this segment which we call as ab and this as cd or abdc it is an

element on the surface of this particular cylindrical part or the circular body. When this is
subjected to a twisting moment then the radius which is the line joining from center to b
undergoes rotation. Since this is a small distance dx, let us say that the change in angle
between these two segments of the cross section is also small and let us call that as dθ.
If we look into the distance on the surface of this particular body, b moves to this particular
point which is called as bb’. That is, if we look into distance the bb’ from the cross section
point of view the radius is rho ρ and the angle is dθ so bb’ = ρ(dθ). The segment abdc
undergoes change on the surface in this particular form. Hence there is a change in the angle.
Because of the twisting moment the abdc element has undergone deformation and there is a
change in the angle. As we have seen in the past, this change in angle on the surface is called
strain angle γ. If this is the strain angle γ and the distance is dx, distance cb’ = γ(dx). When
d
we equate these two γ(dx) = ρ dθ. Then, we can write γ = ρ . This is the shearing strain
dx
d
written in terms of the rotation and is called as the rotation per unit length.
dx
Hooke’s law states that the stress is proportional to the strain, τ, the shearing stress is related
to shearing strain through the shear modulus G so τ = Gγ (the Hooke’s law). So if we
d d
substitute for γ which is ρ , then the expression for τ becomes G ρ or we can write this
dx dx
d d
as (G ) ρ. If you look into this quantity G , it is independent of radius and as a result
dx dx
the shear stress is linearly dependent on the radius ρ. It varies linearly from the center to the
outer surface and the stress becomes the maximum on the surface of the cylindrical bar and is
zero at the center.
Since it is varying linearly with ρ along the section if you look into it, when ρ becomes r, it
goes to the surface and thereby you get the maximum stress.
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If you look into this particular figure, this is the radius vector here r and now at a distance of
d
ρ as considered in this particular configuration as ρ, the shear stress is τ given by τ = G *
dx
d
ρ. Now when this one goes to the surface it becomes τmax, τmax = G r, when ρ becomes
dx
r which is the maximum shear stress.
Now if we look into an element which is taken out from here, this particular element as we
have seen has undergone change in the angle which we have called as strain angle γ and
consequently it will be subjected to the stresses which we have named as shearing stress τ
and the complementary will be in the perpendicular direction. This is the stress that gets
generated on the surface of the cylindrical specimen or a bar which is of circular
configuration.
What we need to do is to find out the relationship between the twisting moment and the stress
so that we can evaluate the stress in a bar when it is subjected to a twisting moment called as
the torsion formula. The torsion formula is; the relationship between the torsional moment
which is acting on the bar and consequently the stress that gets developed on the bar. What
we have seen now is the compatibility criteria. When the body is subjected to a twisting
moment it undergoes deformation in terms of rotation and we have related the deformation to
the stress.
Let us write down the equilibrium equations so that we can write down the relationship
between the stress and the corresponding twisting moment. The equilibrium criteria demand
that the resultant shearing stress which will be acting on this surface should be equal to the
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twisting moment that is being applied in the section. The twisting moment that is applied is T.
When we are applying this twisting moment the shearing stresses are generated. Here this is
the center of the cross section.
Let us take an element whose area is dA. So the force that will be acting which is
perpendicular to this radius is equal to the stress times the area. Hence if we say that the force
which is acting on the small element as dP is equal to the stress τ times area dA; dP = τ dA.
d
We have already seen that τ is nothing but, G ρ. This is the stress on this element which is
dx
at a distance of ρ from the center times dA. So the resistive moment that is being applied by
this particular element will be the force multiplied by this distance ρ.
So the twisting moment T, which is acting on this particular cross section, is nothing but the
summation of all such forces over this particular cross sectional area which is ∫dP × ρ the
d
distance. This is equal to integral over the area. If we substitute dP in terms of G ρ, and ρ
dx
× ρ becomes ρ² × dA so that is the twisting moment that is applied in this particular cross
d
section. Now G being a constant parameter let us take that out and this is equal to ∫ρ² ×
dx
dA. You can recognize that this particular term ρ² × dA is the second moment of this smaller
area with respect to the axis which is passing through the center of this particular cross
section.
And as we know, this is nothing but the moment of inertia of this particular section about the
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axis which is passing through the center of this cross section which is perpendicular to the
plane of this cross section. We generally designate this as J and call it the polar moment of
inertia. This is the sum of moment of inertia in x and y axes so J = Ix+Iy, where Ix is the
moment of inertia of the section about xx axis and this as yy axis and the perpendicular
direction as z which we have designated as x here is the sum of the moment of inertia in the
planar part which if we add up we get J the polar moment of inertia. So this is the expression
d
for torsion T = G J.
dx
Now if we try to evaluate the rotation over the entire length of the bar, here the twisting
moment which is applied in the bar is related to the rotation part in unit length in terms of the
polar moment of inertia of the section and the shear modulus. If we like to find out that the
bar which is fixed at one end and subjected to twisting moment on the other, what is the
change in the angle or the change in rotation over the entire length of the bar?
d T
We have seen T = GJ or dθ = dx. If we integrate this over the entire length then we
dx GJ
will get the rotation between the two ends and this is θ = integral dx which gives us the x and
T .L
the length l. So is the deformation of the member which is subjected to a twisting
G. J
moment and the deformation is in terms of the angular change which is the rotation between
two ends. The θ is the change in rotation between the two ends over the length l which is
subjected to a twisting moment T.
Now if we compare this particular expression with the deformation that we had derived in
PL
module II wherein when the bar is subjected to a load p we have said δ = which is the
AE
deformation. Here the deformation in terms of rotation is analogous to p where we have the
twisting moment T, the length of the bar, and there we had the modulus of elasticity but here
we have the shear modulus and in place of cross sectional area here the polar moment of
inertia J comes into the picture. So this is the rotation θ that we can have.
Now if we like to relate the shear stress with the twisting moment, because of the application
of the twisting moment the shear stress gets generated and if we like to evaluate that, we had
d
seen τ = G ρ.
dx
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d T d T
From this particular expression we can see that = . So, if we substitute for as
dx GJ dx GJ
T P  T
this gives us G  . This gives us or = . This is the expression of shear stress
G. J J P J
which is related to the twisting moment T.
TL T G  T
We have just seen that θ = and we can write down = and from here we get =
GJ J L P J
T  G
so by combining these two we can write down the torsion formula = = which relates
J  L
the shear stress with the twisting moment and also the angle of twist over the length of the
member.
From this equation we can evaluate that; if a bar is subjected to a twisting moment then what
will be the stresses in the bar in terms of the sectional parameters. We can evaluate the strain
once we know the shear modulus, we can find out the angle of rotation, angle of twist, and
find out that because of this twisting moment how much angular deformation a bar
undergoes. In the previous cases we were evaluating the stress when the bar was subjected to
axial pull, subjected to axial force in the bar. Here we are computing the deformation and the
stresses of the bar when it is subjected to a moment which is about the axis perpendicular to
the cross section.
Let us look into some of the sample problems based on this discussion. Before we go to the
sample problems for the twisting moments or the torsions, let us look into this example.
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A thin walled cylinder 4.5 meter long, 500 mm internal diameter, and 5 mm wall thickness is
prevented from axial displacement under an internal pressure of 8.25 MPa.
All we have to do is determine the maximum tensile strength and the increase in the internal
volume at this pressure 8.25 MPa given the value of E = 165 GPa and μ = 0.24. Let us look
into how you get the maximum tensile stress and then the change or increase in the internal
volume.
Given length of the cylinder = 4.5m; Internal diameter d = 500 mm; the thickness of the wall
t = 5mm; the internal pressure = 8.25 MPa; Modulus of elasticity E = 165 GPa and μ, the
Possion’s ratio = 0.4.
The maximum tensile stress that occurs on the surface of the cylinder on the cylindrical
pr
vessel = σ1 = and p = 8.25 MPa; diameter = 500 mm, radius = 250 mm, t = 5 mm
t
pr 8.25  250
so σ1 = = = 412.5 MPa .
t 5
1
Correspondingly the value of σ2 = = 206.25 MPa
2
If we compute the value of the strain, which is
ε1 = σ1/ E ― μ * σ 2/E = 412.5/165  103 – 0.24  206.25/165  103 = 2.2  10-3
Consequently we can compute the strain:
ε2 = σ2/E ― μσ1/E = 206.25/165×103―0.24 × 412.5/165 × 103
this consequently gives us a value of 0.5 × 103
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If you remember, for volumetric strain E = ∆V/V.

For cylindrical containers we have E = 2 × ε1 + ε2.
ε1 = 2.2 × 10-3
ε2 = 0.5 ×10-3
= 2 × 2.2 × 10-3 + 0.5 × 10-3 (this is the volumetric strain) = 4.9 ×10-3
So the change in volume ∆V which we will have to evaluate = 4.9 × 10-3 into original volume
= π × 250² × 4500 = 4.33 × 106 mm3, the change in the volume ∆V.
So the cylindrical container which was subjected to a pressure of 8.25 MPa is undergoing a
change in volume which is 4.33 × 106 mm3.
Let us now look into the second problem based on the discussions we had today.
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Here is a solid steel bar having circular cross section of diameter 40 mm and length 1.5m
subjected to a torque of 375 Nm. What is the maximum shear stress in the bar? What is the
angle of twist between the ends? The value of G is given as 1 × 105MPa .This is the first part.
In the second part, if the allowable shear stress is limited to 50 MPa and allowable angle of
twist is 2.5° then what is the maximum permissible torque? In the second part, two aspects
are defined. One is that the stress is limited to 50 MPa and the angle of twist also is defined
as 2.5°.
Constraints have been put on both sides. You will have to calculate the twisting moment,
considering that the maximum stress is 50 MPa. You have to calculate the twisting moment
also considering that the angle of twist cannot exceed 2.5°. Based on these two, which is the
critical one? That means the minimum of these will be the guiding twisting moment. If you
go beyond that, one of them will fail. So let us look into the first part. What is the maximum
shear stress in the bar and what is the angle of twist between the two ends? The diameter of
the bar given is 40mm. The length of the bar is 1.5m and the twisting moment that is acting is
375 Nm.
T  G
The expression for the equation of torsion is = =
J  L
For the given bar, the polar moment of inertia J = for π d4/64 is Ix+ Iy π d4/64, so twice of
4 d4
that is π d /64(Ix+ Iy) = the polar moment of inertia.
32
  404
And d = 40; J = ( ) mm4
32
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J = (2.513 × 105) mm4
Now we need to evaluate the shearing stress τ for the given twisting moment.
T .
So we take the first part of this equation where we write τ = .
J
Now the twisting moment T = 375 so Nm = 3.75× (103)ρ
3.75 103  20
τ= = 29.84 MPa τ the shear stress = 29.84 MPa. Also we need to evaluate the
2.513103
 G
value of the angle of rotation θ; = and since the twisting moment is given let us take
 L
T G T .L 375  103 1500
= so from this expression we get θ = ; T = 375 so  =
J L G. J 1  105  2.513  105
180
is so much of radiance and this comes as = 0.0224 radian and this is equal to = 0.0224 ×

= 1.28°. This is the angle of rotation and this is the stress.
These are the two parameters that we had to evaluate so shear stress and τ is given by this.
Now let us look into the second part wherein we have to compute the value of the twisting
moment and the limiting stresses. The limiting stresses are that τ is limited to 50 MPa and the
angular twist θ is 2.5°. For these two cases we will have to find out T.
Let us call the values corresponding to T as T1 and corresponding to this as T2. If we compute
T1 and T2 lesser of these two will give us the value of the guiding twisting moment.
T 
We know that = . From these we compute the value of T
J 
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 .J
T= and τ here is given as 50 MPa.

So this is equal to 50 multiplied by J which is in terms of diameter π × 404/32 is J and  =
d/2 which is 40/2 = 628.32 Nm
This is the amount of twisting moment that is necessary if we have to restrict the stress up to
50 MPa. If we go beyond this the stress level will exceed 50 MPa. So we cannot go beyond
628.32 Nm as the twisting moment because if we go beyond that then the stress level will go
beyond 50MPa. So if we have to restrict the stress in the bar up to 50MPa then we will have
to restrict the twisting moment to this particular value.
If we have to restrict the angle of rotation to 2.5° then what is the twisting moment that we
need.
T .L
So for the second case we have θ = .
G. J
G.J .
From this, T = ; G = 1 × 105 and J we have π × 404/32 and L = 1500 and θ = 2.5° so 2.5
L
× π/180 so much of radian and this gives us a value of T = 731.08 Nm.
Please note here that now we have got the two values of the twisting moment, one value of
the twisting moment by restricting the stress up to 50 MPa. That means if we apply that
amount of twisting moment the stress will be limited to 50 MPa. If we go beyond that value,
the stress level will exceed 50 MPa.
In another case, we have got a twisting moment which is limited by the angle of twist. If we
go beyond that, then the angle of twist will increase beyond 2.5. Since we will have to satisfy
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both the criteria, hence the limiting value of twisting moment will be 628.32 Nm. The
maximum value of T which can be applied in this particular case is 628.32 Nm. So this is the
answer for this particular example.
Now, let us look into another example, which is of a similar kind but a little difference is that
here we are defining in terms of the strain. A copper rod of length 600mm is to be twisted by
torque T until the angle of rotation between the ends is 4°. If the allowable shear strain in the
copper is so much of radian, then what is the maximum permissible diameter in this particular
rod? This is the rod of length 600 mm subjected to a twisting moment. We will have to see
that the strain does not exceed 0.008 in that particular rod. Then what is the value of the
maximum diameter to resist this much of strain?
T  G
Here = = so τ the shearing stress = Gγ this is the relationship between the shearing
J  L
stress and the shearing strain.
 G   .   . d d
So = or = and = γ so γ = and ρ = so γ = here the diameter is to
 L G L G L 2 2L

be evaluated d times θ which is limited to 4° so this is multiplied by so much radian
180
divided by 2 × L = 600 and it comes to 0.0008 which is the limiting value of the strain and
from this we will have to evaluate the value of the diameter d = 13.75 mm.
In this particular case, the strain of the bar was limited. Because of the application of the
twisting moment the strain cannot exceed beyond a specific value. Now to limit to that
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particular value of the strain we have to find out the maximum diameter of the bar that can be
used. Utilizing the relationship between the torque and the stress and the relationship between
the stress and the strain we can find out the diameter of the bar that can be applied.
We have another example problem where a solid aluminum bar of length 1.2m and 25 mm
diameter is twisted by torques T acting at the ends. The shear modulus is given and you will
have to determine the torsional stiffness of the bar and secondly if the angle of twist of the
bar is 5° then what is the maximum shear stress? These are the two parameters that we have
to define.
We will now summarize this particular lesson: We have looked into the concept of torsion in
a bar of solid cross circular section. We have taken a bar, the cross section of which is a solid
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circular one with no hollowness. When such a bar is subjected to a twisting moment, then the
consequences, the stresses and deformations that occur in such bar were learnt. We also saw
the concept of stresses and deformation in a bar of circular cross section due to torsion, and
then we looked into an example to evaluate stresses, strain and deformation in bars of solid
circular cross section due to such torsions.
Questions:
What is the type of stress a bar encounters due to torsion? Once you go through this lesson,
you will be able to understand the stresses acting when a bar is subjected to twisting moment,
the concept of torsional stiffness and so on.
This aspect is important and the problem which is given as example is based on this. So you
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can find out what the torsional stiffness is and what will be the stresses and deformation due
to torsion if the bar has a hollow circular section instead of solid one.
The cross section which we have considered here is a solid. If it is a tubular one (instead of
solid) and if there is some hollowness within the bar, then we will have to see whether we can
apply the same formulae which were derived here for solid section.
Based on that, we have to find whether we can compute the stresses in a bar which is having
the hollowness in the cross section. The answers for these will be given in the next lesson.
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I.I.T. Kharagpur
Lecture No. # 19
Torsion-II
Welcome to the 2nd lesson of 4th module Torsion Part II.
In the last lesson which was the first part of torsion we have seen some aspects of the
torsional moment which were applied on a bar and we considered the cross section of which
is a circular one and is a solid circular cross section. We have seen the effect of the torsional
moment in such cross sectional bar.
Today, we are going to study the effect of the twisting moment on such a bar where the cross
section is not a solid one but a hollow one. We will also look into what will be the
consequence of the twisting moment on a bar, the cross section of which is a tubular one
instead of a solid shaft.
After completing this lesson one will be able to understand the concept of twisting moment
and its effect on bars of hollow circular cross section, understand the effect of non-uniform
twisting moment and its effect on bars of circular cross section.
Last time, we applied uniform twisting moment on the bar. The bar was fixed at one end, the
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twisting moment was applied on the other end and the torsion applied over the bar was
uniform in nature. Now, if there are some bars which may not be uniform there could be
variation in the section or there could be uniform section but the torsions applied at different
points are of different magnitudes.
For that kind of a situation, we will look into the consequence of that kind of loading in the
system. This is what the non-uniform twisting moment is and its effect on bars of circular
cross section and thereby one should be able to evaluate stresses and deformation in circular
bars due to torsion.
We will be looking into the aspects of the previous lesson. This will be done through
answering the questions which I have posed. Also we will be deriving the formulae for
evaluating stress and deformation in bars of hollow circular cross section.
We will also be looking into the effect of non-uniform torsion on bars of circular cross
section and examples for evaluation of stresses and deformation in bars of circular cross
sections of varying types. Now, we will see examples of bars with solid or circular cross
sections and the effect of torsion on such bars. Even the cross section could be a hollow like a
tubular member. If we have a bar which is consisting of several diameters and if it is
subjected to torsion either of same magnitude or different magnitudes then what is the
consequence of such systems?
Let us look into the questions. The first question is, what is the type of stress a bar encounters
when it is subjected to a twisting moment or torsion?
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Let us look into the aspect which we discussed last time. In this example, the bar has the
circular cross section; it is a solid circular bar subjected to a twisting moment T, and this we
had defined as a positive twisting moment because it is acting in an anti-clockwise direction.
The thumb is projecting towards the positive x-axis, which we have denoted as the positive
twisting moment.
We already looked into a portion of the bar which is of length dx and this is the part of that
whole bar. Because of the effect of this twisting moment acting on this bar if we take an
element on the surface of this particular bar this undergoes moment and thereby an ellipse is
formed. If we look into this particular element, this element undergoes a change in the angle.
As we had seen earlier, we call this change in the angle as shearing strain γ, and as per
Hooke’s law we get the stresses which get induced into the surface called as the shearing
stress.
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Because of the application of the twisting moment in the bar we get shearing stress in the bar
and because of this shearing stress is without any application of the normal stress so this is
the state of pure shear.
The angle here is 90o so the action of this principle stress will be at an angle of 45 o with
respect to the shear and that will be the maximum normal stress which is equal to the value of
τ.
Let us look into the application of such a twisting situation when we move a screw driver.
This is the application of a twisting moment. When we are rotating it basically we are
applying the twisting moment which is allowing this to rotate and finally moves inside.
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The second question asked was: What is meant by the torsional stiffness? Let us look into the
expression which we had derived last time for the torsional moment. This is the expression
T  G
which we had derived, = = , where, T is the twisting moment; J is polar moment of
J  L
inertia; τ is the shearing stress; ρ is the radius at any point on the center of the cross section;
G is the shear modulus; θ is the rotation and L is the length of the bar.
We call this expression a torsion formula. If we equate this to quantity; we are interested in
finding out the stiffness because of the torsion. When we apply the twisting moment, the
twisting moment required to produce unit rotation is called as the stiffness against this
twisting moment. So the twisting moment required to produce unit rotation is termed as the
T G
torsional stiffness. If we equate these two quantities = , we can relate T and θ as,
J L
GJ
T = .
L
Now, if we make θ as unit, then T is the torsional stiffness. So the torsional stiffness,
GJ
T/ θ =
L
Now if we look into the units G is represented in terms of mega Pascal, J is the polar moment
of inertia which is mm4, and L is the length which is in mm. So we have Newton per mm2
and then we have J which is mm4 and L is mm. So Newton millimeter is the unit for T which
is equivalent to the unit for the twisting moment. This is the stiffness.
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Now the third question was: What will be stresses and deformation due to torsion if the bar is
a hollow circular section instead of a solid one? This is the aspect we are going to discuss
today. So this question will be answered through discussions in this lesson. Let us look into
the aspect of how we calculate the effect of the torsion in circular tubes.
In the previous lesson, we have gone through the fact that if a bar of solid circular section is
subjected to a twisting moment, then it is subjected to the shearing strain, which we have seen
d
as  =  . This is the expression which we had used for the solid shaft and γ is the
dx
d
shearing strain at any point which is at a radius ρ and is rotation per unit length. This
dx
particular expression which we derived for the solid circular section is equally applicable for
hollow tubular section as well. This means that as we had seen in case of solid circular shaft,
at any point from the center at any radius ρ we can compute the strain γ. In this case, from the
center till we reach the inner point of the tube there is no material and hence no strain. So the
minimum strain that occurs is at the point which is the inside of the tube of this tubular cross
section.
Now this is the center over here. Let us call this internal radius as r1 and the external radius as
r2. Coming back to this expression again, the maximum strain that occurs  max is at the outer
periphery, where if this is the outer periphery of the whole tube, and if we call this radius as r,
d
then when ρ becomes r, that gives us the value of the strain as  max , where,  max = r
dx
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This is what we get in case of solid circular shaft. Now when you come to this tubular form,
the first material it encounters from the center is at the inner radius. So the minimum strain
that occurs is at this particular point and the maximum strain occurs at the outer radii. So
these are the points and as we have seen from this expression that γ vary linearly with ρ. So
the strain varies linearly with the radius, so as the stress from our Hooks law that  = G .
d d d
Since  =  ; = G  . Again G being independent of ρ, τ varies linearly with ρ. So
dx dx dx
the shearing stress varies linearly with the radius from the center. In case of hollow tube the
same theory holds good. Only thing is that since we do not have any material at the center,
the first point which encounters stress is at this particular point and then as it goes along the
outer periphery, where we have the maximum stress.
So the variation of the shear stress across thickness is in this form which is proportional to the
radius ρ. This is the distribution of the shear stress in case of tubular section. So the same
theory as we had in case of circular shaft holds good even for the tubular section as well. We
will relate the different quantities as we had related in the case of solid shaft, like the shear
stress to the torsional moment, the radius at which point we like to find out the stress, and
then corresponding quantity of the rotation, the shear modulus and the length of the bar. So
let us look into that. How do we compute these relationships in case of tubular sections?
d
Now coming back to this expression,  =  , we know that the shear stress
dx
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d
 = G = G  . As we had seen, this is basically from the compatibility criteria. Last time
dx
we discussed the derivation of the formulae for the torsion, when the torsion is applied, the
corresponding stresses, we had equations of compatibility which is in terms of the rotation
and subsequently we had the equations of equilibrium. Equilibrium equations are derived
mostly from the resultant stress that is being generated because of the twisting moment. So on
any cross section the resultant stress equals the applied twisting moment and we apply the
same concept to evaluate what should be the expression or the relationship between the stress
and the twisting moment.
Now, Let us consider a small element from the center which is at a distance of ρ and making
a small angle dα. So this is the small element having an area dA at a distance of ρ and this
distance is dρ. So the area dA can be written as,
dA =   d  d
Now the force that will be carried by this particular area is equal to the shearing stress times
the area, which gives,
dP =   dA
d d
Now, If we substitute G  for τ in the above expression; we get, dP = G   dA .
dx dx
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Now if we take the moment and substitute this dA in terms of dα and dρ, we get,
d d 2
dP = G     d  d = G   d  d
dx dx
Now the twisting moment acting in this section is T and that will be registered by the whole
r2 2
of cross section as, T =   dP .ρ
r1 0
Here we have two variables, one is α, another is ρ. α varies from 0 to 2π and ρ varies from
inside r1 to r2. Substituting the previously derived relation, we can write,
𝑟2 2𝜋 𝑑𝜃
T = ∫𝑟1 ∫0 𝐺 𝜌3 𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝜌
𝑑𝑥
Now this G, dθ, dx being constant this is from 0 to 2π and from r1 to r2. Now Let us take out
G, dθ, dx and evaluate.
2

𝑟2
Now, d = α, which is varying from 0 to 2π, so that is equals to 2π and then ∫𝑟1 𝜌3 dρ =
0
ρ4/4 and if we integrate from r1 to r2 that is 1/4 (r24 - r14). So this we can write,
d d  4
T =G
dx
1
2  r24 − r14 = G
4
(
dx 2
)
r2 − r14 ( )
If we write r in terms of diameter then,
d  4
T= G
dx 32
(
d 2 − d14 )
𝜋
Last time, we designated this particular term, (𝑑24 − 𝑑14 ) as J, which is nothing but the
32
polar moment of inertia. So this is J now, if you compare the value of J with respect to the J
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
which we have computed for the solid shaft, J for solid shaft was d 4 , here the value of J in
32
case of hollow section where the outer diameter is d 2 and the inner diameter is d1 then in terms

of d 2 and d1 , J equals
32
(d 4
2 )
− d14 . So this is similar expression and you can visualize that
from the whole one, we are removing the central part. In fact in the case of solid circular shaft
when you take out the material because the shearing strain or the stresses are varying from
the center to the outer periphery, it is zero at the center and maximum at the outer periphery.
Now if we remove the material from the central portion, the stress is the maximum on the
outer periphery and at the same time when we are equating the forces, we are getting the
equilibrium equation. If we take the element away from the center we get a larger
contribution. The material which is closer to the center has less contribution in comparison to
the material which is away from the center. Hence in that sense tubular section should be
more effective when resisting the twisting moment and we will look into this subsequently
while solving the examples.
So this is the value of the J and based on this particular expression so this is the twisting
moment,
d
T = G J
dx
G J
If we integrate it over the whole length, we get T =
L
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T G
This expression we had seen last time that = , only difference is the expression for J is
J L
different now for the hollow tube than what we had in case of solid shaft. Now this particular
expression for the polar moment of inertia can be written down in a different form as well.
Let us look into that J, value of J the polar moment of inertia in case of tubular section is,

J=
32
(d 4
2 − d14 )
We can simplify a little and many a times we use this expression as,
T=

32
(d ) − (d )  = 32
2 2
2 1

2 2
(d 2
2 + d12 )(d 22 − d12 ) =

32
(d 2 − d1 )(d 2 + d1 )(d 22 + d12 )
Now (d 2 − d1 ) = 2t, where t is the thickness of the tube
(d1 + d 2 ) = 2d, where d is average diameter of tube such that, d = (d1 + d 2 ) .

2
Now this particular (

term d 22 + d12 , ) we write in a little different form as
(d 2 + d1 )2 + (d 2 − d1 )2
= (4d2+4t2)/2 = 2(d2+t2)
2

Thus, T = dt (d 2 + t 2 ) .
4
In fact this is simplified form of this particular expression J, many times, if we can represent
the diameter in terms of average diameter we can use this expression, for evaluating the polar
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
moment of inertia instead of
32
(d 4
2 )
− d14 .
Many a times we use shaft or a bar hollow bar the thickness of which could be significantly
small in comparison to the radius of that particular tube in that particular case, the term t 2 will
(
be very small in comparison to d 2 . If we neglect that and if we write approximately d 2 + t 2 )
term  d 2 then we get this as,

J= d 3t .
4
Once you compute the polar moment of inertia, then, rest of the expression we have is
 T G
= = . Now we can use this equation for evaluating the stresses. The terms remain as
 J L
defined earlier, like τ is the shearing stress, ρ is the radial distance. Here the ρ becomes
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effective between r1 and r2 ; below r1 there is no material and hence it is not effective. T is the
twisting moment, J is the polar moment of inertia, G is the shear modulus, θ is the angle of
twist, angle of twist over the whole length of the bar, and L is the length of the bar. So the
same expression we used for the solid circular shaft is equally applicable for the tubular
section as well, only difference is that the polar moment of inertia is to be computed in a
different form than the solid circular shaft.
Having looked into the effect of torsion on a tubular section let us look into that if we have a
section which is not uniform. So long we discussed the effect of torsion on a bar which is
uniform, whether the shaft is solid or hollow the bar was uniform.
Now if we have a non-uniform bar, where over the length of the bar the diameter varies and if
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it is subjected to a twisting moment at one point, or if we have the twisting moment acting at
different point, at different magnitudes then what is the consequence of that twisting moment
over the bar? Or how to compute the stresses and the deformation in such a bar where the bar
is not uniform or where there is variation in the twisting moment?
Let us take a bar where the length is varying and we have the change in diameter. Let us call
this diameter as d1 , here this is d 2 where this is varying. Let us assume, this is acted on by
various twisting moment at different points. Let us call this bar as A, B, C, and D.
Now at these points A, B, C, and D different twisting moments T1 , T2 , T3 and T4 are acting.
When there is twisting moment acting on A, if we draw the free body diagram between A and
B, the twisting moment T2 is acting at the point B. Now between A and B we have only the
twisting moment T1 acting.
If I take a section here and draw the free body diagram between A and B, then we have the
part AB, this is just before B, before the application of T2 . So we have twisting moment
acting on this and so far as the application is concerned this is positive twisting moment. As
we have defined here, we have the twisting moment T1 acting into it which will be opposing
this. So this is T1 over the length AB.
If we say length AB is L1, we can compute the value of the stress from our relationship
 T T
= over the length L. This gives us a stress  = and this T here equals T1 for the
 J J
present case. Over the length AB this will be the stress. If we consider a segment between B
and C and if we cut off then the twisting moment that will be acting here is T1 , here we have
T2 as per our notation T1 is positive and T2 is negative. If we call the resulting twisting
moment as T, T = T1 − T2 .
So for this resulting twisting moment T that will be acting between B and C, we compute the
stress again over the length BC. This is the twisting moment T which equals T1 − T2 × ρ / J,
assuming uniform diameter here. We will discuss this aspect at a later time when it is
varying. If we have a uniform diameter over that particular stretch between B and C then the
stress is the resulting twisting moment which is

(T1 − T2 ) .
J
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Now, if we take a section between C and D, if we cut off over here then we have T1 , T2 and T3
. T1 and T3 are acting in the same direction and T2 is in the opposite direction, so the
resulting T equals T1 + T3 − T2 .
Since this is in the anticlockwise direction which is positive and we are considering T also as
anticlockwise and positive, so this will be the whole thing and will be negative.
So if this expression becomes negative then it will be in the opposite direction we have
assumed and if the whole expression becomes positive then the assumed direction will be
same as we have assumed. So this is how we compute the resulting twisting moment and
once we have this resulting twisting moment we compute the stress using this expression.
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When we come to the evaluation of the rotation, as you can see we have three different
segments over which we got to compute the equivalent of T, here we have T1 , here we have

T = T1 − T2 and at this point we have T1 + T3 − T2 . So these are the resulting twisting
moments. These twisting moments which are acting over different lengths will have different
rotations. Over the first segment where T1 is acting over length AB, it will undergo a twist.
Between B and C there is the resulting effect of the twisting moment T1 and T2 . Now T1 is
acting in an anti-clockwise direction and is trying to rotate the shaft in one direction whereas
T2 is acting in the other direction where is trying to nullify this rotation to certain extent so
there will be change in the rotation.
So what we do over the different segments A, B, C, and D. Let us call length AB as L1;
length BC as L2; and length CD as L3. Now over length L1 we compute θ, as you know that
T G TL TL
= or we can write  = . Now for the first segment AB  AB = 1 1 and J also will
J L GJ GJ
be corresponding to the diameter. Let us call this as d1 so we will get the value of  AB .
Then we compute  BC considering the resulting twisting moment times the length which is
L2, G and J considering the diameter d 2 over BC. We evaluate  CD from the resulting
twisting moment which is T = T1 + T3 − T2 × L3 and G J/ d 3 . Now once we compute these
three thetas  AB ,  BC and  CD . The final θ will be the sum of these with its appropriate signs
that is  AB +  BC +  CD .
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When I am calling this appropriate sign it means that if the twisting moment is in a positive
direction it is causing a positive rotation. If the twisting moment is in the negative direction it
is causing a negative rotation. So if at different segments we consider these three different
rotations with appropriate signs and sum them together then we will know the net rotation
that the shaft is undergoing which is of varying diameter and varying length between these
two points. This is what our contention is to evaluate.
If we look into the evaluation of stress and the deformation because of this non-uniform
distribution either in the material diameter wise or change in the twisting values, so far as the
stresses are concerned when you compute the stresses for different segments the maximum
stress out of all these segments which will give the maximum value will be the governing
stress. And rotation wise between the two ends we will sum them up and the final rotation
will be the rotation in the shaft which will be governing. So these are the two aspects which
are little different than if the body is uniform and subjected to uniform twisting moment.
Here are some examples where we apply some these theories.
A solid aluminum bar of length 1.2m and 25 mm diameter, is twisted by torques T, acting at
the ends. This means you have a solid aluminum bar which is subjected to a twisting moment
and this is our positive twisting moment notation that means we are giving the vectorial
notation over here. The shear modulus is given. What you will have to find out is the
torsional stiffness of the bar. What will be the torsional stiffness when it is subjected to a
twisting moment T?
As we have defined the torsional stiffness is the twisting moment required to produce unit
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GJ
rotation and the value is . We have to compute this quantity so that we know the torsional
L
stiffness.
G = 0.3  10 5 N/mm2
 
J= d4= 25 4 mm 4
32 32
L = 1.2m = 1200mm

Torsional stiffness, T/θ = GJ/L = ( 0.3  10 5  25 4 )/1200 = 958.74 Nm
32
The next step is to calculate that if the angle of twist of the bar is 5 , if the angle of twist of
the bar is limited to 5 then what is the maximum shear stress? Now when the same bar is
rotated and if the angle of twist between the length is restricted to 5 then what will be the
maximum shear stress that will be generated on the surface of the bar.
T  G
We know that = =
J  L
G G
So the shear stress, τ = . If we equate these two, we get the shearing stress  = and
L L
Now, G = 0.3  10 5
25 5
ρ= mm and θ = 5 = radian
2 180
0.3  10 5  25  5  
Thus, τ = = 27.27 MPa
2  1200  180
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Let us look into another example. In this example, we have a hollow aluminum tube. It is a
tubular section, so we can make a comparison between solid section and a tubular section. A
hollow aluminum tube used in a roof structure has an outside diameter of 100mm, and inside
diameter of 80mm. The tube is 2.5m long and the shear modulus is given. If the tube is
twisted in pure torsion by torques acting at the ends, then what is the angle of twist when the
maximum shear stress is 50MPa? We will have to find out the angle of twist when the
maximum shear stress is limited to 50MPa?
Secondly what diameter is required for a solid shaft to resist the same torque with the same
maximum stress so that we can make a comparison between the two? What is the ratio of the
weight of the hollow tube to the solid tube?
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Now,
dout = 100mm and
din = 80mm;
L = 2.5m;
G = 28GPa
 G
We know that = . We are taking this relationship because shear stress is limited to 50
 L
MPa and we will have to find out θ. So this gives us,
L
= = (2500×50)/(28×103×50) =nd if we substitute the values τ is limited to 50MPa,
G
180
length of the member is 2500mm = 0.0898 = 0.0898  = 5.12 .

So this is the maximum rotation that we can expect when we apply the twisting moment and
limit our stress to 50MPa. What will be the diameter if we go for a solid section instead of a
hollow one?
Now for that part we need to compute the value of twisting moment, which we know that,
J
T=


J=
32
(d 4
2 )
− d14 = 5.8  10 6 mm 4
τ = 50MPa
ρ = 50mm
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If we substitute all these values, we get,

50  5.8  10 6
T= = 5.8  10 6 N-mm
50
T 
Now, we have to find the diameter corresponding to this twisting moment from = and
J 
J  4 d
from this if you write that T = . Here the J is d and ρ is . So this gives us,
 32 2

T= d 3 . So this is the value of T in terms of the stress. We need to compute is the value of
16
diameter d from this expression.
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16T 16  5.8  10 6
Now d 3 = = . From this we compute d = 84mm. This is the diameter which
 50  
we get for a solid shaft or a solid bar. Tubular bar has outer diameter of 100mm and inner
diameter of 80mm as opposed to a solid section which is 84mm diameter.
Now if we like to compare the weight of these two elements, the ratio between the weight of
hollow and the solid will be in the ratio of their radii, because if we take per unit length and if
we take the same material then naturally the unit weight is the same so the ratio of the area
will give their weight ratio.
So to find the ratio of their weights, this is equal to the area of the tube divided by the area of

(100 2 − 80 2 )
solid = 4 = 0.51

(84) 2
4
So you see that for resisting the same amount of stress under the same twisting moment we
have the area of the hollow cross section which is 50% of the solid area. So we are making
savings in terms of the material and this is more effective when you are resisting the twisting
moment or applying the twisting moment.
We have another example. A stepped shaft ABCD consisting of solid circular segments is
subjected to three torques are shown and the value of G is provided. We will have to calculate
the maximum shear stress in the shaft and calculate the angle of twist at D.
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We have another example which is a solid circular bar ABC consisting of two segments as
shown. What is the allowable torque in the entire shaft if the shear stress is not to exceed
32MPa and the angle of twist between the ends of the bar not to exceed 1 ?
Here two criteria are set that the stress cannot exceed 32MPa and the total angle of twist
cannot exceed 1 . Here you have two different diameters of the shaft but it is subjected to one
twisting moment.
You will have to find out what is the allowable torque that you can apply on this particular
shaft if the stress and the rotation are limited?
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Summary of this lesson:

We discussed the concept of torsion in a bar of hollow circular cross section. In the previous
lesson we discussed about a bar having a solid cross section. In this particular lesson we
discussed the effect of torsion on a bar where the cross section is a tubular one and not a solid
one. We discussed concept of stresses and deformation in a bar of circular cross section due
to non-uniform torsion. We also looked at some examples to evaluate stresses strains and
deformation in bars of circular cross section due to torsion.
Questions:
1. Which section is effective in carrying torsion; whether a solid one or hollow circular
one?
2. What is the effect of torsion on bars of varying diameter?
3. What is the value of minimum shearing strain for bars with solid and hollow circular
sections?
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I.I.T Kharagpur
Lecturer#20
Torsion-III
Welcome to the 3rd lesson of module 4 which is on torsion III.
In fact in the last two lessons on torsion we looked into some aspects of torsion moment in a bar.
Now we are going to look into some more aspects of torsion in the bar.
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It is expected that once this particular lesson is completed one should be able to understand the
effectiveness of cross section between solid and hollow bars subjective to torsion. In the last two
lessons we discussed about the effect of torsion on a solid bar or a bar with a circular cross
section that is a solid section and a bar which is having a cross section which is a hollow tube. In
both the cases we have seen how stresses vary because of the twisting moment. Now let us see
which section is effective; whether the solid one or the hollow one.
Also one should be able to understand the concept of power transmission using shaft and
relations between torque and power.
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Let us also look into the shaft or the bars which are used effectively in transmitting mechanical
power and look into the aspects of how this power transmission is related to the torque. Also one
should be able to evaluate stresses and deformation in circular bars when they are subjected to
twisting moment or the torsion.
The scope of this particular lesson includes the recapitulation of the previous lesson where we
will be looking into the question and answers and also we will demonstrate the effectiveness of
sections between solid and hollow bars subjected to twisting moment which will be done through
some examples.
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We will also look into the effect of power transmission through shaft and the relationship
between power and the torque and examples for evaluation of stresses and deformation in bars of
circular cross sections.
Let us look into the questions which were posed last time. The first question was which section is
effective in carrying torsion. In the last two lessons we have discussed the effect of twisting
moment on a bar which is having circular cross section but a solid bar. Subsequently we have
seen the effect of twisting moment in a bar which is a hollow tube and we could evaluate the
stresses and the deformation.
475
Now the question comes that out of these two, supposing if we have a bar which is subjected to
may be the same twisting moment then whether a solid bar is more efficient than a tubular bar or
it is the other way. Let us demonstrate that through few examples.
First example which I am going to demonstrate is that a steel shaft is to be manufactured either
as a solid circular bar or as a circular tube. We will compare these two cases. We will consider a
solid bar and a circular tube and a torque of 1500Nm is to be registered without exceeding a
shear stress of 50MPa and an angle of twist of 1°/m. Here we are going to consider that, if a bar
is subjected to a twisting moment of 1500Nm and if the maximum stress in the material is not
allowed to go beyond 50MPa and the angle of twist cannot go beyond 1°/m and now both our
criteria has to be satisfied then what could be the effectiveness of a solid bar which have a
tubular section? This is what we are going to compare now.
So what you need to determine is the diameter of the solid shaft in the first case, this is the part
A. Part B, determine the outer diameter of the hollow shaft if thickness is 1/10 of outer diameter.
So the inner diameter is given in the process, and if the outer diameter is d the thickness is 1/10
of the outer diameter hence if we deduct twice the thickness we will get the inner diameter. The
outer diameter minus twice the thickness of the hollow tube will give you the inner diameter.
And also, you have to find out the ratio of diameters and weights. In fact this will give us a
comparison between the hollow and the solid shaft.
476
This is how it appears here:

Twisting moment, T = 1500Nm
τ = 50MPa
θ = 1°/m
T 
Now, from torsion equation, we have, =
J 
 d T  32   2
As, J = d 4 and   , which gives, 
32 2 d4 d
477
16T
Hence, τ =
d3
16T
So τ =
d3
From this equation, if we calculate diameter,
d = (16T/πτ)1/3= [(16×1500×103)/(π×50)]1/3 = 53.46 mm
Since we have to satisfy both the criteria that shear stress cannot exceed beyond 50MPa and the
angle of twist cannot be greater than 1°/m length, so if we consider 1m length of this shaft then if
T G
we go through this expression =
J L
T = 1500 × 103 N-mm
d4
J=
32
G = 78 GPa = 78  103 MPa

θ = 1° = radian
180
L = 1000mm
If we put all the values, we will get diameter as, d = 58 mm.
478
Out of these two diameters, if we look into that this much of diameter is necessary so that shear
stress is kept within a limit of 50MPa. This much of diameter is necessary for θ or the rotation to
be 1°/m length. Now the question is you have to satisfy both the criteria, you will have to select
the diameter in such a way that it satisfies both the criteria. If we select the lower diameter then it
satisfies the stress criteria but it will fail in the rotation and if we take the higher diameter which
is necessary for the twisting angle then it will satisfy both the criteria. Hence the higher diameter
is to be selected to satisfy both the aspects. The selected diameter in this case will be 58 mm.
Secondly, if we look into the second aspect that when you have a hollow shaft the thickness of
which is 1/10 of the outer diameter.
So thickness, t = 0.1d, where d = dout
Thus, dinner = 0.8d
Now, J = π[d4 ̶ (0.8d)4]/32 = π  0.5904 d4/32
T 
So if you substitute all the values again in equation = , we get,
J 
d = 63.73 mm
T G
If you try to satisfy the rotational angle criteria, = , substituting all the values, we get,
J L
d = 66.03 mm.
479
Once again the diameter which is required from the satisfaction of the stress is 63.73 mm and the
diameter which is necessary for satisfying the twisting angle is equal to 66.03. So higher of these
two again will be governing which will satisfy both the rotation as well as the stress. Since the
higher diameter will be satisfying the rotation as well as the stress so that is the diameter we will
have to select, so the selected diameter in this particular case is 66.03.
From this particular comparison we have a solid shaft which is having a diameter of 58 mm
which will satisfy both the stress criteria as well as the rotational angle criteria and a tubular
shaft which is having a diameter of 66.03 mm.
Now if we try to take the ratio of these two the diameter of the hollow shaft to the diameter of
the solid shaft then we find that the diameter of hollow is 66.03 and diameter of solid is 58 so the
ratio gives us,
dh/ds = 1.138
If we take the ratio of their weight, the weight is nothing but equal to the cross sectional area
times the length times the density. Now the length and the density being common for both we
take the ratio of the areas so ratio of the weights,
Wh/Ws = Ah/As = 0.47
Please note that these two values that the ratio of the diameter is 1.138 and the ratio of the area is
0.47. This means the hollow area is equal to 0.47 times the solid area and diameter of the hollow
480
bar is equal to 1.138 times the diameter of the solid bar. These comparisons state that the
diameter in case of the hollow bar, to satisfy or to resists the 1500Nm of twisting moment,
satisfying both the criteria of stress and the rotation angle, the outer diameter of the hollow bar
will be 14% more than the diameter of the solid bar. Since we do not have any material in the
core in the hollow bar naturally width wise there is a reduction and the ratio of the width between
the hollow bar and the solid bar is almost ½. The weight of the hollow bar is 0.47 times the
weight of the solid bar. So though we are utilizing 14% extra in the diameter we are gaining in
the weight which is in the tune of half the weight of the solid bar. Evidently the hollow tube is
more efficient than the solid shaft. The next problem explains it in more clear terms.
The next problem states that a solid shaft and a hollow shaft of the same material, please note
that we have the same material, same length and same outer radius, these are identical as far as
the material is concerned, and is identical as far as the external radius is concerned or the
external diameter is concerned. Whatever be the diameter of the solid shaft will be d and the
outer diameter of the tubular shaft also is d, so from external appearance they are identical but
the only thing is that one is a solid shaft and the other is a hollow one.
The inner radius of the hollow shaft is given as 0.7 x r. Now if both the hollow and the solid
shafts are subjected to the same torque then compare their shear stresses, the angle of twist and
weights. So three aspects are to be compared; their shear stress, the angle of twist and their
481
weight. Subsequently we will have to find out the strength to weight ratio for both the shaft. This
is one important aspect to find out the strength to the weight ratio.
The term strength, we understand that, if we take a bar or a shaft which is subjected to a twisting
moment now how much resistance it has to take that twisting moment that is what strength is.
And weight is the cross sectional area multiplied by the length multiplied by its density. Now
strength wise we calculate how much twisting moment it can resist to its weight and that is the
strength to weight ratio. This is what we will compare for both the hollow tube as well as for the
solid shaft.
482
If we look into the calculations, the,
ds = d
dout = d
dout = 0.7d
d4
Jh = π[d4 ̶ (0.7d)4]/32 = 0.76 ×
32
d4
Js = .
32
Now if we compare their shear stresses, the shear stress in the hollow to the shear stress to the
T  T
solid, now as we know that = . So τ the shear stress = . Now if we say τ for hollow the
J  J
twisting moment is the same, also diameter ρ is the same for hollow and the solid one. So, if we
keep the ρ parameter same for both then τ is proportional to 1/J
So, τh/τs = Js/Jh = 1/0.76 = 1.316
T G TL
To take the ratios of the angle of rotations, this is again = . Hence, θ = . As all other
J L GJ
parameters T, L and G are common for both shafts, the parameter which is varying is J,
So, θh/θs = Js/Jh = 1/0.76 = 1.316
So both the ratios of the shear stress as well as the angle of twist are dependent on the polar
moment of the inertia of the shaft and the value corresponding to that is 1.316 in both the cases
because both shear stress and the angle of twist depends on the ratio of the polar moment of
inertia. Now if we compute the twisting moment, that is because we have to compute the strength
to weight ratio, we can compute the value of the twisting moment that can be resisted by the
hollow section and the twisting moment that can be resisted by the solid section. The twisting
moment that can be resisted,
J
T=

As ρ = d/2 and Jh = π [d4 – (0.7d)4]/32, so for hollow shaft,
Th = 0.15d3τ
483
And the weight of the hollow bar is cross-sectional area times length times unit weight, so,
Wh = π/4 × (do2 – di2) ×L×γ = 0.51 π d2 L γ/4 = 0.4d2Lγ
Subsequently the twisting moment that can be carried by the solid shaft,
Ts = πd3τ/16 = 0.2d3τ
And the weight of the solid shaft,
Ws = (πd2/4) ×L×γ = 0.785d2Lγ
Now if we take the ratios that T/W that means twisting moment that can be carried by the shaft
divided by the weight of the shaft, then,
Th/Wh = 0.37(dτ/Lγ) and Ts/Ws = 0.25(dτ/Lγ)
Hence the values the strength to weight ratio is more in the case of tubular section than the solid
shaft. But how much is the difference?
If we look into the difference it is (0.37 – 0.25)/0.25 x 100, so this is 48%. As we can see, in case
of hollow shaft we have 48% more strength to weight ratio. These two examples demonstrate
clearly that tubular shaft is more efficient than a solid shaft. And as we can make out, from the
center as we go away towards the radius we have maximum stress as well as the contribution of
the material in terms of the polar moment of inertia is more in case of tubular section than the
solid one because in the solid one the core part does not contribute much. So if we take off the
484
particular material eventually the hollow section becomes more efficient. In fact if we go for
thinner tube that means if the tubular section has lesser thickness then we will see that it will be
more efficient in resisting the twisting moment.
What is the effect of torsion on bars of varying diameter?

So long we were looking into, if we have a bar of uniform diameter and subjected to twisting
moment then what is the effect of such twisting moment on the bars, on the stresses and the
deformation. Also we have looked into that, if we have a step shaft if we have a varying a
diameter then what will be the consequences. If we have a gradually varying diameter of a shaft
then what will be the consequences if it is subjected to a twisting moment.
485
If we take a bar which is gradually varying, let us say we have a diameter here as d1 and diameter
T 
here as d2 and it is subjected to a positive twisting moment T. As we know that = so from
J 
T
this if we compute the shearing stress τ this is and this in terms of diameter is 16T/πd3.
J
Now this shows that the shearing stress τ will be higher if d is lower. So for a lowest diameter we
will get the highest stress in such a kind of bar. If this particular bar is subjected to a uniform
twisting moment then the maximum stress will occur where the diameter is the least. In fact we
do not have to bother for anything else. So wherever we have the least diameter corresponding to
that if you compute the stress that will be the maximum possible stress in a bar of varying
diameter.
Now if we like to compute the value of the rotation θ, let us say if we take a section which is at a
distance of x and let us say this small length is dx then the change in angle in this small strip if
T G
we call this as dθ then as we know = or for this small segment which is of length of dx
J L
and the rotation angle is dθ,
T .dx
Thus, dθ =
G. J
Here J is the parameter which is the function of the diameter and the diameter in this particular
case is varying.
486
Now if we assume that d1 and d2 are diameters at ends and dx is the diameter at any intermediate
point whose distance is x from left end, then,
dx = [d1+ (d2 –d1)/2] × (x/L) × 2 = d1+ (d2 ̶ d1)× x/L
Thus, Jx = πdx4/32
T .dx
Now, to calculate the θ now we have got the expression dθ = . If we like to compute the
G. J
value of θ which is over the entire length, we will have to integrate it from x=0 to x=L.
So, for a bar of varying diameter we can compute the stress for the least diameter and we can
compute the angle of rotation θ from this particular expression. Instead of having constant
twisting moment in the bar if we have the varying twisting moment, if we have twisting moment
which is non-uniform then between two such twisting moments we take the free body, find out
how much is the twisting moment and in that particular segment again we compute the stress and
calculate the maximum of the stresses in these zones corresponding to the twisting moments.
This maximum will give us the maximum possible shear stress in the whole of the bar.
The third question was; what is the value of minimum shearing strain for solid shaft as well as
for the tubular shaft?
We have seen the value of the shearing strength,

γ = dθ/dx ρ
487
Now this shearing strain becomes maximum, when ρ = r, so,
d
γ max = R
dx
  
Thus, we can write that  or γ = . γ max.
 max R R
From this expression you can see that when ρ = r, then, γ is γ max and when ρ = 0 then γ = 0. So
in case of solid shaft the minimum strain γ min = 0 and γ max we can compute from this particular
expression once we know the stress which is occurring at the outer periphery.
In case of tubular shaft, here γ again in terms of this if we write as ρ at any radius divided by the
outer radius here is R2, so,

γ= . γ max
R2
Now when ρ becomes R2 then the value of the strain is the γ max which is on the outer periphery.
Since we do not have any material at the core the material starts at a distance of r1from the center
so the γ minimum value in this particular case, where ρ = R1/R2 .γ max. So in terms of the maximum
strain of the periphery we can compute the strain at this level which is r1 in their ratio of the
R1
radius. So . max is the minimum value of the γ in case of tubular shaft. This is the
R2
difference between the strain value in the hollow shaft and the strain in the solid shaft.
In case of solid shaft the minimum value of the strain is zero which is at the center of the shaft
and its maximum at the outer periphery. In case of the tubular one the minimum strain is at the
inner periphery and the maximum strain is at the outer periphery.
Having looked into the aspects, now we know that the tubular sections are more effective. One of
the applications of these shafts is in transmitting the mechanical power from one device to
another. The shafts are extensively used for transmitting mechanical power from one device to
the other. If a shaft or a bar is rotated by a motor then the shaft moves and it transmits the shaft
to another system so it undergoes rotation.
488
There is a rotational speed which is ω and it transfers a twisting moment which is t. The twisting
moment which is transferred in the other device from this is exactly in the same direction as this
angular rotation. That device gives a resistive twisting moment which is in the positive direction
as shown here.
This particular direction is the positive twisting moment which is acting in the transmitter shaft.
Now this particular shaft is transmitting the twisting moment to the other shaft and as a resisting
moment it is acting in the positive direction as demonstrated over here. This rotary motion of the
shaft generates power and this amount of power that is being transmitted through rotation of the
shaft depends on the magnitude of the torque that is applied and the angular speed of rotation
which we called here as ω. So it depends on the magnitude of the torque and the speed of
rotation. In fact it is the product of the torque and the speed of the rotation.
In such shafts the main problem which is essential to be determined is the size of shaft so that it
can transmit the power at a specified rotational speed without exceeding the allowable stress.
This is very important.
From the design point of view we need to find out what should be the diameter of this particular
shaft so that it can transmit the requisite power as we desire and a particular rotational speed
without exceeding the stress level in this particular material. Hence we need to find out what
should be the diameter of these kinds of shafts. Since it involved that amount of torque and a
489
constant magnitude so when it rotates the work done by rotating this shaft under angular speed ω
is equal to the torque multiplied by this rotation.
So the work done, W = T ψ
Power is generally the rate at which this work is done, so, P = dW/dt = T dψ/dt.
And dψ/dt is nothing but is a change of twist angle per unit time which is the angular speed and
that we have defined as ω which is generally defined in terms of radians per second.
So power, P = T x  .
490
Here are the units that we use for this system. Power generally is given in Watt and torque is in
Nm; angular speed is radian per second. What is 1Nm/sec? That is the unit of the power. What is
the unit of the power and Newton meter as we have seen is the unit for the torque and angular
speed is defined in terms of radian per second.
Many a times we defined the angular speed of the shaft which is the transmitting power in terms
of the frequency that how many number of revolutions it has. So, one revolution per second is
called as the frequency or Hz, we call this as cycles per second. One cycle moves over 360° = 2π
radian. We write this angular speed ω = 2πf radian per seconds, so f is cycle per second or one
revolution per second. This gives one revolution = 2πfT radian, hence if we substitute for ω we
get the expression for power P = 2πfT and this is the relationship between the transmitted power
and the twisting moment t where f is the frequency at which the shaft is rotating. And f is the
frequency T is the torque that is being applied in the other device and P is the power that is being
transferred through the rotation of the shaft.
Sometimes frequency is used as the number of revolutions per minute and in short we call this is
as rpm the revolution per minute and is commonly designated with the notation n, since it is
n
revolution per minute so = f which is cycles per second. So n = 60 x f and if we substitute for
60
n
f= we can get the relationship between the power and the revolutions per minute which is P
60
491
= 2πnt/60. So in terms of if the rotation of the shaft is defined in terms of the revolution per
minute which is n then power = 2πnt/60 or if it is defined in terms of the frequency f which
revolution per second then it is twice πfT. Sometimes in fps unit we define the power as the
horse power, so one horse power 1(hp) = 550 ft-lb/sec. So, if you write power in the terms of
horse power then T we write in terms of foot bound and we get an expression that P = 2πnt/60 ×
550 so much of p is in hp horsepower and T is in foot pound. Approximately 1hp = 746W.
If the power of a motor is defined in terms of horse power we can convert that in terms of watt
and we can use our relationship to see whether that is equal to Newton meter times power
multiplied by the radian per second as the frequency or the angular speed.
So this is helpful in relating the transmitted power and the torque. So when we like to find out
the diameter of a shaft which is necessary for transmitting power from one device to the other
without exceeding the level of the stress, then first we compute the amount of twisting moment
that is getting generated in the shaft for transmitting that amount of power.
And for that particular twisting moment as we have seen in the previous sections how to compute
the value of stresses and the angle of the rotations that we compute and if we know the allowance
stress for that particular material then we can safely say that what diameter is necessary for that
shaft or for a particular diameter whether that particular shaft will be able to withstand that
amount of stress or not.
492
Well now let’s look into some of the examples. In fact these are the examples which I have said
last time and asked you to look into, I am sure you have done this. Now in this we have a stepped
shaft ABCD is consisting of solid circular segments, now there are 3 segments over here the
diameter of which are given here. This is 80mm this is 60mm and this is 40mm. They are
subjected to a torque which is 3000Nm.
In this particular case that is according to our notation it is positive is subjected to a twisting
moment of 2000m here at c and at d we have a twisting moment of 800Nm which is also
positive. Now incidentally all three twisting moments in this particular case they are all positive
which are acting at A, B, C and D.
Now what we need to do is that we will have to find out the value of the maximum shear stress
in the shaft and the angle of twist at point d. As you know that we have looked into earlier that to
evaluate the twisting moment when they are subjected to a non uniform torsion that we compute,
we take free body diagram and compute the values of the twisting moment. Now if we divide
these segments in three parts lets call this segment as segment I this part as segment II and this
part as segment III and then we compute the values of the stresses in each of the segment. Since
3 segments are subjected they are having three different diameters so they will be having
different polar moment of the inertia.
We compute the value of the shearing stresses corresponding to these three segments and the
maximum value of the shearing stress in either of these sections will be the maximum possible
value of the shearing stress. But when we like to compute the angle of the rotation, because of
the twisting moment that is acting in different segments of different magnitudes all will
contribute to the rotation. Here the sense of the twisting moments is all positive therefore all will
be contributing to the same angle of rotation.
When we try to rotate in different form, if one rotates in an anticlockwise form then it will have
anticlockwise rotation. If you have a negative twisting moment in a clockwise form then it will
have negative rotation. So the sum effect of these two rotations will be the algebraic sum of the
rotational values. What will be the value of the stresses in each of these segments?
493
T  G T 
If we compute the values = = . If we take the first of these two values that = then
J  L J 
T . 16T
 and this gives us this value as which we have seen earlier.
J d
Now we need to compute the value of stress in three different segments. If we look into the
values of twisting moment the shaft is a stepped one. For segment I if we cut a section over here
and if we take the free body diagram then we will have a twisting moment as 800Nm, for
segment II we will have twisting moment as 2800Nm and for segment III we will have 5800Nm.
16  800 103
Now, for segment I, τI =  63.7 MPa
  403
16  2800 103
For segment II, τII =  66.02MPa
  603
16  5800 103
Likewise, for segment III, τIII =  57.7 MPa
  803
Now out of these three, as you can see at three different segments we have three twisting
moments and correspondingly we have three stresses, the maximum stress occurs in the second
segment which is 66.02 MPa.
Now let us look into the value of the rotational angle θ.
494
T G T .L
As you have seen the = , so θ =
J L G. J
800 103  500
Now for segment I, θI =  1.14
80 103    32  404
2800 103  500  32 180
For the segment II, θII =  = 0.788°
80 103    604 
And likewise for third segment, θIII = 0.52°
So, the total rotation θ = (θ1 + θ2 + θ3) = (1.14 + 0.788 + 0.52°) = 2.448° because all twisting
moments are in the same sense. This is the angle of rotation because of the twisting moment that
is acting in the non-uniform section.
495
Here is the second example. A solid circular bar ABC consists of two segments as shown in
figure. Now, what is the allowable torque if the shear stress is not to exceed 32 MPa and the
angle of twist between the ends of the bar is not to exceed 1°, here G is given as 100 GPa. Here
we have one constant torque T which is acting in this. This is the positive twisting moment and
we have two segments which are diameter 50 mm and 40 mm.
Hence we will have to compute the shear stress which will be definitely corresponding to the
lower diameter but it should not exceed 32 MPa and angle of twist should not exceed 1° which
will be a combination of θ for the two.
T 
Now let us look into the value of this. Again = so we will have to compute the twisting
J 
 .J
moment T = . Here part AB is 50 mm diameter and for part BC is of 40 mm diameter.

 .J  d3
Now for part BC, if twisting moment, T = = τ × πd4/32 x d/2 = = 402.124 N-m.
 16
For part AB, twisting moment, T = 785.4N-m
So obviously you will have to apply this much of twisting moment so that it can resist both.
Therefore this is the value of the twisting moment.
496
T .L
Now let us look from the angle of twist point of view. Now as we know θ =
G. J
T1. L1 T 1000  32
For part BC, θ1 = =  39 109 T .
G. J 1 100 10    40
3 4
T 1250  32
For part AB, θ2 =  20 109 T .
100 10    50
3 4
Now if we combine these two that will give us the value of the θ = θ1+ θ2 and that if we equate to
1° which is equal to so much of π/180 radian and from this we can get value of the T.
θ1 + θ2 = π/180, from which, the value of T comes as 295.82N-m
Now, as you can see we have the three values of the twisting moment, this is one which is from
the stress criteria and we have another from the rotational twisting angle criteria. So this being
the small s this will be guiding twisting moment so that it can satisfy both the criteria of the
stress as well as the twisting moment. So the minimum value of the twisting moment will be the
governing moment in this particular case.
This is another example where we have discussed that if we have a shaft, earlier we had a non-
uniform distribution of the torsion having varying diameters of the shaft. Now if we have
uniform distribution of the uniform diameter and the torque are of different magnitude then we
can compute the value of the stress.
497
Here steel shaft ABC is connected with the three gears at A,B and C and these gears are
transmitting moment of 240N-m, 540N-m and 300N-m and their directions are given. So these
are three directional values and AB is the solid bar of diameter d and BC is the hollow bar of
outside diameter 1.25d and inner diameter is d, the bar lengths are given over here and G is
80GPa.
Now what you will have to find out is; what is the minimum diameter d if allowable shear stress
in the shaft is 80MPa and what is minimum diameter d if angle of twist between any two gears is
limited to 4°. Let us look into the value of that.
498
16T
Now if we compute the value of shearing stress, τ =
 d3
So, if we compute the value of the stress for the first one,
80 = (16×240×103)/πd3, which gives, d = 24.82mm.
From the second case if we compute d from the same expression we get, d = 20.23mm
Now the only difference here is that twisting moment is 300N-m in place of 240 N-m. so these
are the two diameters we have and the higher of these two diameters will be the governing
diameter.
T G
If we compute from the point of view of the rotation that = then again J = πd4/32. In the
J L
second case when you compute the value of d keep in mind that here the shaft is a tubular one
and for tubular one as we know J =  /32 (do4 – di4) and this we will have to apply to compute
the value of d.
T .L
Likewise we compute the value of rotation θ = and from this if we compute the value of d,
G. J
For the solid case we get, d = 22.64 mm
For the hollow one, d = 21.85 mm, keeping θ limited to 4°.
Now in this particular case as you can see the diameter which you get as 22.64mm is again
governing. So, in the first case we have 24.82 mm diameter which is to be provided and in this
case we will have the provide 22.64 mm to resist the twisting moment to the gears as it is shown
here.
Here is another example problem. A tubular shaft is designed to transmit 120 kW at 15 Hz. The
inside diameter of the shaft is to be 3/4 of the outside diameter. Now if the allowable shear stress
in the shaft is 45 MPa what is the minimum required outside diameter d?
499
This particular problem is similar to the one which we have discussed today that, if we transmit
the power then is the diameter of the shaft necessary.
Summary of this lesson:

We have demonstrated the effectiveness of a hollow circular bar over a solid circular bar through
the examples and we have looked into the concept of power transmission and the relationship
between the power and torque.
Then we have looked into some examples to evaluate stresses and deformation in bars of circular
section due to twisting moment.
500
If a bar made of a material which cannot withstand tension is subjected to torsion then what will
be the effect of such twisting moment.
What is the relation between power and the torque and how will you evaluate stresses and
deformation in circular bars for indeterminate systems.
501
Prof: S.K.Bhattacharya
Indian institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Lecture no 21
Lecture Title: Torsion-IV
Welcome to the 4th lesson of the 4th module which is on torsion part 4.
In the previous 3 lessons on torsion, we have seen several examples of what happens to a bar
when it is subjected to a twisting moment and this twisting moment could be in a bar which is of
solid circular shaft or could be in a bar which has a cross section which is tubular in form.
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That means there is hollowness in the shaft. We have also seen how the stresses and the
deformation are generated if these bars are used for transmitting mechanical power to some other
devices. Now we are going to look into some more aspects of torsion in this lesson.
It is expected that once this particular lesson is completed one should be able to understand the
concept of tensile stress and failure pattern due to torsion. Due to the twisting moment we have
seen the shear stress that gets generated and we have the maximum stress on the periphery or the
surface of the bar. Then we will look into what are the values of the maximum normal stresses
and what is the consequence of those normal stresses in the bar?
Secondly, one should be able to understand the effect of torsion in an indeterminate system. So
long we have discussed aspects of the determinate system, that means if the twisting moment
acts in a bar, then we can evaluate the resisting twisting moment from simple equilibrium
equations. We are going to look into the systems where, by using equilibrium equations alone,
the internal resisting twisting moment cannot be determined. So, as we have seen in the past the
systems where we cannot evaluate the internal forces using equilibrium equations alone are
indeterminate systems. Now for such indeterminate systems, if twisting moment acts, then what
are the consequences? We will be looking into that in this particular lesson and finally we will
evaluate stresses and deformation in circular bars due to torsion.
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The scope of this particular lesson includes the aspects of the previous lesson as we will go
through the answers of the questions. Then we will evaluate the normal stress due to torsion and
its consequences and evaluation of stresses and deformation in indeterminate systems due to
torsion. Then we will look into the examples for evaluation of stresses and deformations in bars
of circular cross sections.
Let us look into the answers of the questions which we had posed last time. Now the first
question posed was; if a bar made of a material which cannot withstand tension is subjected to
torsion then what will be the effect? As we have seen that when we test a bar under axial pool, it
undergoes extension and the bar which undergoes a large extension we call the ducktail material.
Whereas when we pull the bar, it does not elongate much and because of the tensile stresses, it
breaks or fails. We call such a kind of material as a brittle material. If we use a material which is
a brittle kind of a material and if it is subjected to torsion there will be a tensile normal stress;
then what is the consequence of that?
Suppose we have a bar which is subjected to a twisting moment, which is the positive twisting
moment as we had defined earlier. These are the kinds of stresses that will be generated on the
surface which is the twisting moment in the form of pure shear. Let us try to find out the value of
the normal stress corresponding to that. Here because of this shearing stress, τ, will generate, but
there will be no normal stress. If we plot the Mohr’s circle corresponding to this, the maximum
normal stress is σ1, whose magnitude equivalent to again the τ. So σ1 = τ. Consequently, the
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maximum normal stress also is τ. Now this particular point is at an angle of 90° from the
reference plane which is this. See the Mohr’s plane. Now with reference to this it is at an angle
of 45°, where the direction of normal stress will occur and perpendicular to this surface is the
plane along which the failure is expected to occur.
If we look into that it is the positive value which is occurring and this is the plane 45° with
respect to the x axis and perpendicular to this plane is the failure line and this is the plane along
which it will fail. Now if we take the bar in which we have the torsion acting in negative
direction, then again corresponding to this, if we plot the Mohr’s circle, this direction of shear
stress being negative, we will have the point over here, the complementary point will come over
here and if we plot the Mohr’s circle again, the normal stress is going to be σ1 here and which is
equal to τ.
This point will act in a clockwise direction with reference to the reference plane. So, this is the
reference plane. Normal to this is the particular line and if we go 45° in the clockwise direction
then this is the direction of the normal stress and perpendicular to this, is the failure line along
which the failure occurs. Now this can be demonstrated using a very simple experiment. Let us
say that we take a piece of chalk which is a kind of a brittle material and in fact if we apply a
twisting moment for the first case which is in the anticlockwise direction then the failure we get
is in this form as we have seen. This is the line which is inclined at an angle of 45° and look into
this particular line which is 45° as we have seen in the first case.
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If we perform a similar kind of experiment though this time we apply a twisting moment in a
clockwise direction as we have seen in the second case then you see the kind of failure that you
have obtained which corresponds to the second case. This is a simple experiment to demonstrate
that when a twisting moment acts into the bar, a failure line occurs along the perpendicular
direction of the direction of the stress which is the failure plane.
Let us look into the second question. What is the relation between power and the torque? Then
because of the twisting moment, the tensile stress which gets generated on the surface causes
failure which is perpendicular to the direction of the normal stress. Now the second question is:
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what is the relation between the power and the torque when a shaft is subjected to a twisting
moment?
Now in the last lesson that we had looked into that power is generally defined as the rate at
which work is done. When we apply a twisting moment to a shaft, then the work done, W, may
be defined as the torque, T, which is of constant magnitude, multiplied with the angle of rotation
ψ. Power then can be written as equal to the time derivative of the work done,
P = dW/dt = d(Tψ)/dt
Now, T being constant, we can take it outside the derivative and dψ/dt = ω, thus,
P = Tω
where omega is defined in terms of radians per second.
Now let us look into some aspects which we had discussed last time. We generally write power
in terms of a watt which equals to the twisting moment which is in Newton meter and the
omega, angular speed which is in radian per second. Frequency, f, which we express as one
revolution per second and for one revolution that we have seen it has to undergo 360 = 2π
radian. So we can write the angular speed, ω = 2πf.
Now suppose we substitute for ω as we have seen, P = Tω, thus it becomes,

P = 2πfT, where P is in watt, f is in cycles per second or revolutions per second or in hertz. Now
sometimes frequency is used in terms of rpm, which is revolution per minute and designated by
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the term n, then n/60 which is revolution per minute converted in seconds = f. So, n = 60 × f and
thereby the power, P =2πnT/60, where T is in N-m and n is rpm, revolution per minute.
Sometimes we defined the power of the equipment from which the power gets transmitted
through the shaft in terms of the horse power which is in fps unit. You should know the
relationship between the horse power and what it corresponds to in SI units. One horse power is
equal to 746 watts approximately and 550 foot pound per second. Given the relation and given
the values of the power in terms of horse power or in watt, we can write down in terms of watt
and then we can compute the values of the torque. So these are the relationships between the
power and the torque and the corresponding units which are being used for defining the power.
Now the last question which was posed was: how will you evaluate stresses and deformation in
circular bars for indeterminate systems? As we have discussed so long, we were looking into the
systems of the bars where the bar is fixed at one end and subjected to the twisting moment or if
you have a shaft which is fixed at one end, may be subjected to non uniform torsion at different
points, we could evaluate the values of the internal resisting twisting moment by employing the
equations of equilibrium.
If we take the free body diagram, we can evaluate the values of the internal resisting twisting
moment from it. Now if we go for a system in which the equilibrium equations alone are not
adequate to evaluate this internal resisting twisting moment, then those systems are no longer a
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determinate system. If we come across such an indeterminate system, then what will be the ways
by which we can evaluate the internal resistance twisting moment?
Now one such example is; supposing you have a bar which is fixed at both ends and then it is
subjected to a twisting moment, then what will be the stresses in the bar or what will be the
deformation in the bar because of this twisting moment? If we evaluate this particular problem,
we cannot solve it by using equations of equilibrium alone.
As we have seen in the past, a bar which is an indeterminate one for evaluating the axial stress
and the strain would have us resort to the equations for compatibility. Here also for an
indeterminate system, we will have to generate additional equations from the equations of
compatibility. So once we have the equations of equilibrium and equations of compatibility, then
we will be in a position to evaluate the internal resisting twisting moment from which we can
compute the value of stresses and the deformation. Let us look at how we can carry that out.
Let us look into a system where a bar or a shaft has a different diameter. Let us say this diameter
(on the left) is d1 and the diameter here (on the right) is d2 and it is clamped at both ends. Now if
it is subjected to a twisting moment, To, at the junction, then what will be the values of the
twisting moment at these ends since it is clamped and also what will be the stresses and the
deformations in this particular zone?
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If twisting moment acts over here which is To, then the reactive twisting moment at these two
ends will be in the opposite direction of applied twisting moment which is in a clockwise form
and let us left end as A and right as B and accordingly let us call this as twisting moment at A as
TA and twisting moment at B as TB, then obviously, the twisting moment T0 will be distributed
in this reactive twisting moment which is TA and TB. So,
T0 = TA + TB, which is the equation of equilibrium.
We can see from this particular expression that TA and TB are the two unknown parameters and
we have only one equation. From one equation, you cannot solve the two unknown parameters.
You need an additional parameter to be brought in.
We consider a case as we have done in the past for an indeterminate system. Let us remove right
side support of this particular shaft. Now if we remove this particular support then because of the
twisting moment, T0 acts. Let us say that the rotation which it undergoes at this particular end (if
we call this rotation as θ1 which is at end B) is caused by the twisting moment T0.
Let us remove this twisting moment. Let us apply the resistive twisting moment which is TB at
this end and this TB also is going to cause a rotation θ2. This particular support B is fixed in
position and so, it is expected that there will not be any rotation because of the twisting moment.
That net rotation at support B = 0, so θ1 which we get corresponding to the twisting moment T0
and θ2 which we get corresponding to the resistive twisting moment TB should be 0.
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It means that if we write θ1 + θ2 = 0 and then if we write θ in terms of a twisting moment T then
we get another set of equation. We have 2 equations now and we have 2 unknown parameters TA
and TB. Then we can solve for TA and TB. An additional equation has been generated from the
deformation compatibility in this particular case and we call this as a compatibility equation.
So, for an indeterminate system in fact, we need the equations of equilibrium to be written and
we need equations of compatibility to be written which is the function of the rotation Theta.
Then we write the torque displacement relation so that we get this compatibility equation in
terms of the twisting moment T. Then we have two equations from which we can compute the
unknown values TA and TB.
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Let us look into another kind of a system in which we apply a twisting moment. Let us say that
we have a solid bar, of diameter d1 which is inserted within a tube. Let us call this tube as 1 and
this tube as 2. This is one side of the cell and this is the other side which is the circular one. A
circular tube is there within which we have a solid shaft inserted. On one end it is clamped and
on the other end we have put a plate which is connected to both the tubes on the solid shaft. Now
if the whole assembly is subjected to a twisting moment, then what are the consequences?
Since both the ends are fixed naturally and you have two elements; one is a tubular shaft, another
one is a solid shaft and both the elements are subjected to a twisting moment in a combined
form. We like to find out what the share of this twisting moment is between the two elements,
the tubular shaft and the solid shaft. There are two twisting moments that will be shared by these
two elements and then how do we evaluate those twisting moments?
Let us suppose we take of this particular rigid plate from this and take out the shaft over here.
This is the internal solid shaft which is subjected to a twisting moment the pictorial notation of
which is this. Let us call that twisting moment as T1. That means the external twisting moment T
which acts in the composite system is shared by the shaft and the tube. The twisting moment
which acts in the central solid shaft is T1. The twisting moment, which acts in the tubular form,
is T2. We have T1 and T2 and the diameter of the internal shaft is d1 and the external diameter or
the outer diameter of the tubular shaft is d2.
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We will have to find out the values of T1 and T2. If we write down the equilibrium equation then
the external twisting moment T = T1 + T2 because this external twisting moment T is to be
shared by the solid shaft and the tubular shaft. Now again, we have only one equilibrium
equation and we have two unknown parameters T1 and T2. From this single equation we cannot
evaluate the values of T1 and T2.
We need an additional equation to be generated so that we can evaluate these 2 unknown values
T1 and T2 and this additional equation can be generated if we take the compatibility into account.
What is the compatibility criterion in this particular case? Here, you have the composite system
where you have an external tube in which you have a solid shaft and both are enclosed within 2
fixed supports.
When this is twisted, the whole composite system undergoes rotation and also since both the
tube and the solid shaft are under the constraint of these two plates, they are expected to undergo
the same amount of rotation. So, the rotation in the solid shaft and the rotation in the tubular
shaft should be identical and then we have the compatibility from which we can generate the
additional equation.
If we say that this is the rotation θ1 that this particular solid shaft undergoes because of the
twisting moment T1 and if we say θ2 is the twisting moment or the rotation that this tubular shaft
undergoes because of the twisting moment T2 then we can say that θ1 = θ2 and this is the
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compatibility equation. This is our equilibrium equation where you say that T = T1 + T2 and this
is our compatibility where θ1 = θ2.
As we know that T/J = τ/ρ = Gθ/L. So, θ in terms of T is nothing but TL/GJ. We can write that
down as,
θ1 = T1L/GJ1, where J1 is the polar moment of inertia of the solid shaft.
Likewise θ2 = T2L/GJ2.
If both the tube and the solid shaft are made out of the same material, then the shear module as
value G will be identical but if this tube and the solid shaft are of different material, then you
will have two different values of G and correspondingly, we will use G1 and G2 to make it more
general. If we equate this θ1 and θ2, we can get a relationship between T1 and T2. Therefore the
second equation will be generated from this compatibility.
Equation 1 and equation 2 can give us the values of T1 and T2. So, these are the 2 equations, T =
T1 + T2 and θ1 = θ2 or T1L/GJ1 = T2L/GJ2 will give us the values of T1 and T2. That is how for an
indeterminate system when they are subjected to a twisting moment, we make use of the
equation of equilibrium the equation of compatibility and then the torque displacement
relationship to arrive at what will be the equations from which you can evaluate the unknown
twisting moment or the internal resisting moment.
Once we know this twisting moment, then we can take the free body diagram of the whole shaft
at any point and then correspondingly, we can find out what are the internal resisting twisting
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moments and from which we can compute the value of the shear stresses which are generated
from the twisting moment and the angle of a twist because of this twisting moment.
Let us look into the whole of what we have done so long for the determinate and indeterminate
system. Now when we talk about the determinate system the equations which we need are the
equilibrium equations and equilibrium equations alone are adequate to evaluate the internal
resisting twisting moment and all we need is the torque displacement relations or torque rotation
relationship from which we can compute the value of the stresses.
The geometry of deformation, as we have seen, which is in terms of the rotation varies and
shear strain varies linearly from the axis of the shaft. We have seen that γ = (dθ/dx) ρ. It varies
linearly with respect to the radius. From the center as it goes, it varies linearly and shear strains
are related to shear stress which is the constitutive relationship. With these 3 aspects we can
solve any determinate system.
In the case of the indeterminate systems, they are also identical except that you need equations
of equilibrium. You need to look into the geometry of deformation and of course the shear
strains are related to the shear stress which is the constitutive relationship. Now apart from this,
these alone are not adequate to give the equations for evaluating the internal resisting twisting
moment. In case of the indeterminate system, we need another criterion which is the equation of
compatibility and from this equation of compatibility we can generate another equation from
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which you can solve the internal resisting twisting moment and an internal twisting moment at
any point of the shaft in terms of the support moment.
Now you are in a position to say that if a bar is supported at one end and subjected to a twisting
moment, then we can compute a twisting moment accordingly at any point whether it is uniform
torsion or non uniform torsion or whether the shaft is a uniform one, non uniform and the
stresses corresponding to the angle of rotation.
If the bar is not supported on one point alone but is supported at two points or two sides then
when it is subjected to a twisting moment, the equations of equilibrium alone are not adequate to
evaluate the internal resisting twisting moment and we need the spot of equations of equilibrium
to generate an additional equation from which we can compute the values of internal resisting
twisting moment.
Let us look at some examples to demonstrate this. The first example is the one which I had
posed last time and we discussed this aspect last time that the shafts are generally used to
transmit power and in this particular case, a tubular shaft is designed to transmit 120kW power
at a frequency of 15Hz. The inside diameter of the shaft is to be three fourths of the outside
diameter. If the outside diameter is d, then the inside diameter is ¾(d) which is 0.75 times d. If
the allowable shear stress is 45 MPa then what is the minimum required diameter, d? What will
be the minimum required outside diameter, d? Let us look into this particular example.
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Here P = 120kW and f = 15Hz
As we have seen that P = 2πfT, from which T = P/2πf

Substituting all the values, we get, T = (120×103)/(2π×15) = 1273.24 N-m
This is the value of the twisting moment that has been generated because of the power driven
which is 120kw at a frequency of 15Hertz.
Let, do = d, then di = 0.75d

Polar moment of inertia, J = π(do4 ̶ di4 )/32 = π[d4 ̶ (0.75d)4]/32 = 0.684πd4/32
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We know that the shear stress is limited to 45MPa. So,
T/J = τ/ρ
Which gives, (1273.24×103×32)/( 0.684πd4) = 45×2/d
So from these if you compute the value of diameter, which comes out to be, d = 59.51 mm.
This is the diameter of the shaft that we will have to use so that the stress is within 45 MPa. If
we have to use a tubular shaft which transmits power at 120kW and at 15 Hz frequency then the
external diameter of the shaft that is necessary is equal to 59.51mm if we have to restrict the
value of the shearing stress within 45MPa. If we use the diameter more than that then the stress
level will be lower but if we go a diameter lower than this value, then the stress level will go
higher and as a result the shaft will fail. Let us look into the second example which is of the
category that we have discussed today, which is an indeterminate system.
You have a shaft A, B and C with solid circular section. It has 2 parts which is state 1 and the
first part has the diameter of 16mm, the second one has a diameter of 20mm and it is held again
in rotation at A and at C. Assuming that the allowable shear stress in the shaft is 60 MPa, then,
what is the maximum torque that may be applied at B? The torque T can be applied at B so that
the shear stress does not go beyond 60 MPa.
Here since these two ends are clamped, the resisting twisting moment will be TA and TC.
Obviously, from the equilibrium equation we know that T = TA + TC. TA and TC being two
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unknown parameters from single equation we cannot evaluate that so, it is a problem of again
the indeterminate system.
Let us look into this free body diagram. Take the free body of the shaft, the twisting moment that
we will have to evaluate is T which acts at B and the resistive twisting moment at end A and C
let us say, TA and TC. Then our equilibrium equation gives us T = TA + TC.
There is another equation we can generate from the compatibility criteria. This is subjected to a
twisting moment here at T and note that this acts at this point B. Now once we remove this
particular support, it becomes a determinate system. If we cut across here and take the right hand
free body and here there is no twisting moment from part B to C, it is free of twisting moment,
but between A and B we have the twisting moment, T.
Let us try to find out the rotation here. Let us call this as θ1 which will be occurring because of
the twisting moment T at C and in this particular free end at C because of the resistive twisting
moment TC, there will be another rotation and let us call this rotation as θ2. If we combine θ1 and
θ2 together since this end is fixed, it cannot undergo any rotation. So, θ1 + θ2 = 0, which is the
equation of compatibility.
If we write θ1 and θ2, from this free body diagram,

θ1 = TLAB/GJAB and θ2 = TCLAB/GJAB + TCLBC/GJBC
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As we have defined earlier that when it moves in an anticlockwise direction the direction of the
twisting moment is in the positive x direction. So, the rotation correspondingly also is positive
and TC acts in the opposite direction, which is a negative. So, θ2 as a whole is a negative.
As, θ1 + θ2 = 0 and we get θ1 = θ2
From this we can find out the relationship between TC and T and we already have a relationship
between T, TA and TC. From these we can evaluate TA and TC. Now let us compute these values.
Now we have seen that our equation of equilibrium, T = TA + TC……… (1)

Equation of compatibility gives θ1 + θ2 = 0……………. (2)
Now, θ1 = TLAB/GJAB and θ2 = ̶ (TCLAB/GJAB + TCLBC/GJBC), which gives us,

TLAB/GJAB = TCLAB/GJAB + TCLBC/GJBC
JAB = π×164/32 = 6434 mm4

JBC = π×204/32 = 15708 mm4
If we substitute all the numerical values in the compatibility equation above, we get,
T×125/6434 = TC×125/6434 + TC×250/15708
Or, T×0.0194 = TC×0.0353
Which gives, TC = 0.55 T
And TA = 0.45 T
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Now if we have to restrict stress to a value, we need to evaluate the values of the twisting
moment. What will be the value of the twisting moment T if we restrict the stress Tao to 60
MPa? The stress is to be limited to 60 MPa and correspondingly, we will have to find out the
value of Τ.
Now, T/J = τ/ρ, which gives, T = τJ/ρ

For part AB, TA = 60×6434/8
0.45T = 60×6434/8, which gives, T = 107.23 N-m
This is the value of the twisting moment from the part AB.
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For part BC, TC = 60×15708/10

0.55T = 60×15708/10, which gives, T = 171.4 N-m
Thus, when 171.4 N-m acts at B then the stress in the part AB, will go beyond 60MPa and the
shaft will fail. So, we will have to restrict the value of the twisting moment at B as 107.23 N-m
so that the stress level everywhere is within 60 MPa.
We have another problem which is of a similar type (of a determinate and indeterminate system).
We have a solid steel bar of diameter 30 mm. It is enclosed by a steel tube of outer diameter
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45mm and inner diameter 36mm. We have a solid shaft of 30mm diameter which is inserted
within a tube. This is the tube of outer diameter 45mm and inner diameter 36mm. Now both the
bar and the tube are held rigidly at end A and B. This is the end A and this is the end B. They are
held rigidly by the plate and joined as a rigid plate at B.
Now we will have to determine the maximum shear stresses in the bar and the tube and because
of this, we will have to find out how much sheer stresses are generated in the bar and the tube
and also we will have to determine the angle of rotation of the end plate. The value of g is given
as 80MPa. Now let us look into the free body diagram of this particular system.
This is the solid bar or the solid shaft and this is the tube and this solid shaft is inserted in the
tube held at this end A and we have also provided a rigid plate at B. This is held between the two
ends and it is subjected to a twisting moment. The whole composite system is subjected to a
twisting moment, which is of magnitude 500N-m. The diameter of the solid shaft is 30mm, the
external diameter of the tubular bar is 45mm and the internal diameter is 36mm.
Let us say that tube in the middle is subjected to a twisting moment T1 and outer tube is
subjected to a twisting moment T2. The equilibrium equation will tell us,
T = T1 + T2, which is the equation of equilibrium.
Now, because of this twisting moment T1, this will have a rotation θ1 and because of this
twisting moment T2, it will have a rotation θ2. Since the whole assembly is enclosed between
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two plates the rotation θ1 and θ2 should be identical because you cannot have dissimilar rotations
for two different parts when they are attached between two plates. So,
θ1 = θ2, which is the compatibility equation.
Thus, T1L/GJ1 = T2L/GJ2 or T1/J1 = T2/J2
From these two expressions, we can evaluate the values of T1 and T2 and thereby the stresses.
Now J1 = π×304/32 = 79521.6 mm4

J2 = π (454 ̶ 364)/32 = 237682 mm4
T1 = J1T2/J2 = 0.335 T2
As, we have T1 + T2 = 500, which gives, T2 = 374.532 N-m and T1 = 125.468 N-m.
These are the values of T1 and T2 and correspondingly then the shear stress τ1 = T1ρ/J1
And if we substitute the values, we get, τ1 = 23.7MPa
Similarly, τ2 = T2ρ/J2
and if we substitute the values we will get, τ2 = 35.5MPa.
These are the values of the shearing stresses for the two elements. We can compute for
θ1 = T1L/GJ1 = (125.468×103×500)/(80×103×79521.6) = 0.00986 radian = 0.565°
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So, this is the amount of rotation that you have. Now as we compute θ1 we have automatically
computed θ2 because θ1 = θ2, thus the rotation for the whole assembly.
(Refer Slide Time: 53 53: - 55:04)
Now if we want to compute the stiffness of the whole composite system as we know,
T = GJθ/L, or, T/θ = GJ/L
We know θ and T and we can know how much the torsional stiffness of the whole composite
system is.
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Let us summarize this particular lesson. We have evaluated the maximum normal stress due to
torsion in the shaft and we have seen how the failure line occurs because of this maximum
normal stress. If we compute the direction of the normal stress, the perpendicular direction to the
normal stress direction is the one which is the failure line and it is 45°, which you can see from
the Mohr’s circle given.
Then we have seen the evaluation of stresses and deformation in indeterminate system due to
torsion and then we have seen some examples to evaluate stresses and deformation in bars of
circular cross section due to torsion. In this particular lesson, we have dealt with the
indeterminate system and we have seen how the internal resisting twisting moment can be
evaluated in case of an indeterminate system. In the case of a determinate system, we had
computed directly from the equations of equilibrium. For an indeterminate system, apart from
the equations of equilibrium, you need the equation of compatibility as well and then you can
evaluate the value from the internal resisting twisting moment and you can compute the value of
the stresses.
This is the last lesson on the module on torsion. We had 4 lessons in this particular module on
torsion. In the first lesson, we had discussed the effect of torsion on solid circular sections and
then we had seen how to compute the stresses and the angle of rotation because of the twisting
moment when it is acting in a solid circular shaft. Consequently in lesson 2, we had looked into
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how we can compute the values of the stresses and the angle of rotation if the twisting moment
acts in a hollow shaft that is if the shaft instead of the solid circular one is a hollow one. We have
seen that in lesson 4.2.
In the third lesson which is lesson 4.3, we had seen the aspects of the power transmission
through the shafts and we have seen the relationship between power and torque from which the
stresses and the angle of rotation in the shaft that is utilized from one device to the other could
be computed.
Lastly, in the fourth lesson which is this particular lesson we have discussed the evaluation of
internal resisting twisting moment for an indeterminate system and consequently, the stresses
and the deformation that occur because of the twisting moment.
We have some questions set for you that are based on the discussions, which you have on this
module. The strength to weight ratio is what you have evaluated. In fact, if you go through the
lessons you will know how the strength to weight ratio of a bar subjected to torsion is defined.
What is the torsion equation?
What is the value of maximum normal stress in a solid circular shaft which is subjected to a
twisting moment T? Now this is the maximum normal stress which is subjected to a twisting
moment that we have discussed and so you should be in a position to answer these questions.
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Indian institute of Technology
Kharagpur
Lecture no 22
Lecture Title: Bending of Beams- I
Welcome to the first lesson of module 5 which is on Bending of Beams part 1.

In fact, the last four modules which we have looked into, they were on the effect of axial force on
bars and correspondingly we have looked into the aspects of stresses and strains. Subsequently, we
have looked into the effect of the twisting moment on bar. In this particular lesson, we are going
to look into some other aspects of loading on this kind of system.
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So, it is expected that once this particular lesson is completed, one should be able to understand
concept of beam. In fact, we will define the term what is meant by beam. So long we were talking
about the forces in a bar. Now we have brought in a specific term which is called beam. We will
look into what is meant by that and the different forces which act on beam. Then one should be
able to understand different types of supports and types of beams. One should be able to understand
the concept of shear force and bending moment and also, one should be in a position to evaluate
reactive forces for different kinds of loading on different types of beams.
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Hence, the scope of this particular lesson includes the definition of beam, the different types of
supports and types of beams. In fact, we will look into what a beam means and what the different
types of supports on which a beam member is supported and the different types of loading that the
member will be subjected to. The scope of this lesson includes the evaluation of reactive forces in
different types of beams, then concept of shear force and bending moment in beams and then the
examples for the evaluation of reactive forces for different beams under different loading
conditions. We will evaluate the reactive forces in beam members and consequently we will look
into how to evaluate the shear force and the bending moment.
Well, let us look into the answers of the questions which were posed last time. Now, the first
question posed was: how is the strength to weight ratio of a bar subjected to torsion defined. Now,
in fact the previous lesson was last lesson of module 4 which was on torsion. The questions which
were set were related to the torsional aspects. So before we go to the bending of beams or bars, let
us first look into the aspects to the answers of the questions which were given last time. Now, how
the strength to weight ratio of a bar subjected to torsion is defined. Now, if you remember we did
an example wherein we had evaluated the strength to weight ratio. Basically by the term ‘the
strength of a bar against twisting motion’, we mean the how strong the bar is to resist the twisting
moment. The carrying capacity of the bar of the twisting moment is basically its strength, and the
weight, as you know weight of a bar is its cross sectional area multiplied by length and unit weight
of the material. The ratio of these two parameters will give us the strength to weight ratio.
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So, the strength to weight ratio of a bar is defined as the capacity of carrying twisting moment to
the weight of the bar. If twisting moment is defined as T or designated as T and weight is designated
as W then the ratio of the strength to weight is T/W, where W is the weight given by the cross
sectional area multiplied by length multiplied by the unit weight. T divided by this ratio gives us
the strength to weight ratio. A is the cross sectional area, L is the length of the member and Gamma
is the unit weight of the material. This is what we defined as the strength to weight ratio.
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The second question is: what is torsion equation?
After going through the module on torsion you know that the torsion equation is defined by this
expression where this is given as
Now T = here is the twisting moment or the torsional moment which acts on the shaft.
J is the polar moment of inertia, and for the solid section the polar moment of inertia is,
32
For tubular section this becomes,

32
Tau(τ) is the shear stress; rho( is the radius at the point where we are trying to define the shear
stress, G is called the shear modulus and θ is the rotation of the bar and L is the length.
The third question is: what is the value of maximum normal stress in a solid circular shaft that is
subjected to a twisting moment?
We have also discussed this through a problem. Let us examine it once again. This particular bar
is fixed at this end subjected to a twisting moment T. T is a positive moment, as we have defined
that the twisting moment acts in the bar in such a way that the thumb projects towards the positive
x direction which is the positive twisting moment.
So, when it is subjected to the positive twisting moment and if we look into a small element this
particular element is subjected to shearing stress which is of this form.
What happens when we try to plot this shearing stress of this element in terms of Mohr circle?
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Now, if we try to plot this shearing stress of this element in terms of Mohr circle.
X-axis is the σ axis is of the Mohr circle; y-axis is the shearing stress axis of the Mohr circle and
these are the positive directions for tau and σ. Now, here as we have designated earlier, the shearing
stress acting on this particular element, according to our convention is negative, as this particular
shear along with this complimentary shear makes a moment in the clockwise direction which is
negative. So, on this particular axis it represents this particular point whereas the shear on the other
plane is positive which makes a clock wise moment. This is represented by a point.
Now if we plot the circle then this is the Mohr circle of the stress and this particular point which
is on the Mohr circle represents the plane where we have the maximum normal stress(σ1) and
incidentally,
σ1 = τ
τ is also the radius of the circle and since normal stress is 0, this is a state of pure shear the normal
stress is equal to τ.
In the physical plane (since it is Mohr’s plane 2 Θ is 90 degrees, Θ is 45 degrees). So, if we move
clockwise by 45 degrees, Perpendicular to this the plane which you get is the plane along which it
will fail.
This is the normal stress σ1 and consequently the other normal stress which is the minimum value
will be σ2 which is equal to - τ. These are the values of the normal stresses which get generated
because of the action of the twisting moment acting in a bar.
So long we have discussed the forces that act in a bar in the direction of its long axis and we have
called the load which acts as the axial load or axial force. At any cross section if we try to find out
the stress corresponding to that, we have looked into this normal stress as equal to the load divided
by the area. We have also subsequently seen that when a bar is subjected to a twisting moment, the
vectorial notation of this particular twisting moment is in the direction of the axis which is the long
axis of the bar.
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We are going to discuss the loading in a bar where the vectorial directions of this loading, either
the direct load or the moment is perpendicular to the axis of the bar and these particular kinds of
loads are transverse to the bar and we call those kinds of members which are subjected to these
transverse loads as beams. In the case of bars, the loads were axial and their vectorial direction is
along the axis of the bar whereas for the members which we are terming as beam, the loads are
transverse to the member and the vectorial direction of these forces, either the load directly or the
vectorial direction of the moment, are perpendicular to the axis of the bar.
If we have a bar in which the load is act transverse to its direction, the vectorial direction is
perpendicular to the axis of the bar. Also we may have a moment which acts in the beam. If we
look into this particular moment in this beam, you have a moment in this plane; so its vectorial
direction is perpendicular to the axis of the beam. The loading of x on a bar is what we designate
as beam. Members which are subjected to loads that are transverse to the longitudinal axis are
termed as the beam and the members are either subjected to the forces or the moment having their
vectors perpendicular to the axis of the bar.
All these forces that act in the beam member which are transverse to this particular member, act in
the same plane. This is the plane of the beam and the forces which are acting on it along with the
moment are in the same plane and that is why we term these kinds of structures as the planar
structures. In the same plane, we have the bar and the loading and consequently we will see that
when this bar or the beam is subjected to this transverse load it will undergo deformation and this
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deformation also will be in this particular plane. When the forces acting on this beam along with
the plane of the beam and its deformation are in the same plane, we call them as a planar structure.
We already know that the moment about an axis is perpendicular to the cross section. Now we are
going to talk about the moments about the axis which are in the plane of the cross section. If the
cross section is a rectangular one then the axis which lies in this particular plane, the bending of
the moment, will act about this axis. When this moment acts about the axis it lies in the plane of
the beam itself.
If we look into both the moments the vectorial direction of both the moments is perpendicular to
the long axis of the beam. When we are dealing with the bending moments which are in the plane
of the beam along with the forces we call that plane as the plane of bending and because of this
particular moment, we call the beam member or the member which is subjected to the transverse
loading undergoing a bending, as the bending moments.
Before we really go to the details of beams let us look into some kind of supporting arrangement
on which a bar is supported. We call one of the supports as pinned support or hinged support.
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Here you see diagrammatically we have shown some figures. This part is supported by a joint in
which this particular end of the beam cannot undergo displacement in the horizontal direction; it
cannot undergo displacement in the vertical direction, but this beam allows the bar to move in this
form. That means it can undergo a rotation. It cannot move horizontally, it cannot move vertically
but it can rotate. The rotation of this particular end of the bar is allowed and it can have some
amount of rotation which you may designate as θ.
Generally when we study problems we designate them in such a way that in this particular form,
this particular type of support indicates that it is either a hinged support or pinned support. We
have a support of this particular form wherein it is rests on to rollers. When this part of the segment
is loaded then this particular support can move. This can move in the horizontal direction since it
is supported on the roller. Hence horizontal movement is possible but the movement in the vertical
direction is restricted. Also it can have rotation as we had in the previous case for a hinged support.
We call this kind of support, a roller support.
Take these two kinds of supports; the hinged support and the roller support. In the case of hinged
support the movement of this particular end both in the horizontal direction and the vertical
direction is restricted. Since they are restricted it is expected that some amount of reactive forces
will be generated and these reactive forces will be in the vertical direction and in the horizontal
direction. In the case of a roller support since restriction of movement is only in the vertical
direction and it is free to move in the horizontal direction, there will be a vertical reactive force
which is perpendicular to this roller plane. We call this kind of support, a fixed support.
This particular end of the beam is fixed at this point. The meaning of this fixity is that this particular
point cannot have any displacement in the horizontal direction and cannot have any displacement
in the vertical direction. This part is not allowed to rotate freely. If we look into this particular axis
it will remain straight over here. No rotation as we had in the previous cases is allowed in this case.
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Here the horizontal moment, the vertical moment and the rotational moment are restricted. When
these three motions are restricted, naturally corresponding to all these three motions we will have
the reactive forces. Since the vertical motion is constrained there will be a vertical reaction and
since the horizontal moment is constrained there will be a horizontal reaction. Since it is not
allowed to rotate it has to be held back.
A hinged support has two reactive forces; one vertical and one horizontal because it is not allowed
to move in these two directions. In the case of a roller support since it is allowed to move in one
horizontal direction there will be only a vertical support or vertical reactive force and for a fixed
support we will have three reactive forces. They are the vertical reactive force, the horizontal
reactive force and a moment at that particular point. These are the different kinds of supporting
arrangements that we have. The supports which have been shown over here are the pinned support
or hinged support, the roller support and the fixed support.
Based on these kinds of supports we classify the beams as well. A member or a beam member is
supported at its two ends. Let us say on one end it is supported by a hinged connection and on the
other end it is supported by a roller connection. When they are subjected to the transverse loads it
resists them by generating the reactive forces in the supports. The reactive forces generated in these
supports will be of this particular form and we call this kind of beam, a simply supported beam.
So, when we talk about a simply supported beam it means that one end of it is hinged and the other
end is on the roller.
Notice that we have two unknown reactive forces on this particular end A. On this particular end
B we have one reactive force. There are three unknown reactive forces and as we know that in the
equations of static equilibrium we have three equations, we can solve these three unknown reactive
forces using three equilibrium equations. These kinds of members are called statically determinate
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because the three unknown reactive forces can be readily determined using the three equations of
statics. We encounter another kind of beam called cantilever beam where the beam member is
fixed at one end and free at the other.
At this fixed support it is expected that there will be three reactive forces generated; one is the
vertical force, one is the horizontal force and another one is the moment. These three reactive
forces will be generated at this support and again if we look into this particular member since we
have three reactive forces they can be evaluated using equations of statics and hence this member
is also a statically determinate member.
Sometimes we use a beam member which may not be in any of these categories but could be a
combination of them. For example, we have a beam which is hinged at this place and placed on a
roller at this particular place and subjected to some kind of loading on the transverse plane. This
part of the beam is extended beyond the support point. This part is generally called the overhang
part of the beam. This is a simply supported beam with an overhang.
This part is like a cantilever beam but in this cantilever beam the rotation is allowed because it is
supported at this point and has a vertical constraint. But then because of this overhang it is expected
that it can generate moment and it can also generate rotation. But being a roller support it cannot
resist any rotational aspect over there and there is expected to be a rotation. We generally call these
kinds of beam members as beams with overhang. So, the different kinds of designations are simply
supported beams, cantilever beams or beams with overhang.
Henceforth whenever we mean that a simply supported beam is loaded with transverse load, it
means that the beam is supported on a hinged support at one end and the roller support at the other
or if we say that the cantilever beam is loaded with such and such loading, it means that the one
end of the beam is on a fixed support and the other end is free and when there is a fixed support,
it is expected that there will be three unknown reactive forces which have to be evaluated using
equations of statics.
Having looked into the types of supports and the types of beams we designated, let us look into
the different types of loads that a beam member encounters. Let us suppose we have a simply
supported beam which is hinged at one end and supported on roller at the other. Then we have
designated one load which is known as concentrated load. The meaning of this is that if a load
which acts on an infinitesimally small area is distributed in that particular small area then we call
that force or load as a concentrated load.
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Many times the hole of the beam may be subjected to a load which is distributed over the entire
length. (Refer Slide Time: 25:40) This is the length of the beam and the entire length of the beam
is subjected to a load which is uniform and the intensity of this load could be say q bar unit length.
Now this load is called a uniformly distributed load as it is distributed over the entire span having
uniform intensity. So, we call such a loading system a uniformly distributed load, or in short many
times it is referred to as udl. When the simply supported beam is subjected to udl, it indicates that
a beam, which is hinged at one end and roller supported at the other, is subjected to a uniformly
distributed load over the entire span of the beam or the length of the beam.
There is another kind of loading called linearly varying loading. We may have a beam member or
a simply supported beam which is hinged at one end and roller supported at the other and this has
a load which varies in this rectangular pattern. Here the intensity is 0 and here say maximum
intensity is q; this span of the beam or the length of the beam in its entire length is subjected to a
load which is linearly varying.
It can be of different types. It could be in the form that we have indicated or we could have a
loading and a member that vary in a trapezoidal form. There could be different kinds of variations.
Here we have intensity q1, we have intensity q2 and between these two it varies in this form. It is
a trapezoidal variation but between these two points q1 is constant over here and from one point to
another it varies linearly. Everywhere the intensity of the loading varies in a linear form.
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Other then this distributed loading or concentrated loading we get loading in the form of a
concentrated moment. Let us say that we have a beam and let us say this is a cantilever beam which
is fixed at this end. At a particular point in the beam it is subjected to a moment M at this point.
This will have effects or there will be reactive forces generated because of the application of this
moment and we call this kind of loading as concentrated moment.
In general a beam member supported on certain kinds of support (as we have seen the different
kinds of supports) can be subjected to different kinds of loading. They could be concentrated load,
the linearly varying load, uniformly distributed load or concentrated moment either individually
or a combination of these different kinds of loads. When this member is subjected to all these
transverse loading in the plain of the member we call it a beam member.
Finally, our objective is to evaluate the stresses in this member but before we really go into the
evaluation of stresses we will have to examine how internal forces are generated in this member
because of the transverse loading. In the previous modules we have seen that when a bar element
is subjected to the axial pull how the stresses get generated within the internal part of the body or
because of the twisting moment how the stresses get generated in the bar. We will now look into
how the internal forces or internal stresses get generated when a beam element is subjected to this
transverse loading.
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Based on this discussion that we had we have to evaluate the reactive forces. Whenever a beam
member is to be evaluated for the stresses, we will have to find out the internal forces. For
evaluating the internal forces, the first step is to evaluate the values of the support reactions or the
values of the reactive forces. (Refer Slide Time: 30:51)
For example, this is a simply supported beam which is supported on a hinged support on one end
and a roller supporter on the other having a length L which we call span and is subjected to
uniformly distributed load over this part say of intensity q per unit length. Let us say this particular
length is ‘a’.
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Vertical concentrated load acts at a distance of b from here. Let us say an inclined load at an angle
of Theta acts at a distance of c from here and this gap could be d. Let us draw the free body diagram
that means removing these supports and drawing the corresponding reactive forces. We will
then have one vertical reactive force and one horizontal reactive force for the hinged support. If
we call this end as A, this end as B then let us call this as RA, this as HA and this end will have a
vertical force only, as a horizontal moment is allowed and we will have this as RB.
So, the three reactive forces RA HA and RB have to be evaluated from the equations of statics. We
have three equations of statics where, the summation of vertical forces is 0, summation of
horizontal forces in the beam is 0 and summation of moment at any point is equal to 0. If we
employ these three equations we can evaluate three unknown quantities. This particular member
acts at an angle of Theta. So, it has components in the vertical and horizontal direction. Note there
are no other horizontal forces.
Let us take the summation of horizontal force as 0. We have HA, p1 and p2. The vertical component
is p1sin theta and the horizontal component is p1cos theta. The equation HA minus p1cos theta equals
to 0 means the direction of HA is in the positive x direction and p1cos theta is in the negative x
direction which is why this minus sign comes in. This gives us the value of HA. Likewise, we can
take the help of other two equations to evaluate RA and RB. Once we know the support reactions
then we can calculate other internal forces as well.
Let us compute the internal forces. When this beam member is subjected to transverse loading it
will be subjected to stresses just like some kinds of loading in the bar that are subjected to stresses.
Our objective is to evaluate those stresses. But before we go into the evaluation of stresses we need
to know what the acting internal forces are.
For example; let us take a beam which is subjected to a transverse loading and we have a cantilever
beam which is fixed at one end and free at the other. Let us say it is subjected to load P. We are
interested in finding out the internal forces at a section which is at a distance of x from this support.
Let us suppose we separate out this particular part which you call as a free body diagram. This
particular part is subjected to the load P where this has to be in equilibrium with the internal stresses
that are generated at this cross section.
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Since at this moment we cannot evaluate the stresses, we need to know that when a bar is subjected
to an axial pull the summation of stresses at a point over the cross section gives us a stress resultant.
When this is subjected to the transverse load there will be stresses in the cross section and thereby
we will get stress resultants. Let us call those stress resultants as the different kinds of forces that
exist here. We have the axial force, the vertical force, the force in the horizontal direction, the force
in the vertical direction and a moment.
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Depending on the type of loading of the forces the beam member will be subjected to, we will have
these quantities. Since we do not have any horizontal force component acting on this beam, the
horizontal reactive force will be 0. We get this vertical internal force or the stress resultant and let
us call this vertical stress resultant as the shearing force V.
At any cross section we take in this beam member, we get some stress resultant, which will hold
this particular part of the body, which is free from the whole body, and is in equilibrium under the
action of the load. We call those stress resultants which act in the vertical direction to equilibrate
the vertical forces, as shear forces which have internal stress resultant. We call the one that acts in
the horizontal x direction as axial force and we call a moment that resists the effect of the transverse
loading in terms of the bending as the bending moment.
The stress resultants that act at a section are the shear force V and the bending moment M. Let us
have a proper sense of the sign and cut of this particular bar at a section which is at distance of x1
from the left end and let us take the free body part of this end which is fixed here. This is the
positive x direction and this is the positive y direction and along the positive x direction we have
taken normal stress. This is the positive y direction and we have taken this as the positive z
direction.
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To match with this criterion our axial force on this particular section is positive. The shearing force
is positive over here and the moment which is anti-clockwise perpendicular to the one which
projects out of the plane is positive. When we take the other part of the beam where we have the
load and the corresponding actions which will balance this, we have the shear force which acts
downwards, the axial force which is in the opposite direction and the moment which was anti-
clockwise will be clockwise here.
Let us suppose we just take an element out from this particular beam and if we look into that
particular element then we get the kinds of forces which we call as positive. This shear on the right
face is upward, on the left face is downward and the axial face on the right side points towards the
positive x direction and on this side towards the negative x direction and this is the moment which
is anti-clockwise here and clockwise on this face.
This is what we call as the positive sign convention and its reverse is the negative sign convention.
This is a small part where on the right phase we have the positive shear which acts in the upward
direction. This is the moment which is anti-clockwise, this is the shear which goes down and this
is the moment on the other face. So, this is the positive action and its reverse is the negative action.
Shear forces and the bending moments like axial forces in bars and internal torques in shafts, are
the resultants of stresses which are distributed over the cross section and these quantities are known
as stress resultants. When they are subjected to the transverse loading and when we need to
evaluate the internal stresses if we take sections, there will be stress resultants because we cannot
at the moment evaluate the stresses directly.
We are dealing with the resulting force that acts in the cross section and they are the forces in the
vertical direction which is the shear force. The force in the horizontal direction is axial and the one
which acts along the axis of the bar and the moment which resists this external load in terms of the
bending, is the bending moment. So, we are interested in a beam to evaluate the value of such
shear force and the bending moments because of the transverse load that the beam is subjected to
for different kinds of supports. Once we compute this shear force and the bending moment, then
subsequently we can compute the values of the stresses in the bar or the beam.
(Refer Slide Time: 41:30-43:04)
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Let us take some examples where we need to evaluate the reactive forces and consequently the
shear force and the bending moment. Determine the reaction components of the beam which are
caused by the applied loads as shown in the figure. The beam on one end is supported on a hinge
and on the other end it is supported on a roller. This is a simply supported beam as we have
designated. Let us look at the type of loading that it is subjected to.
Here it is subjected to a linearly varying load from 0 at this point to 2 N/mm at this point and to 0
over here. These are all in millimeters and this particular length of 900 mm from 0 is going to 2
N/mm and again it comes back to 0. At this particular point it is subjected to a constant moment
which is 150 Nm which we have designated as a concentrated moment. We will have to determine
the reaction components for this beam. First let us draw the free body diagram of this particular
beam.
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If we look into the free body diagram of the beam we have reactive components. For a hinge
support we have a vertical reaction and a horizontal reaction. Let us call this reactive force as RA
and this as HA and here we have the vertical reactive force over the roller which is RB. Since in the
horizontal direction it is allowed to move and there is no horizontal force component over there
we will have only the vertical component. Since at both the ends the beam is allowed to rotate
there is no need for having any moment to hold this rotation back. Hence there are no reactive
moments.
The reactive forces are HA, RA and RB. These are the three unknown quantities which have to be
evaluated from the given loading, employing the equations of statics. Summation of horizontal
forces equals to 0, summation of vertical forces equals to 0 and summation of moment equals to
0, which are the three equations of our static equilibrium. If we employ the summation of
horizontal force which equals to 0 then here since we do not have any horizontal loading in the
beam we get
ΣHA = 0
If we take the summation of vertical forces equals to 0, then ΣVA = 0
RA + RB – (1/2) * 300 * 2 - (1/2) * 600 * 2 =0
RA + RB = 900kN ------------ equation 1
Also, ΣMA = 0
Let us take the moment of all the forces with reference to this particular point say point A. If we
start from this end the moment of RB causes an anti-clockwise moment. We have RB multiplied by
1500 mm which is anti-clockwise. Then we have a concentrated moment which is also anti-
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clockwise. This is plus 150 multiplied by 10 to the power of 3 nmm. Then we have these forces
which will have the moment with reference to A and at this moment the load acts vertically
downwards which is why this with reference to point A will cause a clockwise moment. We have
considered these two anti-clockwise moments as positive. So, contribution of this moment will be
negative.
RB * 1500 + 150*103 – 300*(2/3)*300 – 600*500 = 0
RB = 140 N
RA = 760 N
HA = 0
Let us take another example where we have to evaluate the reactive forces, the shear force V and
bending moment M at C which is at a distance of 0.5 meters from point A. So, we will have to
evaluate the shear force and bending moment at this point and we will have to find out the reactive
forces. This particular beam is fixed at this end and free at the other and as designated, this
particular beam is known as a cantilever beam.
This beam is fixed at one end, free at the other and is subjected to uniformly distributed loading
over a distance of 2m and a concentrated loading at a distance of 1m from support A. So, a
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cantilever beam is subjected to this load. First we will have to find out the reactive forces and
secondly at this section we will have to find out the shear force, the stress resultants, shear force
V and bending moment M.
Let us look at these values and draw the free body diagram of this. On this free fix support we
have the reactive force which we may call as RA, the horizontal force which is HA and the moment
which is M or MA. We will have to compute the reactive forces. Since we do not have any
horizontal forces, from the summation of horizontal forces, we get ΣHA = 0
Also, ΣVA = 0.
RA – 4 - 3*2 = 0
Thus, RA = 10 kN.
MA – 4*1 - 6*3 = 0
MA = 22kN
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Let us compute the values of the bending moment and the shear force at that particular end. Take
the free body of the cantilever beam from the right hand side. This is the free body diagram where
we have the distributed load over the length of 2 meters which is 3 kn per meter. We have a
concentrated load over here which is 4 kn. This distance is 2m, this distance is 1m and we will
have to find out the bending moment and shear force which is at a distance of 0.5m from here. We
have the positive values of shear, the bending moment and since there are no horizontal forces we
can ignore the axial force.
If we take the summation of the vertical forces then,
V + 4 + 3*2 = 0
V = -10 kN
The sign negative indicates that it acts in the opposite direction as we have assumed. Take the
moment of the forces about this particular point say MC. This is in the anti-clockwise direction and
4 kN also causes a moment in the anti-clockwise direction and we have.
Mc + 4*0.5 + 3*2*2.5 = 0
This gives us a value of MC + 2 + 15 = 0. So, MC = -17 kNm
The shear force which acts at this particular cross section is 10 kN and the bending moment at this
cross section is 17 kNm. From the values of the reactive forces that we have computed, we can
find out the values of the shear force and the bending moment which should be identical. We can
take the free body of either part and compute the values of the shear force and the bending moment
at that particular location. We have another problem in which the beam ABCD has overhangs at
each end and carries a uniform load of intensity q. For what ratio b/L will the bending moment at
the midpoint of the beam be 0? Try to solve this problem.
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We have another problem in which we have to determine the value of shear force and the bending
moment at a point which is at a distance of 2m from here and here a force which acts at a distance
of 1m from A will produce a moment over here. For these you have to compute the values of the
reactive forces and thereby the shear force and the bending moment. In this particular lesson we
have introduced the concept of beam, its type and the different types of supports and loads that the
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beam member is subjected to. Then we have evaluated the shear force and the bending moment in
beams. We have looked at some examples to evaluate the reactive forces, shear force and bending
moment for different types of loading.
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The following questions are set for you. What is the difference between a bar and a beam? What
are the different types of supports that are used in beams and what is the sign convention for shear
force bending moment and axial force? You will find the answers to these questions once you go
through this particular lesson. We will discuss the answers in the next lecture.
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Prof: S .K.Bhattacharya
Dept of Civil Engineering,
IIT, Kharagpur
Lecture no 23
Bending of Beams- II
Welcome to the second lesson of the fifth module which is on Bending of Beams part 2. In
the last lesson of this particular module we have discussed some aspects of the bending of
beams. We have introduced what is meant by beam and then we have introduced the concept
of shear force and bending moment. In this particular lesson, we are going to look into the
relationship of shear force and bending moment with the different types of loadings.
Once this particular lesson is completed one should be able to understand the relationship
between different types of loads and the stress resultants, which are shear force and bending
moment. One should be able to evaluate reactive forces, the shear force and bending moment
at any point in the beam for different kinds of loading, or in the length of the beam at any
section.
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When we talk about loads, it could mean uniformly distributed load, concentrated load, or it
could be concentrated moment and this includes the relationship of these loads with the shear
force and bending moment. We will give examples for the evaluation of reactive forces, shear
force and bending moment for different beams under different loading conditions. Let us look
into the answers of the questions which were posed last time.
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What is the difference between a bar and a beam?

In the last lesson we had discussed the concept of a beam. As we said that when a member is
subjected to loads in its transverse direction, which is perpendicular to the axis of the
member, it is designated as a beam. The members are subjected to forces or moments having
their vectors perpendicular to the axis of the member and in this way they are different from
bars. Bars are subjected to forces or moments having vectors along the axis of the member.
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Let us take an axially loaded member which has a member and a member axis. Then the force
acting in the direction along the axis of the member is what we have called the Axial Force.
Consequently, we have seen that if a bar is subjected to a twisting moment, which is about the
axis perpendicular to the cross section of the bar, the vector direction of this twisting moment
will be along the axis of this bar.
In the case of members which are designated as beams the loads act in the transverse
direction which is perpendicular to the axis of the member. If the moment acts at this
particular axis, which is in the plain of the cross section of the vectorial direction, the
vectorial direction will be perpendicular to the axis of the bar.
If the moment acts about the vertical axis, also, the vectorial notation of this particular
moment will be perpendicular to the axis of the bar. The members that are subjected to the
loads or moments, with their vectorial notation perpendicular to the axis of the bar, are
designated as beams. This is the difference between a bar and a beam.
What are the different types of supports that are used in beams?
We had looked into the aspects of supports like the pinned support, hinged support, roller
support and the fixed support. These are the kinds of support that we encounter in beam
members. We have also discussed the types of beams where the first one is of a pinned
category or hinged category and in a diagrammatic notation we generally indicate this kind of
diagram.
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This is the roller support where the horizontal moment is allowed and this is a fixed support
where no moments like the horizontal moment, vertical moment or the rotation are allowed.
Here (Refer Slide Time: 06:25) the vertical moment and the horizontal moment are restricted,
but the rotation is allowed. Here, the horizontal moment is allowed, the vertical moment is
restricted and the rotation also is allowed and here all the three quantities are restricted.
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Let us look into each type of connections. When a part of the beam is loaded, it undergoes
rotation. If we call this as the axis of the bar, then with reference to its original axis it
undergoes rotation. Whereas this particular point, which was originally at this position,
remains here. That means no horizontal or vertical moment is allowed except the rotation. So,
this is a hinged type of connection or support.
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If we look into a roller kind of a support, under the action of the load, it moves in the
horizontal direction. It cannot move in the vertical direction, but it can have rotation. Please
note over here that it moves in the horizontal direction and it has rotation. With respect to the
original position of the beam, it has moved in the horizontal direction and we call this as delta
horizontal. Then we have rotation theta, but the vertical movement is restricted for the roller
joint. Note that we have movement in the horizontal direction as well as rotation.
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These are the different kinds of supports that we encounter and now let us take the last
question.
What is the sign convention for shear force, bending moment and axial force?
For shear force and bending moment when we compute at any cross section of the beam, we
must place them with an appropriate sign and this sign convention can be of different types.
The sign conventions which we will be following over here are based on the initial sign
conventions as we had seen in the stress diagram.
If we look into a 2-dimensional element of a rectangular configuration, or a square

configuration, the stresses act in the x positive direction. The shear, which is positive, is in the
positive y direction. On the negative phase, the axial force acts in the negative x direction,
and the shear force in the negative y direction. Here the convention which we have used is the
shear force on this right hand side.
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Let us suppose dx is the length which is taken out from a beam. On this the shear force which
is on the right phase acts upwards, the moment which is anti-clockwise is positive and axial
force which is directed towards the x direction is positive and the reverse acts on the left hand
support which are the negative conventions. So, these are the sign conventions that we will be
following. We have used these conventions in the evaluation of stresses at a point with
respect to the axial stress.
The basic objective of this kind of analysis on beams, when a beam is subjected to the
transverse loads, is to evaluate the stress that this particular member undergoes because of
such loading and the deformation in the member. To know precisely what the stress level is at
any point along the length of the beam, we need to know how the stress resultant, the shear
force, the axial force, and the bending moment vary at a different cross section along the
length of the beam, based on the loading it is subjected to. To do that, let us look into some of
the aspects of how different kinds of loads can be related with the stress resultant quantities,
which are only the shear force and the bending moment.
If we consider a small segment of the beam. Let us say that we have a beam over here, which
is supported at this particular end from which we would like to take a small segment, which is
of length dx and this particular segment is drawn over here. This particular segment on its
sides is given the positive shear force and the positive bending moment. Here it is in the
opposite direction and it is subjected to uniformly distributed load of intensity q per unit
length.
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If we write down the equilibrium of the vertical forces then we get.

V + dV – V + q (dx) = 0
dV/dx = q.
The meaning of this particular expression is that the slope of the shear force = Load q
If q = 0 then dv/dx = 0
If dV/dx = 0, then the shear force gives us a constant value.
Wherever in a beam, if we do not have any load and if we would like to compute the shear
force over that particular portion, then the shear force will be constant over that region where
there is no load.
So, this is what is interpreted from this equation, which is that if dV/dx = 0 then the shear
force is constant in that particular portion of the beam.
If q is uniformly distributed over the length of the beam, or a portion of the beam which we
are considering, then dV/dx = q, which is constant. If we integrate it then we get V which
varies linearly over that particular portion. If we have q which is constant or uniform over the
portion then dV/dx is constant and consequently, the shear force will vary linearly in that part
of the beam. This is what we get from this particular diagram.
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Supposing we take the moment of all these forces with respect to this left edge, then what do
we get?
If we take the moment of all the forces with respect to the left edge of the beam, then we have
M + dM in an anti-clockwise direction if we consider that as positive. On the right hand side
we have V + dV multiplied by the distance dx which is the moment.
(M + dM) + (V + dV) – M – q.dx.dx/2 = 0
So, (V + dV) dx which also causes an anti-clockwise moment is positive and on the left hand
side we have a clockwise moment which is -m and the load q over the length dx again causes
a clockwise moment with respect to the left phase and we have q multiplied by dx, which is
the total load multiplied by half the distance which is dx/2. So, this gives us the moment
equilibrium.
If we eliminate the terms which is the product of the small quantities dv, dx q dx square/2,
then m and m get cancelled and we are left with
dM + V (dx) = 0
The rest of the terms gets cancelled out and from these we get,
dM/dV = -V.
This expression tells us that the rate of change of the moment is equal to the negative of the
shear force along the length of the beam. That means along the length of the beam when they
are subjected to uniformly distributed load if you take any cross section, the rate of change of
the moment will be the negative of the shear force.
Here note that, if this particular quantity f force becomes 0, then the bending moment in that
particular region is going to be constant because m is going to be a constant quantity c. So, if
shear force is 0, then the bending moment is constant in that particular region.
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Refer Slide Time: 16:29 - 20:26)
We can verify it readily, if we have a beam which is simply supported. Since, here we do not
have any axial force the horizontal force at this end is 0. This is the hinged end and this is the
roller end, and this is subjected to a uniformly distributed load, say of q/unit length and the
length of this beam is L. If we call these two ends as A and B, the reactive forces are RA and
RB.
ΣMB = 0
RA (L) - q (L) L/ 2 = 0
Thereby, RA = qL / 2
Since, RA +RB = q.L
From the vertical equilibrium, RB = qL/2
The reactive values, RA = RB = qL / 2
If we take the free body of the beam at a particular section which is at a distance of x from
this left end then we have this reactive force here, which is RA and then we have a uniformly
distributed load over this particular portion and we have the shear force, the positive shear
force and the bending moment. So this is v and this is m and this is q/unit length.
As we have noted this distance is x. If we take the vertical equilibrium of the forces,
ΣV = 0
V + RA – q(x) = 0
V = qx - RA
V = qx - qL/2.
Let us take the derivative of this,
dV/dx = q, which conforms to the derivation as we have seen.
If we compute the value of the bending moment that is if we take the moment about this
particular point, then we have moment M in an anti-clockwise direction.
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M - RA (x) + q (x2) /2 = 0
So, M = RA (x) - q x2 /2
If we take the derivative of this, then,
dM/dx = RA – qx
and as RA = qL /2
So, qL /2 - qx = -V.
dM /dx = - V
So, it can be verified from this particular example that we can get,
dM/dx = - V and dV/dx = q.
Let us suppose that the beam is subjected to a concentrated load. We have shown earlier that
we have a part of the beam; we take out a small segment, the length of which is dx and over
this dx, a concentrated force or a concentrated load acts on the beam, which is p. In the
previous case, we had the change between V over the length dx as V + dv and here we have
noted V + V1.
In the previous case we had uniformly distributed load over the small segment. So, the
variation was comparatively less, but in this particular case we have the concentrated load
acting on the beam at that particular point and the change over from the left of the beam to
the right of the concentrated load is drastic. Since there is a finite change we have designated
the right hand shear by a change over a finite value. So, on the left hand side we have the
shear as V and on the right hand side we have V + V1 where V1 being a finite value can give
us the change due to the concentrated load and, so is the case with the moment m1.
If we take the equilibrium of the vertical forces, ΣV = 0, then
V + V1 – V – P = 0
So, we get V1 = P and this particular expression gives us the information that on the right
hand side the change in the shear from the left hand support is equivalent to the addition of
this concentrated load.
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From the left hand support or the left hand side of the concentrated load the shear force gets
changed by the quantity of that concentrated load over the right side. So, on that left side we
have the shear of V and on the right side we have the shear of V + P, which we have called as
V1 and so, V 1 in this case is P.
If we take the equilibrium of the moments about the left edge of the beam element, then
M + M1 - M + (V + V1) dx - P.dx /2 = 0
After cancelling the terms, we get
M1 = P (dx/2) - V (dx) - V1 (dx)
Since this quantity dx is small there is not going to be a significant change of moment at the
point of the concentrated load between the left hand side of the load and the right hand side of
the load. While computing the bending moment at different points along the length of the
beam, if we compute the bending moment on the left side of the load and then the right side
of the load, due to the concentrated load there would not be any change in the bending
moment.
But, from the previous expression we have seen that,

dM/dx = -V
So, on the left side, the value of dM/dx = - V
And on the right hand side, dM/dx = - (V + V1) = -V – P
There is a drastic change in the value of the rate of change of moment from the left side of the
concentrated load to the right side of the concentrated load. Taking the left side of the
concentrated load and the right side there will be a difference of - P over the dM/dx value on
the left support. So, there will be a drastic change in the rate of change of moment because of
the concentrated load.
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As we have seen, in a beam we can have a concentrated moment. Consider a small part of the
beam which is of width dx and at this point there is a concentrated moment M0, which acts
over here. Again the positive shear and positive moment are indicated over here and
consequently the negative shear and the negative moment on this phase.
If we take the equilibrium of vertical forces it gives us V + V1 ― V = 0, which tells us that,
V1 = 0. The meaning of V1 = 0 is that along the length of the beam, if there is a concentrated
moment then there is no change in the shear force. Along the length of the beam whenever we
come across a concentrated moment at a particular point and if we compute the shear force on
the left of the concentrated moment and the right of the concentrated moment, we will find
that there is no change in the shear force.
Let us take the equilibrium of the moments at the left edge of the beam element. We have this
anti-clockwise moment M + M1; we then have the clockwise moment which is M, plus this
anti-clockwise moment which is M0 and then the moment contribution of this (V + V1) dx = 0
where the sum of all the moments with respect to the left edge equals to 0. If we neglect the
terms which are multiplied with the small quantity dx, then we can neglect this particular
quantity and M gets cancelled with this, so we are left with M1 = -M0.
M + M1 – M + M0 + (V + V1) dx = 0
M = -M0
This indicates that on the left hand side we have the moment M, on the right hand side of this
particular small length dx we have M + M1 and M gets added with this value M1 where
M1 = - M0. That means whatever moment we get on this left edge of the moment, on the right
edge this quantity M0 gets subtracted with this value and finally we get the moment over
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here. So, when we have a concentrated moment at a point we will find that there is no change
in the shear force from the left to the right of that concentrated moment.
When you compute the bending moment on the left of the concentrated moment, whatever
moment value we get again gets modified by the concentrated moment acting to the right of
it. This observation will be necessary when we compute the values of the shear force and the
bending moment in the length of the member.
Before we go into the evaluation of those quantities, let us examine the previous examples. In
the first example the beam ABCD has overhangs at each end and carries a uniform load of
intensity q/unit length and this is uniformly distributed over the entire length. So, B is a hinge
support and C is a roller support and the distance between B and C is L. From B we have an
overhang of b and from C also we have an overhang of b and this is subjected to a uniformly
distributed load q.
We will have to find out the ratio b/L so that the bending moment at the midpoint of the beam
is 0. For what value of b/L will the moment at E be 0? Let us suppose this is the overhanging
part which is of length b and we know that the intensity of the load is q per unit length. So,
over this particular width b the load which acts is equal to q multiplied by b and the intensity
q /unit length multiplied by b is the total load and that will act mid way between the distances
which is b/2.
If we transform this beam into a beam which is supported on B and C with the effect of the
overhangs, then the effect will be transferred from this concentrated force over the support.
At this point we did not have any concentrated force and in the opposite direction there has to
be one force. (Refer Slide Time: 30:54) So, this opposite force along with this, forms a couple
and this gives a moment of this nature, which is anti-clockwise.
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Similarly, if we transfer this concentrated force over the support we will have a concentrated
force. If we make a reduced form of this particular diagram, then we have replaced the hinged
support with the reactive forces. Let us call this as RB, let us call this as HB and let us call
these reactive forces as RC. This being a roller is constrained to move in the vertical direction
only and it can have moment in the horizontal direction and thereby there would not be a
reactive force generated in the horizontal direction. So, there would not be any reactive force
at the roller support.
We have converted the effect of the overhang in terms of the vertical forces and the moment.
The magnitude of this vertical force is equal to qb and the magnitude of this moment is qb2/2.
Let us find out first the reactive values B and C. Let us take the moment of all the forces with
respect to b.
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ΣMB = RC.L – qb2/2 + qb2/2 - qbL – q.L.L/2 = 0.
RC .L = qL2/2 + qbL
RC = qb + qL/2
You can readily evaluate the value of RC. This reactive force or the value qb acting at this
support point which is the effect from the overhang gets transmitted directly to this support,
which is qb. Over a length of L, we have a uniformly distributed load q per unit length. So,
the total load is qL and this being a symmetric half of the load goes here and half comes here,
which is qL/2. So, we get this as the reactive force which is qb + qL /2.
Likewise, since we do not have any horizontal force, ΣHB = 0.

Thus, HB =0
So, the value of RB also from symmetry will be equal to qb + qL /2
We will have to find out the ratio between the length b to the length L in such a way that the
load produces 0 bending moment at the mid span. If we compute the magnitude of the
bending moment at mid span and equate that to 0, then we can find out the ratio between b
and L.
Let us compute the value of the bending moment. Let us keep in mind that RB = qb + qL/2
and RC = qb + qL/2. Let us calculate the value of the bending moment at E and take the pre-
body part of the left end of the beam. Here we have the vertical reactive force which is RB
and we are omitting HB which is 0. We have the vertical force which is qb and we have an
anti-clockwise moment which is qb square/2. We also have a distributed load, which is of
intensity q, and with this being the mid span, its length is L/2.
On this particular card there is a stress resultant, which is the positive shear, which is V and
the bending moment M, which is anti-clockwise. If we take the moment of all the forces with
respect to this particular midpoint, then,
M - RB L/2 + qbL/2 + q.L/2. L/4 + qb2/2 = 0
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M – qbL/2 – qL2 /4 + qbL / 2 + qL2/8 + qb2/2 = 0
So,
M = qL2 /8 - qb2/2 = 0
b2/L2 = ¼
b/L = 1/2
Let us suppose we maintain this particular ratio. This part hinged on a beam and this on a
roller with an overhang of quantity b with a uniformly distributed load will produce a 0
bending moment over here. Then the value of this particular part has to be equal to the half of
this length. If this is L then this has to be L/2 and if you have this distribution, then the
moment at this particular point will be 0.
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The second example determines the shear force and bending moment at d, which is 2 meters
from ‘a’. This distance between ‘a’ and ‘b’ is 4 meters. At a distance of 2 meters, we have to
find out the values of shear force and bending moment. Here, we have a load of 4kN at a
distance of 1m vertically above this particular support point. We neglect the width and take
up the centre of the beam and this particular force can be transferred to the centre of this
beam.
Since we did not have any forces we need an opposite force. So, this force along with this
forms a couple, which is anti-clockwise in nature. The magnitude of this moment will be
equal to 4 multiplied by 1, which is 4kNm. The effect of this particular 4kN force, acting at a
distance of 1m from support ‘a’, is equivalent to a 4 kN load at this particular point along
with a moment of 4kNm.
Let us suppose we transform this beam by taking the effect of this load in terms of the load
and the moment and remove the supports to have the reactive forces. For example; if we have
the vertical and horizontal force at the hinged end and the vertical force at the roller end and
if we take the free body of the whole beam, then we can find out the values of the reactive
forces and thereby compute the shear force and the bending moment.
Let us take the free body of the whole beam. The 4kN load which was acting at a distance of
1m from the support is now transformed to this place where we have a horizontal force of
magnitude 4kN and the moment is 4kNm because 4 multiplied by 1 will give you 4kNm as
the moment. Now the reactive forces which act at A and B are RA, HA, RB and there is an
overhang of 1m from b. We need to evaluate the bending moment and the shear force at this
particular point d, which is at a distance of 2 meters from the left end.
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Let us compute the values of the reactive forces RA and RB.
ΣHA = 0
HA - 4 = 0 and HA = 4Kn
ΣMB = 0
RA.4 – 4 + 8.1 = 0
RA = -1Kn
ΣV = 0
RA + RB = 8
RA = -1, so RB = 8 - RA = 9kN
RA = -1 and RB = 9 kN
Let us calculate the bending moment at this point D. Let us take the free body diagram of this
particular part from the left hand support and substitute all these forces so that we can
evaluate the shear force and the bending moment.
Let us take the left part of the beam up to point d and on the right hand side the positive shear
is V and the positive bending moment is M.
Here, we have the reactive force which is RA and here, we have the 4kN force and the
bending moment 4kNm. If we take the vertical equilibrium of the forces, the summation of
vertical forces which is equal to 0 will give us the value of the shear. So, V is positive upward
and -RA = 0. We have obtained RA as ―1 and
V = -1.0kN, which is the shear force, at this particular point.
Let us take the moment of all the forces with respect to this particular point at the midpoint
which is d and the moment at d is anti-clockwise.
MD -RA.2 + 4= 0.
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RA = -1
So, MD = 6Kn
If you look into the values of the shear force and the bending moment as we have obtained at
this particular point, it shows us that V = -1kN and moment is equal to -6kNm. This indicates
that the direction of the shear force, as we have assumed at this particular cross section, is on
the opposite direction and hence, the magnitude of the shear at this particular point is 1kN,
and the magnitude of the bending moment at this point is 6 kNm.
Let us look at another example problem where the load varies linearly, but as we had seen
earlier, it is in the form of a trapezium that we have 30kN/m as the load, and here, we have a
load of 50kNm and the length of the beam is 3m. This is point ‘A’ which is hinged and the
hinged point will have a vertical reaction and a horizontal reaction and this is the ruler end
where we have a vertical reaction only.
We need to calculate the support reactions, shear force and bending moment at the midpoint
of the beam. So, we will have to find out the values of RA, HA, RB and we will have to
compute the value of the bending moment, which is at the centre of this beam, at a distance of
1.5m from the left support or the right support.
Let us look into the free body diagram of this particular beam. In the free body diagram let us
call this particular reactive force as RA, let us call this as HA and this reactive force as RB; the
intensity of the load at this point is 30 kN/m and the intensity of the load here is 50 kN/m. Let
us first find out the reactive forces RA, RB and HA.
ΣH = 0, we get HA = 0
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ΣMB = 0
RB.3 -30 (3) (1.5) - 1/2 (20) (3) (1/3 . 3) = 0
RB.3 – 135 – 30 = 0
RB = 165/3 = 55Kn
Take the vertical equilibrium of the loads which is
RA + RB = 1/2 (30+50) (3) = 40 (3) = 120 kN
RB = 55kN, RA = 120 - 55 = 65 kN
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Let us take the free body of that particular part, so that you can evaluate the value of the
bending moment and the shear force readily. Here, we have this particular beam, which is of
distance 1.5m because this is at the midpoint. We have the RA over here and here we have the
trapezoidal variation. If you compute the value here, it comes as 40kN/m and this is 50kN/m.
The positive shear is in this direction and the positive bending is in this form and this is V and
M.
If you compute the value of shear,

V + RA - 1/2 (40 + 50) (1.5) = 0. The value of RA = 65 kN; so this is -65 + 67.5 = 2.5 kN.
We can take the moment of all the forces and we get the moment as equal to 45 kNm. At the
mid span because of this trapezoidal distributed load you have the shear force as equal to
2.5kN and moment as 45 kNm and both are positive.
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We have another example problem where a simply supported beam is loaded as shown.
Determine the shear force and bending moment at the cross section ‘a-a’ and ‘b-b’? This
cross section ‘a-a’ and ‘b-b’, which are shown are not at any fixed points but we can assume
that they are at a distance of x from ‘a’ and we can also call this as a distance x from a.
The idea behind this is that we can find out the effect of this concentrated moment or the
effect of this uniformly distributed load, which is up to a distance of 5M and what happens to
the shear force and the bending moment beyond 5M. If we compute the values again in the
same form after computing the reactive values, we can write in a general form as the values
of shear force and bending moment at the section ‘a-a’ and section ‘b-b’. We can write down
the values of V and M as a function of x. This problem is left for you to go through. Try to
evaluate the values at ‘a-a’ and ‘b-b’ and we will discuss this problem in the next lesson.
In this lesson, we have recapitulated what we did in the previous lesson; we have looked into
aspects that we discussed and the relationship of different types of loads with the shear force
and bending moment. We have seen how the shear force and bending moment get related to
the uniformly distributed load or the concentrated load, if you have a concentrated bending
moment at any point along the length of the beam. Then we have looked into some examples
to evaluate reactive forces, shear force and bending moment for different types of loading.
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Some questions are set for you and they are the following:
For a uniform loading on a portion of a beam what will be the variation of shear force?
What is the effect on the bending moment if shear force on a portion of a beam is 0?
What is the effect of a concentrated load at a point in a beam on a bending moment?
We will give you the answers in the next lesson.
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IIT, Kharagpur
Lecture no 24
Bending of Beams- III
Welcome to the third lesson of the fifth module which is on Bending of Beams part three. In fact
in the last two lessons we have discussed some aspects of the bending of beams. We have looked
into the concept of shear force and the bending moment. In this particular lesson we will see how
to evaluate the variation of shear force and bending moment along the length of the beam and we
will discuss other related aspects.
Once this lesson is completed one should be able to understand the concept of shear force and
bending moment diagrams. We have calculated the shear force and the bending moment in a beam
at a particular location along the length of the beam. Now to find out how the shear force varies
along the length or in order to have the variation of shear force at any point along the length of the
beam at a glance, we have to draw a diagram over the length of the variation of shear force and
the bending moment.
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One should be able to evaluate the reactive forces, the shear force and bending moment for
different types of beams which we have discussed earlier and for the different types of loading that
the beam will be subjected to. Consequently, one should be able to plot the shear force and bending
moment diagram of beams for different loading and different kinds of support conditions.
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Hence the scope of this particular lesson includes recapitulation of the previous lesson and
understanding of the concept of drawing shear force and bending moment diagrams. In this
particular lesson we will see how to plot the variation of shear force and bending moment along
the length of the beam which we defined as a shear force and bending moment diagram. We will
also give examples for evaluation of reactive forces, shear force and bending moment for different
beams under different loading conditions and plot of SFD (which is shear force diagram) and BMD
(which is bending moment diagram).
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Before we go into the details of Shear Force and the Bending Moment Diagram, let us answer the
questions which were given to you. The first question was that if a beam is subjected to a uniformly
distributed load on a portion of a beam, what will be the variation of shear force in that particular
part of the beam?
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Let us suppose we have a beam which could be a simply supported one hinged at one end,
supported on a roller at the other end and subjected to uniformly distributed load. If we take a part
of this particular beam of length dx then according to our conventions, we have placed the shear
force and the bending moments on two sides. In this particular equation we have seen in the last
lesson that dV/dx = q and the question is if q is constant and uniformly varying over the length of
the beam then what is the state of the shear?
We know that if q = 0 then the shear force is constant. If q is constant and if we have uniform
loading over a part of the beam or over the whole beam, then the shear varies linearly in that part
of the beam. For a simply supported beam if q is the uniformly distributed load and since we do
not have any horizontal force; the reactive force which we have at this hinged support is the vertical
one.
If we call this as ‘A’ and this as ‘B’, then this is RA and this is again a vertical support which is RB
and because it is symmetrical, we can write RA = RB = q multiplied by L as the total load. Half the
load will be carried by the reactive force A and half will be carried by the reactive force B and we
have RA = RB = q (L)/2. Let us take a free body at a distance of x from A and take the equilibrium
of the forces of this free body here. We have RA; on this part of the beam we have q and this
distance is x and the stress resultant at this particular end is V here (Refer Slide Time: 06:35) and
moment M here.
If we take the vertical equilibrium,

V + RA - q (x) = 0
Then,
V = qx - RA
Also, RA = qL/2. Here, V is a function of x and x linearly varies in this particular equation. Hence
the variation of V will be linear when we have a uniformly distributed load and we will discuss
this further through examples. We will find out the value of the shear at different locations along
the length of the beam, if we have a uniformly distributed load over it.
The second question was; what is the effect on the bending moment if the shear force on a portion
of the beam is 0? In this particular equation when we take the equilibrium of the bending moment
on the left edge of that particular segment then we get the resulting equation; dM/dx = V or the
rate of change of the moment along the length of the beam is equal to the negative of the shear
force V. If the shear force is 0 then M = constant and at that portion in the beam where the shear
force is 0, the bending moment will be constant. This observation will be helpful while drawing
the shear force and bending moment diagram.
584
The last question was; what is the effect of a concentrated load at a point in a beam on the bending
moment? In the last lesson we had discussed the effects of different kinds of loads on the sheer
force and bending moment at a particular section and the loads which we considered were the
uniformly distributed load, the concentrated load or the concentrated moment and the point where
we had the concentrated load in a particular segment. We had evaluated the shear force on the left
and the right of that concentrated load.
585
Let us suppose you have this concentrated load. On the left hand side of the load we have shear
force V and moment M on the right hand side. The moment is M + M1, where M1 is given by this
particular expression. Here, since the quantities are multiplied by this small value dx, the value
of M1 will be significantly smaller than M.
If we try to evaluate the bending moment on the left of this concentrated load and on the right of
it we will find that the change is insignificant which we can neglect. But there will be a change in
the rate of change of moment. On this side dM/dx = -V; on this side we have v and on this side we
have V + V1 and as we have seen from the vertical equilibrium, V1 = P. On this side, the rate of
change of moment dM/dx = V+V1 or the negative of the whole equation. Here, there will be a
change in the order of P from the left hand side.
Although there is insignificant or no change in the moment value from the left hand support of the
concentrated load point to the right hand part of the point, there is significant change in the rate of
change of moment. So, dM/dx will undergo change when you have a concentrated load and we
will give some examples to illustrate it. In general, as we have observed, dV/dx = q and dM/dx =
-V and if q = 0 then the shear is constant. If q is constant, then the shear will vary linearly along
the portion of the beam. We have seen that the change of shear between two points is equal to the
area of the loading diagram.
586
From this particular equation we can write dV = qdx. Let us integrate this expression between two
points. Let us take two points on the beam, A and B at a distance apart and let us suppose we want
to find out the change in the shear force between A and B. So, integral dV from A to B is equal to
the integral from A to B qdx. From this we understand that integral dV from A to B is basically
the shear force at B minus the shear force at A.
In the differential shear force between B and A, qdx represents the area of the loading. You have
the distributed load q over the length dx and this gives the area of the loading integrated between
A to B which is the area of the load between the two points and this area is equal to the difference
in shear between them. Let us suppose we have a uniformly distributed load on the beam; then the
difference in shear between the two points B and A will be equal to the area of the loading diagram
between B and A.
587
If we calculate the change in bending moment between the two points B and A as we have done
for the shear force then what do we get? If we can integrate dM over the region A to B this is equal
to,
dM – V dx
Now, V which is a shear force could be a function of x as well. When we try to plot the variation
of the shear force, we can have a diagram of the shear force and that integral Vdx precisely
indicates the area of that shear force diagram and we will study that impact as we get to the shear
force and bending moment diagram.
At the point of concentrated load there is a change in shear and we have observed the rate of change
of the bending moment. At the point of concentrated moment there is no change in shear but there
will be change in the bending moment. These are the different kinds of loading and their
relationship with the shear and the bending moment can be summarized in this form.
588
Let us study this example that I had given last time which provides a solution. A simply supported
beam A B is loaded as indicated and you need to evaluate the shear force and bending moment at
‘a-a’ and b-b. Two locations ‘a-a’ and b-b are marked and at these locations we will have to find
out the shear force and bending moment. Please note over here that ‘a-a’ and b-b are not fixed
locations as such in the sense that we have not given any fixed dimension for this. (Refer Slide
Time: 16:38) Let us call this, a variable dimension which is x and let us also call this variable
dimension x.
The question is we will have to find out the value of the bending moment and shear force at ‘a-a’
and at b–b. Here, as we do not have any horizontal loading, the reactive force at A which is
horizontal and vertical will be equal to 0. We have the vertical component and the horizontal
component and this horizontal component will be equal to 0, since we do not have a horizontal
force.
The free body diagram of this particular beam will look like this and let us call this as HA, let us
call this as RA and the reactive force as RB.
ΣH = 0, so HA = 0
ΣV = 0, so RA + RB = 8·5 = 40 kN
ΣMA = 0
RB·8 +12 -8·5·2.5 = 0
RB = 11 kN
And, RA = 29 kN
589
Now we need to evaluate the value of shear force and bending moment at section ‘a-a’ and section
b–b. Let us get the beam at section ‘a-a’ and let us take the free body diagram of this particular
part and see what are the values of shear force and bending moment that we get.
Let us take the free body diagram of the left hand part. We have RA which is 29 kN, we have the
uniformly distributed load which is 8 kN per meter and this is the distance which we call as a
variable distance x and here we have the stress resultants V and bending moment M and this is the
section ‘a–a’. If we take the equilibrium of the vertical forces, we have,
V + 29 - 8x = 0
590
V = (8x – 29).
If we take the moment of all the forces with respect to this point or section ‘a–a’, then we have,
M - 29x + 8 x2/2 = 0
M = 29x - 4x2
dM/dx = 29 – 8x = -V
M@x=5 = 29·5 - 4·52 = 45kNm
Let us calculate the value of the bending moment and shear force at section b-b. Then you can
compare the two and see what happens to the shear force when there is no loading into it.
Let us take the free body diagram of the part which is at section b-b. Here again we have the shear
force V, the bending moment M and we have the uniformly distributed load up to a distance of
5M. Here we have the reactive force which is 29 kN. This is 8 kN per meter and this is at a distance
of 5M. This is a distance which we have chosen as x which is a variable distance and this particular
section is b-b.
ΣV = 0
V + 29 – 40 = 0
V = 11 kN
This is the constant quantity; so beyond this particular loading point up to the end of the beam the
shear force is constant and please note that over this particular part of the beam we do not have
any uniformly distributed loading and as we have seen if dV/dx = q and if q becomes 0 then V is
constant.
591
We are observing over here that the shear force V = 11 kN and whichever section we take up to
the end of the right support, we will get the same value of the shear force everywhere.
If we compute the value of the bending moment at this particular section then,
M - 29x + 8·52/2 + 12 = 0
M = 29x – 112
Mx=5 = 145 - 112 = 33 kNm.
On the left hand side which we had calculated from the previous expression, the bending moment
at this point was 45 kNm. That was the limiting point from this end.
We had considered a section which was valid up to this particular end where the concentrated
moment is applied. When we take the effect of this concentrated moment the moment value comes
down to 33 kN. There is a jump in the bending moment value but there is no change in the shear
force value and this is what we have observed when we looked into the effect of the concentrated
moment in the span of the beam. There is no change in the shear force in the effect of that
concentrated moment but the value of the bending moment changes immediately from its left part
to the right part.
Having looked into the aspects of the relationship between the different kinds of load and the shear
force and the bending moment, our objective for these kinds of members which are subjected to
the load is to finally evaluate the stresses. In order to find out the values of the maximum stress
that occurs in the beam for such a loading we must know the maximum magnitude of the bending
moment or the shear force that is acting.
592
If we try to find out the value of the bending moment of the shear force which is largest in
magnitude, we must know the variation of shear force and the bending moment along the length
of the beam and we can plot the variation of the shear force or the variation of the bending moment
along the length of the beam.
At this particular point we have the largest value of the bending moment or the largest value of the
shear force based on which we can start evaluating the stresses. Now to find out the variation of
the bending moment or the shear force along the length of the beam, we call the diagram which
we plot as the shear force and the bending moment diagram.
It is defined here (Refer Slide Time: 30:15) as the graphs in which shear forces and bending
moments are plotted in ordinates against distance x along the length of the member as abscissa.
Now we need to place the magnitudes of the shear force or the magnitude of the bending moment
in the ordinates and compute any distance x from the beam.
If we have to compute the value of the shear force or the bending moment and place it in the
abscissa, then the graph which we get gives us the plot of the shear force or the bending moment
or the variation of the shear force and the bending moment along the length of the beam and we
call such diagrams shear force and the bending moment diagram.
If we have a simply supported beam, we choose our coordinate axis in such a way that abscissa
lies along the axis of the beam and the ordinate is perpendicular to the axis of the beam. Here if
we plot the shear force or the bending moment ordinates along the length of the beam then we will
get a shear force diagram or bending moment diagram if we plot the bending moment ordinate into
it. This is how we can arrive at the variation of shear force and bending moment along the length
of the beam. We will look into how we can evaluate and plot the shear force and bending moment
diagram.
593
Let us start explaining this concept of shear force and bending moment diagram or how to plot the
shear force and bending moment diagram through this particular example. We have taken a simply
supported beam where the end is hinged which we shall call as A; the other end is on a roller which
we call as B and is subjected to a concentrated load P which is at a distance of A from the left
support and the length of the beam which we call as pan is equal to L.
ΣHA = 0. So, HA = 0
ΣV = 0 , so, RA + RB - P = 0
RA + RB = P.
ΣMA = 0
RB L - P (a) = 0
RB = P (a)/L
So, RA = P - RB = P - Pa/L
RB = Pb/L
Let us suppose we need to plot the variation of the shear force and the bending moment along the
length of the beam. We will have to look into the different segments such as what is the value of
the shear force and bending moment in those segments and if we can place the shear force values
or the bending moment values in the ordinate along the length of the beam, the diagram that we
get will give us the shear force or the bending moment diagram.
594
Let us calculate the values of the shear force at different segments. Let us say we take section 1-1
which is between A and point C. If we take the free body of the left hand of this particular part
then the free body will look like this (Refer Slide Time: 36:13).
Here we have the reactive support RA and on this part there is no external load but on this section
there will be a stress resultant V and a moment M.
If we take the vertical equilibrium of the vertical forces, then V + RA = 0.
V = -RA and RA = - Pb/L. This is the value of the shear force. If you notice that wherever you take
the section up to the left edge of this particular load, we will get identical types of free bodies.
This indicates that in the segment from A to C or just to the left of this particular load, the value
of the shear will be -Pb/L. It indicates that we have a uniform shear force from A to the left of this
particular concentrated load. Now let us find out the shear force just after this particular load. If
we take a section somewhere here and cut the beam and take the free body of the left part then
what do we get?
595
Let us take the free body of this particular part. Here we have the reactive force at the end A which
is RA which we have seen as Pb/L. Here we have the concentrated load which is at a distance of
A. At this particular section of the free body, we have the stress resultant V and the bending
moment M.
ΣV = 0, so, V + RA - P = 0
V = P - RA and RA = Pb/l;
V = P - Pb/L = Pa/L.
If you look into this variation of the shear force along the length of the beam which looks like this,
this is the abscissa and these are the ordinate values and this is the negative value and this is the
positive value. This is nothing but the shear force variation along the length of the beam because
of the concentrated load which acts at a distance of ‘a’. From here immediately we can find out
that the magnitude of the shear force acting at any section along the length of the beam.
596
Consequently, let us compute the value of the bending moment at this particular section. If we take
the moment of all these forces on this particular free body with respect to this particular section
then,
M - RA.x = 0
M = RA (x) = Pb/L (x).
Here the moment varies linearly with x
Mx = 0 = 0
Mx = a = Pab/L
MC = Pab/L
This is the value of the bending moment and it varies linearly as the value of x increases, the
magnitude of the moment also increases from 0. When x =0 bending moment is 0 and gradually
as the value of x increases, the value of the bending moment linearly varies and at a distance which
is ‘a’ from left end the magnitude of the moment = Pab/L.
597
What happens to the bending moment which is on the right hand side of this particular load? Let
us calculate from the free body of the other part. If we take the moment of all the forces with
respect to this particular point, D,
M - RA (x) + P (x - a) = 0
M = Pb/L (x) - P (x - a)
This particular expression is valid for x = ‘a’ to L.
Mx = a = Pba/L = Pab/L
Mx = L = Pb + P (L- a)
Mx = L = Pb - Pb
Mx = L = 0
At this particular point the bending moment is 0; it linearly varies up to this point with the value
of Pab/L; and again from this general expression of this segment we have here the value of the
bending moment as Pab/L, when we substitute ‘x = a’ and when we substitute x = L then we find
the bending moment here as 0. At the roller support and the hinged support the moment carrying
capacity of the roller support and the beam supports are 0.
598
The variation of the bending moment along the length of the beam as we can see is in this triangular
form and this is what has been indicated over here. This is the shear force and the bending moment
diagram of this particular beam which is loaded with the concentrated load P over the span L. If
we have a concentrated load which is placed at a distance of ‘a’, we have the shear force variation
over here which is negative and this is positive.
The bending moment is positive for the whole region. We have taken the direction of the beam as
the abscissa; these are the ordinates, this is the positive direction and this is the negative direction.
Here this is the length of the beam and this is the ordinate of the bending moment. We call the
diagram over the length of the beam which we get as the bending moment diagram, BMD and we
call this the shear force diagram, SFD.
The value of this is equal to the reactive force which is Pb/L and the value of this shear here is
Pa/L (Refer Slide Time: 48:30). This is the diagram with the ordinate value given as the shear
force diagram and the value of the bending moment as we have seen over here is Pab/L and thus
the largest magnitude of the bending moment is over here and in all other places the values of the
bending moment is less than this value of Pab/L.
Along this particular segment between 0 to a, the slope of the beam is positive because the larger
value minus the lower value will give a positive value over this length and as it is expected dM/dx
= -V. Here the moment is Pab/L and here it is 0 over the length L. The value of dM/dx is Pab/L
(a) = Pb/L. P here is the shear force and Pb/L is -V over here.
This particular segment indicates that the slope of the bending moment is equal to the negative of
the shear force. On this side, the slope will be negative since we have a lower value on the right
599
hand side with respect to the left hand side and we will get -dM/dx which is equal to -V. Eventually
it will become +V and so the value over here is equal to Pa/L.
In fact from this particular diagram, you can observe that when a simply supported beam is
subjected to a concentrated load which is at a distance of ‘a’ from the left support, the shear force
and the bending moment vary and the relationship between the shear force and bending moment
as we have obtained through those differential forms can also be satisfied through this particular
example.
Where there are no loads on the beam the shear force is constant and the bending moment varies
linearly. From the concentrated load point there is a jump in the shear force from the left hand to
the right hand support. From the bending moment diagram you can see that at the concentrated
load point there is no change in the bending moment but there is a change in the slope. On the left
hand side we have a slope which we call as a positive slope. On the right hand side we have a
negative slope and there is a jump in the rate of change of the bending moment value.
If a simply supported beam instead of a concentrated load is subjected to a uniformly distributed

load of intensity q over the length L then what happens to the shear force and the bending moment
diagram? Here we have the reactive forces acting. Let us call this end as A, this end as B and here
the reactive force which is acting is RB, this is RA and we have the horizontal force HA.
600
ΣH = 0 , so, HA = 0
ΣV = 0, so, RA + RB = q (L) ---------------------------------------------equation 1
ΣMA = 0
RB (L) - q .L.L/2 = 0
RB = qL/2
From equation 1 we can write,
RA = qL - qL/2 = qL/2 and from this particular diagram also we can visualize that RA = RB = qL/2.
Now the total load is q (L) and half of the load gets distributed or shared by RA and RB. If we take
a section here which is at a distance of x and draw the free body diagram of the left part of this
particular beam then we have this particular beam with the reactive force which is qL/2 we have
the distributed load over this particular segment and let us call this distance as x and on this
particular side we have the stress resultant shear as V and the bending moment as M.
Σ V = 0, so,
V + qL/2 - q (x) = 0.
V = qx - qL/2
Vx = 0 = -qL/2
Vx = L/2 = 0
Now as x increases naturally this particular quantity keeps on increasing from - qL/2 and then at x
= L/2 it becomes 0 and at x = L this becomes V = +qL/2.
601
If we take the center over here as this particular point, as shown in figure, then,
Vx = 0 = -qL/2
Vx = L/2 = 0
If we join these three, since it varies linearly with x, we get the shear force diagram. This is the
shear force diagram for this kind of loading and here we do not have any change in the loading.
This will give us the value of the shear force.
If we take the moment of all the forces with respect to this particular section,
M - qLx/2 + qx2/2 = 0
So, M = qL/2 x -qx2/2.
M x=0 = 0
M x=L = 0
M x = L/2 = qL2/4 – qL2/8 = qL2/8
If we plot the variation of the bending moment we get a parabolic distribution. (Refer Slide Time:
56:32) So, it will be qL2/8 here, 0 here and 0 here and this will be in the opposite direction because
this is positive everywhere.
602
This is the diagram of the shear force and the bending moment as we have evaluated. This is the
shear force diagram which is negative here and positive here and this (Refer Slide Time: 56:49) is
positive. Please note that where the slope of this bending moment diagram is at L/2, the tangent to
the diagram is horizontal and correspondingly the shear force value here is 0 and that is what we
get if we have dM/dx.
If V=0 then dM/dx and the moment are constant and the slope over here is the horizontal one. So,
we call this diagram the shear force diagram and we call this diagram (Refer Slide Time: 57:22)
the bending moment diagram.
603
There are some example problems set for you. Please look into this and we will be discussing them
in the next class. They are to draw the shear force and bending moment diagram for this kind of a
loading, to draw the shear force and bending moment diagram for a kind of loading where if we
have a simply supported beam subjected to a concentrated moment then what will be the values of
the shear force and bending moment over the length of the beam? Then if we have a cantilever
beam subjected to a uniformly distributed load then what will be the shear force and the bending
moment diagram for this particular beam?
604
In this particular lesson, we have recapitulated the aspects of the previous lesson. We have
discussed those aspects again and we have looked into the concept of drawing shear force and the
bending moment diagrams. Also we have looked into some examples on how to plot the shear
force and the bending moment diagram if we have a concentrated load or a uniformly distributed
load over the length of the beam.
(Refer Slide Time: 58:26: - 58:42)
These are the questions given for you. What is the value of a shear force where tangent to the
bending moment diagram is horizontal? What is the value of a bending moment in a hinged and a
roller support? What is the effect of a concentrated moment at a point in a beam on a shear force
at that particular point? The answers will be given in the next class.
605
IIT, Kharagpur
Lecture no 25
Bending of Beams- IV
Welcome to the 4th lesson of module 5 which is on Bending of Beams part 4. In the last lesson we
had looked at the aspects of shear force and bending moment. We had studied how to draw the
shear force and bending moment diagrams. Now, in this particular lesson, we are going to look
into some more aspects of shear force and the bending moment diagram.
It is expected that once this particular lesson is completed, one should be able to understand the
different characteristics of shear force and bending moment diagrams for different kinds of beams
subjected to different kinds of loads. We will analyze those beams for which we have drawn the
shear force and the bending moment diagram.
606
We will look into the different salient features of shear force and bending moment diagram and
then we will look into some more examples of different kinds of beams which are subjected to
different kinds of loading and how to plot the shear force and bending moment diagram for those
beams. One should be in a position to evaluate the reactive forces, shear force and bending moment
for different beams and for different types of loading. Also one should be able to draw shear force
and bending moment diagram for such beams.
607
As a part of this lesson we will recapitulate what we did in the previous lesson. We will look into
the aspects which we have discussed about the shear force and bending moment diagram and we
will study their different features in a more elaborate way. Also we will give some examples for
the evaluation of reactive forces, shear forces and bending moment for different beams under
different loading conditions. We will plot the shear force and the bending moment diagram for
those beams.
Let us look into the answers of the questions which were posed in the last lesson. The 1st question
which was posed was what is the value of shear force where tangent to the bending moment
diagram is horizontal?
608
In the last lesson, we had seen that the differential equation dV/dx along the length of the beam is
equal to q where V is the shear force and q is the uniformly distributed load. If we have q = 0 then
what happens to V? Subsequently, if we take the differential of this moment dM/dX this is equal
to - V. If the shear force V is 0 then we had said that dM/dX = 0 and over that particular zone
moment is shown as a constant.
What if dM/dX is 0? We have solved this particular problem last time wherein one end of a simply
supported beam is on a hinged support, the other end is on a roller support and if this beam is
subjected to a uniformly distributed load then what will be the shear force and the bending moment
diagram? We had looked into how to plot the shear force and bending moment diagram which are
shown over here. (Refer Slide Time: 04:36) This is the shear force diagram and this is the bending
moment diagram.
609
As you can observe from this bending moment diagram that at this particular point, the tangent to
the bending moment diagram is a horizontal one. It indicates that the derivative at that point dM/dX
is 0. Corresponding to this, as you can see the shear force at this particular point is 0. Let us look
into another problem to describe what happens if the tangent is horizontal at a point in a bending
moment diagram.
610
Let us look into this particular example where again the beam is a simply supported one having a
hinged support over here and a roller support over here. It is subjected to a concentrated load and
let us say that this concentrated load is 100 kN. If we try to draw the shear force and the bending
moment diagram of this particular beam then there is no horizontal force in this we will have the
value of HA = 0 from the summation of horizontal force 0.
Here we have the vertical reactive force RA and for the roller support, we have the vertical reactive
force RB.
ΣH = 0, Thus, HA = 0
RA + RB = 100+8·10 = 180
Due to symmetrical loading, RA = RB = 90 kN
Let us suppose that we cut the beam at this location. Let us say this is ‘a a’ and take the free body
of this particular part then, we have the reactive force RA , the distributed load which is at 8 kN
per meter, shear force V and the bending moment M at this cut section. If we take the vertical
equilibrium,
611
V + RA – 8x = 0
V = 8x – 90
V x = 0 = - 90
V x = 5 = 40 - 90 = -50
The value at this particular point is – 50. Precisely, the concentrated load acts at this particular
point. We are evaluating the value of the shear force a little left to this load. Basically we have the
coordinate over here as 50. Likewise, let us assume for the time being that we have this variation
from here to here which is linear with respect to x. If we like to find out the value of the shear force
immediately after this 100 kN load, let us take a section here at this point which is again at a
distance of variable distance x where we include this concentrated load as well.
Also, if we draw the free body diagram of this portion then we have the reactive force RA, the
concentrated load which is at a distance of 5m and we have uniformly distributed load over the
entire length of x and as usual we will have a reactive force V and the bending moment M.
ΣV = 0
V + RA -100 kN - 8 (x) = 0
V = - RA +100+8x.
At section a-a, i.e. at x = 5m,
V = - 90 +100 + 8·5 = 50
Basically if we enlarge this particular part, it will appear to have a variation like this but as this
distance is very small we take this as straight line. There is a jump of the shear force from -50 to
+50 immediately after this load point.
V x= 10 = -90 + 100 + 8·10 = 90
It linearly varies and comes down to this place. This is the variation of the shear force for this
particular beam where it is subjected to a uniformly distributed load of intensity 8kN per meter
and has a concentrated load at the center of the beam which is 100 kN.
612
ΣMx = 0
M = RA·x – 8x2/2 = 0
M = 90·x – 4·x2
Mx = 0 = 0’
Mx = 5 = 450 - 100 = 350 kNm on the left side of this particular concentrated load.
If we take the other free body diagram which is a section beyond the load point and take the free
body of this left part and if you compute the value of the bending moment there we have bending
moment as,
M = RA·x - 8x2/2 – 100(x – 5)
Mx = 5 = 90·5 – 100 – 0 = 350
From both the expressions we get the value of bending moment at this point as 350. When we tried
to establish the relationship between the loading and the shear force and the bending moment, we
had seen that when we have considered a small segment of the beam in which a concentrated load
acts, the change over from the left end of the load to the right end of the load has little variation of
the bending moment which is negligibly small and thereby the moment at that particular point
because of the concentrated load does not change at all.
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Mx = 10 = 900 – 400 – 500 = 0
This is a parabolic distribution and this is the bending moment diagram for this particular loading.
At this point, this is the maximum bending moment which is 350 kN per meter and this is the point.
As we have seen that, where we have a concentrated load though there is no change in the bending
moment but the rate of change of the bending moment from the left of the concentrated load to the
right of the concentrated load changes immediately and this is what is happening here.
There is a positive slope whereas from here, this slope is negative. At this particular point, if you
take the tangent to this bending moment diagram, this tangent is a horizontal one and thereby the
dM /dx = 0 for this particular case. Correspondingly, in this case the shear force changes its sign
at the point of the concentrated load from negative to the positive value. In fact in the bending
moment diagram at a particular point the tangent drawn is a horizontal one as we have seen from
this 2 problems that either we get the value of the shear force as 0 or the shear force changes its
sign from the negative to the positive or vice versa. If you go back to that expression that dM /dx=-
v if shear force is = 0 then we can say dM/ dx = 0 or moment is constant or if dM/ dx= 0 then
either V = 0 or V changes its sign from the negative to the positive or positive to the negative.
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This is the consequence of the particular question. Now the answer to that question then is the
point at which the tangent to the bending moment diagram is horizontal, the shear force at that
point is either 0 or changes its sign. Let us look into the second question.
What is the value of a bending moment in a hinged and a roller support? This question is
straightforward as we have seen while evaluating the reactive forces at the hinged support and the
roller support. In the case of a hinged support it is constrained to move against the horizontal and
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the vertical direction but it is allowed to rotate, thereby there is restriction on the rotation and
thereby it cannot sustain any moment.
As we have seen that it is allowed to move in the horizontal direction because of the rollers and
thereby it cannot have any restraint in the horizontal direction but in the vertical direction we apply
restriction, which means that it is not allowed to move and thereby there will be reactive forces in
the vertical direction at the roller support again the beam is allowed to rotate. This means that there
is no restraint on the rotation or it cannot resist any bending moment. The values of the bending
moment both at the hinged and the roller support are 0.
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Let us look into the last question which is; what is the effect of a concentrated moment at a point
in a beam on shear force at that particular point? We have seen the effects of the concentrated
distributed load in the beam. What are the effects of a concentrated load at a point and how do they
affect the shear force and bending moment on either side. In a beam at a particular point, if there
is a concentrated moment, how does that affect the shear force at the particular point? To answer
that question let us look into this particular diagram once again.
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A segment of a beam of length dx is subjected to a concentrated moment M 0 and these are the
values of the shear force and bending moment on either side of the section. If we take the
equilibrium of the vertical forces then we have this particular expression that V + V1 which is
acting upward - V which is downward this is = 0, thereby this gives as V1 = 0. That means in a
beam at a point where there is a concentrated moment it does not affect the shear force so there
will be not any changes in shear force level when you plot the shear force diagram. Wherever you
have the concentrated moment that it does not affect shear force diagram there will not be any
change in the shear force value.
In the last lesson we had discussed the features of a shear force and bending moment diagram and
how to plot them. We have defined a shear force and a bending moment diagram based on the
example which we had seen last time both for the concentrated load, simply supported beam to a
concentrated load or a simply supported beam subjected to a uniformly distributed load. Let us
look into some of the salient features of shear force and the bending moment diagram.
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If you notice that the shear force and the bending moment diagram which we have plotted for a
beam which is A B subjected to a concentrated load P at a distance of ‘a’ and this is on a hinged
support and this on a roller support.
Since there are no horizontal forces, we say H = 0 and we have these 2 vertical supports.
Correspondingly, we have a shear force diagram and a bending moment diagram.
From this if you look into the slope of slope dV/ dx, that means the rate of the change of shears
along the length or this part as well as this part which is x is between 0 to a or x is between a to L,
we find that the dV/ dx value of the shear force diagram is 0 which is the case because dV /dx = q
and if q = 0 expectedly dV /dx = 0.
As you have seen that dM/dx = - V is the expression which we have derived. If you look into this
expression over here, at this particular point this is the bending moment diagram. Here, we have
the magnitude which is = Pab/L and at this point of the bending moment value is 0. The dM /dx
slope over here is equal to this moment minus this moment divided by this length L, which is why
Pab/L - 0/a gives us Pb/L and the negative of Pb/L is the shear force at this particular location.
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This equation again matches diagrammatically over here and on this particular part also. If you
look into the slope here Pab/L this is 0, dM dx at this particular zone is 0 - Pab / L / b = - Pb/L and
if you divide by p this Pb / L is equal to Pa /L, which is the value of the dM/dx of the slope which
we can see from the shear force and bending moment diagram. If we integrate the dM between ‘a’
and b which gives us the moment value at b - moment value at ‘a’ we get Integral V dx.
From this expression we get Integral dM = b (dx). If we calculate the bending moment values at
these two points MB - MA this is equal to Integral V dx. If we choose these 2 points V and ‘a’ then
the difference in the bending moment values are 0 because the bending moment here is 0 and MB
- MA value is 0 between these 2 points.
If we take the shear force diagram between these 2 points, this Pb/L which is negative multiplied
by ‘a’. This is -Pab/L and over this region we have Pa/L (p) which is plus. We have Pab/L plus and
if we sum them up we get 0. Again this satisfies the condition that the area of shear force diagram
between ‘a’ and b = 0 and these are the observations from this particular diagram.
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Let us look into some more aspects on this. The maximum positive and negative bending moments
in a beam may occur in the following cases:
Number 1- A cross section where a concentrated load is applied and the shear force changes sign.
We have solved one example where in on a uniformly distributed beam where a uniformly
distributed load is there, we have a concentrated load as well as and we have seen in the shear
force diagram the sign changes from the negative to the positive. Wherever we have a concentrated
load, the shear force changes its sign.
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We have seen that the maximum bending moment occurs at that particular point. Also the
maximum bending moment occurs at a point for a section where the shear force is 0. The bending
moment is the maximum wherever the shear force is 0. We will also look at an example wherein
if you have a beam that is simply supported or hinged on one end and supported on a roller at the
other, you have an overhang. Therefore, we have a vertical reaction at the roller support. In this
particular point, you may get a moment at a support point which could have maximum value.
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The maximum bending point may occur at a support point where you have a vertical reaction and
a cross section where a moment is present. These are the situations where you can expect that the
value of the bending moment could be maximum at those points. This could be positive maximum
or a negative maximum. We talked about the magnitude of the bending moment where it could be
on the negative side as well as the positive side.
Having known these aspects of the bending moment and shear force diagram, we are in a position
to summarize the steps necessary for drawing the shear force and the bending moment diagram.
Given a beam with certain kinds of loading and support conditions, the reactive values of the
supports should be such that they can be evaluated using the equation of Statics. That means they
are statitically determinate systems.
If we have such a system and if we have to draw the shear force and the bending moment diagram,
then what are the different steps involved? Firstly, we draw the free body diagram of the whole
beam and thereby represent the supports with the reactive forces and we try to evaluate those
reactive forces based on the equations of equilibrium.
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The first step will be to evaluate the reactive forces considering the free body of the whole beam.
Then you will have to divide the beam into segments in which the load is continuous. Let us
suppose we have a beam which is subjected to a uniformly distributed load with several
concentrated loads. If we take this particular segment from here up to the load point they have a
uniform kind of a loading. From this point to this point we can see that uniform load with one
concentrated load; from this point to this point we have a uniformly distributed load with two
concentrated load, then from this point to this point and we have a uniformly distributed load with
three concentrated load from this left edge.
We can divide the whole of the beam into individual segments and then corresponding to those
segments we try to draw a free body diagram taking a cut in the beam. At the cut we will have the
stress resultants in shearing force and the bending moment for that particular segment which can
be evaluated depending on the loads and the reactive forces we have. Corresponding to each
segment if we evaluate the values of the shear force and the bending moment and if we plot the
ordinates along the length of the beam, the diagram which we get will give us the diagram of the
shear force or the bending moment as the case may be.
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If we evaluate the shear force and bending moment on a free body of each segment and plot the
variation of shear force and bending moment for each of such segments then we will get the shear
force diagram and the bending moment diagram of that particular beam. These are the steps one
has to go through to draw the shear force of the bending moment diagram.
Let us take some more examples on how to evaluate the reactive forces and draw the shear force
and bending moment diagram. Here we will have to draw the shear force and bending moment
diagram for the beam in which the two concentrated loads p are placed symmetrically with respect
to the beam and at a distance of ‘a’ from the left support and this at a distance of ‘a’ from the right
support and the length of the beam is L. We need to evaluate or draw the shear force and bending
moment diagram.
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As we have done in the past, let us draw the free body diagram of the whole beam where we have
a vertical reaction and a horizontal reaction. At the roller support, we have a vertical reaction and
we call this as RA and this as RB for the beam AB and the horizontal force H is HA.
ΣH = 0. So, HA = 0.
ΣV = 0 So, RA + RB = 2 P
ΣMA = 0
RB.L = P (a) + P (L – a) = P (L)
RB = P
RA = RB = P
The whole of the beam can be divided into 3 segments,
Segment 1 - A to C
Segment 2 – C to D
Segment 3 – D to B
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In the first segment if we take a section and draw the free body diagram we have the left part
wherein we have the reactive force RA = P, horizontal force is 0 and on this we do not have any
other load and at a cart we have shear force V and a bending moment M. If we take the vertical
equilibrium then,
V + P = 0, this gives us the value of V = - P
So, in the segment 1 AC, SF everywhere = - P.
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Let us take a section in segment 2 CD, and make the free body diagram.
If we take the equilibrium of the vertical forces here
V + the reactive force P - the load P = 0 which gives us V = 0.
In the segment 2 wherever you take a section, you get identical free body and hence from C to D
the shear force is = 0
If we take the segment 3, DB and cut it here and take the free body of the left part then,
ΣV = 0
V + P – 2P = 0
So, in segment 3, V = P over the entire region.
As you can see over here that on this segment 1 we have a shear force which is negative and
constant in this particular region. Between this point and this point the shear force is 0 and from
this loading point up to the end again we have a shear force which is uniform having a magnitude
P. This is the shear force diagram which is this particular beam.
Let us look into the values of the bending moment.
For this particular segment 1,
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Mx = Px
M x=0 = 0
M x = a = Pa
Corresponding to segment 2, CD,
M x = P(x) - P (x - a)
M x = a = Pa – 0 = Pa
For segment 3, DB,
M = P(x) - P(x – a) - P (x - L + a)
M x=L = 0
M x = L – a = Pa
We had seen that wherever the shear force is 0, the bending moment is expected to be constant
because dM/dx = -V. If shear force V = 0, then the moment at that portion of the beam is expected
to be constant and that is what is reflected over here.
In this particular zone, the value of the shear force is 0 and hence the value of the bending moment
in this particular zone is constant and here it linearly varies from 0 to P.a and from P.a to 0. If you
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take the slope here you see the P X a -0/a is P and the negative of P is the shear force here. Again
here -P - of - P = + P which is the shear at this particular point which satisfies the criteria as we
have seen earlier.
Let us look at another example where we have a concentrated moment. We have to draw the shear
force and the bending moment diagram for this particular beam where we have a concentrated
moment which is at a distance of A from the left hand A this is B and the span of the beam or the
length of the beam is = L. As we have seen earlier, this is supported on a hinge and this is supported
on a roller.
As usual, we will have a reactive force here which is RA, and a horizontal force which is HA and a
vertical reactive force which is RB.
ΣH = 0. So, HA = 0.
ΣV = 0 So, RA + RB = 0.
ΣMA = 0, RB.L + M0 = 0
RB = - M 0/L
Since RA + RB = 0, RA = -RB = M 0 / L.
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We have two segments where one segment is from here to here and another segment from this
point to this point. Let us take the free body diagram in these two segments
Let us draw the free body diagram of those 2 segments and you will get the bending moment and
the shear force. If I take the free body of this particular diagram at this segment on the left side,
then
V = - M 0/ L
The value of the shear force at any point between the first segment, it is not a function of x which
is a constant.
If we take a free body of the second segment,
M + M0 - M0·x/ L = 0
M = M0·x/ L -M0.
Mx = a = M0·a/ L
This moment does not have any effect on the vertical force and hence the shear force is constant
from here to here which is - M 0 / L. Regarding the entire length of the beam, the value of the shear
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force is -M0 / L. Looking into the bending moment over here for this segment M = (M0 / L) x from
here to here and up to this particular point x varies linearly. When x = 0, the bending moment is 0;
when x = ‘a’ the bending moment is M0·a/ L. This is the value of the bending moment over here.
If we take the cut here and draw the free body diagram and you compute the value of the bending
moment, then we get the expression for the bending moment as this.
M x = a = M0 (a / L) - M0 = M0 (a/L – 1)
So, a - L / L and a - L is nothing but - b
M x = a = - M0 b /L
On the left hand side we had a bending moment of M0 a/ L. On the left hand side of the beam
where we have the concentrated moment, we had a positive value of M 0 a/L and immediately next
to that point of the concentrated bending moment, we have the bending moment which is -M0b/ L.
So there is a certain jump in the bending moment from the left to the right where we have a
concentrated moment.
This is what is reflected in this particular diagram at this point. Again if you substitute x = L, you
get M0 - M 0 as 0 and this is 0. At this particular segment we have drawn this straight line and let
us suppose I enlarge this part since this particular point is a concentrated moment. We are
computing on the left hand side of this particular concentrated moment, we are computing the
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moment value on the right hand side of this concentrated moment; on the left hand side, we have
got a positive M 0 / L, on the right hand side we have got a negative M 0 b/ L and we get a variation.
It goes from 0 to a value; then after varying it moves from this to 0. We approximate this particular
distance, which is very small, as a straight line instead of that inclined line and this is what is
reflected in this particular diagram. This is the shear force diagram and this is the bending moment
diagram with the magnitude of the moment and the shear force values written over here. These are
the bending moment and shear force diagram for this kind of beam where the beam is subjected to
a concentrated moment.
Let us look into another kind of beam. As you can recognize that this particular beam is supported
at this edge; edge A and end B. End B is unsupported or free and we have defined this kind of
beam which is supported at one end and free at the other as a cantilever beam and this particular
cantilever beam is subjected to a uniformly distributed load.
We will have to draw the shear force and the bending moment diagram for this particular beam.
Let us draw the free body diagram of the whole beam and thereby let us compute the reactive
forces first. The reactive forces are the vertical reactive force which is RA, the horizontal force
which is HA and a bending moment which is MA.
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ΣH = 0. So, HA = 0.
ΣV = 0 So, RA - q.L = 0
RA = q (L)
ΣMA = 0
MA = q·L·L /2 = q·L2/2
Let us take the free body diagram of this segment of the beam so that we can find out the values
of the shear force and the bending moment at that particular segment.
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This is site A, this is site B and we take a section over here which is at a distance of x from A. If
we take the free body diagram of this particular part, then,
V + RA - qx = 0
V = qx - RA = qx – qL.
When x = 0, V = - qL
At, x = L, V = 0
So, it linearly varies between qL to 0 and this is the shear force diagram of this particular section.
If you take the moment of all the forces with respect to this, then
M + MA – q·x2/2 - RA·x = 0
M = RA·x - q·x2/2 - q·L2/2
At x = 0, M = - q·L2/2
At x = L, M = 0
So, it varies again in parabolic manner from -q·L2/2 to 0 and this is the shear force diagram and
this is the bending moment diagram for this particular beam.
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We have another example problem where we will have to draw the shear force and the bending
moment diagram for this particular beam and exactly in the same way for the hinged support. We
write down the reactive force RA, the horizontal force HA and the vertical force RB and as you can
recognize HA = 0, we can compute RA and RB from the free body and then we can take segments
to find out the values of shear force and bending moment.
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Let us draw the shear force and bending moment diagram where the sheer force is 7.5kN. At this
particular point, since we have the overhang beyond this, it changes over to 12.5 and from 12.5 to
reactive values here, it changes down to -10 and finally 0 over here. This is the shear force diagram
for this particular beam and if we compute the bending moment we will find that the bending
moment will vary again in a parabolic manner.
The magnitude at three different points is 2.5kNm, 5kNm and 0. This is the support point where
we are getting the bending moment as maximum. You can have a maximum bending moment
where shear force is 0 or where the shear force changes sign from the negative to the positive and
positive to the negative. Where there is a reactive force at that particular point also you can have a
maximum bending moment provided you have the support reaction at the particular point.
Often we do come across practical examples where we have two beams A B C D. This is one beam
and we have another beam D E which are coupled together or joined together. We call this hinged
and this particular hinge has a particular characteristic that it cannot resist any moment which is 0
but it can resist the shear force. We need to find out the maximum shear force in this particular
beam.
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Here again we need to take the support reactions. We have a vertical force which is RB and the
horizontal one which is HB, we have RC, and here we have RE. At the internal hinge point, if you
draw the free body we will have the force p over here RB here RC over here and we will have RB
here. On the other segment we have RB which is downwards because these it should be in a
balanced form and this will be RE. If we evaluate the reactive forces and exactly in the same way
if we compute the shear force and the bending moment, we can get the corresponding diagrams
which we have termed as shear force and bending moment diagram. Do this particular problem
which we will discuss in the next lesson.
Let us summarize this particular lesson. We have recapitulated the aspects that we had discussed
in the previous lesson. We have introduced the concept for the development of shear force and
bending moment diagram and we have looked into some more characteristic features of shear force
and bending moment diagram and have seen they change at a particular point depending on the
concentrated load or the concentrated moment. Also we have done examples to evaluate shear
force and bending moment for different types of loading on different types of beams and plots of
shear force and bending moment diagram.
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This particular module comes to an end with these 4 lessons and here we have introduced the
concept of beam, the shear force and bending moment diagram. Also we have learnt how to draw
the shear force and bending moment diagram through several examples.
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These are the question given for you. What is the effect of articulation in an indeterminate beam?
What is the effect of articulation in a determinate beam? What is the necessity of drawing shear
force and bending moment diagrams of beams? The answers to these questions will be given in
the next lesson.
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Prof. S.K.Bhattacharya
Dept. of Civil Engineering,
I.I.T., Kharagpur
Lecture No.26
Stresses in Beams-I
Welcome to the first lesson of the 6th module which is on Stresses in Beams part 1. In the last
module we had discussed some aspects of the shear force and bending moment on beams and
in this particular module we are going to discuss how to utilize the information on the shear
force and bending moment in evaluating the stresses in the beam.
In today’s lesson we will be discussing on the effect of the bending moment on the stresses in
a beam. Hence it is expected that once this particular lesson is completed, one should be able
to understand the concept of bending stress in a beam and one should be in a position to
derive the bending or the flexural equation.
In fact as we have seen in the case of the torsion in a shaft, when we compute the stresses in a
shaft or a ball due to twisting moment, we have computed the stresses and there by we had
derived the torsion formula. Now on similar lines, when a beam is subjected to a load and is
undergoing a bending and shear force as we have seen when we compute the stresses and
derive the formula which we call as a bending formula.
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As we go along in this lesson, we will see how to derive the bending equation. Now one
should be in a position to evaluate bending stress in determinate beams for different loadings.
Here we are qualifying the beam by saying it is a determinate beam as we have seen that the
beams which we are dealing with are the reactive forces of this particular beams. We can
evaluate the values of the reactive forces based on the equations of equilibrium and hence
they are determinate and in this particular course, we are dealing with mainly the determinate
systems.
Hence the scope of this particular lesson includes the recapitulation of the previous lesson as
we will be discussing the aspects of the previous lessons through the question answer session.
We will also be deriving the bending or the flexural equation in a beam due to pure bending.
In this particular lesson, we will discuss about the pure bending and then we will looking into
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some examples for the evaluation of bending stresses in determinate beams for different
loadings.
Let us look into the questions which were given last time and their answers. The first
question given was on the effect of articulation in an indeterminate beam. Now this is a term
wherein we introduce a mechanism in a beam, where at that particular point it can sustain the
shear force but it cannot resist any bending moment. What happens if we introduce this kind
of articulation in a beam in an indeterminate beam? The next question is that if we introduce
a similar kind of articulation in a determinate beam then what will be the consequence?
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Let us look into these two questions in one go and let me answer those questions. If I have a
beam which is fixed at one end and subjected to different kinds of loading say uniformly
distributed load, concentrated load, a concentrated moment etc. Now as we have seen in this
particular beam at this end, we have a fixed support where we have reactive forces such as
the vertical force, the horizontal force and the bending moment.
This is the reactive force R, horizontal force H and moment M and all these 3 quantities can
be evaluated using the equations of statics:
ΣH=0
ΣV=0
ΣM=0
If we do that we can evaluate these unknown reactive forces H, M and R. So this particular
system is a determinate system.
Let us supposing we introduce one roller at this particular end and thereby introduce another
reactive force in this particular end; let us call this as R1 and R2. Now as soon as we do this,
this particular beam becomes indeterminate that is it is no longer determinate. The reason is
that we have 4 unknown reactions and they are H, M, R1 and R2. So there are 4 unknown
reactive forces and we have only 3 equations of statics. Hence this particular system is
statically indeterminate.
To find a solution for such a problem, many a times we introduce another condition in a
beam. Let us say that we introduce a hinge in this particular beam inside and this hinge is
such that it cannot resist any moment but it can support shear force. It can support the shear
force at this particular end but it cannot resist any moment.
Now as soon as we introduce this particular kind of articulation in a beam wherein it cannot
resist any moment, that means we generate an additional equation from this particular
condition, that means if we take the moment of all the forces about that particular point it is
expected that the moment resistance will be 0.
Hence we get another equation based on which we can solve the unknown reactive forces. If
you have an articulation introduced in an indeterminate beam where you have additional
unknown reactive forces, then we can solve that or the beam becomes determinate in that
situation.
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This particular articulation can be introduced as one part of beam resting on another part with
one end fixed and other end as roller support. At the juction, if you split it into two parts the
reactive force from this particular part is supported on roller at this end now here we will
have a reactive force. These forces are the same and we call these as R, because this
particular section can resist the shear force, so we can have a reactive force generator at this
particular end. Now the left part is a determinate system having a fixed end which is a
cantilever these unknown reactive forces can be calculated which are the shear at this
particular end. If we have an articulation in a beam, then that indeterminate beam becomes a
determinate one. The beam becomes determinate because we generate an additional equation
so we have four unknowns. We get three equations of statics and 1 additional equation, so it
becomes a determinate situation.
Now if we have a determinate beam in which we do not have a support, it is just a cantilever.
Then if we have the cantilever beam which is fixed at one end and let us suppose we
introduce this articulation over here where again this is subjected to different kinds of
loading; distributed loading and the concentrated loading or may be a concentrated moment.
If we have an articulation in this beam, that means if we have the beam again in the same
form as we were discussing previously. Since the right particular part does not have any
support, so when it is subjected to the loading, it will topple because it cannot resist any
moment over here. So, a determinate beam becomes unstable when an articulation is
provided in a determinate system.
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This is the impact of the articulation. One should be careful that if you have an indeterminate
beam and if you introduce an articulation within the beam then that indeterminate beam
becomes determinate or you get an additional equation generated for every articulation you
induce and if you have a determinate beam in which we introduce any articulation, it
becomes unstable.
This is what is indicated over here where the introduction of articulation in an indeterminate
beam reduces the beam to a determinate one and the introduction of articulation in a
determinate beam reduces the beam to an unstable system. So, that answers the first two
questions.
Now the third question is: What is the necessity of drawing shear force and bending moment
diagrams of beams? You have gone through the previous module wherein we have discussed
various kinds of loading on various kinds of beams and then we have evaluated the shear
forces and bending moment at different sections.
If we need to know the variation of the shear force or the bending moment along the length of
the beam and if we draw the diagram over the length of the beam where the variation of the
shear force is at every section then it becomes easier to understand ‘which’ part of the beam
is subjected to ‘what’ kind of shear forces or bending moment.
From the diagram of shear force or the bending moment readily, we can get the different
values of bending moments and shear force along the length of the beam from which we can
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determine at which part the magnitude of the shear force of the bending moment is larger or
smaller. Hence, for evaluating the stresses in a beam it becomes much simpler. Once we
know the variation of the shear force and the bending moment in a beam, it becomes easier to
compute the corresponding stresses.
In this lesson we will discuss how that induces the bending stress in the beam. So, the shear
force and bending moment diagram indicate their variations respectively in a beam. The
variation of the bending moment and shear force along the length of the beam and the
diagram thus help in finding the maximum values of shear force or the bending moment
because when we deal with stresses, we will need the maximum magnitude of the bending
moment based on which we can compute the stress. We need to know at which point for
some loading in a beam the maximum bending moment occurs and for that reason, we need
to draw the bending moment diagram and so is the case with the shear force.
Let us see what happens when a beam is subjected to a pure bending. We had drawn the shear
force and bending moment diagram for a beam say which is simply supported and subjected
to two concentrated loads which are placed equally from the two ends say distance a from
each end, we had drawn the bending moment diagram wherein you had seen that the bending
moment over middle third zone is constant.
If you have a cantilever beam in which you have a concentrated moment, you also get the
same moment ‘M’. So these are the cases where a beam is subjected to pure bending moment.
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Now when a beam is subjected to this kind of pure bending moment, then if we are interested
in finding out the stresses, we need to develop the relationship between the bending moment
that is acting in the beam and the corresponding stress induced in the section in terms of the
sectional properties and that is what we are going to look into now.
As we made some assumption while deriving the torsion equation, we make some
assumptions here as well. Let us assume that this is a prismatic beam in which the cross
section of this particular beam is such that it is symmetrical with respect to the vertical axis y.
As the beam section here is in the form of a trapezium, wherein this is symmetrical with
respect to y axis, where as it is not symmetrical with respect to transverse z axis, since x-axis
is a longer length of the member.
The axis which we draw along the centroid we call as the axis of the beam. Also along the y
axis if we pass the plane the load acts and the bending which is acting in the beam are in the
vertical plane. Here we assume that the section is symmetrical with respect to vertical plane
and the plane of bending is the plane along which the load acts. So we say generally that the
beam has an axial plane of symmetry, which is the x-y plane in this particular case. That
means the section is symmetrical with respect to this plane and the applied loads lie in the
plane of symmetry which is what we assume over here.
As we have seen that because of the loading it will be subjected to shear force and bending
moment it will undergo deformation. Now when it undergoes deformation the axis of the
beam which we have chosen over here undergoes bending and we assume that it does not
undergo stretching. The most important assumption which we make over here is that the
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cross section of the beam which was plane before the application of the load remains plane or
perpendicular to the deformed axis after the bending occurs.
That means after the beam undergoes bending which forms a part of the circle and the axis
also takes that particular form of the circle and anywhere if we take a section the cross
section remains perpendicular to the deformed axis and the section which was plane
originally, remains plane even after bending. Thus this is one of the main assumptions which
you make while deriving the bending equation.
Now with these assumptions let us look into a small segment of this prismatic beam wherein
it is acted on by the pure moment M. Let us say that we take a small segment out of this
prismatic beam of length dx and we choose a fiber a and b and ab also is of length dx. Let us
assume that ab is at a distance of y from this axis of the beam which is the x axis. Under
loading let us say it under goes deformation and the deform shape is something like a part of
a great circle.
Let us concentrate on this segment which was originally dx and let us say that it undergoes
deformation and take deformed length as ds and axis of the beam has a radius ρ with
reference to the center of this great circle. The fiber ab becomes a’b’ after deformation and
distance y from centroid remains same.
Let us assume that this segment a’b’ forms an angle dθ. Hence the radius of this particular arc
is ρ – y. We can write distance ds as, ds = ρ.dθ
and we can write the segmental distance a’b’ as, a’b’’ = (ρ – y) dθ
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So the change in the length, i.e., the deformation, dū = (ρ – y) dθ ρ.dθ = –ydθ
Let us divide this by the original length ds, which gives, dū/ds = – ydθ/ds
As ds = ρ.dθ, so So, we get, dū/ds = –y/ρ
Now dū is the stretching in the curve direction and if we take its horizontal component, the
angle being very small, Cos of that angle will be almost equal to 1. So, we can call dū as the
axial stretching du. Likewise the distance ds which is around the arc length has a component
in the horizontal direction, which is equal to the original length dx. If we substitute that this
gives us,
du/dx = –y/ρ
As we have defined the extension over the original length as a strain, so we call the strain
along the axial direction or normal to the cross section as normal strain which is –y/ρ.
So, ε = –y/ρ
Where, ρ is the radius of curvature of the axis of the beam and many a times we designate
this particular quantity 1/ρ as κ, which we call as curvature.
Consequently, as we know the relationship between the stress and strain in terms of the
modulus of elasticity is, σ = Eε. This is as per the Hook’s law assuming that we are dealing
with beams that are within their elastic limit. So within the elastic limit stress is proportional
to the strain as per the Hook’s law.
So, σ = Eε = –Ey/ρ.
Here you note that strain and stress vary along the depth y, which is the depth of the beam.
This gives us a relationship which we call as compatibility. Now, we have to look into the
equations of equilibrium so that we can establish the relationship between the stress and the
corresponding stress resultant, which is the moment.
Now let us look into a segment of this beam again. We have shown three axis: the z axis, the
y axis and the x axis, as assumed before. Let us consider a small element here having an area
dA.
As we know that ΣFx = 0 and this force is nothing but the stress multiplied by the area.
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So, the above equation becomes, ∫
∫ –
If we take out constants, the equation becomes, –E/ρ ∫
Now we can write ∫ = Aȳ, which gives, Aȳ = 0
Since area A ≠ 0, so ȳ = 0, which means that the distance of that segmental area with respect
to the centroid axis or origin is 0. This can happen only if the centroid of the cross section
matches with the origin.
Now this signifies that the z axis must pass through the centroid of the beam. If this y = 0
then from the expression of strain, ε = –y/ρ and stress, σ = –Ey/ρ, these both quantities are 0
when y = 0. That means at this particular point the strain and the stress is 0 and that is the
reason this particular axis is termed as the neutral axis. In fact if we look into the cross
section we have a point where the strain and the stress is 0 and it linearly varies in the entire
depth of the beam.
We will have a variation wherein we will have a zero strain or zero stress over here and here
we will have strain and corresponding stresses and this will give us the variation of the strain
and the stress. This is one equation of equilibrium from which we can position or locate the
neutral axis in the cross section.
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For positioning the neutral axis in the cross section it should pass through the centroid of the
cross section. Given a cross section which is symmetrical with respect to y axis we got to
locate its centroidal point and through the centroidal point the neutral axis will pass through.
This is the information which we get corresponding to this particular equilibrium equation.
Let us look into the relationship between the moment and the stress. The other equilibrium
equation which we can have is the moment value. Let us take the moment of this particular
area where this is the beam segment which we are assuming with a moment M and here we
are considering the force which is σx dA. So the moment of this force is multiplied by the
distance y. If we call this distance as y then moment
M+∫
If you substitute for the value of σ, this gives,
M E/ρ ∫
Thus, M = E/ρ ∫
Now, this integral ∫ is the second moment of this segmental area with reference to
this neutral axis and this we designate as the moment of inertia and we call this as I. So, from
this relationship we get,
M = EI/ρ
Now we have already observed that in the relationship between the stress and the ρ, we have
σ = Ey/ρ.
So, σ/y = E/ρ and E/ρ = M /EI,
So, we can write that M/I = E/ρ = σ/y
This particular equation which relates the moment with the curvature we call as the bending
equation or the moment equation. Finally this is the diagram which we get. As we have seen
that plane of bending is along which the load acts. We call this particular axis along, on
which the stress is zero as neutral axis and for each cross section if we plot this neutral axis,
we get a surface which we call as neutral surface. The neutral surface of the beam is the axis
of the beam.
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The bending equation which we get is this kind where the M is the bending moment, I is the
moment of inertia, E is the modulus of the velocity, ρ is the radius of the curvature of the
neutral axis, σ is a stress and y is the point at the point where we are trying to find out the
bending stress.
Now in a beam at a particular cross section if our interest is to evaluate the bending stress, the
location of that particular point with reference to the neutral axis will be known and hence the
distance y will be known. Here ‘I’ is the moment of inertia of the cross section with respect to
the neutral axis and M is the bending moment which is acting at that particular section. Once
we know these parameters, we can compute the value σ. So from these we can write that the
relationship,
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M/I = σ/y or σ = My/I.
If we take a segment in the positive bending moment in the beam, this particular type of
moment causes compression at the top and tension at the bottom. The bottom fibers undergo
stretching which we call as tensile and the top fiber undergoes compression which is
compressive. If we apply the positive bending moment in this particular equation, we get the
stress as negative and the negative stress indicates that it is compression and likewise if we
compute the stress at the bottom fiber wherein y will be negative, we get the stress as positive
and there by the positive stress gives us the tensile stress. If we take the positive moment and
correspondingly if we place the values of y according to the position of the point where we
are evaluating the stress, the negative value of the stress will give us the compressive stress
and the positive value will give us a tensile stress.
These are the steps that we must go through to find out the bending stress at a point in a given
cross section.
When we want to find out the stress at that particular section, we must know what is the value
of the bending moment it is subjected to because of the external load that is acting on the
beam. So for a particular type of a beam for which we know the support condition and the
loading on the beam, we compute the value of the bending moment at a particular section
where we want to evaluate the bending stress. Once we know the value of the bending
moment then for that particular cross section we have to establish the position of the neutral
axis and once you know the neutral axis, you can compute the moment of inertia of that
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particular section and also distance y with respect to the neutral axis and we know the
bending moment.
We know the distance y, we know the moment of inertia of the cross section with respect to
the neutral axis, so we can compute the value of the bending stress which is M y/I and this is
what is indicated over here. You have to evaluate the bending moment at the point where you
want to find out the stress and locate the position of the neutral axis. You will have to
determine the moment of inertia of the cross section about neutral axis and you will have to
determine the y coordinate of the point so that you know the distance y.
The position of the neutral axis will guide us to evaluate ‘I’ and y. These two parameters will
be dependent on this and then we will have to compute the bending stress from this
expression which is My/I. We can take the appropriate sign of the corresponding parameter
so that the stress can be completed. We can then conclude whether there is a compressive
stress or tensile stress that is acting at that particular point. That is how you can visualize how
the variation of the bending moment or shear force along the length of beam is going to help
us evaluate the stress at a point in a beam which is subjected to some kinds of loading.
Let us take some examples wherein we can apply this technique. Now this is the example
problem which in fact I had given you last time and asked you to solve. We need to draw the
shear force and bending moment diagram for this particular beam, which is subjected to a
uniformly distributed load of 10 kN/m.
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Here the reactive forces will have a vertical reaction RA and we will have the horizontal
reaction HA and we will also have the vertical reaction RB. Since we do not have any
horizontal load on this,
ΣH = 0, which will give us the reactive force HA = 0
Now ΣV = 0, which gives,
RA + RB = 10 ⨯3 = 30 kN.
If we take the moment of all the forces with respect to B, then we can get the value of the
reactive force RA. So,
RA⨯2 + 10⨯1⨯1/2 10⨯2⨯1 = 0, which gives,
RA = 7.5 kN, and correspondingly from, RB = 22.5 kN.
Let us draw the shear force and the bending moment diagram. Here R A + RB = 30 kN and RA
= 7.5 kN and RB = 22.5 kN. Now let us take a section at a distance of x so that we can draw
the free body of that particular part and if we draw the free body of that part we get the
reactive force RA Here, we have the shear force V, the bending moment M, the uniformly
distributed load which is acting over this particular segment and the length of this segment
which is x.
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If we take the equilibrium of the vertical forces, then we have,
V + RA 10x = 0, which gives us,
V = 10x A =10x . .
Correspondingly, if we calculate the value of the bending moment, then,
M + 10x2/ A.x = 0, which gives,
M= . x x2, which is the expression for the bending moment.
As we go along, when x=0, value of shear force, V = 7.5, which is indicated over here.
Now, if we need to find out the shear force at the point B where x = 2 since we do not have
any load in between at x = 2, the value of V = 10⨯2 7.5 = 0 . = 12.5. When x = 0, V
= . and at x = 2, V = 1 . . It varies from . to 1 . and somewhere in between, the
shear force will be 0.
Let us suppose we need to know the point where the shear force is 0. Since we know the
expression for the shear force between A and B; we substitute V = 0, so
0 = 10x . , which gives,
x = 0.75m
At a distance of 0.75 from the left end, the value of the shear force is 0 which is indicated
over here. At the point of the shear force where the value is 0, the sign changes from the
positive to the negative or vice versa.
Here, this is one of the places where it is expected that the bending moment could be
maximum. Now corresponding to the slope from 7.5 to 12.5, we get over here if you look
into a section corresponding to this beyond this reactive value, what would be the value of the
shear force that we get?
From the free body diagram, we can write,
V + RA + RB 10x = 0.
So, the shear force, V = 10x A RB
At x = 2, we have, V = 10⨯ . 22.5 = 10 kN
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We get shear varying from +1 . to 10, at x=2, which eventually will become 0. This is the
variation of the shear force and this is the shear force diagram for this particular beam.
Consequently, let us look at the value of the bending moment.
When x = 0, M = 0
When x = 0.75, we get a value of bending moment which is, M = 2.813 kNm, which is the
maximum positive bending moment.
When we compute the bending moment at x = 2, we find that,
M = 7.5⨯ ⨯22 = 5 kNm
In a beam as we have discussed earlier you can get the values positive in the maximum value
at a different point but if we are interested in the maximum possible values, then whether it is
negative or positive, the maximum bending moment that is occurring in this particular section
or in this particular beam is 5 kNm. The maximum positive bending moment is 2.813 kNm.
If you notice here that the bending moment diagram also changes its signs from positive to
negative so somewhere within the zone AB. Let us suppose we want to compute the distance
that you can compute from this bending moment diagram, bending moment expression. Here
we have the expression for the bending moment as M = . x x2. Now if this moment is 0,
we have 7.5x = 5x2, which gives, x = 1.5m.
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Now let us look at another example that I had given you last time wherein in these particular
beams, we have introduced an articulation and let us look into this particular beam which is
of indeterminate type this beam which is on hinge support and this on one roller support. If
you look into the reactive forces here we have the vertical force here, we have the horizontal
force here and we have RB, RC and RE.
Now here you have a horizontal force HA and take a look at the number of unknowns, which
are 4 and as we have seen that we have three equations of statics and four unknown reactive
values. Hence we cannot solve it using equations of statics alone which is why it is an
example of an indeterminate beam. Now since we have one additional unknown equation to
be evaluated we need at least another equation so that we can solve for the unknown reactive
forces.
This additional equation can be generated from the criteria that it has been indicated. The
beam has an articulation wherein these articulations can take the shear but cannot resist the
bending moment. It will take the moment of all the forces with respect to this particular point
which is 0 and then we get an additional set of equations. Basically here there are two beams
which are interconnected at this particular part. So if we compute the values of the reactive
forces, then we can evaluate the shear force diagram based on which we can find out the
maximum shear force in the beam.
We have the diagram plotted but this particular beam has been split at the articulation and we
have introduced one reactive force RD. Now these two forces are balancing in nature, which
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means that one beam is getting supported over the other and transferring the shear force here.
It can resist the shear force but it rotates when it comes for the bending.
We are interested in finding out these values and this uniformly distributed load q is acting
over a length 2L. As ΣH=0, which gives you, HA=0.
Taking ΣV=0, we get,
RD + RE = 2qL
So, we have one equation and from this we can say that if we take the moments about point
D, we will have,
RE⨯2L = q⨯2L⨯L, which gives,
RE = qL and there by, RD = qL
In the left segment, ΣV=0 will give,
RB + RC RD + P = 0, which gives,
RB + RC = RD P = qL
If you take the moment of all the forces with respect to this, then we get another set of
equations for RB and RC and correspondingly we get the value of RB as,
RB = qL and correspondingly, we get, RC = 2qL + P and we get the values of reactive

forces where RE = qL and the shear force which acts in the articulation as RD = qL.
Now if we plot the shear force and take a free body diagram.
So, V = 0 and V = and here we have , upto point B.
Since you do not have any other load between B and C, if you take the free body, we have,
V + P + RB = 0, which gives,
V= B
As, RB = qL, so,
V= +2P + qL = P + q L.
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So, from it changes over to P+qL
Then the segment between B and C again, the situation is the same and everywhere we have
the identical shear force. Now immediately after this particular reactive force if you take the
free body diagram of this particular part between C and D, we have,
P + RB + RC + P = 0 and from there if we compute the value of V we find,
V = qL
So up to point D again, it is uniform since we do not have any load in between and between
D and E, it varies q per unit length over the length of L and qL to qL. So this is the
variation of the shear force over the entire length of the beam. If we note that the maximum
value of the shear force that we get anywhere in the beam is P + qL, which is what was asked
for in this particular example.
Now let us look an example which is based on our discussion. In this particular beam let us
call this as AB and this beam has a rectangular cross section of size 50mm by 80mm. We will
have to determine the magnitude and location of the maximum bending stress in the beam.
First we will have to find out the magnitude and also we will have to locate where this
maximum stress is occurring and this is subjected to a concentrated load 2kN and a
concentrated moment 5kNm.
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To evaluate the value of bending stress at a point, we need to know the bending moment that
is acting at that particular section. So, first we need to draw the shear force and the bending
moment diagram of this particular beam. Since we have a hinged support and a roller support
we have a reactive force which is a vertical reaction RA and the horizontal reaction HA and we
have the vertical reactive force RB over here.
If we take the summation of horizontal forces as 0, HA = 0 and the summation of vertical

forces will give RA + RB = 2 and if we take the moment about this particular point of all the
forces we get the values of RA. So let us compute first the reactive forces and then plot the
shear force diagram so that we can compute the position of the maximum bending moment
and the bending stress.
Taking ΣMB = 0 gives us,
RA⨯3 + 5 2⨯1 = 0, which gives, RA = 1 kN
As we have seen that RA + RB = 2kN and RA= 1kN, will give us the value of RB = 3 kN.
These are the values of RA and RB. Now take a section over here which has a reactive force
which is 1 kilo Newton and this being negative is in the opposite direction and we have a
positive value of the shear and the moment does not change the vertical force. You have the
uniform shear which is of +1 kN. At the load point there is a change over from 1 to . So
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this is a 3 kN load which is shear and then finally it is constant over the rest of the span. So,
we get the value which is the shear force diagram.
If you plot the bending moment diagram correspondingly, we find that at the point of the
concentrated moment from 1 kNm, it changes over to 4 kNm and at the concentrated load, the
moment comes to 3 kNm, which becomes 0 at point B. So this is the variation of bending
moment diagram. As we can see,
Mmax= 4 kNm
As we know, the bending stress σ= My/I
Here M = 4 kNm, which is 4⨯106 Nmm, y= 40mm and I = 50 × 803/12 mm4, if we compute,
the stress comes as,
Σ = 75 MPa and this bending stress here is a positive value which is why we will have
compression at the top and tensile stress at the bottom. The bending causes a bending stress
of 75 MPa, which is located just to the right of the concentrated moment and we have a
negative magnitude which is a compressive stress at the top and a tensile stress at the bottom.
We have another problem wherein we have a uniformly distributed load and a concentrated
load on a simply supported beam. We will have to determine the largest allowable value of P
if the bending stress is limited to 10 MPa. This problem is set for you, which we will discuss
in the next lesson.
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Let us summarize this particular lesson. We have included what we have looked into in the
previous lesson; we have introduced the concept of the bending stress and we have derived
the bending equation and also looked into some examples to evaluate the bending stresses in
a beam.
Now these are the following questions given for you:

What are the assumptions made in evaluating the bending stress in a beam? What is the
bending equation? How do you locate neutral axis in a given cross section of a beam? We
will answer these questions in the next lesson.
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Indian institute of Technology
Kharagpur
Lecture no 27
Lecture Title: Stresses in Beams- II
Welcome to the second lesson of the sixth module which is on Stresses in Beams part 2. In
the last lesson of this particular module, we had discussed the effect of bending and the
stresses in a beam due to bending and we have seen how to evaluate stress at any point due to
the loads which are acting on the beam. Consequently, we have seen the stresses if it is acted
on by pure bending and we have defined that as the bending equation of the flexure equation.
We will be looking into some more aspects of the bending stresses if they act on a section
which is symmetrical with respect to the vertical axis but could be unsymmetrical with
respect to the horizontal x axis or z axis which we have defined. Once this particular lesson is
completed, one should be able to understand the effect of bending stress in beams of different
cross sections which are symmetrical about vertical axis but could be unsymmetrical with
respect to the horizontal axis.
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One should be able to understand the concept of economical section. We will study the
sections which are more appropriate when they are subjected to bending which we can call as
the most economical section and one should be in a position to evaluate bending stress in
beams of different cross sections for different loadings.
Hence the scope of this particular lesson includes the recapitulation of previous lessons which
we have just discussed, evaluation of bending stress in beams of different cross sections with
vertical axis of symmetry and some relevant information with regard to bending stresses in
beams. We have derived the flexural equation of the bending equation. What are the
consequences of bending stresses and what is the impact of bending stress on different types
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of cross sections? We will also be looking into some examples for evaluating bending
stresses in beams.
Let us answer the questions which I gave you last time. The first question was what are the
assumptions made in evaluating bending stress in a beam? Now let us discuss this particular
aspect with respect to the diagram which I had discussed last time in the last lesson. If you
remember, this is a segment of a beam, the section of which is a cross section of the beam. It
is like a trapezium which is symmetrical with respect to the vertical axis and unsymmetrical
with respect to the horizontal axis.
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Here we assume that the beam has an axial plane of symmetry and xy plane is the axial plane
of symmetry and the loads which act on the beam lie in the plane of symmetry. Also it is
assumed that the axis of the beam bends, but it does not stretch, as we have seen last time
while deriving the flexural equation. This occurrence is because of the load which lies in the
plane of this symmetry where this beam undergoes bending and the axis of the beam
undergoes bending, but does not stretch.
The most important point is that the plane sections remain plane and perpendicular to the
deformed axis of the bar. The section remains plane at any cross section that we take and it
does not deform. Rather it becomes perpendicular to the deformed axis and this is the main
assumption while deriving the flexural equation.
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Now the second question was; what is the bending equation? We had derived the equation
M/I = E/ρ = σ/y last time. We called this as the bending equation or the flexural equation.
Where M is the bending moment, we call ‘I’ as the moment of inertia of the cross section, E
as the modulus of elasticity, ρ is the radius of curvature of the axis of the beam, σ is the
bending stress and y is the point where we need to find out the stress.
From this particular equation, you can write M/I σ/y or this gives σ as My/I. Now we call
σ as the bending stress, M as the bending moment, I as the moment of inertia and y is the
distance at which we are evaluating the stress. If you look into this particular equation, it has
a similarity with the equation which we had derived when a bar was subjected to a twisting
moment where the twisting moment was T and T/J = τ/ρ = Gθ/L. Here, τ was the shear stress,
which corresponds to the σ when we talk about bending.
Now T, the twisting moment is comparable with the bending moment; shear stress is
comparable with τ and J the polar moment of inertia is comparable with the moment of
inertia of the section. Now T/J = τ/ρ, where ρ was the radius of the shaft which is Gθ/L and
that was the rotation. Here it is in terms of curvature L/ρ, where ρ is the radius of the
curvature and we call L/ρ term κ, which is the curvature of the beam.
There is a similarity between the torsion equation and the bending equation. The terms have
different meanings and please note here that the sectional parameters in the case of twisting
moment when it was acting on a shaft, we have used a polar moment of inertia J which
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corresponds to the sectional property. Now in this particular case when we are dealing with
bending we are again dealing with sectional property, but we are computing the moment of
inertia which is about the axis lying in the plane of the cross section.
Now the question is, when we have the bending moment as positive which have assumed in
this particular derivation then stress is negative. Regarding the upward direction this is y and
this is z and y is positive upward, at the upward point and the extreme point we have a stress
which is negative and as you can see because of this kind of bending the top fiber undergoes
a completion. So, the compressive stress is negative. If M is positive and y is negative on the
bottom side then the stress becomes positive, which corresponds to the stress at the bottom
fiber. So when we get σ as negative then we call it compressive stress and when we get σ as
positive we call that as tensile stress and this can be verified corresponding to this
configuration where the moment M is negative because it is in the opposite direction.
Since M is negative σ becomes positive and according to our convention, when σ is positive
it is tensile and physically, because of this kind of moment the top fiber undergoes stretching
which is tensile in nature and correspondingly the bottom fiber undergoes a compressive
stress. That is how we decide about the tensile or the compressive stress in a beam when they
are subjected to a load depending on whether they have a positive or a negative moment.
Remember that we have assumed the positive moment on the right side when it is in the anti-
clockwise direction.
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The last question was: how do you locate neutral axis in a given cross section of a beam?
First of all we should know what we really mean by the neutral axis. When we were deriving
the flexural equation we said that ΣFx = 0 for the equilibrium and that gives us,
E/ρ ʃ y dA =0.
Let us say that we have Aȳ = 0, which indicates that ȳ is the distance of the centroid of the
cross section with reference to the origin. So in effect it means that the z axis must pass
through the centroid of the cross section. Let us suppose that y = 0 and as we have seen that
y/ρ and correspondingly stress, σ E , so, σ Ey/ρ. When y=0, correspondingly σ will
be 0 at that particular point and along this axis, we find that the strain and the stress is 0 and
the strain and the stress linearly varies as a function of y, where it is linear with respect to 0
over here. So, this is the stress distribution and according to our positive moment which is
acting about this particular axis, we have a compressive stress at top and tensile stress at
bottom.
Let us call this stress as σ compression and σ tensile. The condition for 0 axial force in the
section can be satisfied only if the neutral axis passes through the centroid of the cross
section. Now we call this a neutral axis because along this axis the stress and the strain are 0
in the beam cross section and these can be satisfied if the neutral axis passes through the
centroid and then there will not be any axial force in the beam. This is one of the
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requirements of the equilibrium criteria. Hence the neutral axis around the axis where the
stress is 0 must lie in the centroid to satisfy the equilibrium criteria.
Let us study some of the aspects on the bending equation which we have derived last time.
Please keep in mind that we are using the cross sections which are symmetrical with respect
to the vertical axis. With regard to that horizontal axis it could be unsymmetrical and let us
see what happens when if it is unsymmetrical. If the cross section is symmetrical with respect
to the horizontal axis as in the case of a rectangular or a square section wherein the extreme
distance of the fiber with respect to this is equal, the two axes pass through the centroid and
the centroid divides the whole depth equally.
The top distance also is y and this is –y and the stress which we get at the top for the
symmetrical one, σ My/I, where M is positive and we get a negative stress which is
compressive at the top. If y is negative at the bottom then, σ My/I and this is a positive
quantity, which is a tensile at the bottom. But interestingly whether the stresses are
compressive or tensile, in terms of magnitude the value will be the same for same value of M,
because y is identical. So, the bending compressive stress and the bending tensile stress for
the symmetrical section will be the same. The section which is symmetrical about both the
axes is the same.
If we consider an unsymmetrical section where the section is symmetrical with respect to the
vertical axis but not with respect to the horizontal axis such as T section, first we have to
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locate the position of the centroid for a section. As we have seen that if there is no axial force
in the beam then the neutral axis must pass through the centroid. Once we locate the position
of the centroid then the position of the neutral axis is known to us and then the distribution of
the strain and the stress with respect to neutral axis will be linear
So, y1 and y2 the distances of the extreme fiber from the neutral axis are different.
Corresponding to the bending moment M and the stress σ My/I
For the top fiber, y = y2, which gives, σt = My2/I

For the bottom fiber, y = y1, which gives, σb = My1/I
We must note that the magnitude of this compressive stress at the top and the magnitude of
the tensile stress at the bottom will be different, even if magnitude bending moment M acting
is same. Since the section is not symmetrical with respect to the horizontal axis the
compressive and the tensile stresses which we will be obtaining for a particular moment will
be different.
Thirdly, let us look into the units of the stress from this expression where σ = My/I is in Nm,
y is in m and ‘I’ is the moment of inertia and the second moment of area, which is m4 gives a
value in N/m2. This is nothing but Pascal, Pa and we represent σ in terms of Pascal or mega
Pascal (MPa) or Giga Pascal (GPa).
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Lastly, the most important aspect is the applicability of this bending formula, while deriving
this bending equation, we had assumed that the segment of the beam is subjected to a pure
bending. In a normal situation when a beam is subjected to loading, it will be subjected to a
bending moment. In some zones there could be a bending moment associated with the shear
force when we derive the bending formula which is subjected to a pure bending and we had
also assumed that the plane sections remain plane.
Along with the bending the shear force may also act at a particular section. The assumption
of the plane section remaining plane may not be truly satisfied. If you compute the stresses
they will not be right using this bending equation. But in general when we talk about the
beam it has its length as larger in compression to its cross sectional dimension and hence the
errors which we get in evaluating the stresses with this particular assumption is insignificant
and we can neglect it.
Hence we can apply this bending equation even if we do not have a pure bending in a
particular segment of the beam if the bending is not uniform. But even then we can employ
this equation without losing too much accuracy in the analysis of the stress. Although we
derive the equation in terms of the pure bending moment, we can apply this equation in other
areas as well where the beam is not truly acted on by pure bending.
(Refer Slide Time: 20.34:21.24)
We were dealing with the section which is symmetrical with respect to the vertical axis and
could be unsymmetrical or symmetrical with respect to the horizontal axis. Also we have
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seen the distribution of the stress. If you noticed we get zero stress at the neutral axis and then
it has a linear variation. So the maximum intensity of stresses that occur is towards the outer
fiber. So this particular part of the beam really is not utilized because it is not fully stressed.
Hence this it is not going to be utilized to the extent and naturally it becomes uneconomical
that is point one.
The second point is that if you have a larger concentration of area away from that neutral axis
the contribution in the moment of inertia for that area will be larger because we are
calculating the second moment of area which is Ay2. The larger the distance from the neutral
axis the larger will be the contribution in the moment of inertia and instead of having the
masses concentrated at the neutral axis; if you can take away the mass from the neutral axis
we can have a larger effect.
In this particular rectangular section, we have a dimension of 100mm width and 300mm
depth, so the cross sectional area of this is 300x100 mm2. Now let us say we utilize the same
area but we place the masses in such a way that they are at a distance away from the neutral
axis. This is the neutral axis where the width of this particular segment is 300mm and the
width and the depth is 50mm and we have two size segments which are away from the
neutral axis. When we have 2x300x50 the area is identical as that of the first one. When we
compute the moment of inertia I and then consequently if we divide this I by the extreme
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distance which is y, I/y, we call this quantity as Z which we generally define as sectional
modules.
Let us suppose you compute I/y. If you look into the value I/y which we get in this particular
case and the value of I/y, which we get in the other case you will see that when the segments
of distance are away from the neutral axis, we get a value of Z which is almost more then
twice this value. This shows that if we can concentrate the mass away from the neutral axis,
then we can get a larger contribution in the moment of inertia and as we know that the stress,
σ My/I or M/Z the larger the value of Z, the lower will be the stresses.
If the intensity of the stress of the particular member is subjected to the stress in the material
and if we can keep the stress level lower then the allowing limit then that particular member
will be more efficient. Larger the value of Z the larger will be the moment carrying capacity
because the stress level will be lower and we can put more loads in such beams.
In a section if we lump the mass away from the neutral axis then that kind of section becomes
more efficient. But then we cannot keep these two segments just fully at a distance apart
without having any connection between the two because to act integrally we need to have
some kind of connection between the two and that means some material is necessary to
interconnect the two units.
If we can have this kind of a section which is similar to an ‘I’ section this becomes more
efficient in comparison to a rectangular section having the same area. This means that if we
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have the same area for a rectangular section and the ‘I’ section has a similar area with the
same depth we find that the ‘I’ section will be more efficient in comparison to a rectangular
section as far as the bending stress transfer is concerned.
Let us now look into some examples related to this. How do you evaluate the bending
stresses? We have an example in which this is a simply supported beam which is hinged at
end A and is supported on a roller at end B subjected to a uniformly distributed load of 3
kN/m over the entire length and as concentrated load P which is at distance of 4m from
support A.
Let us see how we can solve this particular problem. We will have to determine the largest
allowable value of P if the bending stress is limited to 10 MPa and here the cross section of
the beam is a rectangular one with a width of 120mm and depth of 400mm.
Let us evaluate the reactive forces. As we know ‘A’ will have a vertical reaction RA and will
have a horizontal reaction HA because the end and the roller support will have a vertical
reaction RB but since there are no horizontal forces, HA = 0. So, we will have only RA and R B
and if you look into this particular example it has a uniformly distributed load over the entire
span and a concentrated load P.
We are dealing with the stresses within the elastic limit, hence we can individually calculate
the effect of these two different loads and can superimpose them to get the same effect, as if
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we take the combined loading. Thus, the reactive values will be half of the total load for udl
and for the concentrated load, we can take this in proportion with the distances. So if we
compute the values of the reactive forces then,
RA = 3⨯5/2 + P/5 = 7.5 + P/5
RB = 3⨯ . / . + 4P/5
These are the values of the reactive forces RA and RB and in this particular case we will have
to find out the value of P for which we have the maximum value of P wherein the bending
stress is limited to 10 MPa. It cannot exceed a value of 10 MPa when you have this kind of
loading.
Let us suppose we have to first locate the position where we get the maximum bending
moment. Let us see how to compute that the maximum bending moment. When you have this
particular beam where you have the hinge support and the roller support and you have the
uniformly distributed load acting over the entire span along with the load P over here, there
could be two cases.
Since we do not know the value of P, the shear force diagram at this point goes over here.
Then if you take a section, in fact, you can place the shear force V, where V = wx. Since we
have a uniformly distributed load it comes down and at the load point it comes down further
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and comes over here. There could be a diagram wherein we will get zero shear force here of
some distance. Let us call this as x or we can have a situation where the shear force may not
be zero at this particular place. It will go here, then it comes down, at the load point it crosses
and comes over here. (Refer Slide Time: 30:42 - 31:51)
The shear force diagram could be like this as well where at a distance x some where the shear
force is zero and we are trying to find out the point where shear force is zero because of the
fact that at that particular point, we know that the bending moment will be maximum. So, the
bending moment could be maximum where the shear force is 0 or it could be maximum
where there is a change over form the positive to the negative or negative to the positive sign
and we have these two cases.
If we write down the expression for V = f (P, x) and if we get zero correspondingly, we can
get the value of P. If we substitute the value of P which we get in the expression for x, we
find that it goes beyond the length of this particular beam. This indicates that this kind of
diagram is not possible, which means that the shear force does not cross the base line at an
intermediate point before this loading P.
Hence the second diagram will be applicable in this particular case and hence the point under
concentrated load is, where we expect that there will be the maximum bending moment in the
beam and we compute the maximum bending moment at this particular point and
correspondingly we find out the loading. If you compute the value of the bending moment at
point C, the bending moment at C is equal to what we have,
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Mc = RA x 3x2/2 = (7.5+ P/5) x 1.5 x2
As we know that σ = MY/I, here M is positive and Y is also positive and at the top we will
have the compressive stress. Since this particular cross section is a symmetrical section with
respect to both the x and y axis, the top will have the compressive stress, the bottom will have
the tensile stress and magnitudewise they will be same. So, we disregard sign over here and
we take the value of M. Here σ has to be restricted to 10MPa. The maximum bending
moment will be occurring at the point of the load which is at a distance of 4m. So, if we
calculate the bending moment at that particular point substituting the value of x =4m we get
the bending moment as,
MC = 6+4P/5 kNm, assuming that P is in kN
Let us substitute the values in expression for stress,
10 = (6+4P/5)⨯106⨯200/(120⨯4003/12)
From this if we compute the value of P, we get, P = 32.5 kN.
This is the largest value of P that we can apply so that the level of stress is within 10Mega
Pascal. It does not exceed the value of 10MPa, if we limit ourselves to 32.5 kN load.
Let us look into another problem wherein the uniformly distributed load of intensity q is
acting over the distance of 2m which is a partial loading and the cross section of the beam is a
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circular one having a diameter of 50mm. The maximum load q can be applied on this beam
so that the bending stress is limited to 50 MPa.
Here we will have to find out the value of the load q so that the stress does not exceed a value
of 50 MPa. As we have done earlier we will have to find out the value of the maximum
bending moment. We resort to the drawing of the shear force and the bending moment
diagram so that we can get a clear picture of what is the maximum value of the bending
moment and at which location it occurs.
We need to compute the value of the reactive force as usual. As there is nop horizontal force,
so, HA = 0 and if we compute the value of RA and RB, then,
RA + RB = 2q
If we take the moment of all the forces with respect to B, we can get the value of RA =2q/3
and correspondingly, RB = 4q/3.
If you take the free body of this left segment from 0 to 1, then we have the reactive force RA.
Over here we have the shear force and bending moment V and M. Now V + RA =0 and this
gives you V RA and RA is again =2q/ 3.
From 0 to 1, we have the constant value which is 2q/3 but negative.
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At this section in this segment between 0 to 1, the value of the moment in M is RA x. It is

linear with x. When x =0, the bending moment is 0, when x =1 and the value of the bending
moment is 2q/3 kNm.
Let us take another segment which gives us a value from 1 to 3 and let us take the free body
diagram of that particular part. If you take the vertically equilibrium,
V + RA q(x 1) = 0
So, V = q(x RA = q(x 2q/3
When x = 1, then V = 2q/3

When x = 2, then V = +q/3, and
When x =3, then V = +4q/3
Somewhere we will have a zero value and if we substitute the shear force value as zero, then
we get the value of x.
With V=0 we get, qx q 2q/3 = 0, which gives,
5q/3 = qx, which gives us x = 5/3, which is from the left end. It is expected that the bending
moment at that particular point will be the maximum.
Taking the equilibrium of the bending moment and carry out the calculation over here, we get
the bending moment equation as,
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RA x + q(x 1)2/2 = 0
Since a square of x is the parabolic distribution and as we have seen that when x = 5/3 then
the shear force is 0.
At x=5/3, we get M = 8q/9, which is a positive bending moment right through.
In order to find out the bending stress in a beam we have two clear parts. The first part is that
we will have to draw the bending moment diagram to know how the bending moment varies
over the entire length, whether there is any change over in the sign of the bending moment or
not and then it will give us the maximum value of the bending moment and at which location
that maximum bending moment occurs. Once we have that particular information then we
can compute the stress based on that cross sectional information that we have. We have
known that the maximum bending moment = 8q/9.
(Refer Slide Time: 42:34 - 44:.39)
Now, ymax = d/2 = 25mm
I πd4/64 π⨯504/64 = 306796.2 mm4
Z = I/y = 306796.2/25 = 12271.85 mm3
Mmax = 8q/9, which is occurring at distance 5/3m from left end
So, σ = My/I
50 = (8q/9)⨯106⨯25/306796.2, which gives, q=0.7 kN/m
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This is the maximum intensity of the load that we can apply on the beam so that the stress is
within 50 Mega Pascal.
Let us take another example problem where in the cross section of the beam is an
unsymmetrical one with respect to the horizontal axis but it is again symmetrical with respect
to the vertical axis and the beam is subjected to three concentrated loads. So, we have P, 3P at
the center and P and it is hinged at this particular end and is on a roller support at the other.
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Geometrically it is symmetrical and the loading is also symmetrical. We will have to find out
the maximum value of P and it should not exceed 40 MPa in tension and 100 MPa in
compression.
In the pervious occasions where we had depth with a rectangular cross section or a circular
cross section both the sections were symmetrical with respect to both vertical and the
horizontal axis and we did not bother about the stress limits like compressive and tensile
stresses because many of the magnitude of the stresses that will be developed because of the
bending moment at any section will be the same because the value of I and Y will be the
same at the extreme points.
If we have a cross section which is not symmetrical with respect to the horizontal axis and
thereby there will be a difference in the y values with respect to the neutral axis of the
extreme fiber at the top and bottom. Consequently, there will be a change in the bending
stress. We will have to know precisely the stress in tension and compression so that we can
check if the members can withstand the load they are subjected to. In this particular case we
have the loads P, 3P and P which are acting.
We will have to find out the maximum value of P so that these stress limits are not exceeded.
To do that again we will have to first find out the maximum value of the bending moment
that can occur in this particular beam at any point along the length of the beam because of the
loading and the location at which such a maximum bending moment occurs.
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Let us again compute the values of the reactive forces. So,
RB + RD = 5P and since they are symmetrical, RB and RD will be equal in magnitude.
RB = RD = 2.5P
If we look into the shear force diagram between A and B in the first segment, the shear force
will be equal to V = +P. From A to B there is no other load so the value of P is constant. If I
take a section between B and C and draw the free body diagram, then we have,
V + RA P = 0, which gives, RA . .
Let us take a free body diagram with a section between C and D,
V + RB = 4 P. As RB = 2.5 P, so, V= +1.5 P.
Again between C and D since there are no loads it continues up to 1.5 P and then again at
reactive force RD it is 2.5P. So, if you take a section between D and E, we get immediately
after this support, V= – P. Thus, we get the shear force diagram.
Along the length of the shear force diagram we have three places where the shear force has
changed signs from positive to negative or negative to positive. At these three locations we
expect that there will be the values of the bending moment which are maximum in nature.
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Now the question is: If we compute the values of the bending moment at these sections then
you will find that we get a value of P kNm at B, which is negative, a positive bending
moment of 2P kNm at the central point and at point D, again we get P kNm, which is
negative. From this bending moment diagram we will find that we had a value of bending
moment P which is negative and the value of the bending moment 2P, which is positive.
Hence the maximum positive moment is 2P kNm and the maximum negative moment is P
kNm. Let us deal with this two moment values.
When we have the positive moment, it causes compressive stress at the top and tensile stress
at the bottom. When we are dealing with the negative moment the tension is at the top and
compression is at the bottom. Since the section is unsymmetrical the value of y1 and y2 will
be different and consequently the values of the stresses will be different.
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Since we have tensile and compressive stress we will get four values of P corresponding to all
these four criteria. First, try to find out the centroid of this particular section through which
the neutral axis will pass through and take the moment of all the areas of with respect to the
top. You will find that the distance y will be 87.5mm from this bottom base. Consequently
he distance o centroid ro to wi e, 87.5 = 137.5mm.
If we calculate the moment of inertia of this neutral axis we will get,
I = 37.9⨯106 mm4
Now, let us try to compute the stresses corresponding to these two moments.
First let us take the value of Mmax = +2P
ow, σ My/I, by being negative we know that for the positive moment we will have the
compression at the top
Thus, 100 = 2P⨯106⨯137.5/(37.9⨯106), which gives, P = 13.8 kN
Similarly, for tensile stress,

40 = 2P⨯106⨯87.5/(37.9⨯106), which gives, P = 8.66 kN
These are the two values of P which we have obtained corresponding to the compressive and
tensile stress.
Likewise if we compute the value of the stresses corresponding to this negative maximum
which is P, this will produce tensile stress at the top and compressive stress at the bottom. Let
us try to compute the value of the stresses from which we can get the value of P.
For tensile stress at top,

40 = P⨯106⨯137.5/(37.9⨯106), which gives, P = 11.03 kN
For compressive stress at bottom,

100 = P⨯106⨯87.5/(37.9⨯106), which gives, P = 43.31 kN
We have four values of P and we get P = 8.66 kN. This is the value of P which can be applied
so that the stresses will be within the limit of this particular cross section.
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We have another example problem for you which you can try. This is a beam which is
subjected to a uniformly distributed load of w kN per meter and at this point we have a load
of w. There has been a cross section for which the distances from the neutral axis are given
and based on the moment of inertia with respect to the neutral axis given we will have to
compute the value of w so that the stresses do not exceed the limits.
(Refer Slide Time: 57.47- 58.02)
In this particular lesson we have recapitulated aspects of the previous lesson; we have looked
into the effect of bending stress on beams with different cross sections. The sections are
symmetrical with respect to the vertical axis but they could be unsymmetrical with respect to
the horizontal axis and then we have looked into the concept of economical section.
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We have also solved some examples to evaluate the bending stress in beams. The questions
for you are: what is the impact of bending stress in arriving at a size of a beam? What is the
relation between curvature and the bending stress in a beam and what is meant by section
modulus? We will answer these questions in the next lesson.
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IIT, Kharagpur
Lecture no 28
Stresses in Beams- III
Welcome to the 3rd lesson of the 6th module which is on Stresses in Beams part 3. In fact in
the last 2 lessons, on this particular module, we have discussed aspects of the bending
stresses in beams. In this particular lesson, we are going to look into some more aspects of
the stresses and we will be looking into the effect of shearing stress in beams.
It is expected that once this particular lesson is completed one should be able to understand
the concept of shear stress in beams of a rectangular cross section, one should be able to
derive the shear formula for evaluating the shearing stress in a beam subjected to loads and
one should be in a position to evaluate shear stress in beams of rectangular cross sections for
different loading.
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Hence the scope of this particular lesson includes recapitulation of the previous lesson, the
concept of shear stress in beams of rectangular cross section, derivation of equation for shear
stress in beams and examples for the evaluation of shear stress in beams. We will be looking
at some examples which we know and we will see how to compute the value of the shearing
stresses in a beam which is subjected to a load. Let us look into the questions which were
posed last time.
What is the impact of bending stress in arriving at a size of a beam?
Last time, we had discussed that the flexible formula or the bending formula is given by this
particular expression that σ /I. As you know M is the bending moment, y is the point at
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which we are trying to evaluate the stress and the distance from the neutral axis; ‘I’ is the
moment of inertia. When we are talking about the symmetrical section, we will be dividing it
into two halves and the positive bending moment will be of the same magnitude. In this
particular expression, σ is the stress which is allowed in this particular member which is a
material characteristic.
It means that if we know the allowable stress of that particular material then we know the
stress limits of that section. The maximum bending moment Mmax can be evaluated from the
external loading that is acting on the beam member and we have seen how to calculate the
bending moment at different sections. If we draw the bending moment diagram then we will
know at which location the maximum bending moment occurs and therefore we will know
Mmax and σ.
These two parameters I and y basically are dependent on the cross sectional shape of the
particular beam member. So in I/y, ‘I’ is the moment of inertia and y is the distance of the
point where we are evaluating the stress from the neutral axis which is y. This I/y is nothing
but Mmax/σ. We know that from the loading σ and from the materially allowable stress, we
can get the value of I/y and from this particular numerical value of I/y, we can select a
particular section.
We generally designate I/y by Z and if we can select a member of this Z value, then if we go
for a section which has a higher Z value than the Z required, then the section will be able to
withstand the bending moment that is occurring because of the load. That means if we select
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a member which has the I/y value larger than we are getting from this expression /σ, then
the member will be in a position to withstand this particular load but if we provide a section
for which the Z value is less than I/y, then naturally the stress level will go beyond the
capability of that particular material and the material will fail.
Let us suppose the member is unsymmetrical with respect to x axis as we had discussed last
time. If we have a cross section which is symmetrical with respect to y axis but
unsymmetrical with respect to x- axis, then this y value will be different from the neutral axis
for two ends and we can designate it as y1 and y2. Correspondingly, we will have two values
of I/y, we can call one as, Z1 = I/y1; other one will be, Z2 = I/y2
We will have the larger value of Z and if we choose a particular section then that particular
section will be able to withstand the stress. We will have to decide whether it is a
symmetrical section or an unsymmetrical section with respect to x axis and accordingly we
have to find out the value of I/y. Correspondingly, we have to select a particular section
which satisfies this requirement. This bending stress has a great impact in selecting a
sectional configuration of a member where we will have to find out the size.
The next question is what is the relation between curvature and the bending stress in a beam?
We have seen the bending equation which is /I E/ρ σ/ , where M is the bending
moment, I is the moment of inertia, E is the modulus of elasticity, ρ is the radius of the axis
of the beam, σ is the bending stress and y is the distance of the point where we are evaluating
the stress from the neutral axis and the normal stress gets generated because of the bending in
the particular section.
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If we take this particular relationship E/ρ σ/y, then we get σ E /ρ E κ
This is how the stress is related to the curvature through this parameter E and y. We can
evaluate this at a particular point with respect to the neutral axis.
The third question was what is meant by section modulus. In fact, we have said that Z is a
parameter which is I/y and this is what we call section modulus. The ratio of moment of
inertia of section to the extreme fiber distance from the neutral axis of the section is known as
the section modulus. If I is the moment of inertia and ymax is the extreme distance from the
neutral axis of the out of fiber then I/ymax = Z.
In the previous two lessons we have computed the values of the bending stress. That means
when beam members are subjected to a stress result which is a bending moment for that we
could evaluate the value of the normal stress because of such a bending. As you have noticed
that when beam members are subjected to loads, not only are they subjected to a bending
moment but at location they are subjected to shear forces.
In some zones where the bending is associated with shear force we have to compute the value
of the normal stress through the bending equation as we have done and we need to evaluate
the value of the shearing stress as well. In this particular lesson, we are going to look into
how to compute the value of the shearing stress at a particular location where we know the
value of the shearing force for the external loading that the member is subjected to.
Let us look into this figure where we have taken a part of the beam segmented which is
subjected to the loading. This is the positive shear force acting on this particular phase and
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this member is of a rectangular cross section having depth h and width b. Now, we assume
two aspects over here. One is that the shear stress is parallel with the shear force at that
particular cross section and we also assume that the shear stresses are uniformly distributed
across the width of the beam.
It is reasonable to assume that across the width of the beam, the shear stress is uniform
otherwise there could be a variation of the shear stress along the depth of the beam but at a
particular point along the width, we assume that the shear stress is uniform. We assume two
aspects: one is that the direction of the shear stress is in line with the shearing force which is
acting at a particular cross section and the distribution of the shear stress along the width is
uniform. For example, if we take out a small segment from this particular beam, then we get
the segmental size which is here.
Along the width, the shear stress is uniform as we have assumed at the moment and we have
the complementary. As we have noticed earlier, if we take a section and if we have verticals
here then we have horizontals here as well which we call as a complimentary. This is the
positive shear stress which we have on the particular phase and consequently we have the
horizontal shearing stress which is the complementary shear stress.
Note that if you take this particular element closer to the top surface where there is no other
element and the shearing stress on the top surface is zero, at the top point since the horizontal
shear stress is zero, the vertical shear stress at the extreme also is zero. At the top and at the
bottom the shearing stress is 0 at ±h/2.
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Let us evaluate what is the magnitude of the shearing stress in terms of the sectional
parameters. Before we really go into the evaluation of the shearing stress, you can think of a
small experiment. Take a number of small beams which are supported on supports and these
beams individually are racing one after another.
We apply a load on to the top of this particular beam and it is expected that it is undergoing
deformation in this particular format as it is shown over here. Since they are not connected
with each other, the bottom part of this particular top beam will be undergoing extension or
tension and the top fiber of this particular beam will be undergoing compression and there is
expected to be some amount of slippage. If we say that the frictional resistance is small then
there will be a substantial change in the length between these two surfaces.
This indicates that if we could hold all these three segments together by applications of glue
or nailing, then the whole system would have to act as one unit. This indicates that some
amount of stresses are acting at the interface between this element and this is what is
horizontal shear stress which retains these three segments together if they are tied together
and they can resist the load in terms of the stresses.
Let us see how to compute the value of the shearing stress in a beam. Consider a segment of
the beam which is loaded and let us say these are two sections at a distance of dx. Let us call
this section as ‘aa’ and this as ‘bb’ and on face ‘aa’, we have a shear force V and the bending
moment M. On the right phase, we have the shear force V + dV and moment as M + dM. We
expect that from aa to bb over dx distance as we move, there is a change in the shear force
and the bending moment.
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Let us separate out this particular element and look into the stresses. Here we have considered
only M and M + dM. There will be stresses because of the shearing action as well but since
we are interested at this moment in computing the value of the horizontal shear stress, let us
keep the vertical shear stress apart. So we are looking only at the stress because of the
bending moment only.
Let us consider a small segment of this particular beam which is at a distance of say y1 from
neutral axis and let us separate out this particular segment and look into the stresses. Here we
have the normal stress which gets generated because of the bending moment M + dM. On left
and right face, we have the normal stresses which are getting generated because of the
bending moment M and at the bottom of the element, we will have a horizontal shear.
Take the cross section of the beam at this particular section ‘aa’, where the width is b and
depth is h and the distance from the neutral axis is h/2 and we are considering a section which
is at a distance of y1 from the neutral axis. This is the section which we are looking into and
the section at bb is a rectangular one having width b and depth h which is the same
configuration.
If we consider a small area dA then the force which will be acting is σ.dA and we can
compute this σ from the expression as we have learned in terms of bending. Since we are
considering only the bending moment acting in this particular section; the stress σ due to
bending is My/I, which we have looked into the flexural equation. The force F1 will be the
stress multiplied by the area of this particular segment and on this side the force F2will be the
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stress which is generated because of the M + dM multiplied by this segmental area which will
give us F2.
In this particular element, we have force F1, we have force F2 and we have force F3. If we
take the equilibrium of these forces in the horizontal direction, we have F 1 F2 F3 = 0. How
do we calculate F1, F2 and F3?
F1 = ∫
Likewise, F2 = ∫
If we write down the equilibrium equation which is F1 F2 F3 = 0 and thereby it gives us,
F3 = F1 F2 and F3 is the force which we are trying to find out.
F3 = ∫ ∫ = ∫
As you can observe from the previous one that F3 is acting at the section of this particular
beam segment wherein the width of the beam is b and the length we have considered as dx.
The area over which the shear is uniformly distributed is b.dx. If τ is the shearing stress, then
the force that is acting at that particular cross section is τ.b.dx, which is stress multiplied by
the area.
F3 τ.b.dx
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Equating both equations for F3, we get,
τ.b.dx = ∫
Designating ∫ = Q, we have,
τ (d /dx)Q/Ib
You can recognize this particular parameter dM/dx = V, which is the shear force. The rate of
change of the bending moment along the length is equal to the shear force. Thus, the above
expression becomes,
τ VQ/Ib
This is the expression for the horizontal shear stress where Q the area is the moment of the
area which is above the section where we are trying to calculate the shearing stress. We are
trying to calculate the shearing stress in the section which is at a distance of y1 from the
neutral axis and the area above y1, from y1to h/2 is the segmental area and the moment of that
particular area with respect to the neutral axis will give us the value of Q.
We know the vertical shear force V, we can compute the value of Q, we can find out I as the
moment of inertia of the section with respect to the neutral axis V which is the width. We can
compute the value of the shearing stress and as you can observe from this particular
expression that at a particular cross section VI and b these three parameters are constant or
the same. The only parameter which is varying is Q because Q depends on y which is the
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distance from the neutral axis. Hence along the depth of the beam the shear stress will vary.
Shear stress depends on Q and Q in turn is dependent on the distance y.
We can compute the value of the horizontal shear stress at a particular section. As we have
seen that the horizontal shear stress is complimentary to the vertical shear stress. The vertical
shear stress also will be equal in magnitude of that horizontal shear stress. So once you
compute this expression VQ/ Ib it is the same for the vertical shear stress as well.
From this particular shear formula which we have just derived, we find that the expression for
the shearing stress τ = VQ/Ib and this can be used to evaluate shear stress at any point in the
cross section of a rectangular beam. A rectangular beam is a beam having a rectangular cross
section. The term Q is the first moment of the cross sectional area above the level at which
we are looking for the shear stress and for a particular section.
The shear stress varies with the parameter Q because this parameter is constant for a
particular section. The only parameter which varies is Q and Q is varies with respect to y1.
Hence we have the shear stress along the depth which varies and we get the distribution of
the shear stress on the depth.
Let us see how the shear stress varies across the depth. We have obtained the value of
shearing stress, τ VQ/Ib. Supposing in this particular rectangular section where the width is b
and height is h for this beam, the neutral axis divides the section into two hubs. We would
like to find out the shear stress across this particular section which is at a distance of y1 from
the neutral axis. Hence this is a segment which is under consideration, which is above the
point where we are computing the shearing stress.
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If we compute the value of Q for this particular section,
Q = ʃ y.dA
For dA, if we take a small strip over having width dy = b.dy and y varies from y1 to h /2.
Q=∫ = (b/2) (h2/ 1

2
)
So, τ (V/Ib) (b/2) (h2/ 1

2
) = (V/2I) (h2/ 2
1 )
Note that the shearing stress τ varies parabolic-ally across the depth. When y1 = 0, we get the
maximum value of τ. That implies that at the neutral axis, we get the maximum value of the
shearing stress and y1 becomes + h/2 or – h/2, the value of the shearing stress becomes zero.
As we have noticed earlier that at the top and the bottom of the beam, the value of the
shearing stress is zero. Let us plot the shear stress distribution where at the top and bottom,
the shear stress is zero and over the depth it varies parabolic-ally and at the neutral axis, we
have the maximum value of shearing stress. What is the magnitude of this maximum value?
τmax = (V/2I) (h2/4) = Vh2/8I
Now ‘I’ for this particular rectangular section = bh3/12
After substitution we get,
τmax = 3/2 (V/bh), where bh is nothing but the cross sectional area A, which gives,
τmax = 3/2 (V/A) = 3/2 (Vmax/A)
At the neutral axis, we get the maximum shear stress and at the extreme ends, the shearing
stress is 0 and the magnitude of the maximum shear stress is 3/2 (V/A). As we assumed in the
beginning that although the shear stress varies across the depth, along the width we assume
that the shearing stress is constant. That means that at this particular point, we get the value
of the shearing stress along the width.
This particular value is constant, as we had assumed in the beginning two aspects: one is that
the shear stress acts along the direction of the shearing force and the shearing stress at the
particular point is uniformly distributed across the width. Here one aspect to remember is that
we really do not bother about the sign of the stress. As such we consider that the direction of
the shearing stress is along the direction of the shear force. From the bending moment and on
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the shear force diagram, we know the direction of the positive or negative shear.
Accordingly, we take the direction of shearing stresses as well with this background.
What are the steps that we need for evaluating the shearing stress at a particular point? First
of all we need to find out the vertical shear force V in the cross section where we are trying to
find out the particular shear stress. That means that at a particular point where we are
evaluating the shear stress, we will have to find out in which section that particular point is
and at that particular section, we have to calculate the value of the shear force and we can
carry these out by drawing the shear force diagram.
Once we draw the shear force diagram in the length of the beam at different points, we know
the values of the shearing force and the point where we wanted to evaluate the shearing
stress. We would like to find out where that particular point lies and what the magnitude of
the shearing force is.
Secondly in the cross section, we will have to locate the neutral axis and we will have to
compute the moment of inertia about this neutral axis. Then we will have to compute the
value of Q which is the first moment of the area of the section above or below the point
where we are trying to find out the shear stress.
Let us suppose we want to find out the sheer stress in a particular section. We concentrate on
the area where we are trying to find out the shear stress either above or below that particular
segment and we take the moment of that area with respect to the neutral axis which gives us
the value of Q. Once we know Q, we get I, V and b is the width of the beam which gives us
the shear stress from this particular expression which is VQ/Ib. Then we can find out the
value of the shear stress at that particular point with this background.
Let us see how to evaluate the shear stress and the bending stress at a particular point in a
beam having different cross sections. This is the example which I had given last time where
the cross section of the beam is like an inverted u; this particular section is symmetrical with
respect to y-axis but is unsymmetrical with respect to the horizontal axis. Hence we will have
to compute or locate the position of the centroid of this particular section so that we can find
out the position of the neutral axis.
Fortunately in this particular problem, the values are given, the location of the neutral axis is
indicated or the location of centroid is known which is 84 mm from the top of the cross
section and the moment of inertia of the neutral axis is given as 75⨯106 mm4. This particular
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beam is subjected to a concentrated load at end A and in between B and C, there is a load of
W kN/m. We need to evaluate the value of W so that the bending stresses are 60 MPa in
tension and 100 MPa in compression.
We will have to find out the maximum value of load that we can apply in the beam so that the
tensile stress does not go beyond 60 MPa and the bending compressive stress does not go
beyond 100 MPa. If we have to satisfy these two criteria then what is the value of W that we
can apply on this beam? To do that let us first find out where the maximum bending moment
and the maximum shear force occur. Here we are dealing with only bending stress, so we can
know where the maximum bending moment is and we can compute the bending stresses.
This particular beam is supported on a hinge at B and roller on end C. So, we will have a
vertical reactive force RB and a horizontal reactive force HB and a vertical reactive force RC.
Since we do not have any horizontal force HB = 0, we will be left with RB and RC.
RB + RC = W+4W = 5W. If we take the moment of the courses with respect to B, we can get
the value of RC and consequently, RB.
If we compute the values of RB and RC, we get
RB = 3.5 W and RC = 1.5 W.
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Let us plot the shear force diagram and if we take a cross section between A and B and take
the free body of the left part, then we have the shear force and the bending moment. Here we
have the load W and since at this particular segment we do not have any other load V=+W.
We have a positive shear from A to B and that is what is indicated over here and the
magnitude of that positive shear is equal to W.
Let us take a free body diagram of this beam and cut the beam of this particular section
between B and C and take the free body of this left part. We have a reactive force RB, we
have the load W and we have the shear force V and the bending moment M. The load is
distributed over this segment and let us call this particular distance as x. So,
V + RB W Wx = 0, which gives,
V = RB + W + Wx . W + Wx
At B, x=0, which gives, V . W
At C, x=4, which gives, V = +1.5W
Since it changes from (-) to (+) somewhere along the length, the shear force is zero. If the
expression for shear is zero, we get,
x = 2.5m
It indicates that at a distance of x = 2.5, the shear force is zero and it changes sign from
negative to positive and at C the value is 1.5 W.
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As we know that when the shear force is zero at the corresponding point, we will get a value
which is maximum in the bending moment. Let us compute the value of the bending moment
for different segments and take the moment from this particular free body diagram. At this
particular free body of segment between A and B, we see that M = Wx and
When x = 2m, M = 2W
So, the magnitude of this moment at point B is 2W.
At point of zero shear force, we expect some higher value of the bending moment, as we have
seen that the maximum bending moment occurs either where the shear force is zero or the
point where shear force changes its sign from the negative to the positive or the vice versa.
For the segment between B and C, free body diagram gives,
M + W(x+2) RB.x + wx2/2 = 0
M = RB.x W(x ) wx2/2
At x=2.5, M = 1.125W, which is maximum positive bending moment in the beam.
We have 2 maximum values of the bending moment, one is the positive maximum, another is
the negative maximum, the maximum positive bending moment = 1.125 W and the maximum
negative bending moment = 2 W along the length of the beam.
Once we plot this bending moment diagram, it is clear that at two locations one is the
maximum positive bending moment and at the other point we have the maximum negative
moment. We have to compute the values of the stresses in the beam corresponding to these
two values of the positive and the negative bending moment and then we will have to take a
decision on what maximum load we can apply on this particular beam. Let us compute the
value of the stresses corresponding to these two bending moments.
We have given that, I = 75⨯106 mm4
Mmax W and max= +1.125W
Let us calculate the bending stress, σ /I
The stress which will be acting at the top for this negative moment is the tension and
permissible tensile stress is 60 MPa.
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Thereby for the first case we have,
60 = 2W⨯106⨯84/(75⨯106), which gives, W = 26.8 kN
This is one value of W which you get corresponding to the maximum tensile stress
corresponding to the maximum negative bending moment.
The correspondingly allowable compressive stress is 100 MPa. Thus,
100 = 2W⨯106⨯116/(75⨯106), which gives, W = 32.33 kN
Corresponding to this value of the bending moment which is 2W, the maximum negative
bending moment, we get the tensile stress at the top and the compressive stress at the bottom
and corresponding to this limiting value of the tensile stress and the compressive stress we
get the two values of W which is 26.8 kN and 32.33 kN.
If we have this particular load applied on this beam, the stress level intension will exceed 60
and as a result, the beam will fail. So, we will have to limit ourselves to this load value of
26.8 kNm. Before we take a decision on this particular loading, we will have to check up with
respect to the stresses that develop with respect to this positive bending moment. Let us
compute the value of the stresses that developed because of the positive bending moment
which is of magnitude 1.125W. If we calculate the value of the stress, the positive bending
moment which is of this kind will cause a compression at the top and tension at the bottom. If
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we compute the stress corresponding to the positive bending moment, the compressive stress
at the top,
100 = 1.125W⨯106⨯84/(75⨯106), which gives, W = 79.4 kN
Correspondingly to this particular moment, if you compute the stress at the bottom which is
the tensile stress which is,
60 = 1.125W⨯106⨯116/(75⨯106), which gives, W = 34.5 kN
Out of these 2 values, we find 34.5 kN is the low value and because if we apply 79.4 kN,
naturally the stress level here will exceed and the member will fail. We have obtained four
values; one is 26.8 kN and 32.33 kN. In the earlier case, corresponding to the maximum
negative moment and corresponding to the positive moment, we have 79.4 kN and 34.5 kN.
Out of these four values, we find that 26.8 is the lowest value and this is the value which we
will have to apply on the beam member so that all the other stresses are within limits.
If we apply a load of more than 26.8 kN, corresponding to the other cases the stress level in
other values will exceed hence we will have to apply the minimum possible W which we
have evaluated out of these four cases and that is the maximum load that we can apply on the
beam so that the beam functions safely and carries the load as indicated in the beam.
Take the example which corresponds to the one which we have discussed. The example deals
with the aspects of shear stress that a simply supported beam is subjected to on a uniformly
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distributed load of 10 kN/m including its own weight. Determine the normal and shear stress
at point C and at this particular point, we will have to find out the value of the normal stress
which is generated due to bending and the value of the shear stress.
The point C is at a distance of 150mm from the bottom fiber that means. We will have to
compute the normal stress and the shearing stress and also we have to find out the value of
the maximum normal and the maximum shear stress. Naturally to compute the value of
maximum normal and the maximum shear stress, we will have to know at which point along
the length of the beam you have the maximum bending moment and the maximum shear
force. For the value of the maximum bending moment and the maximum shear force we will
have to draw the bending moment and shear force diagram.
Correspondingly you can find out where the maximum bending moment and the maximum
shear stress is occurring. The end A is on hinge and we have the vertical and the horizontal
reaction, which is RA and HA. You have the vertical reactive force RB at B and you have to
compute the value of RA and RB and the HA = 0 because you do not have any horizontal force
in this particular member.
This particular member is symmetrically loaded with symmetrical supports as we have seen
earlier. That mean you have a uniformly distributed load and the reactive values will be
equal. Here RA = RB = 10⨯3/2 = 15 kN.
These are the reactive values; HA = 0, RA = 15 and RB =15. Let us look into the shear force
and the bending moment diagram and this particular beam along the length so that we can
compute the value of the stresses.
We have obtained RA as 15 and RB as 15. If we take a free body diagram of this particular
member on the left hand segment we have,
V + RA 10x= 0, which gives, and V = RA + 10x + 10x
At x , we have V
At x=4, we have V= +15kN
When V=0, 10x=15, which gives,
x=1.5m
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Also if you compute the bending moment M the value of the bending moment,
M = RA.x – wx2/ x x2
At the center where x = 1.5 if you compute the value of the bending moment = 11.25 kNm
That is the maximum bending moment that we get corresponding to the 0 shear force. We
will have to find out the maximum bending stress and the maximum shearing stress. From
this particular diagram we can see that the maximum value of the bending moment is
11.25kNm and the maximum value of the shear force which is acting at the support is 15kN
and we have to compute the value of the bending stress and the shear stress at point C. The
maximum value of the bending moment at point C = 6.25kNm and the value of the shear
force at point C is 10kN.
At point C,
σ /I 6. ⨯106⨯50/(100⨯2003/12) = 4.7 MPa
τ VQ/Ib ⨯103⨯100⨯50⨯75/(100⨯100⨯2003/12) = 0.5625 MPa
Corresponding to the maximum value of the bending moment and the maximum value of the
shear force if we compute the stresses,
σmax = My/I = 11.25⨯106⨯100/(100⨯2003/12) = 16.875 MPa
For a rectangular section, the maximum shear stress τmax = 3/2 (Vmax/A), which gives,
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τmax = 3/2 (15⨯1000/100⨯200) = 1.125 MPa
We have another problem where in the beam which is shown over here, we will have to find
out the stress at a point which is 30mm above the bottom of the beam at section C. That
means that we will have to compute the value of the shearing stress at this particular point
and at this location which is at a distance of 30mm from the bottom. Here the cross section is
symmetrical and with respect to the vertical axis. Here we have two rectangular components
joined together and the neutral axis is located at a distance of 62.5mm from the bottom fiber.
We need not calculate the shear force of the bending moment diagram as such.
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From the shear force diagram we can compute the value of the shear stress. At point C, as we
know the value of the shear force is equal to 6.67kN and correspondingly if you calculate the
value of the shear stress which is,
τ 6.67⨯103⨯100⨯30⨯47.5/(19.3⨯106⨯100) = 0.5 MPa.
There is another problem where a beam is subjected to two concentrated loads and you have
to compute the maximum value of b so that the bending stress does not exit 60 MPa and
shearing stress does not exeed 10 MPa. We will look into this particular problem next time.
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To summarize this particular lesson, we have recapitulated the concepts of the previous
lesson, we have looked into the concept of shear stress in beams with rectangular cross
sections, we have looked into the derivation of equations for the shear stress in beams and we
have looked at some examples to evaluate shear stresses in beams.
The questions given for you are: what are the assumptions made in deriving the shear
formula? What is the limitation of shear stress formula? What is the value of shear stress in a
cantilever beam subjected to a moment at its tip? We will provide answers for these questions
in the next lesson.
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IIT, Kharagpur
Lecture no 29
Stresses in Beams- IV
Welcome to the fourth lesson of the sixth module on Stresses in Beams part 4. In the last
lesson we have discussed some aspects of shearing stress in beams and we have looked into
the effect of shearing stress in a beam having a rectangular cross section. In this particular
lesson we are going to discuss what would happen if shear stress acts in a beam having cross
sections other than the rectangular one, like a circular one or the t section.
Once this particular lesson is completed one should be able to understand the concept of
shear stress in beams of different cross sections and understand the effect of shearing strain
on longitudinal strain in beams.
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In fact we have discussed the effect of the bending movement acting in a beam and we have
calculated the stresses corresponding to that. We have also seen that the beam is subjected to
the longitudinal strain in the longitudinal direction of the beam because of the effect of this
bending. Now what is the consequence of the shearing stress which is acting in the beam on
this longitudinal strain? We will be looking into that and also one should be in a position to
evaluate shearing stresses in beam of different cross sections for different loadings.
Hence the scope of this particular lesson includes answering questions that were posed in the
previous lesson. We will recapitulate the aspects which we have discussed in the previous
lesson and the concept of shearing stress in beams of different cross sections is included in
this particular lesson. In this lesson we will give examples for the evaluation of shear stresses
in beams of different cross sections.
Now let us study the answers to the questions which where posed last time. The first question
given was what are the assumptions made in deriving the shear formula? In the previous
lesson we have seen how to derive the shear formula and consequently we have seen that we
have made some assumptions.
The assumptions are that at any cross section when there is shearing force acting, we assume
that the shear stress is parallel to this shear force. That means in this cross section the
direction of this shear stress is in the same direction as that of the shear force. Shear stresses
acting on a cross section are parallel to the shear force acting in that particular section.
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Also it is assumed that shear stresses are uniformly distributed across the width of the beam
and that at any point along the depth, the distribution of the shear stress along the width is
uniform and based on this assumption. We have derived the shear formula and as we have
noticed that on a particular element, we have the vertical shear and the complimentary
horizontal shear and this is the state of stress at a particular element based on which we have
derived the shear formula. Basically these are the two main assumptions based on which we
have derived the shear formula.
What is the limitation of shear stress formula? While calculating the stresses in a beam due to
the shear force we have used the shear formula which is VQ/Ib and consequently we
calculate the shearing stress at any point along the depth. Now is this particular formula
applicable for all kinds of beams or are there certain limitations?
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As we have seen the distribution of the shear stress across width, we are assuming that it is
uniform. Let us suppose we are dealing with a beam of rectangular cross sections. This
accuracy of this particular shear formula depends on the height to width ratio which means
that if we have a beam with a rectangular cross section having the width b and height h, the
accuracy of this particular formula depends on this ratio of h/b.
The accuracy of the shear formula increases which means that if h/b ratio is higher we get
accurate results using the shear formula or in other words for a particular depth of h, for a
constant value of h, if you have a lesser width of b, then the accuracy will be better using
shear formula. You can understand from the concept that we are assuming that the shear
stress is uniform over the width of the beam and hence if we have a smaller width, your
accuracy of the shear stress formula will be more.
But if you have a wider beam then you will be using the accuracy if you use this shear
formula. Hence this aspect should be kept in mind. This is one of the important limitations of
shear formula. Also from this it appears that for the shear formula to be more effective or to
be more applicable, the edges of the cross section must be parallel to the y axis.
Now for a rectangular or square section we have these edges which are parallel to y axis.
Now if you have a section like a triangular one or if you have a section which is semicircular,
for this kind of section, the edges are not parallel to the y axis. These sections or the shear
stress formula cannot be used for evaluating stresses for such cross sections. So this is one of
the prime limitations of the shear formula.
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Thirdly the shear formula is applicable for the prismatic beams only, which means that if a
beam has a taper and it is not uniform in each cross section then you cannot use this shear
formula for evaluating the shear stress in the beam. So these are the main limitations of shear
formula and we can use shear formula for evaluating the shear stresses in a beam when the
edges of the cross section are parallel to y axis.
For the other section like a circular one for which the edges are not parallel to y axis, we
resort to some means or the shear stresses for such sections can be evaluated by going for
other rigorous theories which we are not going to discuss at this moment. The third question
posed was; what is the value of shear stress in a cantilever beam subjected to a moment at its
tip?
You have a cantilever beam, that means the beam which is fixed at one end and if a moment
M acts at the end of this particular beam then what is the value of the shear stress in such a
beam? Let us assume that the cross section of the beam is a rectangular one. If we draw the
bending movement diagram as we have done in the past, we can remove the support and we
can write down the reactive forces and thereby evaluate these reactive forces; the vertical
force, horizontal force and the moment based on the external moment.
You will find that the vertical force will be zero, because the summation of the vertical force
is zero and there are no external vertical forces. So, the vertical reaction is going to be zero
and again the summation of the horizontal force being zero will give the value of H = 0 as
there are no horizontal forces on the beam. The moment will be the externally applied
moment and at any section we take if we draw the free body diagram corresponding to that
free body diagram, the value of the internal moment is equal to the external moment and that
is how we get the bending moment diagram which is a rectangular one which means that
everywhere we have a constant moment.
If the moment direction is reverse in a clockwise direction we will have exactly the same
result but the moment will be negative instead of positive. Since the moment is constant
everywhere you can make out the value of dM/dx which is nothing but equal to the shear
force for the constant moment dM/dx = 0. Therefore the shear force is zero and hence the
shear stress will be zero because the shear stress is VQ/Ib and since V is 0, the shear stress is
going to be zero and this answers the third question.
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Let us see what the effect of the shearing strain on the longitudinal strain is. Let us consider a
cantilever beam whose cross section is rectangular. The shear stress in such a section varies
parabolically and since the shear stress τ varies parabolically, the shearing strain γ, which is
τ/G also varies parabolically. So, at the neutral axis we get a shearing strain and since the
stress at that neutral axis is higher, the corresponding shearing strain is also high.
If we consider a beam, a cantilever beam having a rectangular cross section and is subjected
to loads so that everywhere you have the same shear force V, then the cross section is going
to have a deformation because earlier when we have derived the bending formula we have
assumed that the plane section remains plane even after bending and it becomes
perpendicular to the axis of the beam.
Now because of this shearing strain, this distribution of the shearing strain varies and the
shearing strain is zero on the surfaces and has a maximum value at the neutral axis. The
section is going to warp in this particular form and at this point since the shearing stress is
zero and the corresponding shearing strain is zero, there will not be any deformation.
This particular line will be perpendicular to the surface and maximum deformation will occur
at the neutral axis point. For the constant shear force, all the sections are going to be in the
same form and then the strain in the longitudinal direction will have no effect because of this
shearing strain. Consequently, as we have seen, the bending formula which we have derived
from the longitudinal strain criteria will also remain unaffected.
If you have a beam where the shear force is constant and consequently the warping which we
are going to get is uniform in all cross sections, it does not have any affect as such on the
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longitudinal strain and consequently we can use the bending formula even if every moment is
not uniform. It has been observed that when we go for detailed investigations for such
warping because of the non-uniform shearing stress where the shear force is not uniform
along the beam, if there is a varying shear force, then the warping will not be constant in all
cross sections and thereby there will be some amount of changes in the longitudinal strain.
But the change in the longitudinal strain is not to the extent where the accuracy level is
jeopardized and hence the bending formula can be used for beams which are subjected to
moments along with the shear. You should be in a position to appreciate that when we have
evaluated the bending formula we have considered only pure bending and consequently we
have calculated the bending stress.
When a beam is subjected to loads it is not only subjected to bending but the shear force is
also associated with that. If you have such a kind of bending, it is called non uniform bending
and when you have this bending along with shear force despite the bending formula being
evaluated exclusively for the bending moment alone, we can use the bending formula for
such beams. We also have non uniform bending where the bending is associated with the
shear force and the accuracy level is not jeopardized to a great extent and hence it is justified
to use the bending formula, even if there is warping due to the shearing stress.
If the cross section of the beam is circular instead of rectangular then what is the consequence
of this particular shear formula which we have derived earlier which is τ = VQ/Ib? Let us
consider a circular section whose radius is r and the shear force which is acting in the cross
section is in the vertical direction. As we have assumed earlier that the direction of the shear
stress also will be in the direction of shearing force and the shear stress distribution across the
width is uniform along the depth of the beam.
On the surface of this particular beam there will not be any stress and it will be zero. The
stresses which we will have are in the tangential direction and hence they are no longer going
to be parallel to the y axis. It is very difficult to use this particular formula as it cannot be
applied in evaluating the shear stresses in this particular location. At this particular point or
along this diameteral width the shearing stress is in parallel with y axis and we can compute
the shear stress only at this particular location. Now as we have seen in the case of the
rectangular one, the shear stress is maximum at the neutral axis, which is true for the circular
section as well.
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At the neutral axis position which is along the diameter the maximum shearing stress occurs.
So, if we compute the shearing stress value at the neutral axis we will get the maximum value
of the shearing stress in the circular cross section. Along that particular diameteral width we
assume that the shear stress is uniform over the diameter and parallel to the y axis.
Hence we can use the shear formula exclusively for that particular location and we cannot use
the shear formula in the upper and the lower part using this particular expression to evaluate
the shearing stress. We can use the shear formula for evaluating the maximum value of the
shearing stress in this circular cross section. Hence,
τmax = VQ/Ib, for which Q is the section above this particular cross section where we are
evaluating the shear stress.
We take the upper half of the area for evaluating the value of Q,
Q = Aȳ = (πr2/2)(4π/3r) = 2r2/3
Now, I = πr4/4 and b=2r, which gives,
τmax = V(2r2/3)/[( πr4/4)(2r)] = 4V/3A = (4/3) τaverage
Hence though we cannot use the shear formula for evaluating the shear stress over the entire
cross section which is quite complex, we can evaluate the maximum shear stress at the
neutral axis position using this shear formula.
721
The cross section is an annular section or a tubular section where one part is open. Let us
assume that the outer radius of this is r2 and the inner radius is r1. Here moment of inertia,
I = (π/4)(r24 r14),
Q = (2/3)(r23 r13)
b = 2(r2 r1), which gives,
Let us substitute this value of I, Q and b in this expression for the maximum shear stress,
which gives,
τmax = VQ/Ib = (4V/3A)[(r22 + r1r2+ r12)/(r22+r12), where A = π(r22 r12)
Take another type of cross section where the cross section of the beam is similar to that of ‘I’.
If you remember while discussing the bending stress, we have discussed that if we take a
beam and if we have two rectangular sections placed at a distance apart, then that contributes
more to the value of the moment of inertia and thereby we get maximum effect in the bending
stresses.
Now the question was how are two rectangular strips placed apart going to be utilized as
cross sections? Subsequently we have seen that if these two particular sections are connected
by a vertical strip, then we can use that section as a beam cross section and that turns out to
be the most economical section when we talk about the transfer of the bending stress. Now if
we use those kinds of sections for a beam where they are subjected to load and thereby they
722
are subjected to bending moment and shearing force, then what is the consequence of
shearing stress on such sections?
The section ‘I’ is shown in the figure. It consists of two flanges, connected with a web . Now
the width of the flange is b and the thickness is h h1/2. If we are interested in evaluating the
shearing stress at any cross section which is at a distance of y1 from the neutral axis, then we
need to calculate the moment of this area which is above the section, where we are
considering the shearing stress.
Please note over here that when we have computed the shear formula we have assumed that
the shear stress is uniform across the width. In this kind of section if the width becomes larger
then the shear stress is no longer uniform over the width and if you use this formula it is
expected that the results which you are going to get will be erroneous. Since the width of the
flange is substantially large in comparison, in addition to the vertical shear which we have in
the flange we get the horizontal shear also.
Now because of this horizontal shear the shearing stress distribution in the flange part is not
uniform and consequently if we apply the shear formula for evaluating the shear stress in the
flange zone then it is going to be ineffective or erroneous. When we evaluate the shear stress
in the I cross section we are calculating the shearing stress for the web part only and in fact
you will notice that the maximum percentage of the shear force is being carried by the web
and in the process the whole section becomes effective in carrying the bending and shear.
In the case of bending we have observed that if we have two rectangular components at the
top and bottom, they are effective in carrying the bending stress. The whole section in
combination now is effective in carrying the bending and the shearing action. In the web part
which is similar to that of a rectangular section we compute the shearing stress.
We calculate the distribution of the shearing stress which is a parabolic distribution. We will
have the maximum value at neutral axis, τmax. Since we are evaluating the shear stress at this
cross section which is at a distance of y1 from the neutral axis, we take the moment of this
particular part of the area and divide it in two segments and we call them rectangle 1 and
rectangle 2.
Now for rectangle 1, A1= b( h/2 – h1/2) and A2= h1/2 – y1
Consequently, as you know Q = Aȳ
723
So, in the first rectangle, ȳ1 = (1/2)(h/2 h1/2) + h1/2
In second rectangle, ȳ2 = (1/2)(h1/2 y1) + y1
Now, Q = A1 ȳ1 + A2 ȳ2 = (b/8)(h2 h12) + (t/8)( h12 4y12)
In this particular expression note that except y12, every term is constant. Hence the shear
stress varies again with respect to y1 and in a parabolic manner. We will get the maximum
shear stress at neutral axis and the minimum shearing stress at top. At this particular section
the shearing stress is zero and at this particular section shearing stress is minimum. Hence at
this particular cross section there is a complex distribution of the shearing stress and as a
result we cannot apply the shear formula for evaluating the shearing stress in the plane zone.
Let us restrict ourselves to the web part and calculate the shearing stress and we will see
consequently that the maximum shearing stress is being carried by the web part only. Hence
in order to compute what is the value of the shearing force, the web is going to carry the area
of the stress diagram over the web part that is multiplied by the thickness of the web will give
us the value of the shearing force that the section will be subjected to.
Well these are the values of I of the cross section,
I = (bh3/ 2) ( t)h13/12 = (1/12)(bh3 bh13+th13)
τ = VQ/Ib = (V/8It)[b(h2 h12)+t(h12 4y12)
This is the value of the shearing stress that we are going to get and since y1 varies we get the
variation from the bottom part to the top part.
724
Let us look at some examples I had given you in the last lesson. The beam is subjected to
loads P as shown over here where it is a two point loading and they are placed equidistant
from the two sides at the distance of 1 meter. Now you will have to determine the maximum
allowable value of P if the limiting value of bending stress is 60 MPa and the limiting value
of shearing stress is 10 MPa and the cross section of the beam is a rectangular one.
Now please note over here that you will have to find out the maximum value of P in such a
way that the bending stress does not exceed its allowable limit and consequently the shearing
stress also does not exceed the allowable limit. You will have to satisfy both the criteria and
satisfying both the criteria you have to prescribe how much load you can apply in this
particular form so that the stresses are not exceeded.
Since we are going to deal with the maximum possible value of the bending stress and the
shear stress that will be generated on this section, we need to know the variations of the
bending moment and the shear force along the length of the beam. Thereby we need to
compute the bending moment and shear force diagram so that we can find out the value of the
maximum bending moment and the maximum shear force that is occurring at any point in the
beam. Consequently we can also compute the value of the stresses.
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Let us look at some examples I had given you in the last lesson. The beam is subjected to
loads P as shown over here where it is a two point loading and they are placed equidistant
from the two sides at the distance of 1 meter. Now you will have to determine the maximum
allowable value of P if the limiting value of bending stress is 60 MPa and the limiting value
of shearing stress is 10 MPa and the cross section of the beam is a rectangular one.
Now please note over here that you will have to find out the maximum value of P in such a
way that the bending stress does not exceed its allowable limit and consequently the shearing
stress also does not exceed the allowable limit. You will have to satisfy both the criteria and
satisfying both the criteria you have to prescribe how much load you can apply in this
particular form so that the stresses are not exceeded.
Since we are going to deal with the maximum possible value of the bending stress and the
shear stress that will be generated on this section, we need to know the variations of the
bending moment and the shear force along the length of the beam. Thereby we need to
compute the bending moment and shear force diagram so that we can find out the value of the
maximum bending moment and the maximum shear force that is occurring at any point in the
beam. Consequently we can also compute the value of the stresses.
Let us compute the bending moment and shear force diagram. The first step is to evaluate the
unknown reactive forces. Let us call this beam as A and B and end A is on hinge so you have
a vertical force RA and a horizontal force HA and the vertical force at B as RB as the reactive
forces. The summation of horizontal forces = 0 will give you HA = 0 and you can compute
the value of RA and RB.
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Since this is a symmetrical beam with symmetrical loading RA = RB = P. We can compute the
value of shearing forces at any cross section and we can draw the shear force diagram over
the left region between the support and the load. We will have a shear force of longitude P
kN which is negative and between the second load point and last reaction we have again P kN
which is positive. The maximum value of the shear force occurring anywhere in the beam is
P kN and in between the loads there are no shear forces at all. So, the maximum shear force is
= P kN.
The maximum value of the bending moment that you get is P kNm and that is occurring at a
load point and maximum shear force is occurring within the support and the load point.
Bending stress, σ = My/I
Now, for rectangular section, I/y = bh2/6
As the bending stress is limited to 60 MPa, substituting all the values in bending stress
equation, we get,
60 = (P⨯106⨯6)/(100⨯2502), which gives, P = 62.5 kN.
From the maximum bending stress criteria we get the value of P = 62.52 kN.
Now let us look into the value of P which we get if we have to satisfy maximum shearing
stress criteria. Now as we know that the maximum shear stress in a rectangular cross section
727
occurs again at the neutral axis since it varies parabolically and the maximum value which we
get is,
τmax = 3V/2A
Now maximum shear stress is = 10 MPa, Vmax = P and cross sectional area is 100*250.
Substituting all the values, we get, P = 166.7 kN.
So now that you have two values of P and you have to choose the most appropriate one, now
if you use the higher value of these two, P = 166.7N, if we use that value then the bending
stress is going to be go beyond the 60 MPa. That is the limiting value because we have
obtain the value of p corresponding to the bending stress as = 62.5 kN and if we use 62.5 kN
as the loading then shearing stress will be lower than 10 MPa.
Since we cannot go beyond the allowable limit of the stresses we have to use the lower value
of the beam so that both the stress criteria, bending stress and the shearing stress are satisfied
and the member is safe against this loading. The value of the P which should be used is 62.5
kN. Now let us look into another example problem in which there is an application of the
shearing stress. Now the maximum vertical shear force acting on this beam cross section is
given as 100kN.
Now we have computed the shearing force, the cross section of the beam and the value of the
shear force is known. We have to compute what is the maximum shearing stress that will
728
occur in this particular section and how much shear force is going to be carried by the web
out of the total shear force in this particular cross section.
You have to compute the maximum shear stress acting on this particular section and then
percentage of shear force that will be carried by the web of the beam. Now the cross section
of this is an ‘I’ section; this is a symmetrical one so the position of the neutral axis will divide
the section into two equal halves. This is the position of the neutral axis and we have to
compute the maximum value of the shear stress which will be acting at the neutral axis
location.
Let us compute the value of Q for evaluating the shearing stress. For computation of
maximum shear stress,
Q = Aȳ = 200⨯20⨯110 + 100⨯20⨯50 = 54⨯104 mm3
Similarly, for computation of minimum shear stress,
Q = Aȳ = 200⨯20⨯110 = 44⨯104 mm3
As we know, shearing stress, τ = VQ/I
Now, I = (200⨯2403/12) ( ⨯2003/12) = 110⨯106 mm4
Thus, τmax = (100⨯103⨯54⨯104)/( 110⨯106⨯20) = 24.5 MPa
τmin = (100⨯103⨯44⨯104)/( 110⨯106⨯20) = 19.93 MPa
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We compute the maximum stress and the minimum stress and this is the maximum value of
the shearing stress that will be occurring in the beam section when they are subjected to the
shear force of 100 kN and the maximum value of the shear stress is at the neutral axis and the
magnitude of that is 24.5 MPa.
Let us look into the second aspect of it in which we need to find out the shear force out of
100 kN the web part of is going to carry. Since we know is stress times area, so if we take the
area of this shear stress distribution multiplied by the thickness, it will give us the shear force
that will be carried by web. The shear force which is being carried by web is equal to the
thickness of the web multiplied by the area of the stress diagram.
S.F. = t⨯Adiagram
We can divide this area of the stress diagram into two parts; one is the rectangular part and
another one is this parabolic distribution.
Thus, S.F. = 20⨯[200⨯19.93+ (2/3)⨯200⨯4.57] = 92 kN
Please note over here that out of the 100kN shear force that the entire cross section is
subjected 92 kN shear force is being carried by the web alone. Hence the 92% of the stress
total shearing force is being carried by the web.
We have called the top and the bottom rectangle flanges. This flange is effective in carrying
the bending stress whereas the web is quite effective in carrying the shearing stress because
92% of the shear force is being carried by this particular web. Hence in fact in normal design
or in an engineering design where we do not really need to compute the stresses, we assume
that the shearing stress is being carried by the web alone and the bending stresses are being
carried by the flanges of this section and that simplifies the calculation to a large extent.
Now let us look into another example where we have a beam and is loaded such that the loads
are P at the two ends and 4P at the center. Now let us call different pomits as A, B, C D and E
as shown in the figure. So it is hinged at B, roller support at D and overhang at A and E. the
cross sectional area is similar to that of T section. Also we have discussed as in the case of
the ‘I’ section that we cannot use a shear formula for evaluating the shear stress in the flanges
of the ‘I’ beam. For T section also, if we compute the same shearing stress in flange using the
shear formula it is not going to be accurate or correct. Hence we restrict ourselves to the
evaluation of shear stress only in the web part of the beam.
730
Here the neutral axis position is given which is at a distance of 70 mm from the top of the
beam and the moment of inertia of this particular cross section also is given. We would like
to know the maximum shear force value of P, so that the shearing stress does not exceed
beyond this allowable stress limit of 6 MPa, but it is silent about the maximum allowable
bending stress.
Since it is not indicated with regard to the bending stress we compare our actual shearing
stress that is going to happen in the beam because of such loading and if we equate it to the
maximum allowable shearing stress then we can find out what is the value of P that we need
so that the shearing stress does not go beyond the 6 MPa value.
Let us look into the shear force diagram of this particular beam and as usual. Let us compute
the value of the reactive forces RB and RC. The maximum value of the shear force is 2P. This
731
is the maximum value of the shearing force which is indicated in shear force diagram and the
value of the moment of inertia is already given. In the case of a rectangular section we get a
maximum amount of shear stress at the neutral axis. For this rectangular component now at
this particular section our shearing stress is not zero, but you will have some value which is
called as τmin, because we have some area for which we get the Q value which is Aȳ. Above
the web, we have the flange area which is contributes to the first moment of area Q but we
are calculating the shearing stress from the interface and downward, so we have some value
of the shear stress at the interface between the web and the flange and we are calling that the
minimum shearing stress which is τmin.
If you compute the value of this maximum shearing stress at the neutral axis,
τmax = VQ/It
Here, Q = 80⨯20⨯60 + 50⨯20⨯25 = 121⨯103 mm3
If we substitute these values, we get,
6 = (2P⨯103⨯121⨯103)/(15.52⨯106⨯20), which gives, P = 77 kN
So the maximum value of P which can be applied in this beam is 77 kN, so that the shearing
stress does not exceed a value of 6 MPa as stipulated over here.
Let us look into this particular problem which has relevance with the discussion we had today
and it is that the cross section of this particular pole is a wooden pole having a solid circular
section of diameter d and this is subjected to a lateral load of 2.5 kN at the top. Now as you
can make out, this particular member is subjected to this load and you can orient this and take
this as a cantilever beam subjected to a load at its tip which is of value 2.5 kN and this length
732
is equal to 2 meters. We have to determine the diameter of this particular pole so that the
stress in bending does not exceed 20 MPa and the stress in shear does not exceed 5MPa.
If we draw the bending moment and shear force diagram for this particular pole then the
bending moment and shear force diagram is going to be as shown in the figure, which we
have already done earlier.
Vmax = 2.5 kN and Mmax = 5 kNm
Now if we compute the bending stress from this particular expression which is, σ = My/I
Now, for the given section, I/y = (πd4/64)/(d/2) = πd3/32
Thus, 20 = (5⨯106⨯32)/(πd3), which gives, d = 136.6 mm
Corresponding to the maximum shear force of 2.5 kN. We need to evaluate the maximum
shearing stress as we cannot compute the shearing stress at any other point in this particular
circular cross section.
So, τmax = 4V/3A, which gives,
5 = (4⨯2.5⨯103⨯4)/(3⨯π⨯d2), which gives, d = 29.14 mm
Now out of these two values where corresponding to bending, we have d as 136.6 mm
corresponding to shear, we have 29.14 mm. Naturally we will have to go for the larger
diameter so that it can withstand both the stresses and when we provide the lower diameter it
733
will be safe but not against bending. However if you go for the larger diameter then it will
satisfy both the criteria hence the diameter of the pole has to be minimum as 136.6 mm so
that it can withstand both the stress or withstand this amount of load, so that the bending
stress and shear stress are within limits.
Another problem which is again the cross section of beam is just like a T. Here two
rectangular components are there. One rectangle is on the top, one is at the bottom and these
two rectangular sections are interconnected along the length using nails and these nails are
spaced. We will have to find out the particular spacing so that we know the shearing capacity
of these bolts.
These bolts are subjected to shearing load and 872 N is the shear force that the particular
cross section is subjected to and the nail carrying capacity is 400 N. Then you need to
evaluate the spacing so that you know that these particular bolts do not fail against the
shearing stress. This particular problem is given to you and we will discuss next time and let
us try to solve this problem and see whether you get the result.
To summarize what we have discussed in the particular section, we have recapitulated the
previous lesson, we have introduced the concept of shear stress in beams with different cross
sections other than the rectangular one in the previous case and we have discussed about a
cross section where a cross section is a rectangular one. We have talked about the circular or
T or I section and then the effect of shear strains on longitudinal strains in beams. Also we
have looked at some examples to evaluate the shear stress in beams.
734
In this module of stresses in beams which consists of four lessons we have divided it into two
parts. The first two lessons are focused on the aspects of bending stresses, the last two
lessons were focused on the aspects of shearing stresses and thereby we have seen the effects
of loads in terms of bending and shearing stresses in beams.
735
The questions that I have set for you are that in a beam with a rectangular cross section, what
is the maximum value of shear stress and where does it occur? In a beam with a circular cross
section what is the maximum value of shear stress and what is meant by average shear stress?
While we were discussing, we had looked into a term called average shear stress but what do
we really mean by average stress? Look into these questions and try to find answers for them.
We will discuss these questions in the next lesson.
736
Prof. S.K.Bhattacharya
Dept. of Civil Engineering,
I.I.T., Kharagpur
Lecture No. 30
Deflection of Beams-I
Welcome to the first lesson of the seventh module which is on Deflection of Beams part 1. In
the last two modules we have looked into several aspects of a beam bending, how to evaluate
the bending moment and shear force in a beam which is loaded. Consequently, we have
evaluated the bending and the shear stresses in a beam. We have taken the curvature of the
beam into effect and consequently we have derived the bending formulae.
While looking into the bending formulae, we have taken the help of the curvature of the beam
but we have not derived any equation for the curvature of the beam or for the elastic curve. In
this particular lesson, we are going to look into the differential equation and consequently the
equation of elastic curve. How do you find the deformation in a beam? In fact, the deformation
which we often call as a deflection of beam is of paramount importance in our engineering
application.
737
When the beam members are subjected to load they undergo deformation which we are terming
as deflection when the access of the beam moves in the vertical direction. This kind of moment
of the beam creates problems in our engineering structures say for example the floor on which
we are moving. Basically they are supported on beams, if for some loading the beam undergoes
moment in the vertical direction.
If it depletes then the floor also deflects and as a result it becomes unusable. That means it
becomes uncomfortable for the persons to use it or whoever will be moving over the floor. If
you talk about any mechanical component, if it undergoes deformation then there is a
possibility that it will lose its alignment and in the consequence there could be failure of the
machine parts. Hence it is very important to evaluate the deflection in a beam member.
Once this particular lesson is completed one should be able to understand the concept of
deflection of beams under different loading conditions; one should be able to derive the basic
differential equation of the deflection curve and one should be in a position to evaluate
deflections in beams for different loading conditions. Hence the scope of this particular lesson
includes recapitulation of what we did in the previous lesson.
It includes the concept of deflection of beams for different loading; it includes the derivation
of differential equation and consequently the equation of elastic curve for beams. It includes
some examples for evaluation of deflection in beams for different loadings. Let us look into
the answers of the questions, which were posed last time. In the last lesson we discussed aspects
738
of shearing stresses and hence we have the questions pertaining to that aspect and the questions
are related to that.
The first question is in a beam with a rectangular cross section what is the maximum value of
shear stress and where does it occur? A beam having a rectangular cross section of width b and
height h, when subjected to loads and thereby shear forces, are subjected to the shearing stress
and the distribution of the shear stress. The parabolic distribution having maximum shear stress
at the neutral axis, which we call as τmax and the shearing stresses at the outer surface is 0 and
it varies in a parabolic manner.
The maximum shear stress is given by this expression which is 3/2 ‘V/A’ and now we calculate
if you remember that τ = Vq/Ib where V is the shear force in the section where we are
calculating the stress; q is the first moment of the area where we evaluate the stress. If you are
evaluating the stress at this particular section which is at a distance of y1, then q is the moment
of this particular text area with respect to the neutral axis; ‘I’ is the moment of inertia of the
cross section with respect to the neutral axis.
739
Here b is the width of the section and this gives the maximum value when y1 = 0, which is at
the neutral axis and thus we have the value of the τmax. Thereby if you compute it, it becomes
3/2 V/A where ‘A’ is the cross sectional area. So, the maximum shear stress occurs at the neutral
axis and for the rectangular section the maximum value is 3/2 V/A.
The next question posed was that in a beam with a circular cross section, what is the maximum
value of shear stress? Now this aspect also we have discussed in the last lesson wherein we
have said that we cannot use τ = VQ/Ib for the inter cross section of the circular cross section
of the member.
740
However, we can apply at the neutral axis wherein the stress distribution is parallel to the y-
axis and thereby we can apply this expression VQ/Ib. Consequently, if you compute the
maximum shear stress, which we get at the neutral axis it is = 4/3 V/A. This we compute from
VQ /Ib and Q is the moment of the area about the section, where we are considering the shear
stress, which is a neutral axis in this particular case. The maximum value of the shear stress for
the circular cross section is 4/3 V/A, while again A is the cross sectional area of the circular
section.
Lastly, we had the question; what is meant by average shear stress? Over the cross section,
when we are dealing with a rectangular cross section we have seen that the distribution is a
parabolic one and I mean the maximum value of the shear stress is at the neutral axis. Often,
to evaluate the value of the shear stress for engineering applications we need to get first-hand
information about the stress.
To evaluate quickly instead of calculating this parabolic distribution we need time to assume
that the stress received is uniformly distributed around the entire depth. Let us consider this
particular stress as the average stress and call this as τavg which is its value uniform over the
entire depth. When we do that we take the area of this particular rectangular configuration
which is uniform over the entire depth equal to the area corresponding to the distribution, which
we get from 0 to the maximum value. If we say the τavg is this width, we have the area which
is τavg (h) = the area under the curve with the actual distribution of the shear stress as 2/3 (h)
τmax.
741
As we have seen earlier τmax is 3/2 V/A where V is the shear force and A is the cross sectional
area and we have τavg (h) = h (V/A) and τavg gives us a value of V/A
τavg = V/ A
where V is the shear force and A is the cross sectional area. We are assuming that the stress is
uniformly distributed over the entire cross section and that is why it is called as average. So,
the shear stress distributed uniformly over the cross section is termed as the average shear stress
and the shear force divided by the cross sectional area will give us the value of τ.
Let us look into the aspects of the elastic curve based on which we arrive at the differential
equation. Let us consider the segment of the beam, say this is the origin O, along the member
axis beam and this particular point is A, which is at a distance of X, from the origin. Let us
assume that this particular beam undergoes deformation in the positive direction.
This is the Y-positive direction and we assume that the member undergoes deformation in the
positive y direction and after deformation this is the deform configuration and point A moves
to A’. If you remember we have said that when the beam axis undergoes deformation it does
not stretch, which means that while deriving the bending formulae the strain at the neutral axis
level is 0.
742
We assume that there is no stretching of the axis of the beam. If we consider a small segment
after A as distance AB having a length dx and if we exaggerate this particular figure and plot it
over here after deformation, we have A’ and B’. Point A has undergone a deformation which is
Y as indicated over here.
Consequently, over the small distance dx point B has undergone a deformation which is (y+dy).
This particular stretch is dy and also the deformation at this point and in the slope of this
particular axis if we call ϴ at this point over the length dx it undergoes a small change. We call
this as (ϴ+dϴ) and the radius of curvature of this beam axis is Ρ. Over this particular segment
the angle dx at the centre is dϴ. Based on our assumptions that the beam axis does not undergo
any stretching, this particular curved part also is dx.
From this particular rectangular configuration, we can say that
dy/dx = sinϴ and ϴ being small as we have assumed that the beam undergoes a very small
deformation and thereby the slope is very small.
Here ϴ is small; hence sin ϴ can be represented in terms of ϴ
dy/dx = sin ϴ = ϴ
This particular arc length dx can be written in terms of ϴ = ρ(dϴ); dx = ρ (d ϴ).
1/ρ = dϴ.dx
Also, ϴ = dy/dx
743
1
ρ
This is the second order differential of y with respect to x and this is the curvature. In the
previous modules we had a curvature of 1/ρ.
Earlier while evaluating the beam bending formulae we had obtained that
1/ρ = M/EI
and thereby if we equate these two we get,
This is what we call the differential equation of the elastic curve. This particular differential
equation gives us the deflection curve and the beam axis which was stated before bending; after
bending it deforms and takes shape. From this particular equation we can arrive at what will be
the shape of this particular deformed axis after it has undergone the deformation. This particular
parameter EI is termed as the flexural rigidity of the beam.
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If we integrate this, we get,
If we integrate this equation once again,
. .
where C1 and C2 are the unknown constants and these constants are to be evaluated from the
given boundary conditions of the beam.
From the impact we can write y as a function of x because moment is a function of x in the
beam. As y can be evaluated along the length of the beam at different points we can get the
value of y. Let us suppose we plot the value of y along the length of the beam that gives us the
deflection curve for the moment of the elastic curve which is an expression.
As we have seen that we have first derived the differential equation of the elastic curve and
subsequently, we are computing the equation of the elastic curve. Making use of this differential
equation which returns as the function of the beam bending moment, we can compute the value
of the equation of the elastic curve or the deflection at any point along the length of the beam.
745
If we look into the aspects whatever we have evaluated so far; y gives us the deflection of the
elastic curve; ϴ is the first derivative of y, which you call as y’ gives us the slope of elastic
curve. This means if we have the beam and the deflection then it will take a tangent at any point
on the elastic curve. This gives us the value of the slope ϴ which is dy/dx the derivative of the
deflection curve; the second derivative subsequently give us the value of the moment which is
the differential equation for the elastic curve,
In the previous lesson, we have seen that the shear force V is equal to the rate of change of the
bending moment with the negative sign
So,
. . . ′′′
. . . ′′′′
These are the different forms of the governing differential equation which we have obtained.
From these we can derive the other relationships as well.
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. .
. . .
. . . .
2
. . . . .
3! 2!
These particular sets of equations represent the equilibrium of the beam segment and further
integration of this gives us the value of the slope and corresponding deflection.
If you look at the constants which are associated with these particular sets of equations like C1
and C2 these can be evaluated from the boundary conditions of beam, from the known values
of the shear in the moment. These particular constants can be evaluated from the static
boundary conditions and we can compute C1 and C2 from the static boundary conditions.
747
Now for this dy/dx and y we have the constants C3 and C4. These constants C3 and C4 are
evaluated from the relationship of the deflection and the slope of the beam and these boundary
conditions are called dynamic boundary conditions. Here C3 and C4 are evaluated from the
dynamic boundary conditions and these are the two sets of boundary conditions that we need.
In fact for the evaluation of these unknown constants they are the static boundary conditions
or the dynamic boundary conditions and it is dynamic in the sense that after the deformation
of the beam it undergoes moment and it has some slope. We can evaluate the values of C3 and
C4 for clarity.
Let us look at the boundary conditions that we come across. If we have a fixed support for a
beam, at this support as we have seen in the earlier lessons that it does not allow any moment,
so the deformation of the displacement of this particular point is 0 and consequently it does not
allow any rotation as well at this point. Hence the dy/dx ϴ = 0 and both the conditions are
dynamic.
In a hinged support or a roller support we know that the vertical displacement is a constraint
and thereby y is 0. At the hinged support it cannot register any bending and thereby it gives rise
to the slope and the bending moment at this point = 0. At the hinged or a roller support the
vertical displacement is 0 which is a dynamic condition and the moment is 0 which is a static
boundary condition.
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For a free end since it undergoes both displacement as well as rotation, here we have the
boundary conditions which have basically static boundary conditions and the moment is 0 and
the shear force is 0 at this particular point. These are the different support conditions which we
have seen in the past that a beam is supported on some supports, this kind of support could be
fixed support, or hinged support, or a roller support, or it could be free on one end and fixed at
the other, as we have seen in the case of a beam.
Many combinations of these supports give us the appropriate configuration of a beam. When
such beams are loaded they undergo deformation and because of those deformations we need
to evaluate what will be the deflection and the slope because of the loading. In this particular
case, while deriving the equation for the elastic curve we have considered that the deformation
is a small one and thereby we said that when the axial axis of the beam undergoes deformation
it does not stretch and the length dx remains dx.
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If the deflection is very large then we cannot make these approximations and thereby the
curvature term that is 1/ρ takes this particular form and the whole form has to be taken into
account for evaluating the differential equation for the elastic curve. Hence the expression
which we have derived is suitable for a small deformation only.
For a large deformation this is not applicable we will have to use the curvature or in terms of
these expression. We are not going to the detail derivation of this but for your information that
for a large deformation of the beam the curvature term is to be used with this particular
expression. Let us look into the sign convention that we get acquainted with it; then when we
deal with the problems. We do not have problem as such, like we had considered for the beam
segment and this is the beam segment, have been with dx and loading on this as q on the right
hand side we have the shear force which is pointing upwards to the positive y direction.
On the left side we have the positive shear downward and the positive bending moment which
is in an anti-clock wise form on the right hand side and a clockwise form on the left hand side.
Consequently, we had obtained the relationship which is V = -dM/dx and dV/dx = q. We have
used these relationships while deriving the differential equations and its different form of the
governing differential equation.
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Subsequently, we have taken the derivative V = -dM/dx and dV/dx = q. Thus we have q while
deriving the different forms of the governing equation.
Here considering the moment positive as anti-clockwise on the right hand side and
Please note over here that the loading q is in fact in the opposite direction of the positive y axis
which is positive upward.
The loading which is directed upward is positive and since this q is pointing downwards q is
negative.
We have the positive shear pointing upward. These are the expressions which we have used for
evaluating the equation of the deflection curve y. These are the two expressions which we are
going to use and we do not use the last particular expression very frequently
However, any of these three equations can be used for evaluating the equation of the elastic
curve which is y as a function of x. Thereby at any point along the length of the beam member,
we can compute the value of y and thereby the plot which you get will give you the elastic
curve of the deformed shape of the particular beam after it is loaded.
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We have looked into the equations for the elastic curve. Let us look at some examples of
problems. Before we go into the example of problems of this particular aspect, let us look into
the example which I had given you last time which is related to the evaluation of the shearing
stress. If you remember that a beam of t cross section is formed using nails.
Here there are two rectangular components; one is horizontal, another one is a vertical one and
these two separate units are joined together providing a nail along the length of the beam and
the nails are provided at an interval. The shear force which is acting on the cross section is 872
Newton and the nail carries 400 Newton in the shear. At this interface where two blocks are
getting connected together by nails and they will be subjected to the shearing axis.
This nail has a regressive power and it can receive 400 Newton of shearing load. We will have
to find out what spacing of these nails along the length of the beam we can provide, so that it
can withstand that amount of load. That means the shear force in each nail should not exceed
the allowed limit and if it is less than that then it can withstand the load. Thus the aspect is to
evaluate what is the maximum allowable spacing of such nails.
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In this particular figure, we have separated out the wave part of the section and this particular
part is shown over here. This is the phase of the beam cross section and here the positive shear
is acting at this particular direction which is positive upward. We have the complement here
which is acting on this perpendicular phase.
We have the shear in the other direction as well. Along this length of the beam, these are the
nails which are spaced at a spacing of p. If you can compute the level of shear stress acting at
this particular level then we know how much shearing stress will be acting at this phase.
Once we know the shearing stress on this phase, we know how much shear force these
particular bolts can resist in terms of the shearing stress. To compute the shearing stress at this
particular cross section we need to take this particular area which is above this section and take
the moment of this area with respect to the neutral axis.
First we will have to find out the position of the neutral axis of the cross section and if we say
that this is y1 from the top, then take the moment of all the segments with the top part of it.
120 ⨯ 30 ⨯ 15 120 ⨯ 30 ⨯ 80
52.5
2 ⨯ 120 ⨯ 30
120 ⨯ 30 30 ⨯ 120
120 ⨯ 30 ⨯ 37.5 120 ⨯ 30 ⨯ 37.5 14.715 ⨯ 10
12 12
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872 ⨯ 120 ⨯ 30 ⨯ 37.5
τ 6
0.27 / 2
14.715 ⨯ 10 ⨯ 30
If these nails are spaced at p mm apart and if I consider this particular nail which has an area
half of this length and half of this length,
0.27 ⨯ ⨯ 30 400
49.4
Thus the area multiplied by the shearing stress that is acting at that interface will give the force
that this particular nail can withstand since a nail can withstand a maximum shear force of 400
Newton and we get a value of p as 49.4 mm. That means this particular nail can be spaced at a
maximum distance of 49.4 mm and we can keep a lower value than 49.4 mm.
We cannot exceed this particular value, which is the maximum value of the spacing of the nails
that can be provided so that the shear stress in the nail does not exceed 400 Newton. If you go
beyond that, that shear capacity of the ball will go beyond 400 Newton and as a result the bolt
will not be able to withstand the cross section and the full section will fail. This is the value of
the spacing of the nails that are to be provided so that the member becomes safe.
That was the problem for the shear stress. Let us come back to this equation of the elastic curve.
Now that we have a simply supported beam which is subjected to uniformly distributed q for
unit length, we have to determine the equation of the deflection curve.
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Secondly we have to find out the maximum deflection and the rotations at the supports. The
flexural rigidity EI is constant for the entire beam. We will have to determine the equation of
the elastic curve and secondly the maximum deflection and the rotations at the support points.
To do that let us first evaluate the reacting forces as we have done in the past.
As you know this is a hinged support and so you have the vertical support, vertical reactive
force and the hardest centre reactive force. This being a ruler support you have a vertical
reactive force. If you call this as A, and this as B, then this is RA, and this is RB and this is HA.
Since there are no horizontal loads in this beam the summation of horizontal force is 0 and we
will get HA = 0.
We will have to compute the value of RA and RB. As we have seen in the past, this is a
symmetrical beam subjected to a symmetrical loading hence,
RA = RB = q (L /2)
Let us employ the differential equation of the elastic curve as we have derived so we have the
beam in which we have evaluated the value of the reactive forces ra and rb and we have seen
ql /2 where q is the uniformly distributed load that is acting on the beam. If I take a segment at
a distance of x, a free body of this particular part and you have the reactive force ra and q. On
this part we will have the shear force v and bending moment m. These are the positive directions
of v and m as we have seen if we compute at a distance of x from a.
If we take the moment of all the forces with respect to this particular point then,
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M– RA.x + q.x.x/2 = 0
M = q.L.x/2 – q.x2/2
Also, differential equation for the elastic curve is
.
2 2
If you integrate this,
. .
2 2 2 3
Further if we integrate this,
. .
2 3 6 4
This is the equation of the elastic curve with the unknown constant C1 and C2 and we have to
evaluate the values of C1 and C2 with the help of boundary conditions. What are the boundary
conditions we have for this pre- supported beam? If we look into the deflected profile of this
the beam is going to the curve where the axis is going to deform.
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Since this is hinged support and this is roller support,
At x = 0, the deflection is 0, and also at x = l y is = 0
If we substitute these conditions you see the first of the conditions at x = 0, y =0, if we substitute
in this equation, we find that C2 = 0.
If we substitute the second condition that at x = L; y = 0 if we substitute over here for x, we

substitute the value of x= L and y = 0. Consequently, we get
0 .
6 6 24
24
. .
12 6 4 24
This is the value of the expression of the elastic curve for the beam. At any point x, we can get
the value of y and now we have the expression for y and at any x, we can compute the value of
y.
At x= L/2,
. .
12 8 24 16 24 2
5
.
384
It is the maximum displacement Delta max is, y(L/2) = - EI.
Once we have the expression for the deflection curve we can take the derivative of this and can
compute the value of the slope at this point. We already have the expression for the dy/dx. We
have already obtained the value of C1 and if we substitute over here we can get the value of
dy/dx. We can compute the value of the slope at x = 0 and at x = l. Let us compute the value of
the slope at the support points and this is the value of the deflection that we have obtained.
. .
2 2 2 3 24
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.
4 6 24 24
24
These are the aspects you required to compute and we have computed first the equation of the
deflection curve. Consequently, we have computed the deflection at the centre of the beam
which is the maximum deflection in this particular guess and we have computed the value of
the rotation at ‘a’ and b at the support points.
When the final form of the deflected form of the beam is loaded, you have the deflected curve
and this is the maximum deflection which you have at the centre. From this rotation we have
obtained ϴ a, which is negative; this rotation is ϴ b which is positive because it is counter-
clockwise.
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Take another problem where the beam supports are identical and that means we have a hinged
support over here and a roller support here. Instead of a uniformly distributed load, we have a
concentrated load p and to evaluate the deflection curve and to evaluate the deflection a general
one, the load is placed not symmetrically but in an unsymmetrical form.
The load is located at a distance from support a; and it is at a distance of b from support b. The
length of the beam or the span of the beam is l. We will have to evaluate the equation of the
deflection curve and we will have to evaluate the maximum deflection. We will have to find
out the rotation at the support and the flexural rigidity of the beam EI is constant throughout
the beam.
HA = 0 as we do not have any horizontal load in this beam.
If you take the moment with respect to B, then
RA.L + P.b = 0
RA = P.b/L
RB= P.a / l.
Here we have two segments. This is segment one and this is segment two and in these two
different segments the bending moment expression will be different. Let us compute the value
of the bending moment for these two segments. For the segment one if I take a free body here,
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if I take a cut here and draw the free body diagram then this is the shear force, this is the bending
moment m and this distance is at a distance of x from the support a.
M = RA.x = P.b.x/L -------0 < x < a
If I take a free body of the second segment,
M = RA.x – P(x – a)
M = P.b.x/L – P(x – a) --------a < x < l
These are the two moment values that we have now. Once we get the expression for the moment
then we can write down a differential equation for the two segments differently.
Consequently, we integrate 1/1 and then in the first type of integration we get dy/dx and in the
second step we get y and that gives us the expression for the deflection curve. Once you solve
this, we have two different segments and different equations so thereby you will have four
unknown constants and these four unknown constants are to be evaluated from the four known
boundary conditions. This problem is set for you to solve and we will discuss how to solve
those unknown constants and how to arrive at the deflection curve in the next lesson.
Let us summarize this particular lesson. First we had included the concept of deflection of
beams for different loadings. We had discussed the previous lessons then we had looked into
the derivation of the equation of elastic curve and the differential equation. Consequently, we
760
have derived the elastic equation for the elastic curve. Then we have looked into some examples
as to how to evaluate the deflection of beams for different loading.
Now these are the questions set for you:
1. What is the differential equation of elastic curve in a beam?
2. What is the equation of elastic curve of beams?
3. What is the value of maximum deflection in a simply supported beam subjected to

uniformly distributed load of intensity w?
We will answer these questions in the next lesson.
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Prof. S. K. Bhattacharyya
Lecture - 31
Deflection of Beams - II
Welcome to the second lesson of the seventh module which is on deflection on beams part
II. In the last lesson we have introduce the concept of deflection of beams and also it has
been introduced that how deflection of beams plays an important role in the engineering
structures. We have derived the equation the differential equation for the elastic curve and
subsequently we have derived the equation for the elastic curve and we have seen that how
to compute the deflection of beam at any point for a particular kind of loading.
Now, in this particular lesson we will be discussing some more aspects of the deflection of
beams for different types of beams and subjected to different kinds of loads. It is expected
that once this particular lesson is completed one should be able to understand the concept
of deflection of beams under different loading conditions or different types of beams.
762
In fact, last time we have looked into simply supported beams subjected to loads. Here we
will be looking into some more types of beams with different kinds of loading systems.
One should be in a position to understand the concept of superposition method. We will
discuss this particular method the superposition; how to evaluate the deflection if you have
more number of loads which are acting simultaneously in a beam. Also one should be in a
position to evaluate deflections in different types of beams for different loading.
Hence the scope of this particular lesson includes recapitulation of previous lesson which
we generally do through the question answer session. We will be looking into the answers
of the question which I have posted last time and in the process we will be able to recollect
whatever we have discussed in the last lesson.
We will look into the concept of deflection of beams for different loading, concept of
superposition method and also it includes examples for evaluation of deflection in different
types of beams for different loadings.
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Well, the questions which were posed last time; the first question is that what is the
differential equation elastic curve in a beam.
Now, if you remember, last time we had derived that if a beam is subjected to transverse
loading then it undergoes bending and therefore the axis of the beam if you look into it
deforms. And we have seen that in terms of curvature of this particular beam is
764
1
ρ
where y is the deflection of the beam with respect to its original position.
And subsequently as we have seen, curvature is related to the bending moment at any cross
section M which is a function of x hence the curvature can be related to the bending
moment through this expression which is
It is called as the differential equation of elastic curve. So, when we mean that the
differential equation of the beam bending then this is the expression which we use and from
this particular basic equation we go for the other derived units like as we know that
. . . ′′′
. . . ′′′′
Where EI is the parameter which you call as flexural rigidity.

765
Now, the second question post was what is the equation of elastic curve. Now the first
question is what is the differential equation of elastic curve and the second question is what
is the equation of elastic curve of beams.
Now subsequently once we get the differential equation for the beam which is
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. ′ .
Now if we integrate it once then we get,
. . .
where C1 and C2 are the unknown constants which are to be evaluated from the boundary
condition. Now from these we can write that,
1
. .
This is the Equation of the elastic curve.

Since moment M is a function of x, and y will get the function of x so that you can compute
the value of y at any point along the length of the beam. Because if we consider the origin
of the coordinate axis at the length of support then along the length of the beam as we go
then at any x we can compute we can compute the value of y and from this particular
equation which we call equation of elastic curve.
767
Now the third question the last question posed was what is value of maximum deflection
in a simply supported beam subjected to uniformly distributed load of intensity w.
Now last time we had evaluated the expression for the elastic curve and subsequently the
deflection at different points. Now what is the simply supported beam when the load is w
for unit length along the entire span or what is the entire length of the beam, the expression
for the elastic curve as we have done from the expression of
768
.
If we do that we can get the value of y as a function of x and then if we evaluate the value
of y
5
/
384
Now this particular beam is symmetrically loaded and hence as we do not have any
horizontal reactive force over here the vertical reactive force RA and RB we have RA here
and RB over here. Now, for the symmetrical reloaded beam the maximum deflection occurs
at the center. In fact, for the elastic curve if we draw a tangent to an elastic curve at this
particular point this becomes horizontal. So the point where the tangent to the elastic curve
is a horizontal one that point the deflection we get is maximum. So the maximum deflection
in this particular case is,
5
384
So this is the maximum value of the deflection for a simply supported beam subjected to
uniformly distributed loads.
769
For a simply supported beam subjected to uniformly distributed load the maximum
deflection occurs at the center of the beam and the magnitude of that is equal to where
EI is constant throughout the beam which we have termed as the flexural rigidity.
Well, after looking into these questions let us look into another aspect of this evaluation of
deflection. Now this particular method we call as a superposition method wherein if you
have a number of loadings on a beam; now so far what we have seen is that a beam is
subjected to uniformly distributed load or you have a concentrated load at any point in the
beam then we can compute the expression for the elastic curve.
Now, supposing if we have a beam wherein there are several loads acting on a beam that
could be uniformly distributed load and several concentrative loads acting, then if we like
to compute the deflection of the beam at any point then of course we can use the
methodology as we have discussed so far. That means at any section we can compute the
bending moment and as usual we define the different segments over which that moment
expression is valid and then we employee the differential equation of the elastic curve
which is EI d2y/dx2 equal to moment and the validity of that moment expression segment-
770
wise and we can compute the value of deflection with the appropriate boundary condition.
So this particular technique we can employ and we can evaluate the deflection at any point
in the beam.
Now, since we are dealing with the beams which are in the elastic stage it is a linear elastic
condition of the beam. Also, if you look into the differential equations they are in a linear
function of the loading hence we can compute the deflection at a particular point for
individual such loadings and we can combine them together to obtain the deflection at a
particular point or we can propose the effect of different loads at a particular point. In fact
that is what we call as a superposition technique or superposition method.
So superposition method is the deflection of a beam produced by several different loads

acting simultaneously can be obtained by superposing the deflections produced by the same
loads acting separately. Now as an example if you look into this is a simply supported beam
hinge at this end and this is on the roller on the other end and it is subjected to uniformly
distributed load q per unit length and also it has two concentrated loads P1 and P2 which
are acting. P1 at a distance of ‘a’ from left support and P2 is acting at a distance of ‘b’ from
the right support.
Now when we have this loading, supposing if we are interested to evaluate the deflection
of this beam at this particular point (Refer Slide Time: 12:05) let us call this point as C;
now, if we like to find out the deflection delta at C; now as I said that we can employ the
governing differential equation which is EI d2y/dx2 is equal to moment and based on this
loading over here we have; we can divide the whole beam in three segments: the segment
1 is from here to here just on the left hand side of this concentrated load, segment 2 is from
here to or from this point to this point which is from a to L minus b and the third segment
is after this loading to the end of this and at these three places we can take the free body
diagram and compute the moment at these three places and consequently if we substitute
in this particular expression for the differential equation we can obtain the value of y with
appropriate boundary conditions for the different segments.
771
Also we can compute the value and accordingly at y we can compute from this expression
for y which will get as a function of x so at a distance from here if we know this value of
x we can compute the value of y. Now also what we can do is we can compute the value
of δc by taking these loads acting individually.
Now instead of these two concentrated load and the uniformly distributed load acting
simultaneously if we assume; let us say that instead of the concentrated load, now only the
uniformly distributed load is acting; now if the uniformly distributed load is acting we have
seen how to compute the expression for the elastic curve. Now in that expression if we
substitute the value of x we can get the value of deflection at point c which is delta c for
uniformly distributed load. Let us call that as δC1. So, that is for the uniformly distributed
load.
Now next let us consider that it is acted on y the concentrated load P 1 and no other loads
are acting. So now first we are considering that it is subjected to uniformly distributed load,
second we are considering that there is neither uniformly distributed load nor the other
concentrated load P 2 but it is subjected to only concentrated load P 1. Now, for this
particular condition again we can solve the differential equation, we can get the expression
772
for y in the beam and accordingly we can compute the deflection at point c for these loads
alone and let us call that as delta C 2 the deflection at c for the concentrated load P 1 is
delta C 2.
Now thirdly we assume that this particular beam is subjected to a concentrated load P 2
and no other loads are there; like neither the uniformly distributed load nor the concentrated
load P 1. So if the beam is subjected to only concentrated load P 2 again we can solve the
differential equation and compute or arrive at the expression for y as a function of x and
then we can compute the value of deflection at c from this differential for the equation of
elastic curve that what will be the deflection at point c and let us call that deflection as delta
c 3.
So, if we add these three deflections to together delta C 1 plus delta C 2 plus delta c 3 we
will get the total value of the deflection delta c which otherwise we have obtained from the
expression of the elastic curve had we taken all the loading simultaneously. So this is what
we call as the method of superposition where we can compute the deflection at any point
in the beam when we take the simultaneous or the many loads which are acting on a beam,
773
individually we take the loads and their effects on a particular point we consider and if we
sum them up we can get the deflection of that particular point for all the loads when they
are acting simultaneously on the beam and this is what we call as the superposition method.
Well, now let us look into the examples for evaluating the deflection at different points.
Now, the last lesson we started with this particular problem wherein we had a simply
supported beam which was subjected to a concentrated load P at a distance of A from the
left support or B from the right support. Now what we need to do is that we will have to
find out the expression of the elastic curve for this particular loading on this beam and also
we will have to compute the value of the maximum deflection and rotation at the support.
Now the last time we started with evaluating the moment at different points. Now as I said
the beam we can divide into two segments segment 1 and segment 2. now from 0 to A this
will be guided by one expression of the bending moment, from A to L it will be guided by
another expression of the bending moment but before that what we need to do is that we
need to evaluate the reactive forces and they are say RA and RB and since there are no
774
horizontal forces in the beam so the value of the horizontal force is equal to 0 and we can
compute to value of RA and RB; if we take moment about B we get,
RA = P.b/L
RA + RB = P
RB = P.a/L
For the segment 1, from 0 to a, if we take the free body over here if we take a cut and draw
the free body of the left support the free body will be that we have the reactive forces over
here and on this cut we have the balancing shear force and the bending moment M and V
and this is RA. So, if we take the moment of all the forces with respect to this particular
point which is at a distance of x from left support,
M = RA.x = P.b.x/L 0≤x≤a
But as soon as we go beyond this loading now this expression of bending moment is no
longer valid because the contribution of this load will come into picture.
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Now, if we take the segment 2 and if we take a cut over here and draw the free body
diagram then,
M = P.b.x/L – P(x-a) a≤x≤L
Now you see that over these two segments we have two expressions for the bending
moment. Now our next step is we substitute these values of the bending moment in our
differential equation which is EI d2y/dx2 is equal to moment and moment is equal to Pbx/L.
776
. .
. 0≤x≤a
. .
. a≤x≤L
Integrating,
.
. 0≤x≤a
.
. a≤x≤L
Integrating again,
.
. . 0≤x≤a
.
. a≤x≤L
777
Now there are four constants: C1, C3, C2, C4 and these four constant are to be evaluated
from the given boundary conditions. Or we know the support conditions of the beam, the
loading conditions of the beam; now we will have to substitute the appropriate boundary
conditions so that we can evaluate their values.
As we have discussed in the previous lesson you must be remembering that we can have
the boundary conditions either the static boundary conditions or the kinematic boundary
conditions and that could be imposed we can evaluate the unknown constant.
Now let us look into what are the boundary conditions that we can impose for evaluating
this unknown constant.
Now here (Refer Slide Time: 23:24) if you look into the deflection curve now this is the
axis of the beam and this is the expected deflected profile of the beam. Now at this point
at the load point; on the left hand side of the load as we have seen that one expression is
given for the deflection, on the right hand side of the load there is another expression for
evaluating the deflection.
Now at this particular point of the load where this is the limiting or the boundary for the
two expressions to be employed now at this particular point now from the left hand side
and from the right hand side the value should be equal. Or what I mean is the deflection of
778
this beam at this particular point or the slope of the deflection curve at this particular point
(Refer Slide Time: 24:11) from whichever side we compute either from this side or from
this side this would be the same because the elastic curve has to be continuous; it is not
discontinuous though; using two different functions for evaluating moment and
correspondingly the deflection curve but physically the beam segment is not a
discontinuous one so when it deflects the deflection curve has a continuity at that particular
point or the boundary point between the two expressions which we are using.
So, at that particular point if you compute the deflection or the slope whichever expression
we use from either side this would give us the same value. So we can use this particular
condition that at x = a, slope on either side or at that particular point is equal whichever
expression you use. At x = a, the deflection at that point should be equal whichever
expression you use and of course we have these two kinematic condition that at x = 0, y =
0 and at x = L, y = 0.
Now if we substitute that at x = a, slope is equal, then from the expression of
.
. 0≤x≤a
.
. a ≤ x ≤ L,
We get
. . . .

2 2
. . . .

6 2
779
Now, using the boundary conditions that at x = 0, y equal to 0;
0
Thus
0
780
Now if we employ the last boundary condition which is at x equal to L, y is equal to 0 now
again the validity of this particular boundary condition will be with respect to this particular
expression because this expression of y is valid between a to L. So,
.
6
. .
. 0≤x≤a
. .
. a≤x≤L
. . .
. . 0≤x≤a
. . .
. a≤x≤L
Now if we like to find out the slopes at the two ends. From the first half of the expression,
at x=0 we can compute and we get,
.
6
. .
6
Similarly,
. .
6
781
Now here, if you look into the sign of this, this ϴB is positive whereas ϴA is negative and
as we have seen that we have earlier noticed it that if you have the deflection curve and if
you take the tangent at this particular point this is moving in a clockwise fashion with
respect to the original axis of the beam and because it is clockwise, according to our sign
convention this is minus ϴA and if we take tangent over here (Refer Slide Time: 30:56)
this moves in an anticlockwise direction and according to our sign convention this is plus
ϴB and the values of these are given by this particular expression.
And as we have seen, that the loading is placed at a distance of ‘a’ from the left support or
b from the right support so it is not symmetrically loaded. Now, as in the previous case or
the first case where we have taken that a beam is loaded over the entire length of the beam
with uniformly distributed load where we said that the beam is symmetrically loaded and
hence we had obtained the maximum value of the deflection at the center where the tangent
to the deflection curve is horizontal.
782
Now for this particular problem since the loading is not symmetrical hence we need to find
out the position of the maximum bending moment. To find out the position for maximum
deflection in the beam; now for finding out the position for the maximum deflection we
need the criteria which we adopt is that the tangent which we draw to the elastic curve must
be horizontal.
Or in other words, the value of dy/dx at that particular point should be equal to 0. So if we
adopt the value of dy/dx equal to 0 you can compute the value of x where the tangent is
horizontal and once you substitute the value of x in the expression e for y, you can get the
value of deflection curve which is y the deflection at that particular point.
Now let us look into this particular aspect of this beam as we have evaluated that the
deflection for the segment 1 is:
. . .
. . 0≤x≤a
. . .
. a≤x≤L
Consequently the values of the rotations at end a is ϴA and at end b ϴB and as we have
seen that ϴA is negative and ϴB is positive.
Now let us look into the case of a particular situation when this particular load which is
located now at a distance of a, if we try to place this at the center of position means that,
783
a = b = L/2
Hence that gives us a particular situation of this generalized loading situation.
.
. 4 3 0 ≤ x ≤ L/2
.
. L/2 ≤ x ≤ L
Now as you can see here that this particular expression is little different than what we have
evaluated in case of the general expression where P was located at a distance of a from the
left spot. Now this particular expression is valid between 0 to L by 2. When the value of x
lies between 0 to L by 2 this particular expression is used. Now consequently if we like to
evaluate the deflection at any point between L/2 to L then the second half of the expression
for the general expression will be used where again for a and b we use a value of L/ 2.
Now fortunately the beam is being symmetrical, so if we compute on one side we can get
the values for the other as well as we have seen earlier and for the deflection curve as it is
known that at this point this will be, the tangent to the deflection curve will be horizontal
and this will give us the maximum value of the deflection.
And consequently, if we substitute the value of x as L/2 then we get the value of the
maximum deflection of the beam at center
784
.
48
And if you look into the sign of this it is negative which indicates that the beam deflects
towards the opposite direction of the positive y. Hence the negative sign comes in. this is
the maximum value of the deflection which is occurring at the center.
.
16
785
Now let us look into another example wherein we have in fact this particular example we
have solved last time wherein we say that the loading is uniformly distributed over the
entire span of the beam. And if you remember that we have started with the differential
equation of the elastic curve which is EI d2y/dx2 = M. And moment we had completed at
any cross section which is at a distance of x from the left support and consequently we have
evaluated the values of the deflection.
This is the expression for differential equation and then subsequently we came up with that
the value of y at x equal to L by 2 is this and correspondingly the value of ϴA and ϴB is
this. Now, also you have seen that the derived equation of this governing equation is EI d
4 y dx 4 is equal to minus q the loading. Now we can start from this particular point as well
and we can arrive at the value of y and ϴA and ϴB.
Now let us substitute this or let us start from this particular expression of the differential
equation and see what we get.
786
Integrating,
. .
Integrating,
. . .
Now if we apply the boundary condition here itself; now since we know that C 1 and C 2
are the two unknown constants and EId2y/dx2 represents the value of the bending moment,
now for a simply supported beam the bending moment at supports for both hinge support
and roller support is zero so bending moment.
At x =0, d2y/dx2 = 0 and also at x = L, d2y/dx2 = 0
Substituting x =0, d2y/dx2 = 0, 0
Substituting x = L, d2y/dx2 = 0,
.
2
787

2
Now this is the expression of the bending moment or the equation which we had started
with in the previous case. In fact from this particular point onwards again if we follow the
same steps as we have done earlier for evaluating the deflection curve equation of the
deflection curve then it will follow the identical situation. so whether we can consider
EId2y/dx2 equal to the bending moment or we can start from even EId4y/dx4 equal to
loading, finally the solution which you will get or the expression for the elastic curve which
you will get and consequently the values of the maximum deflections and the rotations at
different points we compute they will be identical.
788
This is the expression which we had used to obtain the values of deflection and the rotation.
So we can adopt either EId2y/dx2 equal to moment or EId4y/dx4equal to the minus of the
loading. now let us look into another example where this is a beam; now this is a different
type of beam, the beam is fixed in a and is free at the end b and thereby as we know that
this is a cantilever beam and this beam is subjected to uniformly distributed load of q bar
unit length.
789
Now what you will have to do is that you will have to determine the equation of the
deflection curve of this beam and you will have to find out the deflection and rotation of
the free end the end b. Now flexural rigidity EI of this particular beam is constant. So right
through the EI value is the same.
Now for evaluating the deflection curve arriving at the expression for the deflection curve
what we need to do as the first step is as we have done before we need to evaluate the
reactive forces. now at this fixed end you will have the vertical force let us call this as R
A, (Refer Slide Time: 43:21) we will have the horizontal reactive force let us call this as H
A, we will have the bending moment which is equal to M.
Now if we take the horizontal and vertical and the moment equilibrium, summation of
horizontal forces equal to 0 will give us HA = 0, summation of vertical forces equal to 0
will give that
RA = q.L
Taking the moment of all the forces with respect to this particular point; we have,
M’ + qL2/2 = 0
M’ = -qL2/2
790
Now we follow the same steps as we have done earlier. Now if I take a section here and if
I take a free body of that particular part so here you have the reactive force, you have the
moment and you have the uniformly distributed load (Refer Slide Time: 45:08) this is at
the distance of x and on this cross section you have the equilibrating forces the shear force
V and the bending moment M.
So, if we take the moment of all the forces with respect to this particular point at the cross
section then we have
M - M’- RA.x + qx2/2 = 0
M = -qL2/2 - qL.x - qx2/2
Now if I substitute the value of the moment in the differential equation so we have,
. . .
2 2
. . .
2 2 6
. . .
6 4 24
Now the boundary conditions what we have now C1 and C2 are the two unknown constants
which are to be evaluated from the two boundary conditions and the boundary conditions
here are, at x = 0, y =0 and also at x = 0, dy/dx = 0.
Substituting at x = 0, dy/dx = 0, we get, C1 =0
791
Substituting at x = 0, y = 0, we get, C2 =0
So, C1 = C2 = 0
So,
. . .
6 4 24
Now what we need to do is that we need to compute the value of the deflection at this free
end and also the slope of this elastic curve at this free end. That means if we take the tangent
of the elastic curve at this particular point then what is the rotation of this particular point
of the elastic curve.
So, at x= L,
.
6 4 24 8
8
Now again this minus sign indicates that it is in the opposite direction of the positive y so
it is deflecting downward and the magnitude of the deflection at the end if you know the
value of intensity q and the final length L then qL4/8EI is the value of the deflection at the
tip point or at the free end.
792
Now we can compute the value of dy/dx. In fact we could substitute in the expression for
dy/dx the value of x as L or in fact we can take the derivative of this expression y from
which we can compute the value of dy/dx or the slope at the free end. So,
.
2 2 6 6

6
And again as you can see that it is minus it indicates that the rotation is clockwise and
rightly as we have seen since the deflected set is in the negative direction so at this point if
you draw the tangent this gives us a clockwise rotation which is minus qL3/6.
793
Well, we have another problem wherein the load is acting at the free end which is a
concentrated load instead of the uniformly distributed load and exactly in the same way we
compute again the reactive forces the value. So if we call this beam A and B we have the
reactive force R A, we have the horizontal force H A and we have the moment M A. Now
here again if you take the horizontal equilibrium we get HA = 0, if we take the vertical
equilibrium we get R A is equal to P and if we take the moment then we get that M A is
equal to minus P into L. So these are the values of the reactive forces.
794
And if you take the moment at any cross section for evaluating the deflection curve; we
have,
RA = P
MA = -PL
M - MA - RA.x = 0
M = Px - PL = 0
Now if we substitute this,
. . .
. . . .
2
.
6 2
At x = 0, y =0 and also at x = 0, dy/dx = 0.

Substituting at x = 0, dy/dx = 0, we get, C1 =0
Substituting at x = 0, y = 0, we get, C2 =0
Hence,
795
.
6 2
At x = L,
.
6 2 3
.
2 2
This is how we compute the value of the deflection and the rotation.
796
And this is an example which is given for you. In fact as we have discussed today that how
to employ the method of superposition, we can employ the method of superposition in this
particular case and you can compute the value of the deflection at any point. We will
discuss this problem next time.
797
Now to summarize them, in this particular lesson we have included the following that we
have recapitulated the previous lesson, we have introduced the concept of deflection of
beams for different loadings and then the concept of superposition method we have
discussed and some examples to evaluated deflection of different types of beams for
different loading.
And these are the question set for you that what is flexural rigidity of beams please and
what is meant by M by EI diagram and what is the value of maximum deflection in a simply
supported beam subjected to concentrated load P at the center. We will discuss answers of
this in the next lesson, thank you.
798
Lecture - 32
Deflection of Beams - III
Welcome to the third lesson of the seventh module which is the deflection of beams part
III. In fact in the last two lessons on the deflection of beams we have discussed how the
deflection of beams affects in general and why we need to evaluate the deflection in beams
and the consequently the slopes in the beams. Now, in this particular lesson we are going
to look into some more aspects of deflection. In fact, in the last two lessons we have
discussed the differential equation of the elastic curve and consequently we have derived
the elastic curve, I mean the equation for elastic curve.
Now here we look into another methodology which we call as the moment area method
where we evaluate the slope and deflection in beams.
799
Hence it is expected that once you go through this particular lesson one should be able to
understand the concept of moment area method in evaluating the slope and deflection of
beams and one should be in a position to evaluate slope and deflection in different types of
beams for different loading using moment area method. In fact, in the last two lessons we
have solved quite a few examples wherein we have used the differential equation for elastic
curve and we have derived or we have evaluated the equation for the elastic curve based
on which we could evaluate or estimate the deflection in a beam at a particular location.
Also, we could compute the value of the slopes wherever needed along the length of the
beam. Now in this particular lesson we are going to discuss that if we employ this particular
method which is called the moment area method how do we compute the value of the slopes
and deflection in beams.
Hence the scope of this particular lesson includes; we will recapitulate some aspects of the
previous lesson. It includes the concept of moment area method; it includes moment area
theorems and their applications. In fact, based on this moment area method there are two
theorems which you call as moment area theorems and we will state those theorems and
800
consequently we will look into how they are applied in evaluating slopes and deflection in
beams and then we will look into some examples for evaluation of deflection in different
types of beams for different loadings.
Now let us look into the questions which were posed last time. The first one is what is
flexural rigidity of beams, explain.
801
Now let us look into this aspect. We had indicated in the last lesson that EI this particular
parameter EI is known as flexural rigidity where E is the modulus of elasticity of the
material which we are using for the beam and L is called as the moment of inertia of the
cross section taken about the neutral axis. This is the moment of inertia about neutral axis.
Now let me explain this with reference to a simple example. We have seen that for a simply
supported beam which is subjected to uniformly distributed load of intensity q power unit
length over a length of L the deflection which we get the maximum value of deflection is
5qL4/384EI.
Now let us assume that we have two beams which are identical. That means they have the
same length, they are subjected to similar intensity of the loading which is q and they are
made out of the same material so that the value of E is same for both the beams. Now the
only difference between these two beams is that in this particular case we choose a cross
section; let us say that we choose a section which is a rectangular section, the width of
which is b and let us call the depth as h1 and for these particular beam we choose a cross
section for which width is b but the depth is h2 and let us assume that the depth h1 is greater
than h2.
Now since all other parameters like qL E they remain constant then the parameter which is
changing the depth is I because I for this rectangular is equal to bh3/12. So with the change
in h there will be change in I, there will be change in the deflection δ.
Now physically if you look into that if you take a beam which is having a depth larger than
the other one having other parameters constant then larger the depth, the more the beam
will have more strength and physically, given the ideal situation the larger depth of the
beam will be in a position to carry more load.
Or in other words, if we keep the same load for both the beams the beam which is having
larger depth will deform less. So we can call the beam which is having larger depth in
comparison to the other so the other beam the larger depth beam is more rigid in
802
comparison to the other beam. Hence the value of I if E is constant then EI this parameter
governs the δ since other parameters remain constant.
Now if the value of EI is higher, then the value of δ will be less and the vice versa; if EI
becomes lower then δ will be more and physically that is justified. That means if EI is
larger means for the material for the same E the I value is more that means the cross-
sectional size is more and it is naturally going to carry more load or going to deform less
and consequently you are going to get less deformation which is δ. Hence this particular
term EI in fact physically signifies that how rigid a member is, you know, given the cross-
sectional parameter.
Hence this particular term flexure as we have seen comes from the bending of the beam
which you call as the flexure as well, it is the flexing of the beam and hence this particular
term EI which defines the rigidity of the beam against these flexural action we call EI as
the flexural rigidity and that is the significance of this flexural rigidity in computing the
deflection or the slope which we call as the deformation of the beam against lateral loading
or the transverse loading.
803
Now the second question was what is meant by M/ EI diagram. Now this interesting and
with reference to this present lesson we will be discussing in more detail.
Now let us look into what is really meant by M/EI diagram. Now, as the terms you are
acquainted with that particular value M or the particular designation M, we generally
designate the bending moment in the beam as M. So basically when we were saying M/EI
diagram that means it is related to the bending moment diagram.
804
Now again coming back to the example of a simply supported beam with a uniformly
distributed load which is subjected to q per unit length, here as we have seen that the
bending moment varies parabolically over the entire length and this particular diagram
represents the bending moment diagram, the maximum magnitude of which is qL /8, if you
compute this ordinate you will get qL /8.
Now, when we say by M/EI diagram what we mean is that each and every ordinate of this
bending moment diagram if it is divided by the flexural rigidity of the beam member which
is EI then we will get another diagram which is similar to the bending moment diagram in
nature but will have the different value of the ordinates which is equal to M/EI the M value
which we had for the previous diagram that is the bending moment diagram; the M/EI
diagram would be having ordinate values which is lower because we are dividing each of
the ordinates of the bending moment diagram by the term EI.
Hence the magnitude the maximum magnitude here for the M/EI diagram will be qL /8EI
whereas the magnitude of the bending moment ordinate will be qL /8. So this particular
diagram where we divide all the ordinates of the bending moment diagram by EI we call
that as M/EI diagram.
Now it may so happen that in this particular case we have considered that EI value is
constant throughout the beam. Now it may so happen that we have a beam wherein the
central part is having larger value of EI thereby here as if we have the larger cross section
over the rest of the beam. And let us say, here if you have a moment of inertia of 2I and
other places we have the moment of inertia of i then the value of flexural rigidity in this
zone is EI, in this zone also EI whereas in this particular zone it is 2EI. But the bending
moment diagram remains as it is like in this form.
805
Now if the ordinate each of these ordinates are divided by the respective EIs; here it is EI
and here it is 2EI then accordingly the M/EI diagram will change and will have a figure
similar to this kind. That means we will have here it is divided by EI, at this point is divided
by 2EI (Refer Slide Time: 11:25) hence the value will be less and then again it will go in
this form exactly in the same orientation and again it will come in this form.
So you know, depending on the value of the moment of inertia and consequently the
flexural rigidity of EI the M/EI diagram will change. So this particular diagram we called
as M/EI diagram and then we will see we will make use of this M/EI diagram while
discussing this moment area method for evaluating the slopes and deflections of beams, as
we will go along in few minutes.
806
Now the last question which we had was what is the deflection, the maximum value of the
deflection of a simply supported beam which is subjected to a concentrated loop at the
center. Now this particular problem or the example we have solved last time we have seen
that if we employ the differential equation for evaluating the deflection curve or the elastic
curve which is
EId2yϴz/dx2 = M
then we get the expression called elastic curve
y = f(x)
Then there if we substitute x = L/2, then we get the value of y which is maximum in this
particular case because it is symmetrical with respect to the support and with reference to
the loading and at this point if we draw the tangent to the elastic curve this will be horizontal
hence this is the maximum deflection.
δmax = PL3/48EI
where, p is the concentrated load, L is the span of the beam and the load is acting at the
midway between the beam which is at L/2 and EI is the flexural rigidity which is constant
throughout the length of the beam.
807
Well, then having looked into this let us look into some aspects of the moment area
theorems. Now moment area method basically is a method for evaluating the slope and
deflection for beams which are subjected to different kinds of loading.
Now, in the last two lessons we have looked into that if a particular type of beam that means
it has some kind of support; neither a simple support nor a cantilever beam, when they are
subjected to different forms of loading either uniformly distributed load or concentrated
808
load, we have seen how to evaluate the slope and deflection by using the differential
equation for the elastic curve. And consequently, by integrating the differential equation of
the elastic curve, after writing the expression for the bending moment, we have computed
the expression for elastic curve and based on that expression of the elastic curve we could
compute the value of the deflection at different points along the length of the beam.
Now we are going to look into another method which is called as the moment area method
and as the name signifies, we are going to make use of the bending moment diagram of a
beam and in fact in this sense this is semi-graphical in nature that we will make use of the
bending moment diagram in evaluating the slopes and deflection of the beam.
In deriving the equations or the differential equation for the elastic curve we assumed that
the beam material is linearly elastic and the slope is small so that we could make some
assumptions. Now, while deriving this moment area theorem here also we make similar
assumptions like the material is linearly elastic and the slope is sufficiently small so that
we can employ these moment area theorems in evaluating the slope and deflection.
In fact there are two theorems for this moment area method which is called the first theorem
of moment area and the second theorem of moment area and based on these two theorems
we can compute the values of deflection and the slope in a beam. Now the first theorem,
first moment area theorem, goes like this that the angle between the tangents to the
deflection curve at any two points on the elastic curve is equal to the area of the M/EI
diagram between those two points.
809
The first theorem says that the angle between the tangents to the deflection curve that is
the elastic curve at any two points is equal to the area of the M/EI diagram. Now let us see
that how really do we apply this theorem in evaluating or making use of this M/EI diagram.
In this particular figure let us say that this is a part of the deflection curve and we choose
two point A and B and at point A we draw a tangent so that this gives the slope of this
810
particular point of the elastic curve which you call as ϴA. Now if we draw a tangent at B
of the elastic curve, now this particular tangent which has the slope of the elastic curve at
point B which we call as ϴB. So this particular angle is the difference of these two angles
ϴB and ϴA and this we call as ϴBA = ϴB - ϴA.
This is the part of the bending moment diagram and let us call this now as M/EI diagram
that means the bending moment diagram has been divided by the term EI to obtain the
M/EI diagram. Now on this elastic curve or around the axis of the beam we choose a small
length dx and on the elastic curve we choose this length as ds. Now if we draw normal to
the end of this ds this particular length is ds (Refer Slide Time: 17:46) this goes to the
center of curvature and ρ being the radius of the curvature. Hence let us assume that this
particular segment, ds forms an angle of dϴ at the center. So this length ds can be written
as ρ.dϴ. So,
ds = ρ.ϴ.
Now since this deformation is small and the slope is small we assume that dx = ds. So,
ds = dx = ρ.dϴ
811
dϴ/dx = 1/ρ
Now we already know from the bending equation that,
σ
ρ
So,
1 dϴ
ρ
Thus,
dϴ
Now if we look into this particular expression; now for this particular segment ds two ends
if we draw a tangent. Let us say these are the two tangents, since these are the normals at
the end of ds and since this angle is dϴ hence this particular angle is also going to be dϴ.
Now it demonstrates that the change in angles between the ends of these two segments ds
which is dϴ this is nothing but equals to the area of the strip which is on the bending
moment diagram, the area of this particular strip the ordinate of which is M/EI and the
width is dx. So,
Now if we integrate this particular expression over the stretch A to B, then,
So you see, now what we are getting is that the change in slope between two points on the
elastic curve because the two points we have chosen is B and A and ϴBA is the difference
in slope between B and A which is ϴBA which is nothing but equal to the area of the M/EI
diagram between those two points.
So you see that this particular theorem demonstrates that if we know or we can physically
plot the elastic curve of a beam and if we are interested to find out the difference in slope
between two points on the elastic curve then simply if we can compute the area of the M/EI
diagram between those two points that will give us a value of change in slope between
812
those two points. So, by making use of the bending moment diagram; or in other words,
M/EI diagram we can readily compute the values of the slope of the elastic curve at
different points and that is one of the advantages of this particular method.
Now of course while using this particular method we have to be careful that the diagrams
which we get for the bending moment diagram they are to be simple enough; like if you
have a form like rectangular or square or a triangular form or a parabolic form or in which
case we know the areas we can compute the area values directly for such diagrams and it
becomes easier to implement it.
813
Now let us look into the some of the aspect of this particular theorem. Now here if you
note that we had used the term M now that is for the bending moment and the value of the
bending moment could be positive or negative or rather its sign would be as usual as we
have assumed earlier, that means we have a counter clockwise moment counter clockwise
moment will give you positive value of bending and the clockwise moment will give you
the negative value of the bending. So we follow the users’ sign convention as we have used
so long.
Also, now area of M/EI diagram is an algebraic quantity. That means if we are choosing
M/EI diagram between two points and if it so happens; say for example we have the M/EI
diagram which goes like this, you know I am choosing arbitrarily; now if I am considering
these two sections let us say this is positive and this is negative (Refer Slide Time: 23:30)
then depending on the sign as we have between these two points we must consider these
signs. So the area of the M/EI diagram is given a positive or negative sign depending on
whether the bending moment is positive or negative.
But when we try to compute the values of the slope or the values of deflection we generally
do not bother about the signs since we know physically, because of the loading how it is
going to deflect. We can we just compute the absolute value and then accordingly assign
814
depending on whether it is having a clockwise moment or counter clockwise moment or
how the deflection is going whether it is above the base line or below the base line. But
only we are interested to evaluate the magnitude of these quantities that is the slope or
deflection. However, this sign convention is generally ignored and only absolute values are
considered for evaluating ϴ and δ. This is what is important while using this moment area
theorem.
815
Now the second moment area states that the tangential deviation of any point with respect
to the tangent at any other point on the elastic curve is equal curve is equal to the first
moment of the area of the M/EI diagram between those two points evaluated with respect
to the former point.
So it is again the tangential deviation of a point with respect to another point on the elastic
curve so this equals to the first moment of the area of the M/EI diagram between the points
under consideration and the moment is to be taken with respect to the fresh point where we
are evaluating the tangential deviation with respect to the other so with respect to the former
point. This is the second moment area theorem. Now let us look into how do we apply this
theorem for evaluating the information as we need for evaluating the slope and the
deflection now again.
Again we consider a segment of the elastic curve an on this segment we choose two points
A and B and we draw a tangent at point A and from B we drop a vertical line and let us say
this tangent cuts this vertical line at B1. In fact from B, B1 is the tangential deviation of B
with respect to the tangent drawn at A. So the second moment area theorem states that the
tangential deviation of a point with respect to the tangent drawn from any other point is
equal to the moment of the M/EI diagram between those points and taken above the former
points.
816
So the moment of this M/EI diagram between two points A and B taken about B will be
the case as per this second moment area theorem.
Now let us look into this. Now if we go exactly the same way as we have done earlier that
means from the first moment area theorem, now here we choose a small segment say of
length ds and as usual this makes an angle of dϴ at the center and considering this as a
small deformation problem or the slope is small, this ds length we approximate as dx and
at the end of the ds if we draw the tangent we assume that this cuts this vertical line and
we call this length as dt (Refer Slide Time: 27:22). This length B-B1, we call as tBA and this
small segmental length on line B-B1 we call it as dt. And since this deflection is small you
know the slope is small so the axis of the beam the distance x1 as we have chosen the
distance of the strip dx from B which is x1 we assume that the length dt can be computed
in terms of this x1.
Now as we have seen that if this angle is dϴ, this angle is also dϴ between the two tangents,
hence if we call this length as x1.
dt = x1.dϴ
Now here we assume that slope is small and thereby the length x1 which is along the axis
of the beam is equivalent to the tangent length which is cutting the vertical line B-B1 giving
the distance dt, So
817
dt = x1.dϴ.
Now we have seen in the previous theorem that
dϴ
dt x
dt x
This indicates that this is the moment of the M/EI diagram between points A and B taken
about the point B and M/EI is the ordinate, dx integral over the length and the distance of
that, now this point is the c.g. of this particular part of the M/EI diagram and let us call that
distance as x̅ . So this area times the x̅ , now x̅ mind that is with reference to the point B for
which we are evaluating the tangential deviation is the moment of this particular area. So
the tangential deviation of B with respect to the tangent drawn at A which is tBA is equals
to the moment of the M/EI diagram between B and A and the moment is taken about the
point B that is the statement of the moment area theorem.
Therefore, now as we have seen that we have two theorems of moment area method, the
first theorem says that if we are interested to evaluate the difference in slope between the
two points of the elastic curve then that is equal to the area of the M/EI diagram between
those two points. And the second moment area theorem states that if we are interested to
find out the tangential deviation of a point on the elastic curve with respect to the tangent
drawn on the other point with reference to the other point then that is equal to the moment
of the M/EI diagram between those two points A and B and the moment is taken about the
form of point which is B; that will give us the tangential deviation of the elastic curve of
the point with reference to the other point where we have drawn the tangent.
Now we make use of these two theorems to evaluate the values of the slope and the
deflection at any point in the beam as we have done in case of using the differential
equation for elastic curve that we have written down the expression for the bending
818
moment, we have employed the differential equation, we have integrated it and we have
computed the value of y at different points.
Now we will make use of this semi-graphical method by employing the bending moment
diagram to compute the value of slope and the deflection in the beam for different kinds of
beam with different kinds of loading. But please keep in mind that moment area method
becomes useful or suitable when the bending moment diagram becomes relatively simpler;
like if you have a regular diagram like a square one or rectangular one or triangular one or
a parabolic configuration for which you can really evaluate the value of the area and
consequently you can take the moment of those areas with reference to the point then there
you are evaluating the tangential deviation. So, moment area method can be employed to
evaluate the values of the rotation of the slopes and the deflection at any point in the beam.
Now let us look into some of the examples so that this becomes clear.
Now, before we go to the examples for evaluating the or for using the moment area theorem
let us look into the example which we did in the last lesson. In the last lesson we did this
particular problem that we have a cantilever beam and we have the load at the tip of the
819
cantilever beam which is a concentrated load, now what we had to do was to arrive at the
equation of the elastic curve and deflection and rotation of the free end.
Now as we have seen that we could arrive at the elastic curve based on the equation of the
differential equation of the elastic curve which is
I take a cut at a distance x,

. .
. . .
. . .
2
. . . .
6 2
Boundary Conditions,
At x=0, y=0, dy/dx=0
Thus, C1 = C2 = 0
820
. . . .
6 2
,
2 3
Now eventually if we compute the δmax, we get is at the free end of the beam.
So. δmax = δL
For ϴL, if we take a tangent to this elastic curve, till a particular point the tangent to the
elastic curve is along the axis or it is parallel or along the line of this particular axis.
Hence, ϴA = 0
After that point when we draw the tangent we get slope at the free end as ϴB - ϴA
Since, ϴA = 0. Slope = ϴB
2
821
If we take the derivative of that differential equation once again we get,
Now here (Refer Slide Time: 38:10) we have computed the values of the reactive forces R
and the moment M. R is equal to P. Now if I take a cut over here as show in the fig and if
we take a free body diagram, you have R, moment and shear.
ΣV=0
So, V + P = 0
V = -P
And that is the shear which we have and that is where from the free end to the cut you get
the same value.
Integrating,
At x = L, the free end the moment is equal to 0.

Thus,
So even if we start from this particular expression that EI.d3y/dx3 = -V, we arrive at the
same value. So you can employ any of these forms of these governing differential
822
equations. That means EId2y/dx2 = M. Now you can employ the other form of the
differential equation as well which is EI d3y/dx3 which is shear which is convenient in this
particular case or if you have a distributed loading over the entire span of the beam you
could use EIdy4/dx4 is equal to -q as well which we had seen in the case of a simply
supported beam which is subjected to uniformly distributed load.
So any of these forms of the differential equation according to the suitability you can use
it and the final form of the results which you will get the value of the maximum deflection
or the rotations at different points we will have the identical results.
Now let us look into another example problem. In fact this example problem, in fact this
example was given to you last time and in the last lesson we had discussed that if a beam
is subjected to several loads of different forms; like if you have uniformly distributed load
you have several concentrated load on a beam and if you are interested to find out the
displacement at any point or the deflection of the beam at any point the length of the beam
then the method which we had discussed so far that means we compute the bending
moment at different segments and substitute in the differential equation and we solve the
823
differential equation in those different segments, apply appropriate boundary conditions in
those segments and arrive at the final form of the elastic curve.
We can employ the same technique for evaluating the deflection for multiple loads. Or else
what we can do is that we can apply the method of superposition. This means that we
assume that instead of all the loads acting simultaneously we split it. We assume that the
beam first as it is subjected to uniformly distributed load, secondly it is subjected to a
concentrated load alone and several such concentrated loads individually are acting and for
each of these cases we compute the deflection at the point where we are trying to find out
the deflection individually and if we sum them up then we get the identical value of the
deflection as we were getting earlier.
The reason behind this is that the deflection which we are computing is a linear function
of the load which we are applying and hence this superposition is valid and you can get the
deflection by using this superposition technique.
Now let us look into this particular problem that first if we compute it the way we are
computing now and subsequently if we impose the method of superposition then what
happens.
824
Now you see here, in this particular beam we have the concentrated load and the uniformly
distributed load which is q per unit length and as usual we compute the values of the
reactive forces.
ΣH=0
HA = 0
ΣV=0
Due to symmetry,
RA = RB = q.L/2 + P/2
Now here we have two segments, segment 1 and segment 2. Now, for the segment 1 if we
take a cut over here and draw the free body of the left hand (Refer Slide Time: 43:42) then
the expression about the bending moment comes as,
0 < x < L/2
Now, subsequently if we take the other part segment 2, if we cut over here and draw the
free body of this part of the segment which is at a distance of x then,
0 < x < L/2
825
Now incidentally since this is a symmetrical beam or a beam which is having symmetrical
loading, hence if we can compute for this segment the other segment will also follow the
identical result but with a mirror image.
Now if we take the first segment and apply this in the differential equation,
2 2 2
Integrating,
2 2 2 6
Integrating again,
.
2 2 6 24
Now since we are using only the first segment we should impose the boundary conditions
which are valid within that first segment.
At x = 0, y = 0
Also, if we draw the elastic curve as we are expecting this being a symmetrical beam that
means the beam subjected to a symmetrical loading, now if we draw the tangent to the
826
elastic curve at this particular point at the half way point then that becomes horizontal. That
means,
At x = L/2, dy/dx = 0.
Substituting,
C2 = 0
3 2
48
3 2
.
2 2 6 24 48
5
. /
384 48
Now if we try to apply, so this is the normal way the way we are computing the value of
deflection in a beam using the differential equation for the bending. Now if we like to
employ the method of superposition let us see what we get applying the method of
superposition for this particular case.
827
Now here, this particular beam this particular loading on this beam can be divided into two
parts. The first part we take the beam subjected to the load which is q power unit length
and this particular part we consider the beam which is subjected to the concentrated load
P. Now as we have seen that when a simply supported beam subjected to an uniformly
distributed load q per unit length then for that the values for the maximum deflection at the
center is equal to 5qL4/384EI and the values of the slope at A and at B which is ϴA and
ϴB which is equal to qL2/24EI.
Now here of course we have not given the sign of the slope. As we have noticed earlier
that if you take the deflection curve now the slope at this point (Refer Slide Time: 49:41)
is a clockwise one which is negative and the slope at this end is anticlockwise which is
positive but the magnitude-wise they are qL2/ 24EI.
Now if we consider this particular beam where we have the beam with a concentrated load
P at the center then correspondingly we get the value of δ as P L2 / 48EI and
correspondingly the values of the slope at A and B if we compute it this is ϴA and this is
ϴB they are P L2 /16EI. Again we have not used the sign, only we have used the magnitudes
of the slopes.
828
Now as you can see that if we combine these two deflections together; that means since
this particular beam we are analyzing and this beam is consisting of these two systems of
loading, so if we compute the deflection which we have computed here and here, if we sum
them up then it will give the result for this particular case. So the total δ for this beam will
be this plus this which eventually we have seen in the previous case. And also the value of
the slope will be the sum of these two which is that of this plus this (Refer Slide Time:
51:09).
Thus, by employing this superposition technique we can split the loading system of the
beam where it is subjected to several loads either in the form of uniformly distributed load
or in the form of concentrated load; we can split the loading system in the beam in different
forms or in a simpler form and then we can compute the value of deflection and the slope
at a point where we desire and then we can sum them up to get the results for the loads
which are acting simultaneously.
829
This is the final from of this result of this particular case that δmax, this is for the uniformly
distributed load and this (Refer Slide Time: 51:53) is for the concentrated load so the
combined effect of this is the value of δmax over here, ϴAt A is the effect of the uniformly
distributed load and concentrated load, again ϴAt B is the uniformly distributed and
concentrated load, again these are with the magnitudes but not with the sign.
830
Now we have another example problem. Here we use the moment area method. In fact this
particular problem we have already solved to find out the slope and deflection of the free
end. Now we employ moment area theorem so that we can compute the values and check
whether they are the same.
When we employ the/ when we like to find out the δ the deformation of this that means if
we draw a tangent to the elastic curve at this and if we drop a perpendicular so this is the
distance which is δmax or which we call as dv. Also, we are interested to find out the slope
of this particular beam at this free end if we draw a tangent over here; if we draw a tangent
over here this slope is 0 (Refer Slide Time: 53:03) so the difference between these two
slopes is ϴB again.
Now as per the moment area first theorem, if we are interested to find out the change in
slope between these two points it should be equal to the M/EI diagram between these two
points and that is what is considered over here. The bending moment diagram for the
cantilever beam subjected to the tip load P will be PL by EI which is the magnitude over
here and then gradually it will be coming to 0 linearly so we will have a triangular
configuration for the M/EI diagram.
831
Now if we take the area of the M/EI diagram between these two points that is between A
and B which is half times PL by EI times length that will give us the change in slope
between these two points which is equal to ϴB and that is equals to PL /twice EI. Also,
now when we draw a tangent over here this is the tangential equation of the elastic curve
of this particular point which is equal to the δmax.
That means if we take the moment of the M/EI diagram with respect to this point we are
going to get the value of the deflection. So δmax is equal to half PL by EI times L times
the distance of the cg from here which is two third of L. So if we employ that that gives us
a value of PL / 3EI. So these are the values which we have obtained earlier by employing
differential equations. We can make use of these moment area theorems as well to get the
vales of the slope and deflection.
Well, we have another example problem. We have to employ the moment area theorem to
find out the slope and deflection of this particular beam and this problem is set for you. We
will discuss in the next class.
832
Now to summarize them, in this particular lesson we have included the recapitulation of
previous lesson. We have looked into the moment area theorems. We have evaluated the
slope and deflection of beams using moment area method and also we have demonstrated
some examples to evaluate slope and deflection of different types of beams for different
loadings.
833
These are the questions set for you. What is the method of superposition? What is the use
of moment area method and what is the value of end rotations in a simply supported beam
subjected to concentrated load P at the center of the beam. Now answers for this will be
given in the next lesson, thank you.
Preview of next lesson
Lecture no - 33
Deflection of Beams - IV
Welcome to the fourth lesson on the seventh module which on the deflection of beam part
IV.
834
In fact in the last three lessons in this particular module we have discussed how to evaluate
the slope and deflection in beams for different loading situations considering the
differential equation of elastic curve and also we have looked into the method of
superposition, how to employ superposition in evaluating slope and deflection of beams
and subsequently we have looked into the theorem of moment area or moment area method
to evaluate the slope and deflection in beams.
Now in this particular lesson we will be concentrating on the evaluation of slope and
deflection of beams employing moment area method again. But in the previous examples
we have looked into for the beams where the EI value or the flexural rigidity is uniform
throughout the beam. Now here we will be considering the beam where EI may not be
uniform throughout the beam there could be variable moment of inertia or if there is a non-
prismatic beam where it is varying continuously then what will be the values of slope in
such beams.
Hence it is expected that once this particular lesson is completed one should be in a position
to understand the use of moment area method in evaluating the slope and deflection of non-
835
prismatic beams or beams with variable moment of inertia. One should be in a position to
evaluate slope and deflections in different types of beams for different loadings.
The scope of this particular lesson includes recapitulation of previous lesson and we will
be doing that through the question answer session; we will be answering the questions
which were posed last time and thereby recapitulate the previous lesson.
Use of moment area method in evaluating slope and deflection in non-prismatic beams or
beams with variable moment of inertia. Also, this lesson includes the examples for
evaluation of slope and deflection in different types of beams for different loadings.
836
Well, let us look into this particular module and in this module we have seen it includes
four lessons and the first lesson we have discussed the derivation of differential equation
of elastic curve and its applications. Then subsequently we have introduced the concept of
superposition method in the lesson 2.
837
In the third lesson we have discussed about the concept of moment area method, the
moment area theorem and its application in evaluation of slope and deflection. And in this
particular lesson today we have seen application of moment area theorem in non-prismatic
beams or in beams with variable moment of inertia.
838
Now these are the questions set for you that what will be the value of deflection in a simply
supported beam if the moment of inertia is doubled.
What will be the value of end slopes in a simply supported beam if the span is doubled?
What is the value of a slope at the tip of a cantilever beam subjected to concentrated load
P at the tip of the beam?
Now answers for this will be given to you in the next lesson, thank you.
839
Lecture - 33
Deflection of Beams – IV
Welcome to the fourth lesson of the seventh module which is on deflection of beam part
IV. In fact in the last three lessons of this particular module we have discussed how to
evaluate a slope and deflection in beams for different loading situations considering the
differential equation of the elastic curve. And also we have looked into the method of
superposition; how to employ method of superposition in evaluating slope and deflection
of beams and subsequently we have looked in to the theorem of moment-area or moment-
area method to evaluate the slope and deflection in beams.
Now in this particular lesson we will be concentrating on the evaluation of slope and
deflection of beams employing moment-area method again. But in the previous examples
we have looked into for the beams where the EI value or the flexural rigidity is uniform
throughout the beam. Now here we will be considering the beams where EI may not be
uniform throughout the beam, there could be variable moment of inertia or if there is a non-
prismatic beam where it is varying continuously then what will be the values of slope and
deflection in such beams.
840
Hence it is expected that once this particular lesson is completed one should be in a position
to understand the use of moment-area method in evaluating slope and deflection of non-
prismatic beams or beams with variable moment of inertia. One should be in a position to
evaluate slope and deflections in different types of beams for different loadings.
841
The scope of this particular lesson includes recapitulation of previous lesson and you will
be doing that through the question answer sessions. We will be answering the questions
which were posed last time and thereby recapitulate the previous lesson.
Use of moment-area method in evaluating slope and deflection in non-prismatic beams or
beams with variable moment of inertia. Also, this lesson includes the examples for
evaluation of slope and deflection in different types of beams for different loading. Well,
next we will look in to the answers of the questions which were posed last time.
The first question is what is the method of superposition.

842
Now if you remember we said that in a particular beam if we are interested to evaluate the
slope and deflection for multiple loadings like the loadings shown over here that this
particular beam which is simply supported subjected to uniformly distributed load of
intensity q per unit length and also it is subjected to concentrated loads P1, P2 and P3. Now
if we are interested to evaluate displacement or deflection of this particular beam at this
point for these loadings then we can employ any of the methods which we have learnt; let
us say the usage of differential equation of elastic curve, we can use differential equation
of elastic curve which says that EId2y/dx2 is the bending moment m and we can employ
the to evaluate the deflection at these particular point for general loading as shown.
Also, we can evaluate the deflection of this particular point using this method of
superposition wherein we use individual loading; instead of considering all the loadings
acting on this particular beam we consider the loads one by one and evaluate the deflection
at this particular point for each individual load and finally we sum them together to get the
final deflection at this particular point. and it is expected that the results which we get in
either case; that is in the first case when we use the differential equation for elastic curve
for the whole lot of loading and compute the deflection and if we employ method of
superposition by using differential equation or area moment theorem and if we evaluate the
843
deflection at that particular point for individual loading and sum them up the result should
be identical.
This is what the method of superposition says that for the linear response of the structure
this is quite important that when the response of the structure is linear means that the
deflection which we compute is a linear function of the load and then the effect of several
loads acting simultaneously may be obtained by superposing the effects of the individual
loads. For these you will have to satisfy these two criteria: one is that the material with
which the beam is made of must obey the Hooke’s law and the deformations are sufficiently
small so that we can employ a superposition technique. This is what we call as
superposition.
844
The second question was what is the use of moment-area method.
845
Now we have seen that in the last lesson we have discussed about the moment-area method
and consequently we have discussed the two theorems moment-area theorems. Now they
are useful in determining the slope or deflection of the beam at a specified location. Now,
for using moment-area method as you have noticed that we need to employ the bending
moment diagram of a particular beam for which we are interested to evaluate slope and
deflection and from bending moment diagram we arrived at the M/EI diagram and that is
what is our interest for employing moment-area method that we draw M/EI diagram from
the bending moment diagram and using this M/EI diagram we compute the value of slope
and deflection in a beam at a particular location where we are interested in.
846
And the last question given was what is the value of the end rotations in a simply supported
beam subjected to concentrated load P at the center of the beam.
In fact we have discussed this example and we have solved it using differential equation of
elastic curve as well as using moment-area method. and as we have seen, that when we
compute the value of the rotation at the end the value of the rotation comes as PL2/16EI so
847
the value of the end slope is whether ϴA or ϴB because this particular beam is symmetrical
and is symmetrically loaded plus these two, magnitude-wise are both ϴA and ϴB are in
the same which is PL2/16EI and from the sign convention as you know that from this axis
it is rotating in a clockwise direction, (Refer Slide Time: 8:03) from this axis it is rotating
in an anticlockwise direction so for this matter it is negative and according to our
convention this is positive and this is what is indicated over here: ϴB is equals to minus
ϴA and magnitude-wise it is PL2/16EI. Those were the answers of the questions which we
posed last time.
And you know, as I have told you that in the three lessons of this particular module, we
have seen that how to compute the value of slope and deflection in a beam for particular
support conditions and also for a particular type of loading how to compute the values
using differential equation of elastic curve or moment-area methods or employing any of
these using superposition method we can compute these values.
Now here in the previous examples whatever we have computed so far we must noticed
that we have used the value of EI which we have defined as flexural rigidity we have kept
constant throughout the span of the beam. That means the value of the moment of the inertia
848
is constant. Or in other words, the cross-sectional parameters of the beam is not changed
throughout the span of the beam.
Now the question is, if it is not constant, if EI is a very good parameter then what happens.
So that is what we are going to look in to today. Now in this case let us see that many a
times for economic reasons we use this i cross-section of the beam as we have seen that
cross-sectional area which is in the form of I is useful because the areas are masked away
from the neutral axis and as if this particular section contributes more to the moment of
inertia I.
Now as we have seen that if the beam is a simply supported one subjected to different kinds
of loading either concentrated load or distributed load, the maximum bending moment
occurs at the center of the span, at the center of this particular beam. Now, to enhance the
strength of the beam many a times in the central region we add some additional material
so that the moment of inertia can be enhanced further. That means on the top of this we
can add some plate on either side so that the moment of inertia of the cross section in this
particular region can be enhanced.
Now as we have seen that the bending stress σ,
Now if we increase the value of I, then the value of σ comes down and thereby this will be
more effective in carrying the stress if we can increase the moment of inertia in the central
region.
Now if we do that then this particular beam becomes a section a different section it becomes
the variable cross-sectional area. that means at this particular location this may be I, in this
particular location this may be twice I or some fraction of values of I so thereby you have
different values of moment of inertia in these regions and as a result if we like to employ
the differential equation which is EId2y/dx2 = M then we cannot employ the uniform
849
expression for all the regions, we will have to write down this differential equation for
different regions and we can compute it.
Now in this particular case it becomes rather simpler. But for a case where you have a beam
of this particular form where the section of the beam is a non-prismatic one; that means
any section you take the cross-sectional parameter is changing always and thereby the value
of the moment of inertia I is changing and its function of x along the length of the span.
Now since this L is in the denominator as you have seen that when you compute that M/EI
diagram now this becomes a little complex when we try to evaluate the slope and
deflection. But still we can use the moment-area method in evaluating the deflection and
the slope of such beams by making a little simplification. now instead of considering this
non-prismatic one for a particular length of the beam we can make it a prismatic one and
thereby we can think of that this particular section is composed of several prismatic parts
and for this particular region we can write down the differential equation or we can evaluate
M/EI diagram for this beam segment-wise and we can compute the value of slope and
deflection.
850
Now, in the process the slope and deflection which we evaluate for the entire beam now
though it is not going to be exactly the same if we consider the moment of inertia which is
a function of x but nevertheless we can accept the solution with reasonable accuracy for
using in the design practice. So we can employ this kind of technique for evaluating the
slope and deflection in a beam. That is what we will be looking into while solving the
examples and we will be demonstrating the effects of this using some examples and we
will see that how do we compute the slope and deflection in beams which are non-uniform
that means the moment of inertia is not uniform throughout the span of the beam or if the
sections are non-prismatic.
851
Well, let us look into the example problem which I had given to you last time for evaluating
the slope and the deflection so the deflection at the mid-span and slope at the supports for
loading indicated over here. And we will have to use moment-area method to evaluate the
slope and deflection.
Now this particular load is acting at the center of the beam. Now, to employ the moment-
area method as you know first you should know the bending moment diagram and if the
each ordinate of the bending moment diagram is divided by the flexural rigidity EI, the
resulting diagram which we get that becomes M/EI diagram.
Now, to obtain the bending moment diagram for this beam what we need to do is, the first
step is the evaluation of the reactive forces. So let us call this end as A and this end as B.
So the reactive forces that will be acting at the end is RA and HA at support A and RB at
support B.
ΣH = 0
HA= 0
ΣV = 0
RA = RB = P/2
And thereby, if we take any section over here then the moment will be,
. 0
4
852
(Refer Slide Time: 15.51-25.30)
So if we plot the bending moment diagram the bending moment diagram looks like this
that at the two ends the value of the bending moment is 0 and at the center we have the
value of the bending moment as PL/4 and when we divide this by EI this becomes PL/4EI
and truly speaking now this is M/EI diagram and not the bending moment diagram alone.
So this is the bending moment diagram (Refer Slide Time: 16:16) divided by the flexural
rigidity EI of each of the ordinate and thereby this is M/EI diagram.
Now we like to compute the value of the deflection at the center and as the beam is
symmetrical this is the maximum deflection that is what we have to obtain at this particular
point and also we need to find out the slope of this beam. Let us call this as ϴA. Now we
employ the second moment-area theorem to evaluate the tangential division of point B with
respect to point A.
Now as you know, the second moment-area theorem states that the tangential division of
any point on the elastic curve, in this particular case let us say this is B and with reference
to the tangent drawn on any other point on the elastic curve which is A here which is, if
you draw the tangent from A and this is the tangential derivation which you call as tBA is
equal to the moment of the M/EI diagram taken about the first point.
853
So if we take the moment of this M/EI diagram with respect to point B we get this tangential
division of point B with reference to the tangent drawn at point A. So let us evaluate this
value tBA.
1 1 1 2
. . . . . . . .
2 2 4 2 3 2 2 2 4 3 2 16
Also, if you look into this particular diagram AB and let us call this point as D, from this
triangular part ABD we can write the distance,
BD = ϴA ⨯ Length
BD = tBA = PL3/16EI = ϴA ⨯ L
So, ϴA = PL2/16EI
Now what we are interested in is to evaluate the deflection of point C which is going to be
the maximum deflection in this particular case because this is a symmetrical beam and the
load also is symmetrical with respect to the beam. Then if we like to compute the value of
deflection which is from here to here (Refer Slide Time: 20:26) this is the value of
deflection let us call that as delta; now if you like to compute delta now how do you do
that?
Now at this particular point again if we try to compute the value of the tangential deviation
of this particular point with reference to the tangent drawn at A we can evaluate this
particular distance and this we call as tCA; the tangential deviation of point C with respect
854
to the tangent drawn at A and the whole distance from this center to this particular point
we can get this length as, this length is equals to ϴA multiplied by L/2.
So, from the whole distance if we subtract this particular part we will get the value of delta.
So let us compute then the value of the delta which is, now the tCA,
tCA = tangential deviation of point C with respect to the tangent drawn at A = area of the
moment of the M/EI diagram between A and C taken about C.
1 1
. . . .
2 2 4 3 2 96
Hence, the deflection, δ = ϴA ⨯ L/2 minus tCA.
Now,
L
ϴ . t
2 32 96 48
And we have seen earlier that the maximum deflection which we get in a beam which is
simply supported and subjected to a concentrated load at the center gives us a PL3/48EI.
Also please note over here that in this particular beam this being a symmetrical beam with
symmetrical loading, now the elastic curve which we get also is symmetrical and as we
have seen earlier that the values of the rotations which you get at the end they are the same.
855
Now what will be the value of rotation over here;
As
ϴ
16
Now if we draw a tangent at this particular point at the center point of this beam that
becomes now if we draw the tangent at this particular point of the elastic curve the tangent
at this point is horizontal and as we exceed this gives us the maximum value of the
displacement or the deflection where the tangent to the elastic curve is horizontal.
Now if we take the tangent at this particular point (Refer Slide Time: 23:46) at the central
point and draw it up to this and if we consider these two points we can say that the tangential
deviation of point A with respect to the tangent on at point C which is this equals to this
distance which we can call as say tAC. That is tangential deviation of point A with reference
to the tangent drawn at point C now this distance is nothing but equals to this particular
distance which is the deflection. Hence we can compute the value of the maximum
deflection from this particular part of the M/EI diagram as well.
Now what we can do is we can find out the moment of this particular part of the bending
moment diagram which is between A and C and taking the moment of the EI diagram about
A will give as the value of the deflection.
1 2
. . . .
2 2 4 3 2 48
Thus, in a simply supported beam we can compute the value of the maximum deflection
either the way we have done at first; that means we compute the tangential deviation of the
support B with reference to the tangent drawn at A and thereby first you compute the value
of slope and then at the center we compute the value of the deflection. Or else in a simpler
form we can take half the area of the M/EI diagram, take the moment with respect to point
A and compute the value of the deflection and you will get the identical result. So you can
apply this technique as well for evaluating the deflection.
856
Well, now let us consider an example where the moment of inertia is not constant
throughout the beam instead we have variable moment of inertia. Over the part AB we
have the moment of inertia as 2I and over the part BC the moment of inertia is I.
Now, in this beam this is a cantilever it is fixed at one end and is free at the other, it is
subjected to a concentrated load at the tip and we will have to compute the value of the
deflection of the free end and we need to use the moment-area method.
Now if we do that the first step will be to evaluate the bending moment of this particular
beam. If we consider first let us say uniform I, thereby we have the beam subjected to a
concentrated load here P over the length L and if we compute the reactive forces that means
removing this if we replace this with the reactive values we have vertical force, horizontal
force and the moment and we can compute the value of the since we are interested in the
bending moment diagram we compute the value of the moment.
M = -PL
If you compute moment at any point at a distance x,
M = P.x
So it is varying linearly from 0 to the maximum value which is P times L.
857
So let us look into the bending moment diagram of this and then we go for the M/EI
diagram.
This is the bending moment diagram that means zero bending moment over here and at this
point we have the maximum value of the bending moment which is equals to PL. So this
858
external one shows the bending moment diagram which is varying from 0 to linearly from
0 to PL.
Now, when we like to employ the area moment theorem what we are interested in is to
evaluate the M/EI diagram. And as we know that M/EI diagram is nothing but the bending
moment diagram divided by the EI value at each ordinate and that gives us the M/EI
diagram. Now if you look into this particular part B to C the value of the bending moment
of inertia is I hence if we divide each ordinate of the bending moment diagram which is
this particular part (Refer Slide Time: 28:42) so at this particular part the bending moment
is equal to the value PL/2.
Now if we divide this by the EI value then the ordinate of the M/EI diagram at this
particular point becomes PL/2EI. Now since at this particular point there is a transition
from I to 2I so immediately next to this section the moment of inertia is 2I. So the change
from PL/2EI to it will be changing to PL/4EI because bending moment is PL/2 that divided
by 2I so this is equals to PL/4EI. This is the value over here.
From PL/2EI it goes to PL/4EI and then again at this particular point the bending moment
is PL/2I that means this is going to be equal to PL/2EI. So at this point again the M/EI
value is PL/2EI. So from PL/4EI it goes to PL/2EI and varies linearly. So in effect this is
going to be the M/EI diagram in this particular distance. So the M/EI diagram is something
like this.
859
Now we will have to employ this M/EI diagram to compute the value of the slope and the
deflection. Now for computing the deflection of the slope what we need is now we need to
use the moment-area method and for using moment-area method we will have to employ
the moment-area theorems and as you know that for employing moment-area theorems we
will have to deal with the M/EI diagram.
And the second of the moment-area theorem states that the tangential deviation of any point
on the elastic curve with reference to another point on the elastic curve or you draw the
tangent at that particular point that gives you the deviation that is equivalent to the moment
of the M/EI diagram between those two points taken about the former point. Hence, if we
do that; that means on the elastic curve it is expected that the elastic curve is moving like
this.
Now if we choose two points a point here and a point here (Refer Slide Time: 31:05) and
if we draw the tangent at point A which is horizontal because here the slope is 0; dy/dx is
0, now the tangential deviation of this particular point C with reference to A is this value
which we have said as tCA. Thus, the tangential deviation of point C with reference to the
tangent drawn at point A is equivalent to the moment of the M/EI diagram between A and
860
C taken about C. Hence, if we take the moment of M/EI diagram between A and C about
C then what we get?
Now let us look into this expression for evaluating this tCA. So tCA is equals to. Now this
M/EI diagram which is of this particular shape we divide into three parts: one is this
particular triangle and then thereby we are left with this trapezoidal area and this
trapezoidal area we can divide into two parts: one is this rectangular part with ordinate
PL/4EI and then this is the triangular part which is having PL/4EI as the ordinate. So if we
compute or if we take the moment of all these three areas with reference to point C then let
us see what we get.
1 2 1 2 18 3
. . . . . . . . . .
2 2 2 3 2 2 4 2 4 2 2 4 2 3 2 96 16
And also if we like to compute the value of the slope if we take the tangent at this particular
point and here since the tangent is horizontal so this will give us the value of the slope
which is equal to ϴC and this ϴC is nothing but the area between A and C area of the M/EI
diagram between A and C and that is as per the first moment-area theorem that the slope
the differential slope between two points is equal to the area of the M/EI diagram between
those two points. So here the differential slope between these two points is ϴC and we will
861
have to take the area of the M/EI diagram between these two points. And if we take that;
that means the first part of the EI if we take all the areas and sum them together then we
get the values and that will give you;
5
ϴ
8 8 16 16
And,
3
16
Therefore, as you can see, we can compute the value of the deflection and the slope at the
free end ϴC even if the moment of inertia is variable using moment-area method.
Now that is what I was trying to explain to you that even if the beam is non-prismatic we
can make it we can approximate in a segmental prismatic form and we can employ
moment-area method to evaluate the slope and deflection in the beam and that is going to
give you a close value to the exact one and we can employ that for a quick reference instead
of going into a very rigorous analysis.
862
Now if we compare these values; in fact we have seen that if you have a beam which is
having a constant flexural rigidity or the moment of inertia if it is constant right through
we have seen what is the value of the deflection, what is the value of the slope for a
cantilever beam etc; that means if we have a cantilever beam which is subjected to a
concentrated load at the tip we have seen that the maximum value of the deflection comes
as PL3/EI and the slope as PL2/2EI.
Now at this stage we have seen that what is the value of the slope and the deflection. Now
let us make a comparison of these values to get an idea that what change we get physically
really because of this non-uniform moment of inertia..
Now you see that when you have uniform moment of inertia value I throughout the value
of the deflection was PL3/3EI which is 0.33PL3/EI. Now, at this stage we have seen, when
we have variable moment of inertia where over half the length you have twice I and for the
rest of the half you have moment of inertia as I that means when you have this variable
moment of inertia over the section then the value of the deflection at the tip comes as
863
0.1875PL3/EI where you see that the value changes drastically from 0.33 to 0.1875. The
change is of the order of around 43-44%.
Now, if instead of making 50 percent as twice the moment of inertia if you would have
made that the whole beam is having moment of inertia of value 2I that means we provide
a larger section throughout the length of the beam and then what happens is the value of
the deflection which you get is 0.17 PL3/EI which is half of this value when you have I.
Now if you notice over here the change from this where we have variable moment of inertia
over the half of the length to where we have the full length as twice I the difference is not
much. Now, also if you look into the value of the slope, in the uniform case we get 0.5
PL2/EI, when we have constant 2I we will get half of that 0.25, when we have 50 percent
as 2I we get 0.3125 that is from 0.5 it gets reduced to 0.3125 to 0.25 the reduction is not to
that extent.
Now the idea is if you look in to physically that either you can have a beam with uniform
cross section having moment of inertia as I or if you like to reduce the value of the
deflection we increase the value of the moment of inertia to 2I throughout the entire span
864
of the beam and thereby the deflection value will be half that when it was with I. now,
instead of that if we provide the larger moment of inertia over the area where you have
larger value of the moment; as you have seen in the cantilever beam the moment value is
highest at the support point so towards the support point from the mid span towards the
support point where we have increase the value of the moment of inertia twice than for the
first half, we see that the value of the deflection it could reduce to a great extent and in the
process in fact we have economized on the usage of the material as well.
Since we have used 2I only on the 50 percent of the length of the beam naturally we have
not you know used the material over the entire length of the beam thereby we could make
some economy on the selection on the section. So we could make a tradeoff between the
reduction in the deflection and less usage of the material as well between the two extreme
cases.
So, many a times we employ this particular situation in the design so that we can reduce
the value of the deflection at the same time we can economize on the sections which we
use.
865
Well, let us look into another example of a variable moment of inertia when the beam is a
simply supported one and is subjected to a concentrated load at the center.
Now as you have noticed that for this we get the bending moment diagram where the
maximum value of the bending moment is at the center which is in this particular form and
thereby in the central region if we have the moment of inertia of the section here this part
is I (Refer Slide Time: 41:21), this part is I and this part is twice I as it is stated in this
particular example. It says that: determine the deflection at the center of the beam and
slopes at the ends for the bending for the loading shown over here and moment of inertia
for AB and CD is I and for BC is 2I.
Now if we use moment-area method for evaluating the slopes and deflection here naturally
first thing is that we will have to draw the bending moment diagram and as you know as
the first step for drawing bending moment diagram you evaluate the reactive values,
RA = RB = P/2
M = RA.x
866
So at different points you can compute the value of the bending moment which is linearly
varying.
Now let us look into the bending moment diagram for this particular beam which is of this
particular form which is shown over here.
Now here as you can see that the maximum value of the bending moment is PL/4 at the
center which is P/2 times L/2 and at this point the value of the bending moment is PL/8.
Now what we need to do is that we need to draw the M/EI diagram and for drawing M/EI
diagram we divide the ordinates of the bending moment diagram by respective EI values.
And as you can see over here that for these two parts you have one EI value, for this part
BC you have another EI value, so over here for this the flexural rigidity is EI, for this
flexural rigidity is EI and for this flexural rigidity is 2EI.
So when we divide by these magnitudes EI and 2EI at this point we get PL/8EI as this
ordinate. now immediately at this particular point particular section we have a change from
I to 2I and thereby there is a change in the M/EI value over here which is going to be equal
867
to PL/16EI and at this point again it is PL/4 is the bending moment divided by twice I so
this is PL/8EI and here also it is PL/8EI (Refer Slide Time: 43:46). So these three ordinates
they are called identical which is PL/8EI and at these two points where there is a change
over from I to 2I we have the values of the ordinate CI as PL/16EI.
Therefore, the M/EI diagram as we can see here is like this, it comes over here, changes
over here then goes like this (Refer Slide Time: 44:10) goes over here, changes here and
then comes like this. This is the M/EI diagram for the beam between A and D.
Now what we need to do is that we need to compute the value of the bending moment delta
at the center and we need to compute the value of the slope. now if we compute the value
of the delta; now as we have done earlier, as I was stating you that at this point if we draw
the tangent to the deflection curve and since this is symmetrical it is expected the deflection
will be maximum here and the tangent to the elastic curve is going to be horizontal and
thereby the tangential deviation of point A with reference to the point if we call this as say
E with reference to E so this is the tangential deviation which is tAE and that is nothing but
equals to the moment of the M/EI diagram between A and E taken about point A.
868
Now this M/EI diagram which you have drawn we can divide into three segments: one is
this triangular part, then we have this trapezoidal part and this trapezoidal part we can
divide into two areas: one is the rectangular part and the other one is the triangular part and
if we take the moment of this particular half with reference to point A then what we get.
1 2 1 2 18 3
. . . . . . . . . .
2 4 8 3 4 4 16 4 8 2 4 16 4 3 4 1536 256
This is the value of the deflection when centrally you have the moment of inertia as twice
that of the end part of it. So in the two end zones we had the moment of inertia as I and in
the central zone we had the moment of inertia as twice I. So we have added additional
material at the central part of the beam to increase the moment of inertia value and thereby
we are reducing the value of the bending stress because σ I equals to M/EI; by enhancing
I we are reducing the bending stress at that region and consequently we are reducing the
value of the deflection as well.
Now that is what we see over here. The value of delta comes as 3PL3/256EI.
Also, if we compute the value of the slope at this particular end; now when we draw the
tangent to this elastic curve at this point and when we draw the tangent to the elastic curve
at this point (Refer Slide Time: 48:06) since this is 0 so this equals to the slope ϴA. Hence
we can take the area between these two points to evaluate the value of ϴA and consequently
we get the value of ϴA,
869
5
64 64 128 128
as if we add up this area, now area is equal to half L/4 times PL/8EI which is PL2/64EI plus
we have for this part of the area which is PL2/64EI again so PL2/64EI plus we have for this
particular part which is PL2/128EI and if we add them together we have 128EI and this is
224 so 5PL2/128. So this is the value of the slope which we have and this being symmetrical
the value of ϴA and ϴB magnitude-wise it will be this value: 5PL2/128EI.
Now if we again make a comparison of the values which we have seen earlier, now in a
simply supported beam where the value of the moment of inertia is uniform right through
where the flexural rigidity is uniform then we have seen the value of the maximum
deflection is PL3/48EI and the values of the slope as PL2/16EI.
870
Consequently, if we make the value of I as 2I right through that means if we have uniform
flexural rigidity but instead of EI now it is twice EI that means we are adding more material
to it then naturally the values of the deflection will be half of the previous one and so will
be the slopes.
Now, if we make the combination of these two which we have seen right now and also we
have seen the maximum value of the deflection which is 3PL3/256EI and consequently we
have looked into the value of the slope.
Now if you make a comparison you see that the value of the deflection which you get for
constant I is 0.0 to 0.08PL3/EI and in contrast when you have this variable moment of
inertia you have a value of 0117 a drastic reduction from this to this and if you have uniform
twice I then your value is 0.0104. In fact, from this to this the reduction is not to that extent
and so is in case of slope. You see, here will get 0.0625, for the variable moment of inertia
we get 0.0391 and when it is becoming twice EI we are getting 0.0313; hence the reduction
again from here to here is not that much to the extent as we achieved over here.
871
Therefore, by making variable moment of inertia in fact we can achieve economy both in
terms of the deflection or the stresses and as well as the economization on the uses of the
material and thereby where we have the larger value of the bending moment if we go for a
larger cross-sectional area thereby you can have less stress, you can have less deflection,
you can have less values of the rotation at the end.
872
Well, we have another example where it is a cantilever beam subjected to uniformly
distributed load and the flexural rigidity EI is constant for the beam; you will have to use
moment-area method.
Now here of course you will get a diagram which is not a linear one and so long we have
seen the diagrams which are linear one and thereby it was easier to adopt the moment-area
method. Now for this, as you know that when you compute the value of the slope ϴB it is
the area between M/EI diagram which is,
1
ϴ . .
3 2 6
and the value of the deflection is the tangential deviation of point B with reference to the
tangent drawn at A.
1 3
. . . .
3 2 4 8
Therefore, by employing moment-area method to this we can compute the value of the
slope and the deflection of this particular beam.
873
Well, we have another example over here. We have to compute the value of the tip
deflection and slope of the free end for the loading shown over here. Here the loading is a
triangularly varying load with zero intensity over here and maximum intensity q0 at this
particular end. The flexural rigidity EI is constant throughout the beam. You have to
compute the value of the tip deflection and slope at the free end.
874
Now here we can employ the differential equation of the elastic curve. At any section from
this support at a distance of x if we say that the value of loading is q since it is linearly
varying is equals to; in terms of this maximum value q0 will be,
As we know that,
.
2
.
2
At, x=L, Shear force, V=0, Thus, C1 = 0
.
2
Integrating again,
.
6
At, x=L, Bending Moment, M=0, Thus, C2 = 0
.
6
Integrating again,
.
6 4
. .
24 5
At x = 0. Y = 0. At x = 0, dy/dx = 0
24
120
5
120

24
875
At x = L,
30
Well, then to summarize in this particular lesson we have seen the evaluation of slope and
deflection of non-prismatic beams using moment-area method and also we have looked
into the examples to evaluate slope and deflection of different types of beams for different
loadings.
876
Now this is the last lesson of this particular module and in this module as we have seen it
includes four lessons. In the first lesson we have discussed about the derivation of
differential equation of elastic curve and its applications; then subsequently we have
introduced the concept of superposition method in the lesson two.
877
In the third lesson we have discussed about the concept of the moment-area method the
moment-area theorems and its application in evaluation of slope and deflection. And in this
particular lesson today we have seen the application of moment-area theorem in non-
prismatic beams or beams with the variable moment of inertia.
878
Now these are the questions set for you.
What will be the value of deflection in a simply supported beam if the moment of inertia
is doubled?
What will be the value of end slopes in a simply supported beam if the span is doubled?
And what is the value of the slope at the tip of a cantilever beam subjected to the
concentrated load P at the tip of the beam?
Now, answers for this will be given to you in the next lesson, thank you.
879
Welcome to the first lesson of the eighth module which is on combined stresses part I. Or
more precisely let us call it as stresses which are developed due to the combine actions of
loading in the member.
In fact so long we have discussed the action of different kinds of forces in the member
which are acting in individual forms. Say for example when we have discussed about the
axial force in a bar the force was acting normal to the stresses and we have computed the
corresponding stresses which were called as normal stress.
Subsequently we have looked into that if preservation is subjected to pressure we have

computed the stresses on the outer shell which is in the circumferential and the longitudinal
direction. Subsequently we have computed the stresses in a bar which is subjected to
another kind of force which we have called as twisting moment and then lastly we have
evaluated the stresses in the bar corresponding to another kind of force which we have
called as the bending and the shear force. We have seen how to compute the bending
moment and shear force in a beam which is subjected to transverse loading and
consequently we have computed the values of stresses.
880
Lecture - 34
Combined Stresses – I
Welcome to the first lesson of the eighth module which is on combined stresses part I.
Let us call it as the stresses which are developed due to the combined actions of loading
in the members. In fact, so long we have discussed the action of different kinds of forces
in the member which are acting in an individual form. Say for example when we have
discussed about the axial force in a bar the force was acting normal to the section and we
have computed the corresponding stresses which we have called as normal stress.
Subsequently, we have looked into that if a pressure vessel is subjected to pressure we

have computed the stresses on the outer shell which is in the circumferential and the
longitudinal direction. Subsequently, we have computed the stresses in a bar which is
subjected to another kind of force which we have called twisting movement. And then
lastly we have evaluated the stresses in the bar corresponding to another kind of force
which we have called as the bending and the shear force. We have seen how to compute
the bending movement and shear force in a beam which is subjected to transverse loading
and consequently we have computed the values of stresses which we have termed as
bending stress and shear stress.
Now, in all these cases you have noticed that we have computed these stresses for the
individual loading thereby the stresses were for those individual loading access. Now we
are going to consider the case where if these loads act simultaneously in a particular
member what will be the consequence of the simultaneous actions of this loads and what
will thereby be the combined stresses in the member.
Hence, once this particular lesson is completed one should be in a position to understand
the concept of combined loadings and thereby the combined stresses in members. Also,
one should be in a position to evaluate stresses in structural members that are developed
due to such combined loadings.
881
The scope of this particular lesson includes therefore, well, as we do the recapitulation of
previous lesson we will be looking into the answers of the questions which I had posed
last time and in the process we will recapitulate some of the aspects of the previous
lesson. In this particular lesson we will make use of the developed formulae for
evaluation of stresses for the combined actions of loadings. Now as we have noticed that
in earlier cases for individual loading situations we have arrived at different stress
formulae.
Say for example, when a member is subjected to a twisting movement we have seen that
what is the relationship between the shearing states and the torsional movement.
Consequently, we have looked into that if a member is subjected to bending then what is
the relationship between the bending stress and the bending moment and also the
relationship between the shearing stress with the shear force.
Now all these aspects we have looked into as I said in an individual form. Now in this
particular lesson we look into, if there are actions of these loadings which are acting
simultaneously or which are getting developed simultaneously because of some practical
situations now how do we compute the values of the stresses because of such combined
loading forms.
882
Also we will look into the examples for evaluation of stresses in structural members due
to such combined loadings.
Well, let us then look into the answers to the questions which were posed last time. The
first question was what will be the value of deflection in a simply supported beam which
is simply a supported beam if the moment of inertia is double.
883
Now you must have noticed that while computing the value of the deflection we make
use of the moment of inertia of the cross section and these are the expressions for the
deflection values which we had evaluated in the previous lesson. Now if we have a
simply supported beam which is hinged at A and supported on roller at B, it is a simply
supported beam which is subjected to uniformly distributed load. Let us say the intensity
is p per unit length. Now, for this kind of loading on a simply supported beam the value
of the maximum deflection,
δmax = 5qL4/384EI T
Also, if the same simply supported beam if it is subjected to a concentrated load P, at the
center then the value of the maximum deflection is,
δmax = PL3/48EI
Now, if you look in to these two expressions here the moment of inertia value which is I
comes at the denominator of this expression and the δ value is inversely proportional to
the moment of inertia I. Therefore, irrespective of the loading what you have on the beam
if this moment of inertia is doubled, then the value of the delta will become half than
what it was earlier and so is the case in this particular situation.
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So this particular question which was posed which is quite general in nature wherein we
have not talked about the loading on the beam, we have not talked about the span or the
length of the beam but what we said is that if the moment of inertia is double then what is
the impact of that on the deflection. Now, as we can see from this expression of the
deflection, whether it is uniformly distributed load or a concentrated load, if the moment
of inertia is doubled the deflection is going to be half of the previous value. This is what
the relationship between the deflection and moment of inertia.
Consequently, the second question was what will be the value of end slopes in a simply
supported beam if the span is doubled. This particular question also is quite general
885
because we are talking about that that if the length of the beam or the span if it is doubled
then what is the consequence on the end slopes that will be generated in the beam.
Here if you look in to, see the values of the end slopes as we have computed for these two
different cases when the beam is subjected to uniformly distributed load of magnitude q
per unit length, we have computed the value as,
θB θA = qL3/24EI
Now if the same simply supported beam if it is subjected to a concentrated load P at the
center the value of the end slope comes as,
θB θA = PL2/16EI
Now if you look into the expressions carefully you will find at here the span is having a
power of 3 and here the span as a power of 2. So it is very difficult that way to say that
you know in a general form that if the span is doubled then what will be the consequence
of the slope. Now we can say that if the beam is subjected to uniformly distributed load
then the end slope will be, since L becomes twice L so it will be eight times of the
previous value whereas for a concentrated load if L becomes twice L then it will be four
times of the previous load.
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Therefore, what we can say is that if the span is doubled then the value of the end slopes
are going to be increased or is going to be more than the previous value but it depends on
that what kind of loading you have on the beam. If you have a uniformly distributed load
as we can see over here it gets eight times of the previous value whereas when you have a
concentrated load at the center it becomes four times of the previous values. Now,
depending on the type of loading we have the values of the slope will change and
accordingly if the span is doubled it will be multiplied by a factor but it is quite obvious
that the slopes are going to be larger if the span is double.
The last question we had was; what is the value of slope at the tip of a cantilever beam
subjected to concentrated load P at the tip of the beam.
The cantilever beam as you know is fixed at one end and is free at the other and is
subjected to a tip load P at the end of this beam and we had computed that the value of
the slope at end B as,
2
θB /2EI
which can be derived using moment of area theorm very easily.
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Well, these were the answers of the questions which were posed last time.
Now let us look into that if the members are subjected to or on what situations a member
is subjected to the combined actions of loading. This is an example where this helicopter
blades they are connected to this rotor, at this particular point there is a shaft which is like
this and this particular shaft when this fan rotates gives a twisting movement to this shaft
and also in the process when the fan moves then gradually it gets lifted up and the shaft
experiences a pull in the vertical direction.
So this particular member if we look into the shaft part of it, it is subjected to a load P
which is an axial pull at the same time it is subjected to a twisting movement. So, at a
particular point of time the shaft may be subjected to the combined actions of this axial
pull and the twisting movement T.
Now, as you have seen from the previous cases when we have discussed individually
these loading actions when a member is subjected to axial pull it is subjected to a normal
stress which is P divided by the cross-sectional area. Also, if a member is subjected to a
twisting movement then there will be shearing stresses generated as we have already
observed. Now when you have a combination of these two that means the member is
subjected to an axial pull and at the same time it is subjected to a twisting movement that
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means there will be both normal stress as well as the shearing stresses. So we will have to
compute these individual stresses and then combine them together suitably so that we can
arrive at what could be the maximum possible stress that can generate in the member at
any point. And as designers, we are concerned with that; what is the maximum possible
value of this particular stress that can generate in that particular member; and we must
safeguard the member against that maximum value of the stress.
Now let us look into another example where we come across the combined action of the
loading. Here you see this beam member is hinged at one end and pinned at the other,
which is connected with a cable. The member is loaded in the transverse direction let us
call by the load P1 and P2. Now if we take the free body of this particular member, if we
take the free body of this particular part now the end reactions will be represented by the
horizontal, a vertical and the horizontal reactive forces then we will have this force which
will be acting in the cable member. If we take the component of force along cable, one
will be in the vertical direction let us call this as F1, another will be in the horizontal
direction let us call that as F2.
Now, when we take, ΣH 0, we get,
H = F2, and this force is acting along the center line of this member or the centroid of this
member and thereby this is going to cause, if I take any cross section then the stress at
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that particular section because of this load will be the axial load if we call that as H
divided by the cross-sectional area A, then,
σ H/A
Now, apart from that, since this particular beam is acting with these supports; the vertical
reaction here and the vertical component of this particular force also is going to hold this
particular point so the whole member will undergo a deflection because of this load and
there will be bending movement and shear force developed in this particular beam and
because of the bending and the shear there will be bending stresses; and bending stress as
you know, again is a normal stress which will be acting in the section in terms of the
compression and tension so there will be compressive forces generated because of this
axial force, there will be compressive and tensile stresses generated because of bending
and there will be stresses generated because of the shear.
So at any section if we look into there will be normal stress, there will be the normal
stress because of axial force, there will be normal stress because of the bending, there
will be shearing stress and finally we will have to combine this normal stress and the
shearing stress to find out what is the value of the maximum stress which you call as the
principal stresses.
As we have seen in module 1, if you have the normal stress and the shear stress how do
you compute the values of the principal stresses or the maximum normal stresses. As you
can see here, now it is not only the axial force or the bending stresses alone, we have the
actions of the axial force as well as we have the actions of the lateral force which is
causing bending in the member and thereby such members are subjected to the combined
actions of loading and thereby the combined stresses.
Now let us look into another example wherein we come across the combined loading
actions. Now we have already seen earlier that if a pressure vessel is subjected to internal
pressure p, then how do we compute the longitudinal stress and the circumferential stress,
σC = pr/t, which we call as hoop stress or circumferential stress and,
890
σL = pr/2t which is longitudinal stress.
Now these stresses we have computed individually for the pressure which is acting
inside. If you look into that this particular pressure vessel is supported as shown in the
figure. Now naturally because of its own weight along with the liquid it will undergo
bending and because of this bending there will be stresses generated in this pressure
vessel. So apart from the stresses which we get from the internal pressure we will have
the stresses generated because of bending, because as a beam it is getting supported at
these two points and thereby there will be deflection of the member and there will be
stresses generated. So we will have to account for both the stresses so that finally the
resultant stress which we get which we call as, σ, they are the combinations of the
internal pressure stress and the stresses which are getting generated because of the
bending. So again this is an example for the combine loading situation.
Now this is another case wherein we get the values of the loading in combined form. Let
us say this is a shaft attached with a gear, where we have a couple which is giving a
twisting movement in the shaft. Also, if you look into this shaft it is having a member
which is extensive with respect to the shaft center line and there is a concentrated load
acting at the end of this member.
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Now this particular load if we transfer to the shaft center line this will be along with the
couple which is going to be a twisting movement in the shaft. So if we take the idealized
form of this particular shaft this is supported at this particular end, this is supported at this
point (Refer Slide Time: 19:02) through this particular support and at this particular point
where this overhang is there the force is transferred to the shaft center line and thereby
there is a concentrated load along with the twisting movement that is acting over here and
also at this particular end we have the twisting movement that is developed because of
this gear and if gear has some weight then there also there will be a concentrated load
acting at this particular point.
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Therefore, if you look into this particular member over this particular length now this is
supported here, supported here and on this part it is overhang (Refer Slide Time: 19:36)
so it is a kind of an overhang team subjected to a concentrated load at this center,
subjected to a concentrated load at this end and subjected to a twisting movement at this
particular point and at this particular point. So this particular shaft is not only subjected to
the transverse loading which will cause the bending in the member; thereby we will have
the bending movement at the shear force; and consequently you will have the bending
stresses and the shear stresses.
Also, because of the twisting movement there will be shear stresses in the shaft. So there
will be combined stresses or combined shear stresses because of the shear force and the
twisting movement and there will be normal stress because of the bending. And now,
once we have this bending stress and shear stress then we can compute the values of the
resultant stress as we have seen earlier in module 1 that using Mohr’s circle we can find
out the value of the maximum normal stress which we have called as principal stresses
using the normal stress and the shear stress values. So you see, in this example also this
particular shaft is subjected to the combined actions of the loading.
Let us look into another example which is quite common in cities you must have noticed
that for giving directions for different places a board is used and this particular board is
connected to a vertical shaft through this particular joint and this board is projecting from
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this particular vertical shaft. The vertical shaft is connected at the base by some rigid
support. Now, this board which is projecting from the shaft is exposed to the forces like
wind. Now, when the wind load acts perpendicular to this particular plate let us say the
action of this resulting wind load which is acting at the center of this plate is P.
Now basically since this board is connected to the vertical shaft or the vertical rod now
this load will be transferred to this because finally the load has to be transferred to the
base below. So this force if we transfer to the vertical member then it will be associated
with a moment and this particular moment will be acting about the axis which is normal
to the vertical shaft and this moment we call generally as the twisting moment.
Therefore, if we look into the idealized form of this particular configuration; if we look
into the idealized form of this vertical shaft this looks like this that one end of this
member is connected which is simulating this particular support, the other end is free
(Refer Slide Time: 22:20) and at this particular point the load concentrated load is getting
transferred to the shaft along with the twisting movement; the vectorial direction of this is
this and the twisting movement is acting in the member. Now, because of this transverse
load the beam will be subjected to a bending moment and there will be shear force as
well. So this beam will have the actions of bending moment M, will have the actions of
shear force; also, we have the twisting moment T which will give rise to the shearing
stress τ, bending will give rise to the normal stress σ, V will give rise to the shearing
stress τ.
894
Thus, you see that this member is subjected to the action of bending moment, shear force
and the twisting movement and thereby we will have the resulting normal stress and the
shearing stresses or each individual load we can compute the values of the normal stress
and the shearing stresses and once we know the values of the normal stress and the
shearing stress then we can compute the resultant stress in terms of the normal stress and
the shearing stress.
Well, let us look into these again. If we go back to the expressions which we have already
derived, now in the first module we had looked into that if you have a axial load in the
member then the normal stress we compute as, σ P/A
Subsequently, we have seen that if the pressure vessel is subjected to internal pressure
then it will be subjected to stresses which we have called as Hoop’s stress or the
circumferential stress which are, σC pr/t and σL = pr/2t
Then subsequently we have looked into that if a shaft is subjected to a twisting moment
or torsion then the torsion formula is, T/J τ/ρ Gθ/L, which gives, τ Tρ/J
Subsequently we had looked into the bending formula where the moment is related to the
bending stress sigma and we know, M/ σ/y E/ρ, which gives, σ My/I
895
Also we had looked into that if we have shear force V then the shearing stress is,
Τ VQ/Ib
These are the individual cases as we have evaluated earlier. Now we will make use of, in
this particular lesson as such we are not going to derive any formulae but we will make
use of these formulae which we had derived earlier for individual load cases.
Now, depending on the situations wherever we will have combinations of these stresses
we will make use of those individual formula and combine them suitably to arrive at the
resultant stress in the member. Because finally we are concerned with that, what is the
maximum possible stress that can be generated in a member because of such combined
loading actions.
Well, now let us look into a case where we get a combined loading form wherein we have
a vertical member which is fixed at the base and at the top we have a rigid bar on which a
load P is acting which is eccentric with respect to the center line of this member or the
CG of this vertical member.
Now if we transfer this load which is eccentric with respect to the CG of the vertical
member, if we try to transfer to the center of gravity of this vertical member then what
896
happens? Since here we did not have any load so we will have an opposite load and this
opposite load along with this will form a couple. So the transfer of this force to the CG of
this particular vertical member is a load and a moment and this is what is shown over
here.
Now if you remove this horizontal member then the vertical bar we have the effect of this
eccentric load as a load P which is concentric now which is acting through the CG of the
member and we have a moment, M=Pe, where e is the eccentricity or the distance of the
CG from this loading point. Also, this particular member is subjected to concentrated
load P1 which is acting at a distance, let us say a, from the support.
Now if we idealize the particular situation then probably we can describe the same thing
in this particular form that we have a cantilever member which is fixed at one end and
free at the other and at this end we have a concentrated load P which is acting through the
center of this particular member, along with bending moment M and we have a transverse
load P1 which is acting at a distance of a from the support.
Now, the actions of these loads will be that the concentrated load P which is acting
through the center of gravity of the member will cause a normal stress. It is like a
member is subjected to a compressive load. So at any cross section if we compute the
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stress will be P divided by the cross-sectional area which we have called as a normal
stress.
This is what is indicated over here that the stress distribution is uniform which is, P/A.
Now since this is compressive so we have called this as C, which means this is a
compressive load. Now, From free end till concentrated load, there will be only bending
moment M, but if we take a section between load P1 and fixed end, there will be moment
due to this lateral load or the transverse load P1 and the external moment M. So at any
section, we can find out the bending moment because of this transverse load P and
moment M. If we call M’ moment due to the combination of M and P1, we get the
bending stress which is M’y/I.
Now this is going to cause the tensile and compressive stress. Physically if you look into
this particular member when it is subjected to the action of bending in this particular form
which is in a clockwise direction and this particular load is also going to cause a moment
in a clockwise direction, so on this phase on the top phase we will get a tensile stress and
at the bottom phase we will get a compressive stress. This is what is indicated to about
here that we have a stress distribution which is tensile at the top and compressive at the
bottom which is varying linearly across the depth.
898
Now if we combine these two stresses; since we are writing in general terms P and M
now there could be three situations. If we draw a line through the neutral axis, below
neutral axis the member is always under compression; under the action of axial load and
under the action of the bending, both are subjected to compressive stresses and thereby
below neutral axis we will find that we have always the stresses as compressive stresses.
But at the top there could be different situations; situations like, if P by A the direct
normal stress which we get is compressive in nature and bending stress is causing a
tensile stress in nature; if tensile stress is larger than this compressive stress that means if
M’y/I > P/A, then we will get a tensile stress at the top. If this M’y/I = P/A, then at the
top we will get a stress which is equals to zero and if M’y/I < P/A, then we will get a
stress which is compressive at the top. So you can get different configurations of stress
distribution depending on the magnitude of the axial load P and the bending moment M’,
as shown in the figure. Thus, at the bottom since the axial compressive force is giving a
compressive stress everywhere and the bending is giving the compressive stress at the
lower part that is below the neutral axis then at the bottom always you have the
compressive stress whereas in the upper zone you can have either tensile stress or
compressive stress or zero stress depending on the magnitude of the bending and the axial
force you have. This is what is represented over here.
899
Now we can take another example of this kind of combined stress situation where the
beam is a simply supported with hinge support on one end and regular support of the
other and is subjected to a compressive force P and you have transverse load let us say P1,
P2, P3. Now this compressive force which is acting through the center of gravity of the
member at any cross section if you take the stress will be P/A, which is compressive in
nature which is indicated over here. But transverse loading which is acting in this beam is
going to cause the bending of the beam. And physically if you look into, the lower part
will be under tension because of this loading and the top part above neutral axis will be
under compression. This is what is indicated over here that if you compute the bending
stress which is My/I it will generate the compressive stress above the neutral axis and we
will have tensile stress below neutral axis.
Now if we combine these two together then we will have the compressive stress and the
neutral axis position of course will shift and we will have the compressive stress above
the neutral axis and the tensile stress at the bottom if My/I > P/A or zero My/I = P/A and
this will be positive stress or the compressive stress if My/I < P/A. Again we get a similar
situation at the top but the only thing is that the position changes over here; we get the
compressive stress always at the top. But the bottom part of it either it could be tensile or
could be zero or could be compressive, depending on the magnitude of the axial load you
900
have, depending on the magnitude of the transverse load you have and consequently how
much bending moment it is generating and how much bending stress is generated because
of this bending.
Once we combine these two loading conditions together then we can get the effect of the
combined stresses in the member and we can see that whether the material can withstand
the maximum value of the stress that is getting generated because of such combined
actions in the member and that is what is our objective in this particular situation.
Now if we look into the effect of such combined loading in the member or at different
points about the stresses as you know that it is going to produce the normal stress σ, as
the axial force, the lateral force is going to cause the normal stress σ and the shearing
stress τ. So we are going to have total normal stress σ and we are going to have the
shearing stress τ. And finally we need to compute the value of the resultant stress because
of this normal stress and the shearing stress.
Now if we consider a small element in this particular zone which is above the neutral axis
but below the top surface of the beam then the stress we can represent in this form. If we
enlarge that particular part we will have a compressive stress which is the normal stress,
σc = P/A + My/I
901
This normal stress is because of two actions: one is P/A, which is because of the axial
force acting in the member and another one is because of the bending which is equals to
My/I and this is going to give us the compressive stress again at the top of the beam or
above the neutral axis that is why it is summed up together. But basically this is negative
stress because it is acting in the opposite direction of positive x and this off course, if we
take the sign conventions properly or if we take say axial pull is I mean the compressive
force is negative, the bending also is causing compression at the top so that is negative so
if I sum them up is going to give me the negative stress which is acting in the opposite to
the positive stress direction and that is what is indicated over here.
And we have that value of the shearing stress τ which we have seen is computed as,
τ = VQ/Ib
Once you have the sigma and tau as you know that you can plot them in the Mohr’s circle
then we can get the value of the maximum value of the normal stress.
Now if we consider a point which is on the neutral axis then the stress distribution can be
indicated by this. Now as you know that because of the bending stress which is My/I at
the neutral axis level, the value of the bending stress is zero. You may have the
compression and the tension depending on the nature of the moment, but along the
902
neutral axis the stress is zero. So when we are considering a point on the neutral axis
there we will have the normal stress because of the axial compressive force only; there
will not be any normal stress because of the bending and that is what is indicated over
here.
Here you can see that in second element shown, the normal stress, σ /A and
consequently we have shearing stress, τ VQ/Ib. Again we will have the normal stress σ
and the shearing stress τ and based on these values we can compute the value of
maximum principle stresses.
And in the third element gives, if we plot the stresses now here assuming that the
compressive stress or the tensile stress which is getting generated because of the bending
which we are computing from My/I > P/A and thereby there is resulting tensile stress
below neutral axis. If that happens then the normal stress which we have over here is
shown as a tensile pull and along with that we have the shearing stress τ. So again based
on this σ and τ, we can plot in the Mohr’s circle as what will be the value of the principal
stress σ1 and σ2. But the only aspect you should keep in mind now is that here the σ is in
positive in earlier case σ was negative. In fact earlier we have to draw σ in the opposite
direction which is in the negative direction and τ in the positive direction. This is what we
903
get. Consequently the values of the normal stress and the shear stresses will be in this
particular zone as, σx = P/A My/I, if we presume My/I > P/A and thereby we get a tensile
pull and the shearing stress, τ VQ/Ib.
Well, so long whatever we have considered that basically we are combining the
individual actions of the load. That means whether you have the axial load or the
transverse load or a twisting moment what we are trying to do is we are trying to compute
the stresses for the individual actions and combining them suitably, either when you have
total normal stress or the shearing stress and then we are combining them to Mohr’s
circle.
Now the question is that these are basically nothing but the superposition of the stresses
of the individual actions. Now, if we are talking about these axial loads or lateral load or
the transverse load, which is causing bending, this is possible, if the slope of the
deformation is small. Now if we get a very large deformation of the member then this
kind of superposition is not allowed and you cannot calculate the combined stresses in
this form from the way we are calculating. It means that if you have the axial pull and if
your deformation is large now at any point where the deformation is δ, then you will have
the value of M = Pδ. Now if we add this moment M the bending moment, say M’ with
suitable sign, i.e., plus or minus and M’ and M are comparable because of this large
904
deformation, then this superposition of stresses will not be allowed. But if the value of M
is insignificant in comparison to M’, where δ is small, then we can ignore this and we can
use the superposition and we can compute the values of the stresses at different points
because of these combined actions. This is one of the important aspects that should be
kept in mind.
(Refer Slide Time: 40: 51)
Well, having discussed the actions of different loads or the different load combinations,
let us look into an example, where a member a beam member which is fixed at one end
and free at the other which you call as the cantilever is having a bracket at one end and is
subjected to a pull of 100 kN at this bracket. So a 100 kN force is applied to the bracket
as shown in the figure. Now what you need to do is that compute the normal stresses
developed at point A. Now point A and point B is on the outer surface of the beam at the
top and the bottom surface. So you got to compute the normal stresses developed at
points A and B. Now given that the cross section of the member is T, with cross-sectional
area of 8000 mm2 and the value of the moment of inertia is 50⨯106 mm4.Now here the
position of the neutral axis for the section is given and the neutral axis is at a distance of
100 mm from the top surface and on the bottom surface it is 200 mm. Now this member
is subjected to a force which is inclined at an angle of 17.5° with respect to the horizontal
and the position of the load which is acting in the bracket is at a distance of 100 mm from
the top surface of the beam and the position of this bracket from this end is 1m.
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Now what is the action of this inclined load? This inclined load which is acting at this
bracket point, we can decompose in two parts: one in the vertical direction and another in
horizontal direction. Now this particular horizontal load which is acting away from the
top of the beam, we can transfer that load to the CG of the member, then thereby it will
be an axial pull to the member, but it will be associated with a moment. So this load can
be transferred to the CG of the member with a load and a moment and the vertical
component of the load is going to cause a bending in the member. So let us analyze that
first on how we do that.
Now the first step is we decompose this load into two directions: one is P1 and another
one is P2 as follows,
P1 = 100⨯cos17.5° = 95.4 kN
P2 = 100⨯sin17.5° = 30 kN
Now if we transfer this horizontal load P1 at the CG of the member, then it will be
associated with moment M1, which is calculated below,
M1 = P1.e = 95.4⨯0.2 = 19.08 kNm
906
Therefore, we have the value of the moment M1 and the axial pull P1. Now this axial pull
is through the center of gravity of the member and thereby it gives a normal stress at any
cross section. Now we have the bending moment M1 acting at the end and we have the
transverse load P2 which is acting at a distance of 1m from the support.
Now let us look into what is the action of this load individually. Now if you have this that
axial load P1 which is acting at the CG of the member, this going to give us a normal
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stress. Now, at any cross section if you compute the value of the stress σ which is equals
to P1/A, we have called that as positive stress because it is tensile. Thus,
σ P1/A = 95.4⨯103/8000 = 11.925 MPa.
Now let us look into the action of bending moment M1. Now this moment, which is
acting at the end, for this at any cross section if we take the free body we will get the M,
it will be as negative of M1 and in bending moment diagram, the bending moment is
negative everywhere. Now because of this as you can see even physically that at the top
we get a tensile stress, at the bottom we get a compressive stress. As we know for tensile
our sign convention is positive and compression is negative. Now if you compute the
value of σ at top of the beam, then,
σA My/I 1 ⨯106⨯100)/(50⨯106) = 38.16 MPa
Now consequently, if you compute the stress σB at the bottom of the beam,
σB My/I 1 ⨯106⨯ / 50⨯106 76.32 MPa
Now let us look into the action of the load P2, which is the vertical load at the distance of
1m from the support.
908
For that if we draw the bending moment diagram the bending moment diagram is a
triangle and at the support, the value of bending moment will be,
M2 = P2⨯1 = 30 kNm
Now this is the positive moment. Now if you compute the stress at the top; now because
of this the bending which is going to happen physically this member is going to be lifted
up, so we will have tensile stress at the bottom and compressive stress at the top. So as
per our sign convention this is negative at the top and positive at the bottom.
σA My/I ⨯106⨯100)/(50⨯106 M a
σB My/I ⨯106⨯ / 50⨯106) = 120 MPa
So these are the values of the stresses that we get at point A and B because of three
individual loading actions, one is the axial pull, another one is the moment and another
one is for the vertical load.
Now, we need to combine them together. The individual stresses we join them together
with suitable sign to get the final effect at point A and B.
σA 11 1 1 M a
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σB = (+11.925 76.32+120) = +55.605 MPa
So we have stress at A which is 9.915 compressive and we have stress at B which is

55.605 MPa which is tensile.
Now let us look into another example where we have a beam which is simply supported
the beam ABC is supported at A and a cable is attached at C. Now what you will need to
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do is you will have to determine the largest value of P so that the normal stress in the
beam is limited to 120 MPa.The cross section of the beam is 100mm⨯400mm.
Now if you look into the free body of this particular beam, we can take the force along
cable as F and again as we have done in the previous example, we take the components of
this force in the vertical and the horizontal direction.
Here, cosθ / and sinθ 4/
If we represent horizontal component as F1 and vertical component as F2, then,
F1 = F⨯ cosθ F
F2 = F⨯ sinθ F
Now if we take, ΣH 0, then, horizontal reaction at A, H = F1 = 0.6F
Now if we take ΣMA, we get,
F2⨯3 = P⨯2, which gives, F2 = 2P/3
Thus, 0.8F = 2P/3 and F = 2P/2.4
911
Now if you compute the bending moment, we will get a bending moment of 2P/3 kNm at
pint B. So this particular member will be subjected to the action of an axial compressive
force, which is F1= 0.6F = P/2 and you have the bending because of the lateral load P
which is of magnitude P/3. So you have the action of axial stress which is normal stress
and because of bending you are going to get the normal stress.
Now physically if you look into, because of this load P, at the top you will get
compressive stress and at the bottom you will get tensile stress. Now if we combine the
912
compressive stresses because of the axial compression and the bending you will get the
maximum compressive stress and that will have to limit to 120 MPa. Now if we compute
the value of the maximum normal stress,
σC = (P/2)/A + [(2P/3)⨯200/(100⨯4003/12)], which gives,
120 = 0.0125P + 0.25P, which gives, P = 457 kN
So you see that we can compute the maximum value of load P which can be applied here
so that the stress does not go beyond 120 MPa and here we get the combined actions of
this axial stress as well as the bending stress.
913
Well, we have another example problem that you need to determine the principle stresses
and the maximum in-plane shear stress at point A which is at a distance of 20 mm from
the centroidal axis and it is subjected to load of 50 kN acting at the center of the beam in
an inclined form and you look into this problem and we will discuss about this in the next
lesson.
Well, then to summarize, here in this particular lesson we have looked into the aspects of
the previous lesson, we have recapitulated some aspects of the lesson we have already
done in the last lesson, then we have look into concept of different types of combined
loading and thereby the combined stresses that is generating and we have looked into
some examples to evaluate the combined stresses in members and after analyzing them
properly for the individual loading cases and finally what are the actions of the combined
loading situations.
These are the questions given for you; how will you evaluate the combined stresses if the
member is subjected to axial load and bending moment; how will you evaluate the
principal stresses if the member is subjected to axial load and bending moment and what
is the value of normal stress on the neutral axis when the member is subjected to axial
load and bending.
914
Well, look into these questions, try to go through the lesson; we will give you the answers
of the questions in the next lesson.
915
Lecture - 35
Combined Stresses - II
Welcome to the second lesson of the eighth module which is on combined stresses part II. In
fact, in the last lesson we have discussed about or we have introduced the concept of the
combined stresses in a member wherein a particular member is subjected to a combination of
loads; say for example, axial load and the torsion or the torsion and the bending or could be
axial load and bending and various combination of these individual loads. Now we have also
looked into that how do we compute the stresses when a particular member is subjected to the
combinations of these different loads.
Now, in this particular lesson we are going to look into some more aspects of such combined
loads and how do we analyze them and thereby we compute the values of the stresses.
Hence, it is expected that, once this particular lesson is completed, one should be able to be
acquainted with some more aspects of combined loadings in a particular member and thereby
the evaluation of the combined stresses in members and one should be in a position to
evaluate stresses in structural members due to such combination of loading or combined
loading.
916
The scope of this particular lesson therefore includes the recapitulation of previous lesson.
We will be looking into some aspects of the previous lesson which we have already discussed
and that we will be doing through the question answer session. Also, in this particular lesson
we will be using the already developed formulae for evaluation of stresses or combined
actions of loadings.
Now, as I have told you, in the last lesson, that in the previous modules we have developed
some formulae for the individual load cases. Like for example; we have looked into that how
to evaluate stress in a member when that particular member is subjected to axial load. Or if a
917
particular member is subjected to a twisting moment or torsion then how do we calculate the
stresses because of the torsion in a member; or if the member is subjected to transverse
loading for which there will be bending in the member and thereby there will be bending
stresses or shear stresses and we have seen how to evaluate those stresses because of such
bending moment and shear force. Here we are going to make use of those formulae which we
have derived earlier in evaluating the stresses because of the combined loading. Also, we will
be looking into some examples for evaluation of stresses in structural members which will be
arising due to these combine loadings.
Now let us look into the answers of the questions which we had posed last time. The first
question which we posed was how will you evaluate the combined stresses if the member is
subjected to an axial load and bending moment. That means now that a particular member is
subjected to not only the axial load but also subjected to a bending moment. Now, in such a
situation how do you calculate the combined stresses?
Now we had looked into in the last lesson that there could be cases with reference to either a
cantilever beam or simply supported beam or for that matter any of such members where it is
supported at suitable supports and is subjected to axial load as well as the transverse load.
When this particular member is subjected to as gives in the figure, you have the axial load,
transverse load and the moment as well. Now if we like to calculate stress at any cross section
in the member then the stress will be because of this axial load and this lateral load is going
to cause a bending moment M and shear force V and there will be stresses because of this
918
bending moment M and because of the shear force V and finally we will have to calculate the
resulting stress because of all three actions.
Now as you know we have seen that when a particular member is subjected to axial load that
is subjected to a stress which we call as normal stress which is P/A and since the load is
compressive so the stress also is compressive and which is uniform throughout the cross
section. Now, because of the bending there will be bending stress which we have seen earlier
that σ=My/I, where M is the bending moment, y is the distance at which we are computing
the bending stress from the neutral axis and I is the moment of inertia of the cross section
with respect to the neutral axis.
As we have seen that this bending stress with respect to the neutral axis where the stress is
zero, causes compression and tension. In this particular case, the top part above neutral axis is
under compression and the bottom part below neutral axis is under tension. So if we combine
these two normal stresses together, i.e., the normal stress produced by the axial load and the
normal stress produced by the bending, then we get a combined stress. Now, apart from this
bending stress and the normal stress, the transverse loading will cause a shear force as well
and because of shear force there will be shear stress in the member at that particular cross
section. So we got to compute the value of the shear stress at the point where we are
computing the bending stress and the normal stress and as you know, the shear stress
τ=VQ/Ib and in this particular formula we have seen that how to calculate the value of the
919
shear stress when we know the shear force at that particular cross section, so we know the
normal stress because of the axial load, we can compute the value of the normal stress
because of the bending and we can compute the value of the shear stress because of the
shearing force which is acting.
Now the normal stresses because of the axial load and bending can be combined together to
give the resulting normal stress and normal stress and shear stress the two stresses which are
acting in two different planes. We compute the values using either the transformation
equations or using Mohr’s circle.
Now if you look into that in this particular figure at these three locations if we like to
compute the value of the stresses. In the first case, we have this normal stress, σ = P/A + My/I
and shearing stress, τ = VQ/Ib. So we have the normal stress and we have the shearing stress
and these resulting stresses because of the normal stress and the shearing stresses can be
computed from the Mohr’s circle, which gives you the maximum value of the normal stress
which you call as the σ1 or the principal stress. In fact, this is the answer for the second
question as well.
In fact, if you look into the question which we have for the second one that how will you
evaluate the principal stresses, if the member is subjected to axial load and bending moment?
Now as we have seen in the first one that when you have the axial load and the bending
moment we can compute the values of the normal stress; axial will give you the direct normal
920
stress and bending will give you the normal stress in terms of compression and tension with
respect to the neutral axis and you can calculate the resulting normal stresses and individually
you can calculate the shear stress from the shear formula τ = VQ/Ib.
Now, using this if we like to calculate the resulting stress you call as the maximum value of
the tensile or compressive stress, which is the principal stress that is the maximum or
minimum value, which we can compute from the Mohr’s circle.
Now, the third question posed was what will be the value of normal stress at the neutral axis?
Probably I can answer this from the second figure given.
921
Now you see that we have an element chosen, which is lying on the neutral axis. Now as you
know that when you compute the bending stress, the bending stress gives you a distribution
linear distribution with respect to the neutral axis, where you get a compressive force or
tensile force, depending on the kind of loading you have. On the neutral axis the value of the
normal stress which is arising from bending is equals to zero. Now if you have the
combination of axial and the bending then the normal stress which will be occurring at the
neutral axis point or along the neutral axis is only for the axial stress which is the normal
stress σx = P/A and there will not be any contribution from the bending along the neutral axis.
922
However, if you choose the point above the neutral axis or below the neutral axis, there you
will have the contribution from the bending and thereby you will have the resulting normal
stress. So as you can see that all three questions, which we had related to the actions of the
combined loading, where a member is subjected to the axial load and bending moment. When
axial load and bending moment occurs in a particular member simultaneously, we compute
the resulting normal stress, axial will give you the normal stress, bending also will give you
the normal stress and we can sum them together to get the resulting normal stress and then
because of the presence of the transverse load at that particular section there will be shearing
force as well and shearing force will produce the shearing stress. So you can have the
resulting stress from the calculated value of the normal stress and the shearing stress using
the Mohr’s circle.
Now you can visualize that when we had discussed in module 1 the transformation equation
or the Mohr’s circle of stress where because of the given stresses σ and τ, we could evaluate
that what will be the value of the principal stresses. Now as you can see from the practical
examples that a beam member is subjected to axial pull and the transverse load because of
some loading situations, where we compute the normal stress and the shearing stress
individually and then combine them together using the Mohr’s circle to find out the
maximum or minimum normal stresses and the maximum value of the shearing stresses.
Well, this is what is shown over here that if you get the stresses normal on the shearing
stresses then you can plot them in the Mohr’s circle. In first case, the normal stress is
923
negative and the shearing stress is positive and that is what you have getting corresponding to
the first element. When normal stress is positive and the shearing stress also is positive you
get the second figure as Mohr’s circle. Since in both cases, σ y = 0, we get on point on τ-axis.
We join them together and draw Mohr’s circle to get maximum and minimum value of
normal stress, which can be either compressive or tensile, depending upon the case.
Now let us look into that if a member is subjected to an axial pole along with the twisting
moment.
(Refer Slide Time: 13.52: - 17:44)
924
In the last lesson we had looked into some numerical example, where a member was
subjected to the axial load and the transverse load, which was causing bending in the
member, thereby the member was under the action of axial load and the bending. Now in this
particular case we are going to consider that if a member is subjected to the axial load and a
twisting moment then what happens to the combined action of this loading.
Now if we are interested to find out the stress at this particular point, let us say this point is A,
where we like to compute stresses because of the loading actions like you have the axial pull
P and there is a twisting moment which is positive in the sense that as we have defined earlier
that when the vectorial direction points towards the positive x axis, we call that as a positive
twisting moment and at this end a positive twisting moment is acting in this member.
As we have seen earlier that because of this twisting moment we get the shear stress at
different points which is given by τ = Tρ/J. Now, from the center if we go along the radius,
maximum shear stress will be acting on the surface where r is maximum.
Now, given the value of the twisting moment T, we can compute the value of the shear stress
if we know the radius of this cross section and J is the polar moment of inertia, J=Ix +Iy or in
this particular case it will be Iy+Iz, as we have called x-axis as the a longitudinal axis. Thus,
we have the actions for the axial load as a normal stresses which is P/A and twisting moment
will give us the shear stress τ.
925
Therefore, if we look into this particular element this element will be subjected to the
shearing action because there is a twisting moment which is a positive twisting moment. We
will have the shear which is represented in the figure, which is resulted from this twisting
moment T and σ is the normal stress that is acting.
Now if this particular element is subjected to a normal stress σ and shearing stress τ, then the
maximum normal stress we can compute again from the Mohr’s circle of stress as explained
earlier.
We will look into some examples on how to compute these using numerical values.
Now let us look into that, if a particular member is subjected to, again a combined loading
action but here the individual loadings are bending and twisting moment which are acting
simultaneously in a member. We had seen the action of a twisting moment in a bar that how
do we calculate the shearing stress because of the twisting moment? Also, we have looked
into that if a beam is subjected to transverse loading then how do we calculate the bending
moment and the shear force and consequently how do we compute the bending stress and the
shearing stress? Now if the member is subjected to the twisting moment as well as the
bending then what we will be the consequence or how do we calculate the stresses in such
members? If you look into this that here we have a twisting moment which is acting. Again it
is a positive twisting moment and a load P is acting at the end of this cantilever beam, fixed at
one end.
926
Now load P, which is acting at the free end of the cantilever beam will produce a moment at
this section where we are interested to find out the stresses. We are interested to find out the
stresses at point A and B on this particular cross section let us say which is at a distance of a
from the free end. Now at this particular cross section the load P is going to cause a bending
moment, M=Pa and also there would be a shear force, which is equals to P.
In fact, if you take a free body diagram, it can be seen that both moment and shear will be
negative. Now physically if you look into this particular member when this is loaded at the
tip, it will be deflected downwards, due to which, top surface will be on the tension and the
bottom will be under compression and that we can verify from the numerical values as well.
927
e now that, σ = My/I = Pa y/I = Pay/I
Now the question is that when this moment and the shear force is acting on this particular
cross section then what are the kinds of stresses we are going to get at point A and point B?
Now as you know that at point A because of the twisting moment there will be shearing
stress,
τ1 = Tρ/J
where T is the twisting moment, rho is the value of the radius of outer point and J is the polar
moment of inertia of the cross section.
Also, there will be shearing stresses because of the shear force V, but the point A which is on
the top surface, there as we have seen the shear stress because of the shear force is equals to
zero. So, the only contribution of the shear will be from the twisting moment at point A. At
point A, because of the bending due to load P is causing bending at A which is, M= Pa, will
have a normal stress,
σx = My/I
At the top point we will have a normal stress σx and there will be shearing stress τ1, which is
arising from the twisting moment only and the representation of the stress pattern at point A
is given in the figure.
Now at point B which is lying in the neutral axis, now as you have seen that at the neutral
axis level the stress because of bending is equals to zero. So there will not be any contribution
from the bending thereby the value of the normal stress for that particular point will be zero.
So all we will have at that particular point is the shearing stress is which is arising from the
twisting moment and the shearing stress which is arising from the shear force value. So, for
this case,
τ1 = Tρ/J
τ2 = VQ/Ib
So, if we combine these two together τ1 and τ2 depending on their corresponding signs, we
will get a resulting shearing stress at this particular section and you will not have any normal
stress.
928
Hence, these are the two situations that we get corresponding to A and B and if we plot these
stresses in the Mohr’s circle then you get the situations in this form.
In the first case where we have the normal stress σx and shearing stress τ1, while, σy = 0. So
after drawing Mohr’s circle, we can get the maximum values of normal and shearing stress.
And corresponding to the other one, where we do not have normal stress, σ = 0, but we have
the resulting stress only τ = τ1 + τ2. As we only have the values of the τ, so if we plot the
Mohr’s circle we get the principal stresses σ1 = σ2 = τ1 + τ2, which we have seen is the case
of the pure shear.
929
That means at that particular point the state of pure shear is prevailing and corresponding to
that, as we have seen in the past that how to compute the value of the normal stresses we get
the normal stress as equals to the shearing stress.
Well, let us look into some examples. This is the problem which was given to you last time
wherein this is the cantilever beam which is subjected to axial pull or the axial load, which is
inclined at an angle. The magnitude of this load is 50 kN. The cross section of the beam is a
rectangular one having width of 20 mm and the depth of 120 mm. Now we will have to
compute the value the value of the maximum in-plane shear stress and off course the
principal stresses at point A. Now, point A as we can see is 20 mm away from the neutral
axis of the beam and the point is at a distance of 250 mm from the edge cantilever beam.
Now this particular load which is acting at an inclination with reference to the beam axis,
which is at an angle θ, can be decomposed into two directions: one is in the axial direction
and another one is in the perpendicular direction and thereby this axial direction force will
cause an axial pull or thereby there will be normal stress because of that and the transverse
loading, which is component in the vertical direction will cause bending and a shear at this
particular cross section.
So first we will have to find out that what are the magnitudes of the bending moment and
what are the magnitudes of the shearing force that is acting at this particular section, so that
we can compute the value of the principal stress and the in-plane shear stress?
930
First thing is that we have decomposed this inclined load which is at an angle of theta in two
directions: one in the axial direction and one in perpendicular to this axis direction.
cosθ = 4/5 = 0.8 and sinθ = 3/5 = 0.6
Horizontal component = 50⨯cosθ = 40 N
Vertical component = 50⨯sinθ = 30 N
As the axial load 40 kN will cause a normal stress, which is,
σ = P/A = 40⨯1000/(20⨯120) = 16.7 MPa.
931
If we take the free body at the section at point A, we can calculate the bending moment and
shear force, which is,
M = 30⨯0.25 = 7.5 kNm
V = 30 N
Now because of this negative bending moment, we will get a positive stress, because
σ = My/I. Since M is negative and y is positive, so we will have a normal stress which is
tensile, because of the bending. And also, we have the axial pull, which will give a tensile
stress. So these two stresses, since they are of the same nature, we can add them together.
σb = My/I = (7.5⨯106⨯20)/(20⨯1203/12) = 52 MPa
So 52 MPa is the normal stress because of the bending and 16.7 MPa is the tensile stress
because of the axial pull. So the total stress that we have because of the bending and the
normal stress, σx = 16.7+52 = 68.7 MPa
Now, in the y direction, we do not have any normal stress, so σy = 0. The shear force can be
calculated as follows,
τ = VQ/Ib = 30⨯1000⨯40⨯20⨯40)/(20⨯20⨯1203/12) = 16.7 MPa
Thus, we get the shearing stress as 16.7 MPa and since this is negative it is acting in the
negative direction as we have taken our sign convention.
932
This is the state of stress that we have at that particular point A wherein we have the normal
stress σx and the shearing stress τ. Now as you know that at a particular point when we have
the combination of the normal stress and the shearing stress we can calculate the value of the
maximum normal stresses and the maximum shearing stresses using the transformation
equation or using the Mohr’s circle.
Mohr’s circle for this state of stress is shown in the figure. Now the value of the radius,
OA’ = √ =√ = 38.2 MPa
933
Now, the maximum value of in-plane shearing stress will be equal to the radius of Mohr’s
circle, i.e., 38.2 MPa. When we like to compute the value principal stresses,
σ1 = 68.7/2 + 38.2 = 72.55 MPa
σ2 = 68. / 38. = 3.85 MPa
Therefore, once we know the individual stresses we can compute the resulting stress using
this Mohr’s circle.
934
Now let us look into the second example which is the combination of the axial pull and the
twisting moment. A bar is subjected to an axial pull of 80 kN and also it is subjected to a
twisting moment T of 1.1 kNm. It is a machine shaft is of solid circular cross section of
diameter 60 mm. Now we will have to evaluate a maximum tensile stress and in-plane shear
stress at point A. Here, at point A, you have to evaluate what will be the maximum value of
the tensile stress and what will be the value of the in-plane shear stress.
As we were discussing today about the stresses that will be developed because of this axial
pull and the twisting moment; as we have seen that the axial pull is going to give us the
normal stress that P divided by the cross-sectional area the axial pull divided by the cross-
sectional area will give us the normal stress and the twisting moment is going to produce the
shearing stress. So at the point A on the surface you are going to have the normal stress and
the shearing stress and if you the normal stress and shearing stress you can compute the value
of the maximum normal stress and the maximum shear stress from the Mohr’s circle. Now let
us look into that.
The normal stress due to axial pull,
σ = P/A = 80⨯103 / π⨯302) = 28.3 MPa
The value of the shearing stress,
τ = Tρ/J = 80⨯103⨯16 / π⨯603) = 26 MPa
935
This is the value of the shearing stress and this is the value of the normal stress at point A
because of the action of the axial tensile pull and because of the twisting moment. Therefore,
because of the actions of these two individual loading which are acting simultaneously, we
are getting the stresses the normal stresses and the shearing stress of this much of magnitude.
Now if we plot these stresses in the Mohr’s circle, we can get the values of principal stresses
and maximum in-plane shearing stress at point A. From Mohr’s circle, it can be deducted that
Radius of Mohr’s Circle, R = √ = 29.6 MPa
936
Maximum principal stress, σ1 = (28.3/2) + 29.6 = 43.75 MPa
Minimum principal stress, σ2 = 8.3/ .6 = 15.45 MPa
Maximum in-plane shear stress = R = 29.6 MPa
Hence, the maximum tensile stress that is occurring at that particular point is 43.75 MPa, the
maximum compressive stress that is occurring is 15.45 MPa and the maximum value of the
shearing stress, the in-plane shearing stress that is occurring which is the radius of the Mohr’s
circle is equals to 29.6 MPa; these are the values which we wanted to have. If you recollect
from the previous lesson, we had shown you that this particular type of force distribution or
937
the load combination comes in the case of a shaft which is used in the helicopter fan which
moves; you know, it is subjected to a twisting moment and because of this the lift is subjected
to an axial pull as well. Therefore, if we like to compute the value of the stresses then we get
the stress in this form in such shafts.
Well, let us look into another interesting problem, where there is a horizontal bracket ABC, it
is in the horizontal plane. This is subjected to a load at the tip; one is a vertical one which is
of magnitude 2 kN and another one is 3 kN which is acting parallel to the arm AB. Now what
we need to do is that we need to compute the value of the stresses at a point D which is at the
support which is at A. If we look into the cross section, the cross section again is a solid
circular one with a diameter of 60 mm. Now what we will have to do is that we will have to
compute the maximum tensile stress, maximum compressive stress and maximum in-plane
shear stress at point D.
Now let us analyze the forces first that how we transfer these forces to this tip of this
particular beam. This bracket ABC, we can reduce it to a cantilever beam AB which is fixed
at A and free at B. Now the vertical force which is of magnitude 2 kN, if we shift it to point B
then this is associated with a moment, which is going to be a twisting moment. The horizontal
force which is of magnitude 3 kN, if we shift to this point B this gives us an axial thrust to
member AB and is associated with the moment which is a bending moment at point B with
magnitude 3 kN times the lever arm, which is equals to 0.4m. Thus, the member AB is
subjected to a vertical load of magnitude 2 kN, a horizontal load of magnitude or axial load of
magnitude 3 kN and a twisting moment T at the tip and a bending moment M at B.
938
Now the vertical load which is acting at the tip at point B of magnitude 2 kN, is also going to
produce a bending moment at A. Now if we look into the cross section you will find that load
P will cause a bending moment about the z axis. Now already we have a moment M which is
acting about y axis. We have a moment which is acting about y axis, load P is going to cause
a moment about z axis and we have T which is a twisting moment which is acting about the
axis which is perpendicular to the board. Along with that we have the axial thrust which is of
magnitude 3 kN. Now the interesting part is that we are interested to compute the value of the
stress at point D.
Now if you look into this particular moment, which is being produced by load P of 2 kN, at
point D being at the neutral axis, the stress will be zero. So at point D, the moment which is
being produced by 2 kN does not have any effect. So this particular point will be subjected to
a compressive stress because of the axial compressive force, will be subjected to a
compressive stress because of the bending which is acting about y axis and will be subjected
to shearing action because of the twisting moment T that is acting at the end B.
So let us compute and also at the end A because of this vertical load 2 kN, there will be a
shearing force component which will be producing the shearing stress. So there will be
shearing stress produced because of the twisting moment T, there will be shearing stress
produced because of the shear force V, there will be bending stress because of M which is
acting about y axis and there will be normal stress because of the axial compressive force.
939
The normal stress due to axial compression, σ = 3⨯103/2827.43 = 1.061 MPa
Now the bending moment, M = 3⨯0.4 = 1. Nm and I = π⨯604/64 = 636172.5 mm4
Now, the bending stress is, σ = My/I = 1.2⨯106⨯30/636172.5 = 56.6 MPa which is
compressive at this particular point.
So we have a normal stress due to axial load, which is compressive and we have also got a
normal stress from the bending which is compressive, so if we add these out we get the total
normal stress, σ = 1.061+56.6 = 5 .661 MPa.
Now, twisting moment, T = 2⨯0.4 = 0.8 Nm, ρ = 30mm and J = 2I. Thus, shearing stress
due to twisting is,
τT = Tρ/J = 0.8⨯106⨯30)/(2⨯2636172.5) = 18.86 MPa
Shearing stress at point D due to shear force, V=2 kN is,
τV = 4V/3A = (4⨯2⨯103)/(3⨯2827.42) = 0.94 MPa
Hence, the total shear stress, τ = τT + τV = 18.86+0.94 = 19.8 MPa
So you see this is the element which is at D which is subjected to a normal compressive stress
of this magnitude and a shearing stress.
940
Now if we plot these stresses in the Mohr’s circle, we can get the values of principal stresses
and maximum in-plane shearing stress at point A. From Mohr’s circle, it can be deducted that
Radius of Mohr’s Circle, R = √ = 35 MPa
Maximum principal stress, σc = 5 .661/2) + 35 = 63.83 MPa
Minimum principal stress, σt = = 5 .661/ + 35 = 6.17 MPa
Maximum in-plane shear stress = R = 35 MPa
Hence, at the member, at that particular point here the magnitude of the maximum
compressive stress is 63.83 MPa and maximum tensile stress of 6.17 MPa is the. Now the
value of the maximum shearing stress in-plane shearing stress is 35 MPa.
These are the values at that particular point when the bracket is subjected to tip loads: one in
the vertical direction, another in the horizontal direction which is parallel to AB. Now these
two forces compute the stresses at the support which gives you the maximum tensile,
maximum compressive and the shearing stresses of the magnitudes as we have calculated
over here.
Well, we have another example problem. Now this is the sign board as we have discussed last
time. When the wind forces act on such signs it produces combined force actions on the
941
vertical members and this particular board is subjected to a wind load of 1.8 kPa. You will
have to find out the maximum in-plane shear stresses at three points A, B and C.
Well, then to summarize, in this particular lesson we have looked into the aspects of the
previous lesson. Now we have looked into some more aspects of the combined loading
actions. In the last lesson we had discussed that, what are the forms of different combined
loading that a member is subjected to. Now in this particular case we have looked into some
more aspects of such combined loading and therefore and thereby we have looked into some
examples to evaluate combined stresses in member after analyzing the members for the
proper loading.
942
Now these are the questions given for you. How will you evaluate the combined stresses in
the member if the member is subjected to torsion and bending moment? How will you
evaluate the principal stresses in the member if the member is subjected to torsion and
bending moment and what is the value of normal stress on the neutral axis when the member
is subjected to torsion and bending? Well, we will discuss this in the next lesson. Meanwhile
you can go through the lesson and look into these questions, thank you.
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Lecture – 36
Combined Stresses - III
Welcome to the third lesson of the eighth module which is on combined stresses part III.
Now the last two lessons of this particular module you have looked into that we have
discussed several aspects of the combined loadings and thereby we have evaluated the
combined stresses in members when they are subjected to different forms of combined
loadings.
Now we have discussed that if a member is subjected to axial load and bending then what
happens to the combined stresses; or if a member is subjected to twisting movement and
normal axial force then what happens to the stresses; or if a member is subjected to the
combined loading actions of the twisting moment and the bending moment or the shear
force then what happens to the combined stresses. Those aspects we have looked into.
Now, in this particular lesson we are going to look into some more aspects of combined
loadings. If a pressure vessel which, we have earlier analyzed for the pressures only, are
subjected to the external forces like the axial pull or the compressive force or if they are
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subjected to twisting moment or if the whole vessel a cylindrical vessel is supported on to
supports and thereby some bending is induced into the member, then in addition to the
stresses that is being induced because of the pressure inside. What happens to when they
are subjected to these external loads as well? So we are going to look into those aspects
in this particular lesson.
Hence it is expected that once someone goes through this particular lesson one should be
in a position to understand different types of combined loadings that the members are
subjected to and when we are talking about the different types of loadings different
members are subjected to, it includes, off course the aspects whatever we discussed in the
previous lessons as well as the aspects which will be looking into this particular lesson
and thereby we should be in a position to evaluate the combined stresses generated in
members and also one should be in a position to evaluate stresses in members due to
different types of combined loadings.
The scope of this particular lesson therefore includes, we will be looking into some
aspects of the previous lesson which we call as the recapitulation of the previous lesson
part. It includes the steps to evaluate combined stresses in members for different types of
combined loadings. Now we are in a position to more or less summarize that due to
945
different kinds of combination of the loadings the individual loading we have seen in the
previous modules. If a particular member is subjected to different kinds of load
combinations then what are the stresses we have looked into in the last two lessons and in
this particular lesson we will be looking into some more examples with particular
reference to the pressure vessels and then we will be in a position to list out that what are
the steps you will have to go through to evaluate the combined actions of combined
loading actions in a member and thereby evaluate the combined stresses.
Also, we will be looking into some examples for the evaluation of the combined stresses
in members due to different types of combined loadings.
Well, before we go into the aspects of the pressure vessels, let us look into the questions;
the answers to the questions which I had posed last time. The first question was, how will
you evaluate the combined stresses if the member is subjected to torsion and bending
moment together?
Now, in earlier cases we have seen that the member is subjected to the axial force and the
bending and in the last lesson we have discussed some aspects of the member subjected
to twisting moment and the bending moment. Now the question is that how you are going
to evaluate the combined stress in a member if the member is subjected to the combined
946
actions of the twisting moment and the bending moment. Infect, let me discuss the other
questions the second question also along with this. The second question reads as: how
will you evaluate the principal stresses in the member if the member is subjected to
torsion and bending? In both the cases it is subjected to torsion and bending. Maybe I can
answer these two questions together through this example.
Now if you look into this particular example which we have discussed last time that if a
member of circular cross section is subjected to a twisting moment, which is positive
twisting moment whose vectorial direction is towards the positive x axis and it is
subjected to a load P at the free end. So this particular member the cantilever beam is
subjected to the action of the twisting moment T and a bending moment M at the section
where point A and B is situated and also because of this particular loading situation this
particular cross section will be subjected to a shear force B.
Now the stresses if we look into at this particular section at point A and B, because of the
actions of these individual forces, the twisting moment and the bending moment and the
shear forces; the stresses that are generated because of the twisting moment T is the shear
stress, τ =Tρ/J and the direction of the shear stress as it is shown in the figure. This is the
contribution of the twisting moment T in this particular member.
947
The bending moment which is getting generated because of this load P, M = Pa, if we call
this distance as, ‘a’ from the support. The stress is, σ = My/I. Now this bending stress is
going to produce the normal stress and at the top point from the neutral axis. Now point B
in the neutral axis as you know the bending stress is not going to produce any stress at the
neutral axis and therefore the normal stress at point B will be equals to zero. Now in this
particular case since we have the load P which is contributing to the shear force V.
Therefore we will have a component which is getting generated because of the shear
force and the shearing stress, τ = VQ/Ib. The top of this particular member will not be
subjected to any shear stress because of the shear force but we will have the maximum
shear stress at the neutral axis level which will be occurring at B.
Therefore, if we look into the resulting normal and the shearing stress that are occurring
at A, we will have normal stress σx, which is getting generated because of bending
moment M, we will have the shearing stress τ, which is getting generated because of the
twisting moment T, but point A will not experience any shear stress because of the
vertical shear force V. At point B, there are no normal stresses due to bending, because it
is lying on the neutral axis. But there will be shearing stress because of the twisting
moment T and also you will have shearing stress which is getting generated because of
the shear force V. Thereby we will have a resulting shearing stress, τ = τ1+ τ2. So this
particular point will be in a state of pure shear where we do not have any normal stress.
948
So these are the combined actions of loading because of the torsion and bending. that is
acting in the member where we get these kinds of stresses. Now the question is that if we
like to find out the principal stresses; now as we have done in the past what we need to do
is we need to plot these stresses in Mohr’s circle, which are gives below for the cases
discussed above.
So, you can observe now that the member which is subjected to the combined actions of
the bending and the twisting moment, I mean the twisting moment and the bending
because of the load will be subjected to the combined stresses and we can compute the
value of the principal stresses using the Mohr’s circle which we had discussed in module
1, where we had that if you have the biaxial state of stress how to compute the principal
stresses or stresses at any inclined plane with reference to the x axis at that particular
point.
The third question was that what will be the value of the normal stress on the neutral axis
when the member is subjected to torsion and bending? When the member is subjected to
torsion and bending as you can see that torsion is producing shear stress, τ =Tρ/J and
bending is producing normal stress, σ = My/I. Now as you have noticed that bending
stress in the cross section produces a linear distribution of the stress and on the neutral
axis, the stress is zero.
949
Now, since you do not have any other normal forces acting in the member thereby, when
a member will be subjected to combined action of bending and torsion the normal stress
along the neutral axis will be equals to zero. So if we choose a point to evaluate the stress
which is lying on the neutral axis then it will be subjected to shear stress only and that
will be in a state of pure shear and it will not have any normal stress at that particular
point when you are evaluating the combined effect of the stresses.
950
Let us look into the actions of the combined loading in a pressure vessel. In the module 3
where we have discussed the effect of pressure in a thin walled cylindrical or spherical
pressure vessels that is how to compute the stresses exclusively because of the internal
pressure and as we have seen that because the wall is a thin wall and because of the
pressure, the stresses which we get is on the wall and they are in the circumferential
direction and in the longitudinal direction. The stress in the circumferential direction we
have called that as Hoop’s stress and you have the longitudinal stress.
Now, if such pressure vessels which are subjected to internal pressure because of the
content liquid if they are subjected to some kind external loading as well as it is indicated
over here. The pressure vessel is subjected to a tensile pull P and also a twisting moment
T externally, what will be the consequence of the stress at point A?
Now, as we have seen that when we have the internal pressure if we look into the effect
of the loadings individually, what is the contribution of this individual loading in the
stresses then because of the internal pressure inside the vessel we will have the
circumferential stress or the Hoop’s stress, σC = pr/t
Also, the longitudinal stress, σL = pr/2t
These are the contributions from the internal pressure. Now let us look into that what will
be the state of stress because of the axial pull P? When the vessel is being pulled by an
951
external tensile pull then every cross section of this particular vessel will be subjected to
a stress and this which have designated as normal stress and that normal stress is nothing
but equals to this tensile pull divided by the cross-sectional area. Now this being a thin-
walled pressure vessel the cross section area as we had seen is equal to 2πrt and the
longitudinal stress contribution because of the axial pull is,
σL = P/2πrt
Now this member is also subjected to a twisting moment. Now here whatever we have
indicated is a positive twisting moment, the vectorial direction which is in the positive x
direction. This particular element when they are subjected to this twisting moment on this
surface it will be subjected to the action of shearing stress which is,
τ = Tρ/J
For thin-walled cylindrical member, J =2πr3t, which gives,
τ = Tr/2πr3t
So as you can see now that individually these three loading conditions: one is the
pressure internally, another one is the axial pull and the third one is the twisting moment
that is acting. σC is giving you the normal stress in the y direction, σL will give you the
952
normal stress in the x direction; also, the axial pull is giving you the normal stress in the x
direction and the twisting moment is generating the shearing stress.
So the total normal stress that you have in the x direction this is equals to this is the
contribution of the pressure part from the internal pressure and this is the contribution of
the this is the contribution of the this is the contribution of the external pull,
σx = σL = pr/2t + P/2πrt
In the y direction we have the circumferential stress which is,
σy = σC = pr/t
In addition to that we have the shearing stress which is indicated over here. So this
particular element now is subjected to σx, σy and τ. As we had seen earlier in module 1
that if a particular at a particular point in a body have the biaxial state of stress along with
the shearing stress then how do you compute the resulting principal stresses? We can
compute the maximum value of the normal stresses which are given by σ1 and σ2,
maximum and minimum principal stresses and also the maximum value of the shearing
stress we can compute from this combined state of stresses.
Now we can plot these values in the Mohr’s circle and thereby we can get the values of
the principal stresses.
953
Now, since we have looked into different kinds of combined loading situation in
members; in the previous two lessons we have seen that a member, when it is subjected
to axial pull and bending then what is the combined state of stress. Subsequently, in the
last lesson we had seen that if the member is subjected to a twisting moment and an axial
pull then what is the effect or if it is subjected to the twisting moment and bending then
what is the consequence in the combined stresses.
Now that we have seen that if a pressure vessel is subjected to internal pressure along
with the external loading then how do you compute the stresses. Now if you look into all
these cases more or less they follow a normal guideline or general guideline which can be
listed out over here.
You see, what we are interested to do is that we are interest to evaluate stress at a
particular point in a body which is subjected to the combined actions of the loading. So
we select a point where we need to evaluate the stresses and this selection of the point
generally is selected at a particular point where we expect that stress level for some of the
loading actions could be maximum.
Say for example; if we draw the bending moment diagram of a member which is
subjected to bending we know that where the maximum bending moment can occur. So
954
we can choose that particular point where the maximum bending moment occurs and then
compute the stresses corresponding to the bending and also we compute the stresses
corresponding to the other actions of the loading and then we try to analyze that what will
be the consequence of the combined loading action at that particular point.
Likewise we can select the point where we expect that the maximum shear stresses will
be generated or where we have the maximum actions of the shear force and then at that
particular point what is the consequence of other loading actions and thereby what will be
the value of the combined stresses. So likewise we select some points if we know the
positions of the maximum loading situations like bending and shear as I was describing
we select those points or else we choose some points in the member and then we try to
find out that which one gives you the maximum of all these maximum situations and that
we treat as the worst situation for the load combinations or the combination of the
combined stresses.
Secondly, what you need to do is that at that particular point the point, which you select
you need to determine the stress resultants. What are the stress resultants? As we have
seen what are the axial ports that is acting at that particular section where that point lies
or what is the value of the twisting moment at that particular section or what is the value
955
of the bending moment at that particular section or what is the value of the shear force at
that particular section or if it is a pressure vessel then what is the state of stress that is
getting generated because of the internal pressure within that particular vessel.
So, at that particular point we try to find out first the stress resultant and then for each
individual such stress resultant quantity what are the consequence on the stresses. So we
calculate the normal and shear stress contribution of each individual load including the
stresses that will be generated in the pressure vessel, the normal stresses.
Once we get the normal and shear stresses for each individual load then what we do is
that we try to combine suitably according to their sense; depending on compressive or
tensile normal stress you have or the shearing stress you have we algebraically sum them
up and arrive at what will be resulting value of the normal and shear stress at a particular
point which we have selected to evaluate the stress at that point.
So combine the individual stresses to obtain the resulting normal and shear stresses. This
is what is important. Thereby we now arrive at two stresses: one is the normal stress or
rather three quantities: σx, σy and τxy, where σx and σy are the normal stresses and τxy is
the shear stress. So, at a particular point we arrive at these three quantities corresponding
956
to of course the plain state of stress and then once we get that at a particular point once
we know that what is the value of σx, what is the value of σy and consequently what is the
value of the shearing stress, then we can plot them in the Mohr’s circle or we can use the
transformation equation from which we can compute the values of the principal stresses
and the maximum shear stress at that particular point and once we know the stresses then
we can compute the value of the strain using Hook’s law.
These are the steps more or less which are common for all these situations, which you
have analyzed so far or which we are going to analyze in this particular lesson. Wherever
a member is subjected to such combined loading actions these are the steps we have to
follow so that you can arrive at what will be the consequence of this loading at that
particular point in terms of the stresses.
Well, then let us look into some of the examples on these combined loading situations.
Now this is one of the examples which I had given to you last time wherein the actions
will be in the form of bending and torsion.
Here you see there is a sign board which is connected to a vertical member which is a
tubular member and it gives the direction of a particular strip. Here when this particular
sign board is subjected to a wind pressure of 1.8 kPa. Now what you need to do is you
need to determine the maximum in-plane shear stress at point A, B and C.
957
When the wind load occurs perpendicular to this board, then the total load that will be
exerted by the wind will be equals to the wind intensity multiplied by the whole area and
that is expected to act as the resulting force at the center of gravity of this particular
board. Now this CG of the board being eccentric with respect to the center of gravity of
this particular vertical member, the loading to this member is eccentric with respect to its
vertical access. So if we like to shift this particular load to the central axis of this
particular member, this will be associated with a moment of magnitude. And incidentally
this particular moment is about an axis which is lying in this plane of the tube and this
moment is nothing but a twisting moment of this tubular form. And since this particular
vertical member is supported at the base and P at the top it is like a cantilever beam
which is subjected to a concentrated load towards the free end and this load is going to
cause a bending moment at the base which is equals to P times this vertical distance. And
because of this P there will be bending and also this cross section will be subjected to the
shearing force.
Now, because of the bending there will be normal stress, because of the shearing there
will be shearing stress and because of twisting there will be shearing stress. Let us
compute now that what will be the result stresses because of these three actions at points
A, B and C.
958
Now, before we go in to the calculation of stresses one point we must note that point A is
the top surface of this tubular form and thereby when it is subjected to the shearing action
the shear stress because of the vertical shear force will be zero at point and it will be
maximum at the diametrical point BC, but the contribution of the shear stress in the twist
from the twisting moment will have all the three points subjected to the shearing stress.
When we talk about the normal stress because of the bending, A will be experiencing
normal stress but since B and C lies on the neutral axis B and C will not experience any
normal stress because of the bending. With this discussion let us look into the calculation
of the stresses at points A, B and C.
Now you see, the analysis of this particular loading action is indicated over here that you
have the resultant load acting at this particular point at the CG of this particular board and
this load is transferred to the vertical axis of the member and this is the load P along with
a twisting moment that is what is indicated over here.
Now, the diameter of the tube is 100 mm. So distance between CG board and CG of
vertical member = 1+0.05 = 1.05m
Now, P = 1.8⨯103⨯2⨯0.75 = 2.7 kN
959
If we shift this 2.7 kN load to the central axis of this tube then we have the load which is
2.7 kN along with a twisting moment, which is
T = 2.7⨯1.05 = 2.835 kNm
Now the concentrated load P will produce a bending moment M at the bottom support,
whose lever arm = 3.2 + (0.75/2) = 3.575 kNm
M = 2.7⨯3.575 = 9.653 kNm
If we take the free body diagram of the member, we can get shear force at any section as,
= P = 2.7 kN
So, at the point of concern, three quantities acting are, the twisting moment T, the
bending moment M and the shear force V. We have already discussed that at point A, we
will have the normal stress because of the bending and we will have the shearing stress
because of the twisting moment T which we can call as τ1. Since the vertical tubular
member is a vertical member and the bending is going to cause a stress in the y direction
and so we have the normal stress as σy, but we do not any stress in the x direction, which
gives σy = 0.
960
But point B and C which is lying on the neutral axis will not have any normal stress and
we will have the shearing stress τ1, which is because of the twisting moment T and we
will have the shearing stress τ2, which is because of the shearing force V.
Now here you see that the shearing stress, τ1 = Tρ/J
I = πd4/64 = π(1004 804)/64 = 2.9⨯106 mm4
J = πd4/32 = π(1004 804)/32 = 5.8⨯106 mm4
961
Thus, τ1 = (2.835⨯106⨯50)/(5.8⨯106) = 24.4 MPa
Now the shearing stress, τ2, is because of the shearing force. At point A, the contribution
of the vertical shear force is zero, because shear stress distribution, as we have seen, is
zero at the two outer surfaces and you have the maximum value of the shear stress at this
neutral axis position. The value of this shearing stress is gives by, as discussed earlier,
τ2 = (4V/3A)[(r22+r1r2+r12)/(r22+r12)
= [(4⨯2.7⨯103)/(3⨯2827.43)]/[(502+50⨯40+402)/(502+402) = 1.9 MPa
You know, if you remember that when we evaluated the value of the shear stress in a
solid circular section or a tubular section, we were able to calculate only the diametrical
position because at other positions we cannot calculate because the section is not parallel
to the y axis.
The normal stress which we get because of the bending,
σ = My/I = (9.653⨯106⨯50)/(2.9⨯106) = 166.43 MPa
This is the value of the normal stress, shearing stresses which we are getting for the
twisting moment and shearing stress which we are getting from the shear force.
962
(Refer Slide Time 34:59 – 38:53)
With these stresses now if we try to find out the resulting stress in the member, because
we are interested to find out what will be the values of shearing stress at point A, at point
B and at point C; and the resulting shearing stress because of these individual loading
actions; what is the individual loading that is acting at that particular cross-sectional
support; they are the twisting moment, the bending moment because of the eccentric
loading and the shear force because of the loading that is acting on that member.
963
For drawing Mohr’s circle to get combined stresses at point A, we have,
σx = 0, σy = 166.43 MPa and τxy = 24.4 MPa
From Mohr’s circle, it can be deducted that
Radius of Mohr’s Circle, R = √ = 86.72 MPa, that gives us the value of
the maximum in plane shearing stress at point A.
At point B, as you have seen that we have shearing stress from twisting moment as equals
to 24.4 MPa and the shearing stress from the shear force is 1.9 MPa. So the total shearing
stress,
τ = τ1+τ2 = 24.4+1.9 = 26.3 MPa
At point C, we have τ1 and τ2 acting in different directions. So the resultant shear stress
will be the difference between the two. So resultant shearing stress at C,
τ = τ1 τ2 = 2 . 1.9 = 22. MPa
Therefore, you see, then these are the values of the shearing stresses τA, τB, τC at three
points A, B and C, which are getting resulted from the wind load which is acting on the
964
sign board. So you see that when we are using such signs which are eccentric with
respect to the vertical post the vertical post is subjected to the actions of the shearing
stress and also of course it is subjected to the normal the maximum principle stresses as
well as you can from this particular Mohr’s circle.
965
Well, let us look into this example which is based on the discussion which we had in this
particular lesson where we have discussed the effect of the external loading on a
pressurized vessel. Here we have a pressurized cylindrical tank that means it is subjected
to the actions of internal pressure, also it is acted on by load, which is a tensile pull and
there is a twisting moment.
Now the internal pressure given is 3.5 MPa. What you need to do is that you have to find
out the value of maximum value of this load P, axial pull P so that the tensile stress in the
wall of cylinder does not exceed 70 MPa. The value of the twisting moment given is 500
Nm, the diameter of the tank is 100 mm and the thickness of the wall is 3 mm.
As you can see, in this particular vessel we have three loading actions. One is that we
have internal pressure and that will give rise to the two stresses as we have seen. They are
the circumferential stress and the longitudinal stress because of the internal pressure.
Also it is acted on by the axial pull and because of the axial pull at every cross section the
member will be subjected to the normal stress and the member is subjected to a twisting
moment and because of the twisting moment the wall of the pressure vessel will be
subjected to the shearing stress. So once we have the resulting normal stress and the
shearing stress then we can compute the maximum tensile stress that will be generated in
the wall of the vessel.
966
Let us look into the computations of these individual quantities so that we can find out
what will be the maximum value of tensile stress. As you know that the circumferential
stress or the Hoop stress because of the pressure internal pressure is,
σy = σc = pr/t = 3.5⨯50/3 = 58.33 MPa
Now, in the x direction because of internal pressure there will be a stress which we have
called as normal stress σL1 = pr/2t. Also, because we have the axial pull in the pressure
vessel, there will be a normal stress σL2 and the magnitude of which will be P/A. So total
stress in x direction,
σx = σL1 + σL2 = pr/2t + P/A = 29.17 + P/A
The twisting moment T will give rise to the shearing stress on the wall which is,
τxy = Tρ/J = ( 00⨯103⨯50)/(2.36⨯106) = 10.61 MPa
Where, J = 2πr3t = 2π⨯503⨯3 = 2.36⨯106 mm4
967
Thus, you have normal stress σx, which is the sum of the effect of the internal pressure
and the external loading, normal stress σy which is getting generated because of the
internal pressure and you have the shearing stress τxy which is getting generated because
of the twisting moment T.
Now if we make use of this to find out what will be the maximum normal stress at that
particular point then we plot them in the Mohr’s circle. We have σx = 29.17 + P/A MPa,
σy = 58.33 MPa and τxy = 10.61 MPa
The radius of Mohr’s circle can be deducted as,
R=√ =R=√
(σx+σy)/2 = (29.17 + P/A + 58.33)/2 = 43.75 + P/2A
As we know that principal stress, σ1 = (σx+σy)/2 + R, which should not be more that 70
MPa. So if you take this as the limiting value and if you substitute these values, we can
get the value of P. Now let us look into that if you substitute the value of σx and σy, then
what we get.
968
σ1 = (σx+σy)/2 + R
70 = (43.75 + P/2A) + √
0 3. P/2A = √
26.2 P/2A = √
Squaring on sides, we get,
26.252 + (P/2A)2 (P/A)⨯26.25 = (P/2A)2+14.582 (P/A)⨯14.58 + 10.612
Further simplification gives,
36 = (P/A (26.2 1
Substituting, A = 2πrt, we get P = 29. kN
Well, let us look into another example which is again related to this pressure vessel were
a thin circular cylindrical vessel is subjected to an internal pressure p which is not known
to us and it is simultaneously compressed by an axial load of magnitude 72 kN. So, if the
969
allowable shear stress is 60 MPa then what will be the value of the maximum internal
pressure?
Now if we choose a point in the vessel wall we can find out the value of the normal
stresses: the longitudinal and the circumference stresses because of the pressure which we
had said σL and σC. This external force of axial 72 kN will give us a compressive normal
stress in the vessel wall. Therefore, if we take the resulting of this, then we can find out
that what will be the values of longitudinal stress and the value of the circumferential
stress? And since here there are no shearing stresses acting so these will be the principle
stresses and thereby we can compute the shearing stresses directly from them.
The value of the normal stress in the y direction which we call as the circumferential
stress,
σy = σ1 = pr/t = p⨯50/4 = 12.5p
The normal stress in the x direction or in the longitudinal direction,
σx = σ2 = pr/2t + P/A = [(p⨯50)/(2⨯4)]+ [72⨯103/(2π⨯50⨯ = 6.2 p .3
Here we do not have any external loading on the member which can contribute to the
shearing stress. Since there are no shearing stresses at that particular point so those
normal stresses as we know from the Mohr’s circle the places where we do not have the
970
shear stress there we have the principal stresses. Here, these are the values of the
principal stresses let us call them as σ1 and σ2.
Now as we know the maximum value of the shearing stress,
τmax = (σ1 σ2)/2
60 = (12. 6.2 p + .3 /2, which gives, p = 10.03 MPa. So because of this combined
action this is the maximum value of the pressure that can be applied inside the cylindrical
vessel.
971
Now we have another problem where a steel shaft of diameter d is subjected to a bending
moment of 1.2 kNm and torsion of 0.3 kNm. If the allowable tensile and shear stresses
are 80 MPa and 40 MPa respectively, what will be the diameter of the shaft? Now this
problem is given to you. Look into this particular problem. We will be discussing about
this particular problem in the next lesson.
Well, then to summarize what we have done in this particular lesson is that we have
looked into some aspects of the previous lesson; we have recapitulate the previous lesson.
Now we have looked into some additional aspects of combined loading and that is in the
pressure vessel and also we have looked into some examples to evaluate combined
stresses in members after analyzing the actions of the combined loading.
972
Now this is the last lesson of this particular module and this module on combined stresses
we had three lessons and as you have seen in the lesson 1 we have introduced the concept
of combined loading and also we have seen various forms of combined loading in
members and we had solved some examples which are related to the combined axial
force and the bending. In the subsequent lesson in lesson 2 we had looked into some
aspects of bending and torsion.
And in the third lesson or the lesson which we have discussed today there we have
discussed some aspects of the combined loading in the pressure vessels. So that
concludes the lesson on the module on the combined stresses.
973
And these are the questions set for you. How will you evaluate the combined stresses if
the member is subjected to axial load and torsion? How will you evaluate the principal
stresses if a pressure vessel is supported on two supports at a distance apart? And what
are the types of loading a road sign is subjected to due to wind force?
We will look into the answers of these questions in the next lesson, thank you.
974
Lecture - 37
Stability of Columns - I
Welcome to the first lesson of the ninth module which is on stability of columns part I. In fact, in
the previous modules we have discussed certain aspects of the stresses in members and
consecutively we have looked into the effect of bending in a member where we have evaluated the
deflection of the member. Now, in this particular lesson we are going to discuss different aspects
which are the stability of a member which we designate as column.
Now it is expected that once this particular lesson is completed, one should be able to understand
the concept of buckling of column members. In fact, we will define what we mean by column
member; which member we term as column and then we will look into certain characteristic
features called as buckling; so buckling of column members under axial compressive load.
975
One should be in a position to evaluate critical buckling load in column members of different types.
Now we will look into that what we really mean by critical buckling load that the member which
is subjected to axial compressive load in which load it is going to buckle of deform.
The scope of this particular lesson therefore includes the recapitulation of previous lesson. In fact,
the last module we have looked into the aspects of combined stresses; we will look into certain
aspects of the combined stresses while answering the questions related to that. And this particular
lesson includes the concept of stability of column members, evaluation of critical buckling load in
different types of column members. The different types of column members we mean, we look
into that what are the different types of supports the column members have and what are the
contributions of axial load in the buckling of those members.
976
Then we will look into some examples for the evaluation of buckling loads in columns.
977
Well, now let us look into the questions which were given in the last lesson. The first question was
that how will you evaluate the combined stresses if the member is subjected to axial load and
torsion simultaneously.
Now as I said, in the previous lesson we had discussed about the concept of the combined stresses
and you have seen that if a particular member is subjected to an axial pull P along with the twisting
moment T then what will be the effect of this combined loading in the member.
As you know that the axial load which is acting in the member which is concentric that means
acting through the center of gravity of the member will contribute to the normal stress σ which
=P/cross-sectional area. So wherever you take the element on the surface we will get, or in the
other point, normal stress,
σ = P/A
The contribution of the twisting moment T will be in the form of shearing stress as we have seen
while discussing the effect of the torsion and member. Thereby, if we take an element this will be
subjected to the normal stress σ and the shearing stress, τ.
978
And as you know that if a particular element is subjected to the combined action of normal stress
and the shearing stress we can plot these stresses in the Mohr’s circle in terms of σ and τ then we
can compute the value of the maximum normal stress which we call as σ1 and the minimum normal
stress which we called as σ2 we call these also as principal stresses and the maximum value of the
shearing stress which we call as tau max. These stresses we can evaluate when they are subjected
to the combined action of the axial load and the torsion.
Therefore, when a member is subjected to the axial pull or axial compressive force and a twisting
moment, the resulting stresses are the normal stress and the shearing stress. Shearing stress comes
from the twisting action and then when normal stress and the shearing stress act simultaneously
we can compute the values of the maximum tensile or compressive stresses and the maximum
value of the shearing stresses in the member.
979
Now the second question posed was how will you evaluate the principal stresses if a pressure
vessel is supported on two supports at a distance apart.
980
As you have seen that a pressure vessel when it is subjected to some liquid which is exerting
pressure on the container we get two types of stresses which we call as σC the circumferential stress
or the Hoop’s stress
𝑝𝑟
𝜎𝐶 =
𝑡
Consequently, we get the longitudinal stress, σL
𝑝𝑟
𝜎𝐿 =
2𝑡
where p is the internal pressure, r is the radius the outer radius of the cylindrical vessel and t is the
thickness of the vessel.
When this particular vessel is supported on two supports thereby if we take the weight of this
container along with the contained liquid, we can idealize that particular form in this particular
form (Refer Slide Time: 6:33) where we have two supports with the load which is distributed over
the entire length of the vessel. the entire length of the vessel we can consider as a beam member
which is subjected to its own weight along with the contained liquid and supported at these two
points which we can call as A and B.
Now as you know, this particular beam member when it is subjected to a load of q uniformly
distributed will get a moment diagram which will look like this. now because of this bending there
will be bending stresses and as you know the bending stress introduces the normal stress which is
My/I and this depending on the position of the element it could be compressive or tensile when
you are talking about with reference to the neutral axis so thereby that will contribute to the normal
stress.
Now this stress the normal stress due to bending will get added or subtracted from the longitudinal
or the normal stress we get from the pressure vessel and they are shown over here.
𝑝𝑟 𝑀𝑦
𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝐿 = ±
2𝑡 𝐼
𝑝𝑟
𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝐶 =
𝑡
981
Now pr/2t is the contribution from the pressure vessel and My/I is the contribution from the
bending. So this will give us the resulting normal stress in the x direction and this will give the
normal stress in the y direction.
In this particular problem of course we have not considered the effect of the shearing stress.
However, if you compute the value of the shear there will be an effect of the shearing stress as
well. But if we do not consider the shearing effect then this element will be subjected to the normal
stress σ x and σ y and from this again σ x and σ y since there are no shearing stresses on this
element these are the principal stresses or the maximum value of the stresses the maximum tensile
stresses that will be occurring in the x and y direction. Hence, at any direction we can compute the
stress based on these stresses.
982
Well the third question was on a load sign which we normally use what kind of stresses this will
induce the wind load will induce in the vertical member. Now as you have seen that the load sign
which is projecting from a vertical shaft is subjected to the normal; when the wind acts normal to
this plate it will be subjected to a wind force which will be acting through the center of gravity of
this particular plate; and if you call this load as P this load if we transfer to the vertical shaft
member it will be transmitted with a twisting moment T. So, if we idealize this particular member
983
in this form like you have a beam which is subjected to a lateral load P and a twisting moment T
now this lateral load p will produce a maximum bending moment at the support which =if you call
this distance as a where P.a is the bending moment over here and this Pa the moment will introduce
the normal stress σ which =My/I.
Also, at this section there will be shearing stress because of the shear force due to load P and that
=τ,
Now this stress the normal stress due to bending will get added or subtracted from the longitudinal
or the normal stress we get from the pressure vessel and they are shown over here.
VQ
τ=
Ib
The twisting moment T will have the stress here will produce shearing stress which is τ which is
equals to,
𝑇 τ
=
𝐽 ρ
𝑇ρ
τ=
𝐽
984
So the total effect of shearing stress you will have from the twisting moment as well as from the
shearing force and there will be normal stress because of the bending. So the member the vertical
member which is subjected to wind load the load sign which is subjected to the wind load will
have the combined effect of the bending stress, the shearing stress and the shearing stress from the
twisting moment. And once we know the normal stress and the shearing stress then we can compute
the value of the, maximum value of the normal stresses or maximum principal stresses; if we plot
them in the Mohr’s circle we can compute the value of σ1 and σ2 which are the maximum normal
stresses and thereby they are the principal stresses.
Well, before we go in to the stability aspects let me discuss the problem which I had shown to you
last time and this is related to the combined effect of the bending and the twisting moment in a
member.
A steel shaft of diameter d which is unknown is subjected to a bending moment of 1.2 kilo Newton
meter and a torsion of 0.3 kilo Newton meter. Now if the allowable tensile and shear stresses are
80 MPa and 40 MPa respectively, we will have to determine the diameter d of the shaft. This is a
situation where the shaft is subjected to combined action of bending moment and the twisting
moment.
985
When the member is subjected to a combined action of bending moment and twisting moment then
we get the stresses in this form. say for example; if we have the shaft of diameter d then as we
know,
My
σ=
I
and y here is the maximum distance from neutral axis, y = d/2
𝜋𝑑 4
I=
64
32𝑀 32 × 1.2 × 106 38.4 × 106
σ𝑥 = = =
𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑 3
𝑑
𝑇ρ 𝑇. 2 16𝑇
τ= = =
𝐽 𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑 3
32
16𝑇 16 × 0.3 × 106 4.8 × 106
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = = =
𝜋𝑑3 𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑 3
986
Now, when you have this normal stress σx and c we can compute the value of the maximum tensile
stress σ1 either using Mohr’s circle or using the transformation equation which is,
σ𝑥 σ𝑥 2
σ1 = ± √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2
106 39 × 106
80 = (19.2 + √(19.2) 2 + 4.82 ) =
𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑 3
𝑑 = 53.7 𝑚𝑚
This is the value of the diameter of the shaft which is corresponding to the maximum tensile stress
of σ 1 which =80 MPa.
Now if you have to satisfy the criteria of the maximum shearing stress which =40 MPa;
106 2 + 4.82 ) =
19.8 × 106
40 = (√(19.2)
𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑 3
𝑑 = 54 𝑚𝑚
Now as you can see we have computed the value of diameter from the maximum tensile stress,
also we have computed from the criteria of maximum shearing stress. And since both the criteria
have to be satisfied because you cannot provide a diameter which will satisfy one and will not
satisfy the other, then naturally it will not stand it will fail so you will have to provide the maximum
987
value of the diameter corresponding to the two; satisfying both the stress criteria and thereby the
diameter of the shaft comes as 54 mm. So the shaft diameter has to be 54 mm so that both the
normal stress and the shearing stress criteria are satisfied.
This was the solution for the example which we had given last time.
988
Having discussed about the effect of these combined stresses now let us look into the stability
aspects of the column. Before you really go into the stability part, let us look into these two aspects.
As you remember that in the first module we have discussed that we are concerned about the three
‘S’ in the strength of material: one we call as the strength and in the strength as you have seen we
have computed the value of the stresses.
Say for example; if you have an axial load; axial load/the cross-sectional area gives you the normal
stress. Also, we have computed the shearing stress from the twisting moment or we have computed
the normal stress from the bending moment. Now these stresses as we have seen must withstand
the stresses that can be of any material that we are providing for constructing any of these elements.
Naturally that says that the strength of that particular material is such that it can withstand these
stresses what we have designated as the stress criteria for a particular member. Consequently, we
have looked into that if you have a member which is subjected to load it will be undergoing
deformation. Let us take for example that when you have a member subjected to the axial load P
we had corresponding deformation,
𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
𝐴𝐸
𝑃= 𝛿
𝐿
The particular term AE by L and this is what we call as stiffness of the element. That means this is
the axial stiffness of the member which will need this much of load P to produce unit displacement
δ or unit deformation δ.
Consequently, say for example; in a particular beam simply supported beam subjected to uniformly
distributed load we have seen the δ =PL3/48. Now here also if I like to write to P in terms of δ we
can write,
48𝐸𝐼
𝑃=
𝐿3 𝛿
Now if you like to have unit deformation or deflection the corresponding load which we need =this
amount which we term as stiffness of the member.
𝑇ρ 𝐺𝛳
τ= =
𝐽 𝐿
989
𝑇 τ 𝐺𝛳
= =
𝐽 ρ 𝐿
𝐺𝐽
𝑇= 𝛳
𝐿
Here also if we like to have unit rotation the corresponding twisting moment that we need =GJ /L
and that is what is twisting stiffness. Now you see, in each of these cases as we are looking into
that we need stiffness of a member whether in terms of A/L or EI/L3 or GJ/L they are the
characteristics of the member concerned where the cross-sectional area or the moment of inertia
or the polar moment of inertia introduced or connected with. These are the parameters which we
call as the stiffness. So these are the two aspects the strength and stiffness parameter we have
already looked into.
Thirdly, the aspect which we are going to look into is the stability of a member. Now in this
particular lesson, of course we will be discussing about the stability with reference to the column
member. So strictly speaking, stability does not mean the stability column alone; it can be stability
of different members as well. But in this particular lesson we will be looking into or in this
particular course rather will be looking into the stability of the column members only. A column
990
member is a member that generally carries axial compressive load and we call those kinds of
members as column members.
Now let us really look into what we mean by the stability of columns.
Columns, we can categorize into three groups: one we call as short columns where the axial load
is applied to a member in such a way that everywhere we get the stress. As you have seen, σ will
be equals to P / A the normal stress and on this member if you keep on applying this load P will
fail by crushing or yielding of the material and the stress will go beyond the permissible value of
the material.
Another category we call as a long column where the member fails by buckling. Now let us look
into this aspect from these two very small experiments. Now here, I am considering two members
the cross section of which is rectangular one and they are on the same cross section. If you look
into these two members, I have one member which is of shorter length and I have another member
which is of little longer length and the cross section of these two members are same and they are
rectangular in nature. If you look into the cross section, they are the identical.
991
When I am talking about this shorter length member, if I am applying the axial load you will find
that the stress at any level will be P/A. Now if I take the longer member and if I try to apply the
load you will find that this particular member is going to bend in a form and this is what we call
as buckling. Now this particular member, as you can see that we are applying the axial load and it
has taken a bent shape thereby it has undergone some amount of bending and this is what we call
as buckling.
In case of the shorter member the stress which we had obtained they are by the crushing of the
member or the stress level at any point goes beyond the permissible value of the material stress; in
case of the long columns or in case of the member which is a cylindrical one, when we apply the
load P if we increase this load gradually, as you have observed that it takes this particular bent
shape and this is what we call as buckling.
Now this particular shape (Refer Slide Time: 22:59) is little unstable; if we try to apply a lateral
load there will be deformation and this deformation will be in an unrested manner and that is what
we call as buckling; the deformation of the member in an unrested manner causes failure of the
member and we get intermediate columns which can fail by the combination of the crashing and
buckling. Now for this it is very difficult to arrive at the theoretical basics so we resort to some
experimental or empirical formulae for evaluating the critical load for the intermediate columns.
992
Now if we try to look into the animation part of it that if you have the member when they are
subjected to load as you can see it is in a straight form; and when the first load is added as you can
observe it is in straight form you see, now it is still straight, now we have added some load and
now it has deformed slightly, and when you add load further it goes in an unrested manner.
993
Now let us discuss this stability aspect of column through a model which you call as a buckling
model.
In this buckling model we consider two rigid bars AB and BC and they are connected by a pin at
point B. And at point B we add a rotational spring having a stiffness β. Now when this particular
member AB and BC they are concentric they are subjected to a load P it will be in a stable form.
Now if we add a little disturbance to the member then the point B will move so that the deformation
which we get, the member will undergo a rotation called ϴ which we presume as a small
deformation. When this particular member point B moves then the rotational spring which we have
at point B will have some amount of moment generated which will try to bring this member back
once we remove the disturbance. That means this particular moment which will be equivalent to
the stiffness the total rotation these two members undergo which =2ϴ
So the restoring moment for the spring M =β.2ϴ.
This particular restoring moment will try to bring these two members in their straight form. Now,
on the other hand what happens is this particular load P will try to increase this deformation at
point B. that means it will try to increase this rotation ϴ. As you can see that the effect of the axial
994
load which is trying to deform the member or buckle the member is against or opposite to the
restoring moment that has been extracted by the rotational spring at point B.
Now this particular module you can compare with the previous example as I was showing that you
have a long member subjected to axial load. Now there the bending or buckling is over the entire
length of the member; now here that elasticity is introduced through the rotational spring only.
Now in this particular state if we remove the disturbance it will come back to its original position.
If we go to the particular load when; so that particular configuration when after removal of the
disturbance it comes back to its original position, we call that particular state as a stable state. In
that anti-shaft state again if we keep on increasing this load P a situation will come when the
deformation will be large and thereby the member is going to collapse and now the restoring
moment will not be able to withstand the effect of the compressive load or thereby the load P which
will be applied will be greater than the restoring moment that is being offered by the rotational
spring and that particular state we call as unstable state.
Hence, you see that one state we get as stable state and another state we get as unstable state
corresponding to two values of the axial compressive force P. Now in between these two states;
995
between the stable state and unstable state we get an exclusive value of P which is the boundary
between the stable and unstable state and that load we call as the critical load. Now at that particular
load if the member is subjected to in a stable equilibrium position little disturbance in that member
can cause a failure of the member and that is why call that particular load as a critical buckling
load.
Now if you like to analyze that what will be the critical buckling load for this particular model we
take the free body diagram of this whole thing the whole member and if you see that this horizontal
force if you call it as H and if you take the moment of all the forces with respect to A, we see that
H = 0.
996
Now if we take the free body of the top part of the member the part PC which is like this where
you have the small deformation ϴ here, the axial force P is acting and the restoring moment M and
the resistive force P the reactive force P is acting at point B; now as we have seen that M =β.2ϴ is
the restoring moment as we have called it; well, it is trying to restore its original position, if P is
small if restoring moment is larger than the P it will come back to its original position and hereby
the column is a stable member if the disturbance is removed.
But if this restoring moment becomes smaller than the P or P becomes larger than the restoring
moment the member is going to collapse. Therefore, at the point when we are calling that P is in
the boundary between this stable and the unstable state that means at that particular point of time
the load is just equal to the restoring moment. So when axial compressive load P is equal to the
restoring moment in this particular model then it will be in a just state of equilibrium and any
additional load will cause instability of the member or the ember is going to collapse due to the
unstable situation.
997
M = β. 2ϴ
Thus, if we equate that or if we take the moment of all these with respect to B,
𝐿ϴ
𝑀 − 𝑃. =0
2
𝑃𝐿
(2β − ) . ϴ = 0
2
𝑃𝐿
Here if you see that either ϴ = 0 or (2β − )=0
2
If ϴ =0 then naturally this is in a straight form so there is no buckling.

Hence,
𝑃𝐿
(2β − )=0
2
4β
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
L
This is what we are calling as critical load and this critical load is independent of ϴ that indicates
that whatever may be the value of the ϴ the critical load be, stiffness of the rotational spring which
is analogous to the stiffness of the module which we are looking into the long member which we
were looking into.
Now what does we mean by this particular critical load. This is the boundary between the stable
and the unstable situation. If we have load less than P critical that means the member is in a stable
form that means once we remove this disturbance it will come to a perfect state a perfect vertical
998
state and if in such a state if we add disturbance in the critical load if we add any disturbance to it
then it is going to cause the collapse or the member will become unstable.
So what we need to look into is that the difference state which we can compare with this particular
situation that if a ball which is placed in a member which is upwardly concave, here wherever it is
the position of this particular ball it will come back to its lowest position and thereby this is a stable
form and that you can plot with respect to load verses ϴ if you say this as ϴ that means in a stable
form once you deform it if you add some disturbance to the member and bring it back it will always
bring it will come back to the perfectly vertical position and this is a stable state.
999
Now, this is a state which is unstable. That means at this particular point at this particular point it
is stable but a little disturbance to this can cause failure of this particular form this will move. That
means at this particular state at a particular state when load has gone to the criticality the member
can be just vertical that means the ϴ could be equals to zero so it is just in a critical state; if we
give a little disturbance this way or that way that can cause the collapse of the whole member and
that is what we call as the unstable state; this is what is being represented through this particular
diagram.
Here (Refer Slide Time: 33:46) P is greater than the P critical and at this particular point, so this is
the unstable state and this is the stable state and this particular one is the neutral state. Now here
wherever you place this position it will always remain in that particular position and that is what
we call as the just equals to the critical load; this we call as the neutral position.
1000
Now we can look into this particular form where you see that once you remove this it comes back
to its original position because the restoring moment is more than the axial force and that is why
the restoring moment is putting it back in its original position. But if the load becomes the larger
you see that it collapses that means if the axial force become higher, then the member collapses.
1001
Well, then we come back to the original discussion again after looking into the aspects of the model
where we have looked into the buckling model. Now we are interested to evaluate that what will
be the critical buckling load or a member and for that we start with a situation that we have a
column member which is pinned at both ends and this is an idealized form of the column where
the axial load P is acting perfectly concentric with respect to this member.
Now here we choose the axis system in such a way that x goes along the member length and y is
perpendicular to this. That means if we rotate by 90 degree we get the situation that x is in the
positive x direction and y is in the positive y direction as we have assumed for a beam member.
The length of the member is L. As you have seen, at the criticality when we reach to the P critical
the other slightly bent form of this member we call this as ϴ the member can be in the equilibrium
state beyond which to this particular state if we add any disturbance then it is going to cause a
failure of the member.
We are interested to evaluate this critical load (Refer Slide Time: 36:07) corresponding to which it
will be in a state of equilibrium. Now if we take a section at a distance of x from end A from (0, 0)
point then the free body diagram of this particular part of the deformed state of the member is this
1002
where this distance =y at a distance of x and at this point you have the reactive force P and the
moment M.
Now if we take the moment of all the forces with respect to say this point we call this as d (Refer
Slide Time: 36:46) then,
M + P.y =0
Or, M = -Py
Now as we have seen that the flexural equation or the deferential equation for evaluating the
deflection of a beam member was,
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼. = 𝑀 = −𝑃𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
Based on these particular aspects we like to derive the critical load for this particular member and
this derivation was presented by the great Swiss Mathematician Leonhard Euler in the year 1744
wherein he had given this particular derivation based on which we compute the value of the critical
load P critical and thereby we generally designate this critical load as the Euler’s critical buckling
load of a column member and or it is a Euler critical buckling load formula. The expression which
we get for evaluating the critical load we call that as the Euler critical buckling load formula.
Now let us see how we get this value of the critical load corresponding to this.
1003
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼. 2 + 𝑃𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦 𝑃
+ .𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑑2𝑦
2
+ 𝜆2 . 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑥
At x = 0, y = 0, Thus, C2 = 0
At x = L, y = 0, Thus, C1 sin λL= 0
Either, C1 = 0, which means, y=0 i.e. there is no deformation/buckling in the member. Or,
sin λL = 0
𝜆𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋
2
𝑛2 𝜋 2
𝜆 = 2
𝐿
𝑃 𝑛2 𝜋 2
= 2
𝐸𝐼 𝐿
𝑛2 𝜋 2
𝑃 = 2 𝐸𝐼
𝐿
1004
Here n can have values 1 2 3; now minimum value of n will lead to the critical load for this
particular member.
If n = 1,
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃=
𝐿2
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
If (𝑃 < ) in a column which is hinged at both ends then it will be in a stable form, and if we
𝐿2
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
go beyond that load, (𝑃 > ), then that particular member is going to collapse or fell in
𝐿2
buckling; may be the stress level could be lower than the yield stress; the P/A if you compute that
could be less than the yield stress but the member will fell in excessive deformation which we call
as buckling.
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 2
𝐿
This is what we call as Euler’s critical buckling load formula or Euler’s critical load; P critical is
known as Euler’s critical load.
And consequently, as we have seen 𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥.
1005
Now since C1 is not determined uniquely, so naturally the value of the deformation which we get
is not uniquely defined so we can have an arbitrary value or arbitrary shape of the particular
deformation.
And this is what the deformation shown over here. You see, when n =1 this is the way the member
is going to deform and you have the corresponding load as the critical load, Pcr.
Now when n =2, we are going to have the critical load as 4Pcr and since it is larger than this critical
load naturally at this point you will have to some kind of a support so that you get deformation in
this particular pattern. When n =3 then the load can go up to 9Pcr corresponding to this one and
thereby at the third point you need to have a some kind of support and thereby the column can take
a shape of this particular form. Now these are the shapes which we generally call as the mode
shapes.
1006
Now let us look into the critical load corresponding to a column member where the supports are
of different types. Here one end is fixed and the other end is free. In the previous case we had a
member where both ends were pinned or hinged. Now here one end is fixed and the other end is
free. Now if that happens, at the critical state it may deform in this particular configuration and
beyond which if we add disturbance to this particular member this is going to cause the collapse
of the member and thereby corresponding to this state we call the load as critical load.
Again now if we take free body diagram of this particular part which is at a distance of x from the
origin which is let us call as A then this is the free body diagram. Now at this particular point (Refer
Slide Time: 44:18) this distance from here = y and thereby at the top we have taken the maximum
deformation of the member with respect to its original position as δ thereby this particular length
is going to be equals to δ- y. So if we take the moment of all the forces with respect to this particular
point then we have moment
𝑀 − P. δ − y = 0
𝑀 = P(δ − y)
𝑑2 𝑦
𝐸𝐼. 2 = 𝑀 = P(δ − y)
𝑑𝑥
1007
𝑑2 𝑦 P
= (δ − y) = λ2 (δ − y)
𝑑𝑥 2 EI
𝑑2𝑦
2
+ λ2 y = λ 2 δ
𝑑𝑥
The complementary solution of the differential equation would be,
𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑥
To evaluate the particular solution, let us assume,
𝑦 = 𝑎x 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑑2𝑦
= 2𝑎
𝑑𝑥 2
Substituting in the above equation,
2𝑎 + λ2 (𝑎x 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) = λ2 δ
Thus,
𝑎=0
𝑏=0
𝜆2 𝑐 = λ2 δ
Thus, c = δ
Thus, y = δ
Thus, the solution is
𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑥 + δ
From the boundary condition,
At x = 0, y = 0 => C2 = -δ
At x = 0, dy/dx = 0 => C1 = 0
𝑦 = δ(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑥)
At x = L, y =δ.
δ = δ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝐿)
δ𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝐿 = 0
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝐿 = 0
𝑛𝜋
𝜆𝐿 =
2
𝑛2 𝜋 2
𝜆2 =
4𝐿2
1008
𝑛2 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃=
4𝐿2
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
4𝐿2
𝑥�efer Slide Time: 47:11 - 48:15)
This is the critical load for a column member which is fixed at one end and free at the other.
1009
Now let us look in to the case where the column is fixed at one end and hinged at the other. Now
it is expected that the deformed state will be in this particular form and if we try to find out the
critical load corresponding to this state this is P critical and since this is the hinged end you have
horizontal force H; so if you take the free body diagram of this particular part these are the moment,
horizontal force and the vertical force, the reactive force is here; if we take the moment with respect
to A we will have,
𝑀 + 𝑃. 𝑦 − 𝐻(𝐿 − 𝑥) = 0
𝑀 = −𝑃. 𝑦 + 𝐻(𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = −𝑃. 𝑦 + 𝐻(𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥2
𝑃
𝐴𝑠 𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝜆 =
𝐸𝐼
𝑑2𝑦 𝐻
+ 𝜆2 . 𝑦 = 𝜆2 (𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥2 𝑃
Now if we write down the solution for this as you have seen in the previous two cases the solution
of this will be equals to the complementary solution and the particular solution.
1010
𝐻
𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑥 + (𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝑃
𝐻
Thus, the complementary solution is, 𝐶1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑥 and the particular solution is 𝑃 (𝐿 − 𝑥)
The boundary conditions are,

At x = 0, y = 0 => C2 = - HL/P
At x = 0, dy/dx = 0 => C1 =H/λP
𝐻 𝐻𝐿 𝐻
𝑦= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑥 + (𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝑃𝜆 𝑃 𝑃
At x = L, y = 0 => tanλL=λL
By trial, λL = 4.4934, Thus,
2𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿2
1011
Now let us look into the case where we have a member which is fixed at both ends and what will
be the critical load corresponding to that. Again if you take a free body of this particular member
at a distance of x then the forces are like this: you have the bending moment, you have the resistive
force reactive force and at this support you have the moment M. Now if you take the moment of
all the forces with respect to A then,
𝑀1 − 𝑀 + 𝑃. 𝑦 = 0
𝑀1 = 𝑀 − 𝑃. 𝑦
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = 𝑀 − 𝑃. 𝑦
𝑑𝑥2
𝑃
𝐴𝑠 𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝜆 =
𝐸𝐼
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑀
+ 𝜆2 . 𝑦 = 𝜆2
𝑑𝑥2 𝑃
𝑀
𝑦 = 𝐶1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑥 +
𝑃
Thus, the complementary solution is, 𝐶1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑥 and the particular solution is M/P
The boundary conditions are,
At x = 0, y = 0 => C2 = - M/P
At x = 0, dy/dx = 0 => C1 =0
𝑀
𝑦= (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑥)
𝑃
1012
At x = L, y = 0 and
At x = L, dy/dx = 0 => cosλL = 1 and sin λL =0
Now this can be satisfied only if lambda L =2π or multiples of 2 π.
Therefore, the minimum value corresponding to this will be 2π
4𝜋 2
λL = 2π, Thus, 𝜆2 = 𝐿2
4𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿2
First we have evaluated corresponding to this where both the ends were hinged; subsequently we
have seen that one end is fixed and the other end is free, subsequently we have seen that one end
is fixed and the other end is hinged and now that we have seen that both the ends are fixed so in
such cases what are the values of the critical load. And as you have seen that in all the cases the
values of the critical load as we have obtained, they are the functions of the member properties
like the I and L and you have the material property which is e. The L is having some coefficient
factor which we can evaluate now.
1013
Now if you look into in general for these cases you see for the hinged hinged we had P critical =pi
square EI over L square but the deformed state was in this particular form. Now if we try to write
down the critical load for all the cases in terms of this pi square EI over L square corresponding to
this case where your support conditions are fixed and free you have Pcr = π2EI/4L2
Now let me call that Pcr = π2EI/L2
(Refer Slide Time: 55:56).
In this particular case(fixed-hinged),
Pcr = π2EI/(L/√2)2
Thus, Le = √2 L= 0.7L
1014
Well, we have an example for you which is a rectangular column 3m long which is hinged at both
ends, carries a load of 300 kilonewton. You will have to determine whether a section of 200 mm
into 150 mm which is rectangular one will be able carry this load if we introduce a factor of safety
of 3 and the value of E is given as 12.5 GPa. Now this problem is assigned to you. Look into this.
We will discuss in the next lesson.
(Refer to slide time: 56:59 - 57:45)
1015
Hence to summarize in this particular lesson we have looked into some aspects of the previous
lesson. Also, we have introduced the concept of the buckling and stability of different types of
column members. We have derived the critical buckling load for different types of columns;
different types of columns in the sense we have taken the columns with the different n conditions
either they are hinged ends or you have fixed and free or you have fixed and hinged or you have
fixed at both ends. These are the possible cases that we can have and corresponding to this we have
derived the critical buckling load. Well, we have given one example and some more examples we
will be discussing in the subsequent lesson.
1016
And these are the questions set for you that what is meant by critical buckling load of columns?
How will you evaluate the critical compressive stress in a column member? And what is meant by
slenderness ratio?
Look into these questions. Some of the questions you will be in a position to answer from the
lesson we have discussed and we are going to give you the answer for this in the next lecture, thank
you.
Next lecture preview

Stability of Columns – II
1017
Welcome to the second lesson of the ninth module which is on stability of columns part II in fact
in the last lesson we have introduced the concept of the buckling in a member vertical member
which is subjected to a compressive force which we have termed as columns and also we have
looked into the stability aspects of different types of column members. we will be introduced to;
which was proposed by Euler which we normally call as Euler’s buckling load formula. now this
particular lesson we are going to look into the aspects that where Euler load can be applied or in
other words what are the limitations of Euler’s critical buckling load.
1018
Lecture – 38
Stability of Columns - II
Welcome to the second lesson of the ninth module which is on stability of columns part II. In fact,
in the last lesson we have introduced the concept of the buckling in a member, a vertical member
which is subjected to complexity force which we have termed as column and also we have looked
into the stability aspects of different types of column members and thereby we have introduced
the derivations which was proposed by Leonhard Euler which we normally call as Euler’s buckling
load formula.
Now in this particular lesson we are going to look into the aspects where the Euler’s load can be
applied or in other words, what are the limitations of Euler critical buckling load in applying in the
column members and subsequently also we look into what are the other formulas that can be used
for evaluating the critical load in a column member.
1019
It is expected that once this particular lesson is completed, one should be in a position to understand
the limitations of Euler’s critical buckling load formula and also we look into the concept of
intermediate columns and evaluation of buckling load using Rankine’s formula. Also, one should
be in a position to evaluate critical buckling load in different types of column members. When we
talk of different types we mean that the column members are having different support conditions.
As we have seen in the previous lesson the column members can be having the hinged ends or it
can have fixed ends and also fixed and hinged or combinations of these and then how do you
calculate the critical buckling load in such column members having these different types of
supports.
The scope of this particular lesson therefore includes the recaπtulation of previous lesson. We will
look into some aspects of the lesson which we have discussed in the previous class wherein we
have given the concept of the buckling and the stability and we have discussed the Euler’s critical
buckling formula; we will look into some more aspects of that.
We will look into the limitations of Euler’s critical buckling load formula and also this particular
lesson includes this Rankine’s critical buckling load for intermediate columns. In fact, we will
look in to what we really mean by intermediate column and how do we evaluate the critical
1020
buckling load using this Rankine’s formula. And also we will look into some example for the
evaluation of buckling load in columns of different support conditions.
Well, before we proceed, let us look into the answers to the questions which we posed last time.
The first question given was what is meant by critical buckling load of columns? Now let us discuss
this with respect to the buckling model which I discussed last time in the previous lesson.
1021
If u remember, the actual column supposing if we consider an idealized column which is hinged
at both ends and which is perfectly straight subjected to axial load these we can model as having
two digit bars AB and BC and connected with a rotational spring at point B, the spring stiffness of
this rotational spring being beta; and this particular system where AB and BC are perfectly
concentric the axial load P is acting in this member which is also concentric.
Now if we give lateral load to these or a little disturbance to this kind of a system then it is expected
that the bars will move thereby an angle ϴ will be made by these bars and the rotational spring
which is provided at B having the stiffness beta will produce a restoring movement the magnitude
of which will be equals to the total rotational angle that these two bars will be undergoing which
is twice 2ϴ this spring is undergoing so beta times 2ϴ is the restoring movement. If I call that as
MR this is equals to beta time 2ϴ.
Now if we remove this disturbing load as we have given a disturbance and brought the columns
bought this systems in this particular form, if we remove the disturbance it is expected that the bars
will come back to its original position because this restoring movement given by the rotational
spring will overpower the effect of this axial load and thereby this kind of a system we call as a
stable system where the restoring movement is larger than the axial load P which is acting on this
particular member.
1022
Now as you can see that when the rotational spring is giving a restoring movement the axial load
P is giving opposing action that means it is trying increase the movement of the point B and thereby
it tries to create destabilization in the system. now supposing if we keep on increasing this load to
such a to such an extent that the axial load exceeds the restoring movement capacity that means
the movement produced by this axial load through this movement if that exceeds the rotational the
restoring movement capacity then the system will no longer be in the equilibrium position and it
will fail and if we remove the external disturbance the restoring movement will not be or the spring
will not be in a position to restore back the normal position and thereby the system becomes
unstable.
Now between these two positions the stable and unstable position there is unique value of the load
P which we call as the critical load. This is what is stated over here that the transition between the
stable and unstable condition that occurs at a special value of the axial force which we term as
critical load. In fact critical load is that load beyond which if we add a little load to the system the
system will come unstable or it will fail by excessive deformation or unrestraint deformation which
we call as buckling. So the member will no longer be in a stable state but it will become unstable
and it will fail. That is the load; there is the limiting value of the load; beyond which the member
fails with little addition of the load we call that limiting load as the critical load. (Refer Slide Time:
07: 53)
1023
And as we have seen that last time we had derived for this particular buckling model that what will
be the value of the critical load, now as we have seen that the restoring movement is equals to beta
times 2ϴ the total rotation that it undergoes and if we take the equilibrium of the forces for this
particular free body as we have seen that the horizontal force is equal to zero now if we take the
movement of all the forces which is respect to B we get,
.2
0
2
2 . 0
2
Now this value of P becomes critical when this matches the restoring moment M. Now, as soon as
when this particular state if we add additional load over here delta P then the system is going to
collapse and that is the reason this load is called as the critical load P cr.
Now let us look into the other questions. The second question given was how will you evaluate
the critical compressive stress in a column member? Now that we have discussed about the critical
1024
load that a column member when subjected to axial load when it reaches to criticality then what is
the corresponding critical compressive load?
Now what we are interested in as we have seen earlier that if we like to evaluate the stress
corresponding to that critical load then what is the; which we term generally as critical compressive
load how to compute that? And the third question what is given is what is meant by slenderness
ratio? In fact I like to answer these two questions together, both the second and third questions
simultaneously.
Let us look into the formula which we have derived or which was given by Leonard Euler that the
Pcr is equal to,
Where, r = radius of gyration and Le/r is the slenderness ratio.
1025
Here you see, from these two expressions we are getting two terms: one we call as the σcr the
critical compressive stress and another term which is emerging out is the effective length Le/r ratio
and this particular ratio we call it as slenderness ratio. It indicates that how slender or how long
the member is with reference to its cross-external area. This is what is indicated over here that Le/r
is the slenderness ratio and σcr is the critical compressive stress.
Now if you notice it carefully that when the value of Le/r will be larger, then the value of
compressive stress σcr will be less and larger Le/r means the lower value of r. or in other words,
what I can tell you is that if we have a cross section for which you have a smaller value of r thereby
you will have larger value of Le/r thereby that will give you the minimum possible stress.
So if you have a section which is unsymmetrical; say for example, if we have a rectangular cross
section and the moment of inertia about both the axes Ixx and yy are different then since r is
nothing but equals to root of I by A the lower the value of the moment of inertia lower the lower
will be the value of r so the moment of inertia about y axis in this particular section will be lower
1026
so r y is going to give us the lower value out of the two r values. Therefore, minimum of this r will
give us the value of larger Le/r and thereby will have lower stress that is what is the critical stress.
So if you have a cross section wherein you have different values of the moment of inertia about
two rectangular access system x and y thereby we must deal with the minimum value of the radius
of direction so that you get critical value of the slenderness ratio which is Le/r which is larger. And
as we are looking in to it here the larger the value of the slenderness ratio smaller will be the stress
thereby, if you consider that particular stress with the cross-sectional area that will give you the
load getting capacity of the member. Hence you will have to always look for that what is the
minimum possible stress that will be required otherwise the member will fail by buckling if we go
beyond that particular load. This is what is important when we talk about the stresses the
slenderness ratio Le/r and the critical compressive stress σcr.
Well, having looked in to these questions let us once again look back to the values of the critical
load that we had evaluated or which was derived by Leonard Euler for different column support
conditions.
1027
Now, first one which was an idealized column member we had considered wherein the hinge of
the column members were hinged and that is what we have put as hinged and hinged and as we
had seen the Euler’s critical load corresponding to this kind of column having length L is equal to
π2 EI/L2. When the support condition changes say the lower becomes fixed and the top becomes
free which is that of a cantilever member this kind of member we call as cantilever member as we
have seen in beams. now here the condition is a fixed free condition and the Euler’s critical
buckling load which we get corresponding to this is, π2 EI/4L2
In hinged-hinged condition, since, Pcr = π2 EI/L2, Le = L, here we have the coefficient of L = 1, or,
K=1
In fixed-free condition, since, Pcr = π2 EI/4L2, Le = 2L, coefficient K = 2
In fixed-free condition, since, Pcr = 2π2 EI/L2, Le = L/√2= 0.707L, coefficient K = 0.7
In fixed-free condition, since, Pcr = 4π2 EI/4L2, Le = 0.5L, coefficient K = 0.5
Thus we see that we get different values of the K or the coefficient of the effective length based
on which we can compute the value of the critical compressive load for each of such column
members. And as we have seen now that once we can evaluate the critical compressive load
correspondingly we can evaluate the value of the critical compressive stress as well.
1028
Having looked into this let us look into the variation of this stresses and the assumptions with
which this Euler’s formula were derived.
Now you see, when we have derived or when the formula was proposed by Leonard Euler it was
assumed that the column member is perfectly straight that means we had considered an idealized
situations that the column member is perfectly straight and subjected to a compressive load which
is truly axial; that means it is passing through the centroid line of the cross external member of the
column member. So, the column is initially straight, the load is truly axial and the material is
1029
homogenous and isotropic and behaves elastically up to the critical load. So up to the limit of the
critical load we presume that the material behaves in an elastic manner and thereby the Hook’s
law is applicable. Therefore, beyond critical load there might be inelastic deformation or beyond
buckling when the buckling occurs the failure subsequently could be in an elastic manner which
is of course not in the scope of this particular lesson.
Now if you look in to the Euler’s critical buckling load formula you will observe that we had the
Pcr = π2EI/Le2. Now we are talking about a critical load that means how much load a member can
carry which must be related to the strength of the column. But unfortunately we do not have any
parameter in this particular expression which signifies the strength of the member; instead what
we have is the elastic modulus e only which is the material characteristics present in this particular
expression. This is what is written over here; you see that Euler’s critical load formula is used in
connection with the strength of the column but the formula does not contain any variable related
to the strength of the material and this is what is very important.
1030
Hence, the only property that is invoked in this particular expression is e which is the elastic
modulus of this material that we are using.
(Refer Slide Time: 20 53)
Well, now with this background if we look into the variation of the critical stress with the
slenderness ratio Le/r we will find, as we have discussed in this particular section.
As I was telling you that if this value of slenderness ratio increases then the value of the σcr
decreases. If the Le/r value becomes lower and lower that means the stress level will be higher and
1031
higher. Now what does that imply? That means if you have a very small Le/r or very small value
of the slenderness ratio you will have very high value of the stress. But what does that physically
mean?
Supposing if you have a stress which is much higher than the yield stress of the material then what
is going to happen; the material is going to fail as soon as it crosses the yield stress. So the stress
higher than yield stress makes no sense. So what happens is if we are talking about a column where
the slenderness ratio is very low or as we have seen that in case of short column the critical stress
thereby is the yield stress the yield stress is the critical value because once the member reaches to
the yield stress the material is going to yield and as we have noticed earlier as we have discussed
earlier that for a short column when it is subjected to axial load or even if the load is eccentric
thereby it is going to give you the axial load and the bending and in terms of the combined stresses
if you compute the normal and the bending stresses in the member, as soon as the stress level goes
beyond the yield stress the member is going to fail by crossing that means the material will yield
and the question of buckling will not arise in that particular situation.
2 10
210
97
Hence, this Euler’s critical load formula has a limitation that beyond a certain value of Le/r we
cannot use this Euler’s critical buckling load formula. Now, if we consider the material as steel
material which we know that the proportional limit stress the σ PL is equal to 210 MPa and the
yield stress say we consider as 250 MPa then if we consider that the proportional limiting stress
which is equal to 210 MPa then we get a value of slenderness ratio Le/r as equals to 97. This
indicates that if we use the slenderness value less than 97 then the stress level is going to go beyond
the proportional limit.
1032
As we have noticed, if the stress level goes beyond the value of σ y then the material is going to
fail by crossing which is the criteria for a short column. Hence, there is a limiting value for the
slenderness beyond which the Euler’s critical load formula is applicable; otherwise it is not
applicable for such type of members. So, in this particular curve as you can see where σcr is plotted
against the slenderness ratio Le/r, there is a limiting value of the slenderness and this curve (Refer
Slide Time: 24:41) or the Euler’s curve is valid when Le/r is greater than this limiting value. When
Le/r is higher, let us call this Le/r as the limiting value. this is the Le/r which we have computed
for steel and let us call this Le/r as the limiting value.
Now, when actual Le/r in the member is greater than the limiting value of the slenderness ratio
then we can use the Euler’s critical load formula. But if it is less than this value; if actual Le/r is
less than the limiting Le/r value then we cannot use the Euler’s column buckling formula. So what
happens is you see that we are getting clearly two areas: one is that beyond the limiting Le/r or the
slenderness ratio or higher the value of limiting value we can go for the Euler’s critical buckling
load formula based on which we can compute the critical load in the member and the other aspect
is that as we can see that when the stress goes beyond the yield stress the material is going to fail
by yielding.
1033
So, for the short columns when σy is the critical stress we can evaluate what will be the load
carrying capacity. So, between these two cases that you have a short column where the member is
going to fail by yielding and a long column formula where beyond a limiting value of the
slenderness ratio we are using Euler’s column buckling formula now in between these two there
could be some members which may failed in the combination of buckling and yielding and those
members which are in between this short column and long column we call them as intermediate
columns.
As we have noticed that intermediate columns will have L/r less than the limiting value of L/r or
Le/r and thereby will not be in a position to apply Euler’s critical buckling load formula for
evaluating the critical compressive load for such members. For such intermediate members we use
different formulas. In fact there is a formula which was proposed by Rankine we call that as
Rankine’s formula for evaluating the critical load in intermediate columns; so, for both short
columns and intermediate columns in fact the Euler’s column Euler’s formula will not be
applicable and it will not give you the appropriate results.
Now let us look into this Rankine’s formula which was proposed by Rankine which we commonly
call as Rankine Gordon formula.
1034
These are applicable for the intermediate columns and Rankine suggested that an empirical
relationship for evaluating buckling load in this form which reads as 1/Pr is equal to 1/Ps plus 1/Pe
where Pr is termed as the Rankine’s buckling load, Ps is the direct compressive load which is equals
to the yield stress multiplied by the area and Pe is the Euler’s critical buckling load formula or
buckling load. So we have three terms Pr, Ps and Pe where P r is the critical buckling load that is
given by Rankine and that is what we are interested to evaluate and that is being evaluated in terms
of Ps and Pe; Ps is the load which is evaluated from the direct compressive stress and that is for the
short column and as you know for the short column the critical compressive stress is nothing but
the yield stress σy.
So this particular expression that
1 1 1
.
1 /
1 . /
1035
.
Now here the σy/π2E which is dependent on that material the yield stress of the material and the
modulus of elasticity of the material is commonly termed as Rankine’s constant. And again as you
can see that the critical load for the member will dependent on this Le/r the slenderness ratio and
the critical stress or the yield stress of the material. This is the expression which was proposed by
Rankine for evaluating the critical buckling load for the intermediate column members.
1036
Now as we have seen clearly we have three distinct areas: one we have called as short column,
another we have called as long column and now we have defined another column range which is
between short column and the long column. For the other long column members we can use Euler’s
critical buckling load formula for evaluating the critical compressive load when the actual
slenderness ratio Le/r ratio of the member exceeds the limiting slenderness value. as we have just
now seen, for any material we can compute Le/r limiting for a particular material and when the
column member is made up of that material, if we know the actual slenderness and when that
actual slenderness exceeds the limiting value then we can use the Euler’s column formula for
evaluating the critical load; or if the actual Le/r is much less than the limiting Le/r value wherein
the failure will be governed mainly by the yielding of the material; wherein we take the critical
compressive stress as the yield stress of the material that multiplied by the cross-sectional area will
give the critical load as that of a short column and in between these two where the members could
fail in the combination of the crossing or yielding and the buckling those types of columns we call
as intermediate column and we can evaluate the critical buckling load of those columns using
Rankine’s formula.
1037
Now having looked into this with this background let us look into some of the examples. In fact,
this particular example I had given to you last time and asked you to look into; let me give you the
solution for this. This is the column which is hinged at both the ends and the length of the column
member is 3m. The cross section of this column is a rectangular one having a size of 150 mm by
200 mm. Now it says that this particular member carries a load of 300 kN. You will have to
determine whether this particular section the cross section of 200 mm by 150 mm will be able to
carry this load this 300 kN load if a factor of safety of 3 is to be used for this purpose.
Now you see when we use a factor of safety of 3 it means that if a member is subjected to a load
of P we should check the stress in such a way that it can withstand a load of three times P that is
the meaning of that factor of safety of 3. So the section is to be chosen or the stress has to be
evaluated in such a way that it can withstand a load of three times P and then only we can apply a
load P and we say that the factor of safety applied to this member is 3. Thus, we will have to check
whether the member can withstand a load of 300 times of 3 as 900 kN.
1038
Now let us look into this that if we compute the value of the critical load using Euler’s critical
buckling load formula see that the value of the I y; now as I was telling you the cross section is a
rectangular one, 150 by 200 and the rectangular access system of this is xx and yy. Now, which
can compute the moment of inertia of this section I x and I y.
As you know,
150 200
12
200 150
56.25 10
12
Clearly, Ix > Iy
1039
as you know that the value of r = √(I/A); and for this particular section we will have two values of
r which is rx and ry and
rx = Ix/A
ry = Iy/A
Since Ix > Iy, thus rx > ry
So we compute I y which is going to give us the minimum possible value because beyond that if
we apply load, it is expected that it will buckle about the yy axis. And as I had shown you last time
that if you take a member and apply a compressive load then if the member is a slender one a long
one then it buckles about one of the axes and obviously it is going to buckle about the axes which
is weaker if the two axes do not have the same strength like you do not have the same moment of
intertia on both the axes.
Or in other words, the section is not a square one as we are dealing in this particular case. Since is
a rectangular one, one of the moment of inertia is less in comparison to other one so it is weaker
about yy axis in comparison to the xx axis and therefore is going to buckle about y axis. As I had
shown you last time or the derivation we have looked into we have considered the buckling of the
member in one direction that means we have taken in the positive y direction. Now the question is
whether the buckling can physically occur in this direction or it can occur in this direction. Now
1040
whichever direction it occurs our evaluation will also be the same. The expression for the critical
load we will have will be unchanged. Now this we have (Refer Slide Time: 36:10) because of our
positive axis direction.
Thus if we apply the critical load formula given by Euler then we get a load value as,
12.5 10 56.25 10
771
3000
1041
As I was telling you that we will have to apply a factor of safety of 3 to this particular member and
thereby to have a 300 kN load.
P = 3 x 300 = 900 kN
Since we find that using Euler’s critical load formula the critical load is 771 kN which is less than
900 kN then this particular section will not be appropriate to apply a load of 300 kN with a factor
of safety of 3. So, to fulfill these two aspects; that means we will have to apply a load of 300 kN
with a factor of safety 3 will not be appropriate for this section or this section will not be able to
carry that load.
Now if you have to satisfy that that means you have to have 300 kN load on the member with a
factor of safety of 3 naturally then you will have to change the cross-sectional area, you will have
to go for higher cross-sectional area so that you can satisfy this particular criteria.
1042
Well, let us look into another example and this particular example is a steel column of length 4m
and the ends of this particular column is fixed; both the ends are fixed. Now what is the minimum
length of the column for Euler’s formula to be applicable?
First of all we have to find out, though it is given that the length of the column member is 4m we
will have to find out the length for which we can apply the Euler’s critical load formula for such
situation and the member property is given as r, e of this is 200 Gpa Giga Pascal, the stress at the
proportionality limit is equals to 200 MPa, the yield stress of the material is 250 MPa and the
values of the radius of the direction about x and y axis rx is 180 and ry is 30 mm as it is expected
that the moment of inertia about y axis is less than the moment of inertia about x axis and thereby
the value of the radius direction about y axis is less than the radius of direction about x axis and
the value of the moment of inertia about y axis is given, the cross-sectional area of this particular
member is given.
1043
Now the question is let us first find out that what is the value of the limiting length up to which
the Euler’s critical buckling load formula can be applied.
Now the value of e is given as 200 GPa, the stress at the proportional limit is given as 200 MPa;
now, from the critical stress expression that σcr is,
1044
200 10
30 200
2.98
That means this is the minimum length that is needed for the member so that we can apply the
Euler’s critical buckling load formula. And mind that this is the effective length Le.
Now here (Refer Slide Time: 41:07) the member which we have considered is a fixed ended
member and thereby as we have seen that for a fixed ended member the critical load is equals to 4
π2 EI/L2 and thereby K=0.5.
For 4m length here, effective length it is going to be equals to 2m.
So effective length then in this particular case is equals to 2m and this (Refer Slide Time: 41:43)
being less than the length the minimum length we need thereby we cannot apply the Euler’s critical
buckling load formula.
Therefore, as you can see that limiting Le/r, where r = 30
Limiting Le/r =2980/30= 99
Actual Le/r =2000/30= 67
Now this value is less than the limiting Le/r value and therefore Euler’s critical load formula will
not give us the value of the critical load. So the options what we have is to look into that if this
member fails by the yielding that means it reaches to the yield stress value then the value the of
critical load will be the yield stress multiplied by the cross-sectional area which gives us a load of
2318 kN.
Now, if we consider this in the intermediate range that means it may fail in combination of the
buckling and the yielding, neither in the buckling range because we cannot apply the Euler’s load
formula and on the short column range where it goes to the yielding that is σ y times A the other
limiting value, now if we consider that it fails in the combination of the buckling and yielding then
1045
it comes in the category of intermediate column unless we look into what is the critical load we
get if we use Rankine’s formula for evaluating the critical load.
Now the critical load which we get corresponding to the rankines formula,
250 9272
1483
250 2000
1
2 10 30
Now as you can see that if we go up to the yield stress level or up to the crossing level then the
load which we can apply is this; and if we consider that the column might fail since the Le/r value
which we have got the actual Le/r we have obtained less than the limiting value there is a possibility
that the member is going to fail in the combination of the buckling and the yielding and thereby
we need to limit ourselves to a load of 1483 so the maximum load that we can apply is equals to
1483 so that the member does not fail either by buckling or by yielding or in combination of the
two.
This is the limiting load in this particular case. For this particular member as it has been said what
is the minimum length of the column for Euler’s formula to be applicable is as we have seen is
2.98m and mind that its effective length is 2.98m so in this particular case hence it is fixed onto its
column and as we seen for fixed ended column member the value of the effective length coefficient
1046
is half that means we will have to have a column length of 2.98 times 2 that means around 6m
length you need for a fixed ended column member where we can apply the Euler’s column
buckling formula. Or else we will have to go for either the short column formula which is the yield
stress multiplied by the area or by the Rankine’s formula which is for the intermediate column.
Now let us look in to another example problem wherein this particular member is having a cross
section of that of a tube. So it is a tubular member which is subjected to a compressive load and
this particular member is hinged at both the ends. That means this is hinged hinged column for
which we have seen that,
Thereby the coefficient K = 1; the effective length coefficient is equal to 1.
Here you will have to compute the critical load using both the Euler’s and Rankine’s formula. We
will have to find out the value of the critical load that this member can carry using both the Euler
and Rankine formula and the value of the yield stress is given as 300 MPa and the value of E is
equals to 2 x 105 MPa.
1047
So let us look into that what will be the critical Le/r. This being a tubular member as you know
that if we compute the value of the moment of inertia and the cross-sectional area,
40 30 8.59 10
64
40 30 549.8
4
1048
Now if we compute the value of the radius of gyration,
8.59 10
12.5
549.8
Here,
2500
200
12.5
Limiting value of the Le/r
2 10
81
300
Now since this actual Le/r is higher than the limiting Le/r so we can apply Euler’s critical buckling
load formula for evaluating the critical load in the member.
2 10 8.59 10
27.13
2500
Now if we use Rankine’s critical buckling load formula then we get,
300 549.8
23.3
300 2500
1
2 10 12.5
Now you see that we have now two values of the critical load: one is corresponding to the Euler’s
critical buckling load and another one is corresponding to Rankine’s critical buckling load.
1049
Since we have tasted that in this particular case the value of the actual slenderness ratio Le/r is
higher than much higher than the limiting value hence the stress level will be much lower; as we
have seen in the critical stress versus the slenderness ratio called that if you have larger value of
the slenderness ratio then the corresponding stress is much lower than the yield stress and thereby
the failure which will be dominated in such columns will be more in terms of buckling rather than
going for the yielding. Hence here since the Le/r value or Le/r ratio which is much higher than the
actual or the limiting Le/r we can use the Euler’s formula or Euler’s critical load we can take as
the guiding critical load for the member. So the critical load for this member will be 27.13 kN.
Now here, in this particular example (refer Slide Time: 51:37) as it is shown over here the length
of the member is 2.5 and this is a mistake this is not 2m but this is 2.5m.
1050
Well, let us look into another example wherein we have a member which is made out of timber,
the cross section of which is a 50 mm by 100 mm rectangular one and length of the member is
1.2m. Now this particular member is used as a cantilever column; the value of e is given as 10 GPa
10 Giga Pascal and the stress at the proportionality limit is 30 MPa; we will have to determine the
largest axial load that this member can carry with a factor of safety of 2.
Now if you look into that, that the cross section of this member is a rectangular one having a size
of 50 mm by 100 mm, the length of the member is 1.2m and this is a cantilever column; now the
meaning of a cantilever column is that it is fixed at one end and is free at the other and this is
subjected to a compressive load P. So we will have to find out how much of load P we can apply
to this particular member having this particular section so that we can have a factor of safety of 2.
You keep this aspect in mind that will have to impose a factor of safety of 2 and we will have to
decide about what P load we can apply on this member.
1051
Now, if we look into the cross section of this; as we have seen earlier for this rectangular cases
you have the xx and the yy at the two rectangular axis system and the width of the member let us
consider as 50 and depth as 100 mm so we can compute the value of I x and I y and as you know,
50 100
12
100 50
12
Since Iy < Ix, thereby ry < rx for this particular section.
100 50
14.43
12 50 100
For this if we compute the value of the length of the member is equals to 1.2m and since this is a
cantilever member we have seen that for a cantilever member,
Pcr = π2EI/4L2, thereby the effective length coefficient, K = 2;
So Le = 2400mm
10 10 100 50
214.2
12 2400
1052
Now as it has been indicated that we will have to find the load in terms of a factor of safety of 2.
That means you will have to apply a load P in such a way that you can achieve a factor of safety
of 2 that means if we apply a load of twice P the member should be in a position to withstand that
stress. So, the maximum load that should be applied or it should be limited to is half the actual
load because this critical load which we compute from Euler’s critical load formula is not with any
factor of safety so we will have to impose the factor of safety to this. So, if we divided this load
by 2 the factor of safety value the load comes as 107.1 kN. So the maximum load that you can
apply on this particular member is equal to 107.1 kN.
Now if we apply a load higher than this 107.1 the wen will find that the member may fail by
buckling. But the question is that we have applied a factor of safety of 2 so even in this particular
case even if we exceed by this it may not fail immediately unless we have some other effect on
this member which can cause the failure on the member.
1053
Well, then to summarize; in this particular lesson we have looked into some aspects of the previous
lesson. As we have seen, in previous lesson we have discussed about the Euler’s critical buckling
load formula and in this particular lesson we have seen what are the limitations of Euler’s critical
buckling load formula and also what are the different values of K which we have termed as the
coefficient of the effective length for different support conditions of the member which are either
1 or 2 or 0.7 or 0.5 depending upon different conditions we have.
Also, we have looked in at the concept of critical compressive stress in column members. We have
discussed about the Rankine’s formula of critical buckling load which are applicable for
intermediate columns and we have looked into some examples for evaluating critical loads in
different types of columns.
1054
Now with this lesson we will come to the concluding part of this particular module which is on
stability of columns. Stability of columns basically we had two lessons. In the previous lesson we
had introduced the concept of stability the buckling and thereby we discussed about the Euler’s
critical load formula which are applicable for columns. In this particular lesson we looked into
what are the different phases of column; the short column, the long column and the intermediate
columns and then the critical load corresponding to the intermediate column and then we have
looked into the formula which is applicable for evaluating the critical load in intermediate column
given by Rankine.
1055
Now these are the two lessons which we had and consequently we had looked into some examples
which can be evaluated using this formula. Now the questions set for you are this.
What is the effective length of a cantilever column?

What is intermediate column and how is it different from long or short column?
And what is Rankine constant? It is dependent on which parameters?
We will look into this; you will get the answers in these two lessons itself. The answers for this
will be given in the next lesson, thank you.
1056
Prof. S.K. Bhattacharyya
I.I.T. Kharagpur
Lecture#39
Springs-I
Welcome to the first lesson of the tenth module which is on springs.
We have looked into the aspects of the strength, the stiffness and the stability on the members
where, we have evaluated the stresses, we have evaluated the deflections and also we have
looked into the stability aspects of the members. Now we are going to discuss on a special topic
on which we will make use of the formulae which we have derived and we will look into that on
how to calculate the stresses in a member called spring.
Hence it is expected that once this particular lesson is completed one should get an idea about the
different types of springs that are commonly used. That means we will look into what we really
mean by spring and then what are the different types of springs that we come across and what are
the types of springs that are commonly used.
1057
One should be able to understand the concept of stress and deflection in close coiled helical
springs. We have taken a specific name called close coiled helical spring. We will look into the
different types of springs and we are not going to discuss all the types in this particular course.
We will be restricted ourselves specifically to the helical springs and we will look into those
aspects of helical springs, where and how to evaluate the stresses in the springs. One should be
able to evaluate stresses and deflection in close coiled helical springs.
1058
The scope of this particular lesson therefore includes the recapitulation of previous lesson. In the
previous module we have discussed about the stability of the columns and in the previous lesson
on stability of columns, I have given you some questions. We will be discussing the answers of
those questions and to that extent we recapitulate the previous lesson. Also we look into the
different types of springs that are commonly used. This particular lesson includes the derivation
of formulae for evaluation of stress and deflection in close coiled helical springs. In fact we will
make use of the already derived formulae for the members where we have seen that how to
calculate stresses for different types of forces. The axial force or the shear force or the mini
moment or the twisting moment etc., we will try to make use of that and see that a spring is
subjected to what kind of stresses because of the application of the force. We will try to combine
the effect of these forces and avoid the stress in a spring. Also we will look into some examples
for the evaluation of stress and deflection in springs.
Before we go into the discussion for the springs, let us look into the answers of the questions
which were posted last time. The first question which was given was: What is the effective
length of a cantilever column?
1059
The previous lesson was on stability of columns. We have seen that how to evaluate the critical
load using Euler’s formula which we have called as Euler’s critical buckling load formula and
was given by Leonhard Euler. We have seen that if a column member is having different support
conditions like if both ends are hinged or if you have one end fixed or other end hinged or if you
have both ends fixed condition or if you have cantilever member were one end is fixed and other
end is free then how do you evaluate the critical buckling load in such members. Now the
question is what is the effective length of a column member which is cantilever? It means is
fixed at one end and free at the other and the actual length of the member is L.
 2 EI
As we have seen, if use Euler’s critical buckling load formula then, Pcr 
L2 e
In case of a member which is fixed at one end and free at the other, the critical load evaluation
 2 EI
comes as, Pcr 
4 L2
We have seen this derivation in the previous lesson where, we have derived this particular
expression. If we write the term 4L2 in square form, then it will be (2L)2 and there by 2L is
 2 EI
equivalent to this term Le. Thus, Pcr 
(2 L) 2
1060
We have called Le as effective length. Effective length Le is equals to twice the actual length. As
we have seen that for the different support conditions the corresponding term, the coefficient of
L is K where in, we have designated that as the effective length, Le = KL. This parameter K
changes with the support conditions and for cantilever case the value of . So the effective length
for a cantilever column is equals to twice the actual length, Le  2 L . This is the answer for the
first question.
The second question is: what is the intermediate column and how is it different from long or
short column?
(Refer Slide Time 06:30-10:20)
We have already discussed before about the aspects of short column, the aspects of long column
and then we have defined what intermediate column is. Now coming back to the discussion again
 2 EI
with Euler’s critical load, the critical stress as we have seen that the critical load, Pcr 
Le 2
‘I’ can represented in terms of the cross sectional area and the radius of gyration as, I  Ar 2
 2E
Now, σcr = Pcr/A, which gives,  cr 
( Le / r )2
1061
If Le/r becomes very small then the value of  cr will be large. The smaller value of Le/r indicates
that the lower height of the column member and thereby that refers to a short column. If the
stress becomes higher means that if it goes beyond the yield stress, then the material is going to
yield. So we restrict ourselves to the limit of the yield stress. We categorize those groups of
columns as short column where Le/r is such that it produces stress which is above the critical
stress or sigma yield stress. In this particular case the critical stress is yield stress and the
columns which come under that group, we designate them as short column. If Le/r becomes
larger then the stress becomes lower.
Now the question is up to the stress limit of up to the proportionality, if we restrict ourselves to
that limit then the Le/r, which we get for a particular member corresponding to that we can find
out the stress, and that stress will be somewhat below this stress limit at the proportionality limit
state. The columns which are governed by this particular expression given by Euler is valid when
the stress is lower than the proportionality limit stress. The short columns are the one which goes
beyond the yield stress. The long columns are the one where the stress is governed by these
expressions and the yield or the critical stress is limited up to the stress at the proportionality
limit.
In between these two stages that is, in between the state of short column and in the state of long
column, we get set of columns which we designate normally as the intermediate column. The
intermediate columns are in fact the ones which may fail by the combination of the yielding and
the buckling. As we have seen that in case short columns it fails by yielding or by crashing and
in case of long columns it fails by buckling. The Intermediate column fails by the combination of
these two yielding and the buckling. They are in a particular range between these short columns
and the long columns. Those columns are called as intermediate columns and for intermediate
columns if we try find out the critical load using Euler’s formula it will not give you the correct
results.
The last question was: What is Rankine constant and it is dependent on which parameters? As we
have seen that for such intermediate columns where we cannot apply Euler’s critical load
1062
formula for the evaluation of critical load, Rankine had proposed an empirical relationship for
evaluating critical buckling load for such columns. This is given by the formula,
yA
Pr 
  L 2
1  2y  e 
 Er 
Where,  y is the yield stress of the material, A is the cross sectional area of the column member,
E is modulus of the elasticity, Le is the effective length and r is the radius of the gyration
 
This particular parameter which is  2 y  is known as the Rankine’s constant. As you can see
 E 
from this particular expression here we have a parameter  y which is the yield stress of the
material and we have parameter E which is the modulus of the elasticity. So basically Rankine
constant is dependent on the material properties, the modulus of elasticity of the material and the
yield stress of the material with which the column member is a fabricated.
1063
Let us look into the aspects which we are going to discuss today. Spring is an element which is
defined as that this is an element which is used to achieve a flexible joint between two parts or
bodies. As we have seen earlier that the deformation is not desirable in structural elements like
beams or axial members or any other vessels kind of things, there are some situations where we
need to have some amount of deformation to be introduced into the system. To achieve this kind
deformation or flexibility, we introduce an element which we normally term as spring. Spring is
an element where when it is loaded it undergoes movement such as either elongation or
shortening. Once we remove the load, the element comes back to its original position.
The level of the working stress in the spring material is rather high in comparison to the other
structural materials we use. This what stated over as second point in the slide: When flexibility in
a mechanical system is desired, which means, when we like to introduce some amount of
flexibility, then we introduce this element which is called as spring. Also if you like to absorb
some energy, for example, in many of places such as structural members or mechanical systems
which are subjected to sudden loads and if these kind of sudden loads act on structural members,
the structural member may undergo large deformation and thereby there could be stresses which
goes beyond the yield value of that material. To absorb this shock loading or the impact loading,
we introduce these kinds of elements which are called as spring. These spring elements can
absorb the energy which is being imported by the external load. Thereby it can absorb that
external loading shock.
1064
(Refer Slide Time 14:53- 15:11)
The different types of springs that are commonly encountered are leaf springs, the helical springs
and flat spiral springs. There are other kinds of springs as well, but these are commonly used. Let
us look into these different types of the springs in detail.
Leaf spring is a spring which is also known as carriage springs which we can see in the transport
vehicles.
1065
Basically we have number of plates which are joined together to form these kind of springs and
these kind of springs can absorb the vibrated load that get transmitted from the vehicles. In this
particular type of springs the top plate is called as master leaf. These plates are called as leaves
and that is why this spring is named as leaf spring. And as it is in semi elliptical shape these are
also designated as semi elliptic spring. There are clamps which hold all the plates positioned
together and there are clips which are called as rebound clip to keep the spring in a position.
We have another kind of spring which are called helical spring. In fact in this particular module
we will be looking in details about these helical springs. Helical springs are commonly used to
absorb shocks. As I have told you that the springs are used to have desired flexibility in a
mechanical system or springs are introduced to absorb shocks on the impact of the loads which
comes suddenly on the member.
Helical springs are the springs which are generally used for absorbing such shocks. You must
have seen that when a railway wagon comes into a platform. In a platform you have those buffers
where the wagon comes and hits and then stops. The wagon comes in a speed and hits on the
buffer and naturally it impacts some amount of energy on those buffers. The buffers are provided
with the springs which can absorb the shock.
1066
This is one of the examples where we use these helical springs. There are of course other areas
were helical springs are used. Helical springs are of two types. They are close coiled helical
spring and other one is open coiled helical spring. We will be looking into these two categories
in greater detail. In this particular lesson we will be concentrating on the close coiled helical
spring and subsequently we will look into the aspects of the open coiled helical spring.
Apart from leaf spring and helical spring, another kind of spring which we commonly encounter
is the flat spiral springs. In the toys are in clock mechanisms these kind of springs are used.
1067
This particular spring is in one plane and they are wound in such way that we apply at a torque
one end and the other end is hinged. So thereby the whole spring is in a dot position and the
cross section of these particular spring material is something like a rectangular one having a
thickness t and depth d.
Apart from those springs which are very commonly used other kinds of springs which are used in
some specialized cases. These springs are termed as Belleville spring or disk type of spring ring
spring or volute spring. These are the different kinds of the springs which are seen. But they are
occasionally used in some special cases and we are not going to go into the details of these. In
this particular course, we will be restricting ourselves to the helical springs only.
As I said earlier, we will look into the two types of helical springs, the close coiled helical
springs and then open coiled helical springs and evaluate the stresses in those kinds of springs if
they are subjected to loads.
Let us look into the behavior or the characteristics of closed coiled helical springs. Why we call
these as closed coiled helical springs? As you can see this wire which is forming a helix we call
that as helical springs. These wires are wound in such a way that each turn of this helix is
1068
virtually in the same plane. That is what is indicated in the definition as closely wound and the
important point here is that each turn of the spring virtually lies in one plane. Since they are very
closely wound we called these kinds of springs as closed coiled helical springs.
Let us look into how to calculate the stresses in such close coiled springs. A closed coil spring is
subjected to a load P as indicated in the above slide. The ends of these closed coil springs are
provided with some forms, so that they are connected with some supports or some loads can be
applied at these particular ends. Several kinds of mechanisms are formed at the end, either in the
form of a hook or a flat end which can be connected to a particular member where we can apply
a load P in the system.
Suppose if we take a part of this spring, cut across and take a free body of this particular spring.
These turns are normally called as coils. These particular springs are having several coils along
its length. If we look into one such coil where we have the load ‘P’ acting into the member, if we
transfer that load in the section of the member this P gets transferred along with the moment and
this particular movement here is, T  P  R
1069
In this particular coil, if we look into that we have one wire which is having diameter ‘d’. If you
look into a plane view of one of such coils, say this is the circular form and this is the radius R
up to the central line of the wire and this R is the mean radius of the spring. R we called as mean
radius of the spring and small d is the diameter of the wire with which the spring is form and the
capital D is the diameter of the whole spring coil (the small cross section of the wire shown in
the right side of the slide)
.
If we look into this action of these forces when it is transfer to this center of the wire cross
section where this load P is acting as a shearing force and thereby it will produce a direct shear
stress. So as you can see that if you consider the circular wire which is subjected to a shearing
force P will produce a direct shear stress and because of the twisting moment you will have a
shearing stress component which is the function of the twisting moment.
P
Generally in spring we consider the direct shearing stress in the form average stress,  1 
A
d2
The cross sectional area of this spring wire is, A 
4
Where d is the diameter of the spring wire and P is the shearing force that is acting in the wire.
4P
So the shearing stress,  1 
d2
Because of the twisting moment, T  P  R , we get another component of the shearing stress,
16T
2 
d3
1070
T 
This we have seen earlier that   , which gives, τ = T⨯(d/2)/(  d 4 /32) = 16T/  d 3
J
16T 16P  R
Thus, shearing stress due to twisting,  2  
d3 d3
The total shearing stress that will be subjected to, is the combination of these two shearing stress
4 P 16 PR
which is  1 and the other is  2 . So we call this as maximum shearing stress,  max  
d2 d3
Again, the first one is from direct shear stress and the other one is originating from the twisting
moment. If we take 16PR/  d 3 out, we get,
16 PR  d 
 max  1
 d  4 R 
3 
The bracketed term shown above is called as K, which is stress concentration factor.
16PR
 max  K 
d3
Basically if you look into the 16PR/  d 3 is the shearing stress which is getting generated because
of the twisting moment of magnitude PR. So the shearing stress which is getting generated
because of the twisting moment is multiplied with the factor K which we call as stress
concentration factor.
Now, stress concentration factor as we have seen,
K = 1 + d/4R
R is the main radius. We can write 4R = 2⨯2R and 2R is nothing but is the diameter of the coil
which is D. This particular term capital D/d is defined as ‘Spring index’ and designated as the
parameter C, which is the ratio of the coil diameter D to the wire diameter d. If we substitute for
1
D/d as C, we get, K  1 
2C
1071
This is termed as the stress concentration factor. As we have seen here while evaluating this
stress concentration factor K or while designating that bracket term 1+ d/4R as stress
concentration factor, there we have accounted for the shearing stress because of the direct shear
which is in an average sense and also we have not considered the curvature of the spring coil.
This particular aspect the maximum value of the shearing stress as it happen in the circular cross
section or if we take the curvature of the spring coil into account, this particular factor gets
modified in 1940. A.M. Wahl had proposed the modification of this particular factor which we
call as Wahl’s correction factor K w .
When we need to evaluate the stresses precisely, we use this Wahl’s correction factor K w instead
4C  1 0.615
of K which is, K w  
4C  4 C
Now we can compute the value of the stress if we know the amount of load a spring is subjected
to. As we have seen now, the load which will be acting through the axis of the spring will
produce a direct shearing stress and a twisting moment into the spring coil. The twisting moment
eventually will lead to the shearing stress. So you will have two components or two shearing
stresses, one from the direct shear force and another one from the twisting moment. It is a
1072
combined action of these two shearing stresses, axial force or a shear force P and the twisting
moment, T=PR, will give the resulting shearing stress in the member. When a spring element is
subjected to axial load, it undergoes deflection or deformation. We need to find out that how
much elongation or compression which we call in general as the deformation in the spring it
undergoes because of the application of the axial load P.
Let us look into this deflection in detail. If a spring is subjected to a load P then as we have seen
that the wire with which the spring is wound is subjected to a load P and a twisting moment T.
We consider a spring were the spring index is rather high which is, C = D/d, where in the
diameter of the coil is larger or the wire diameter is very small. For such larger spring index or
for springs with having larger spring index, if we consider a small element in the spring virtually
this becomes like a straight length that means you have a straight rod which is subjected to a
twisting moment. In this particular case we ignored the effect of the axial or the deflection that
will be produced by the direct shear. We will be evaluating the deflection that will be caused by
the twisting moment T.
1073
If we look into segment AB, having length dx, because of the twisting moment, T = PR this will
produce the rotation. The relative rotation between the two sections A and B, if we call that as
T .dx
d , then we can compute this value of the relative rotation, d 
GJ
T  G
As you know that   . So  = TL/GJ. Here  for a smaller element will be d and L
J  L
here is the length dx for this particular element AB.
If we think of that is A fixed and B is moving which means d will give the rotation of the
segment AB. Because of the rotation of segment AB, the point F of this load point, will undergo
a moment and let us call this moment as FD. Basically this movement will be in an arc length,
but since AB is a small segment, so we consider that FD also will be small, so that FD is
perpendicular to this length BF. The distance FD can be written as, FD  BF .d
(Refer Slide Time 33:49-:38)
If we take the component of this FD, one will have horizontal component another with a vertical
component. In this particular spring where we have considered, one segment is producing one
horizontal component FE. Since this particular spring will have number of coils and this
horizontal component will be produced by each of these segments, diametrically opposite points
in the spring, those horizontal components eventually will cancel out. So the components which
1074
will be remaining are the vertical ones and the vertical component is the DE, the distance DE. If
DE BC
we look into triangles FDE and the triangle FBC, 
FD BF
BF .d
As we have seen that FD = BF d , if we write, DE  BC.
BF
Now, BC = R. So the above expression becomes, DE  R.d
Remember that this is the vertical component which is DE and this is generated because of
segment which AB undergoing a twisting moment T. We call this as small deformation, d . If
we sum up all these deformation in the entire spring coil then we integrate this over the entire
length L of the spring. So we integrate this R.d thereby, we get the total deformation which we
have designated as delta  =  R.d
TRL
Substituting the value of d and integrating over the entire length, we get,  
GJ
PR 2 L
As you know the twisting moment T=PR, so,  
GJ
A spring which is having a number of coils and one such coil if we take which is having circular
form having mean radius R, the length is twice  R . If we have N such turns then N⨯2  R will
give us the total length of the spring and which is indicated in the below formula. 2  R N, where
PR 2 2 RN
N is the number of turns we have in the spring. So deflection,  
GJ
64PR 3 N
As you know J =  d 4 / 32 . If we substitute these values we get,  
Gd 4
This is the value of the deflection that we get in the spring and mind that we have computed the
value of this deflection considering the effect of the twisting moment only and we assume that
the effect of this direct shear in the deflection is rather insignificant. Thereby from this
1075
expression we arrive at a parameter which is quiet important, spring constant, which is normally
designated as k. Spring constant, k = P/  , the axial load divided by the deflection that it
P Gd 4
undergoes, which, k  
 64 R 3 N
This particular parameter spring constant is of importance, because that gives as the behavior of
a spring. If we know the spring constant from which if we like to permit certain deformation in
the member, we know how much load that can be applied on the spring. So spring constant
parameter is one of the important parameter for a spring. Having looked into the aspects of the
stresses that are generated in a spring and how to evaluate the deflection of a spring because of
the load, let us look into the examples through which we can evaluate these parameters.
The example problem here is a close a coiled helical spring is made of a wire of diameter 25 mm.
That means the small d is equal to 25 mm. The spring index value is given as 8 and as you know
spring index C=D/d. We will have to find out the number of turns those are required and
maximum allowable load, if the allowable shear stress is 100 MPa and elongation of the spring is
limited to 40mm. The value of the shear module G is given as 80 GPa. You will have to find out
the number of turns that means the value of N and the maximum allowable load the P that can be
allowed on this particular spring.
1076
As I said, the values which have been given are;
d = 25mm
C=8
As, C = D/d, so from here, we can evaluate the diameter of the spring coil which is,
D = Cd = 25⨯8 = 200mm and the mean radius is equal to
Thus, R = 100mm
The expression of the shearing stresses as we have seen the maximum shearing stress is,
16PR
 max  K  , where K is the stress concentration factor
d3
1 1
K  1 , which gives, K  1   1.0625
2C 16
If we substitute all this values in the expression for the stress because stress is to be limited to
100 MPa, say,
16  P  100
100   1.0625 , then the value of P  2888N
  253
Also it is stated that the maximum value of the deflection of the spring is restricted to 40mm. So
if you restrict the deflection of the spring to 40mm and from the expression of the deflection,
1077
64PR 3 N
 4
, which gives, N = (  Gd4)/(64PR3N)
Gd
40  80  103  254
Substituting all values, we get, N   6.8  7
64  2888  1003
So the spring with the which I mean a wire of diameter 25mm has been used to form a can carry
a load of 2888N and if we like to limit the displacement or the deflection of the spring up to
40mm, then the number of turns those are required are 7.
Let us look into another example.
This is an interesting problem. A wagon weighing 50 kN moving at a speed of 8 kmph has to be

brought to rest. Springs are made of wire of diameter 25mm with a mean diameter of 250 mm of
the coil and with 24 turns are available. We will have to find out that how many numbers of such
springs are required for the wagon to be brought to rest with a compression of a 180mm that
means the maximum deformation that you can allow on the spring is equals to 180mm. The
value of the shear modulus is given as G = 84 GPa. As you can note that the wagon which is
moving at a velocity has to be brought to the rest. When it goes and hits into the buffer the
kinetic energy of the wagon is transferred into the energy that can be absorbed by the spring. We
1078
need to find out that if a force is applied on the spring and if we can allow a maximum
compression of as it is given 180mm, then what is the work done by those springs to absorb the
thrust or the load which is imported on those springs by the wagon and then a the wagon can be
brought to the rest.
(Refer Slide Time 45:44 -50:17)
As it is indicated, the velocity of the wagon is 8kmph. If you reduce it to or in terms of meter per
8000
second, we get, v  8kmph  m / s  2.22m / s
3600
w
The weight of this wagon has been given as 50kN and m  , where g = 9.81 m/s2
g
1 50  103
K .E  mv 2   (2.22)2  12.6  103 N  mm
2 2  9.81
Now let us look into that if we have to limit the deformation of the spring to180mm then what is
64PR 3 N
the load that can be taken by the spring. From the expression of the deformation,   ,
Gd 4
we can evaluate the value of P because the value of R, the mean diameter of the spring is given
as 250mm. Thereby the radius is 125mm and the number of turns given for the spring is 24 and
1079
the diameter of the wire with which the spring is formed d is equal to 25mm. With these values if
we substitute in the above formula, we have P is unknown
64  P  1253  24
180 
84  103  254
84  103  254
P  1968.75N
64  1253  24
This is the value of the load that can be applied to the spring, so that the deflection criteria are
satisfied. As I said that the kinetic energy of the wagon is to be absorbed by the springs by
applying that load and allowing the deformation which we call as work done by the spring. That
means to achieve or to have a maximum deformation of the spring up to 180mm the load as you
can see that you can apply P, which is 1968.75 N. This load will do some amount of work in
pushing the spring by 180mm. So work done by the spring,
1 1
Workdone   P     1968.75  180  0.18  106 N  mm
2 2
As we have seen that the K.E. = 12.6⨯106 N-mm, which is to be brought to the rest. So the
number of springs that we need is equal to this kinetic energy divided by the work done by each
of these springs.
1080
12.6  103
No. of Springs   70
0.18  106
Hence 70 springs should to be used in order to bring the wagon to the rest, by absorbing the
energy which is being imported by the wagon.
We have another example where it says that a close coiled helical spring is made out of wire of 6
mm diameter with the mean diameter of 80mm. What axial pull will produce a shear stress of
140MPa? You will have to find out what axial pull that you can apply. That means the value of
the P can be applied if the spring has 20 coils or 20 turns, then how much the spring will extend
under this pull. That means you will have to find out the deformation delta and what work will
be done in producing this extension. The value of shear modulus G is given as 80GPa.
The values given are,

d = 6 mm
D = 80 mm
C = D/d = 80/6 = 13.33
If we use this value of the spring index, then stress concentration factor,
K = 1+1/2C = 1+1/26.66 = 1.0375
1081
It is stated that the maximum shearing stresses that can be imported or that is allowed is equal to
140MPa. What will be the load corresponding to that?
If we substitute in the expression for the stress,

16PR 16  P  40
 K  140  1.0375  , which gives, P = 143 N
d 3
  63
64PR 3 N
The value of the deformation of the deflection, δ = and we have evaluated the value of
Gd 4
P which is equals to 143 Newton. Thus,
64  143  403  20
  113mm
80  103  64
1 1
Work done   P     143  113  8079.5N  mm
2 2
We have another example, where it is required to design a close coiled helical spring which will
deflect 10mm under an axial pull of 100 N with an allowable shear stress of 90MPa and the
spring is to made from circular wire and the mean diameter of the coil will be 10 times the
1082
diameter of the wire. So it is stated that the D=10d or spring index is given as 10. We will have
to find out the diameter and the length of the wire to form the spring. G is given as 80GPa.
The given data is,

P = 100 N
τ = 90 MPa
δ = 10 mm
D = 10d
C = D/d = 10
K = 1+1/2C = 1+1/20 = 1.05
16PR
Shear stress, τ = K , which is to be limited to 90 MPa,
d3
16 PR 16  100  5d
Thus,   K .  90  1.05  , which gives, d = 5.45mm
d 3
 d3
64PR 3 N
The expression of the deflection, δ = .
Gd 4
1083
N = (  Gd4)/(64PR3N), which gives, N = 5.45
We use a round figure of this number of turns which is 6
As we have seen the length of the wire that will be required for one turn is 2. .R. and hence for
N turns it is, 2   .R.N where R is the mean radius which is 27.25mm and N is the number of
turns which is 6. Hence the length of the wire, L = 2πRN = 1027.3mm
To summarize, in this particular lesson we have looked into the aspects of the previous lesson
through our question/answers also we looked into the different types of springs that are
commonly encountered. We have looked into the derivation of formulae for evaluation of stress
and deflection in close coiled helical springs and also we have looked into some examples for
evaluating stress and deflection in close coiled helical springs. These are the questions given for
you.
What is meant by spring index?

What are the different types of stresses that close coiled helical springs are subjected to?
How do you define the stiffness of a close coiled helical spring?
1084
Answers to these questions will be given to you in the next session. Once you go through this
particular lesson you should be in a position to answer all these questions. We will be looking
into the aspects of the open coil helical springs in the next lesson. Thank you.
(Refer Slide Time 57:37)
1085
Prof.S.K.Bhattacharya
I.I.T Kharagpur
Lecture#40
Springs-II
Welcome to the second lesson of the tenth module which is on springs part 2. In the previous
lesson of this particular module, we have looked into the aspects of different kinds of springs.
We have discussed a special type of spring which is called as helical spring and we have seen
that helical spring is of two types, one is called as close-coiled helical spring and another one is
called open-coiled helical springs. In the previous lesson we have discussed about the close-
coiled helical springs and we have looked into how the stresses and the deflections are induced in
the springs when they are loaded. In this particular lesson we are going to discuss about the
open-coiled helical springs.
Hence it is expected that once this particular lesson gets completed, one should be in a position
to understand the concept of stresses and deflection in open-coiled helical springs and also one
should be in a position to evaluate stresses and deflection in open-coiled helical springs which
are subjected to loads.
1086
The scope of this particular lesson therefore includes,

 Recapitulation of previous lesson, certain aspects of the previous lesson through the
answers to the questions posted last time.
 We will be deriving a formula for evaluating stresses and deflection in open-coiled
helical springs.
 We will also be looking into some examples for the evaluation of stress and the
deflection in the open-coiled helical springs.
1087
Let us look into the answers of the questions which were posted last time. The first question was
what is meant by spring index?
If you remember while discussing about the close-coiled helical springs, we had discussed, how
the stresses are induced. We have seen that primarily the stress which acts on the springs is the
direct shearing stress and the twisting moment. Both the forces induce the shearing stress in the
1088
member. The direct shear force induce the shear stress and the twisting moment also induce the
16PR
shear stress and thereby we get the total shear stresses,  max = K .
d3
You know these terms, P is axial load that is applied in the spring, R is the helix radius or the
mean radius of the spring and d is the diameter of the wire with which the spring is
manufactured.
Then we came across a term which we have designated as K and if you look into this particular
1 d d
parameter K = 1  = 1 = 1 .
2C 4R 2D
This is called as spring index. Let us look into the second question.
What are the different types of stresses that close-coiled helical springs are subjected to? As we
have seen that the close-coiled helical springs are subjected to two kinds of forces. One is the
direct force P and another is the twisting moment T. In case of close-coiled helical springs they
are wound in such a way that each helix is lying in one plane and if that happens then the force
transfer to the wire is the axial force P which is transferred to the central part of the wire along
with the twisting moment T = PR.
1089
These two forces P and this twisting moment T, introduce stresses in the spring wire and this
4
stresses are,  1 = P/A = P
d2
16T 16PR
Because of this twisting moment, T=PR, we get a shearing stress, τ2 = = .
d3 d3
4P
These are the two stresses that a close-coiled helical spring is subjected to, which is is the
d2
16PR
direct shear and is the shearing stress which is generating from the twisting moment T.
d3
Therefore the maximum shearing stress that a wire up the close-coiled helical spring is subjected
to is,
16 PR  d 
τmax = 1
 d  4 R 
3 
The last question which we had is, how do you define the stiffness of a close-coiled helical
spring? To answer this question let us look into the expression for the deflection that we had
derived. If you remember for the close-coiled helical spring we had the value of the deflection,
64PR 3 N
because of the action of the axial load P is, δ =
Gd 4
1090
If we write this particular expression in a little different way, if we represent P as a function of

Gd 4
the displacement delta, then we get the expression, P = 
64 PR 3 N
Generally we define stiffness as the force requires producing unit displacement. Here, if we
replace delta as unit, the force require producing this unit displacement, we define the coefficient
as the stiffness. So if we write down this expression as P= K s  , when delta is equals to 1, the
force which we get is equal to the stiffness of the spring. Thereby the spring stiffness,
Gd 4
Ks =
64 PR 3 N
Gd 4
In fact we had talked about the spring index which was also of the same form that P/  =
64 R 3 N
.
Let us look into the aspects of the open-coiled helical spring. As we know that the helical springs
are commonly used to absorb shocks and these are used in railway buffers and many other areas.
Take a look into this springs shown in figure. In one of the spring the wire is wounded in such a
way that they are at a very close distance, the pitch between the two wounds are very close. This
resembles the great extend to the close-coiled helical spring. In fact in reality the pitch are much
1091
less and they are almost in the same horizontal plane. Whereas if you look into the other spring
where the pitch between the two helix is substantially large in comparison to the previous one
and here they do not lie in the same plane.
If we consider one such helix from one point to the other point, they do not lie in the same plane.
The plane is inclined with respect to the horizontal one. This is basically the difference between
1092
the close-coiled helical spring and the open-coiled helical spring and thereby there is difference
in the load transfer mechanism as well. We have seen the forces that the close-coiled springs are
subjected to. Now we will look into what are the forces these open-coiled springs will be
subjected to. Here is the definition of the open-coiled helical spring. The wires, with which open-
coiled helical springs are formed, are wound so that each turn of the spring is not lying in one
plane as the pitch of the coils is larger.
As you can see over here that the pitch is the distance between the two helix. We have defined
that pitch as ‘p’. In case of close-coiled spring this p is very small so that virtually one of the
wound lies in the same plane. Whereas in case of open-coiled, they do not lay in the same plane
and the helix has an angle which is inclined with respect to the horizontal plane. When we talk
about the load transfer mechanism you will find the forces that an open-coiled spring will be
subjected to is different from the closed one.
Let us look into that in detail. As we had seen in case of close-coiled springs that a spring is
subjected to load p may be the top is held against some support. If we consider one coil in the
spring and thereby if R is the mean radius of this spring, then the length of this particular plane
will be 2 R (a small helix of the spring has been marked and indicated in the below slide). If
they are in the same plane the length of that wound will be 2 R . But since there is an inclination,
1093
there is the helix which is inclined with respect to the horizontal plane because of the larger
pitch, the length is going to be larger than the 2 R .
Let us look into the small triangle which is shown in the above slide. For this particular triangle,
let us define the right side portion of the triangle as pitch p and the horizontal distance as 2 R , if
the wound lies in the same plane. Since it has an inclination, let us assume that the length gets
extended and the helix angle between these two planes is equal to α. From this particular triangle
we can say, tanα = P/ 2 R
Let us look into the forces that this will be subjected to. First if I transfer this axial force P to the
straight coil which is in one plane will be subjected to a direct force P and a twisting moment PR
and the vectorial direction will be towards right side.
This is the position ( ) of the open-coiled spring because of the inclined plane.
Basically, this is the direction of the axis of the spring wire and the force which
1094
is acting is in this vertical direction , so perpendicular to this makes an angle alpha
.
So we get the component as,
V = P cos 
T = P sin 
The component which is acting as P sin  along the axis of the wire that will give us a tensile
pull and the force which is normal to this cross section which is P cos  will give as a shearing
force V. So the force P now contributes to two actions, one is the tensile pull T which is given by
P sin  and the shearing force which is acting perpendicular to it gives rise to V which is P cos  .
These are the two forces that the spring will be subjected to because of the load P.
P also has introduced a twisting moment which is PR and the vectorial direction of which is
If we take the component of the moment along the position of the spring coil
and perpendicular to it which is PR cos  will be introducing a twisting moment in the wire.
This is the action of the moment which we have defined as, M t = PR cos  .
If we take this vectorial direction moment, the component perpendicular to this

wire axis is, Ma = PR sin  and this is going to cause a moment which is basically bending
moment. The first one we have is a twisting moment in the wire and the other one is going to
cause a bending moment, because the vectorial direction is perpendicular to the wire axis and the
moment which is acting is a bending moment in the wire.
The twisting moment that it was acting in that plane where the wound is perfectly in the plane
has two components one is along the member axis which is causing twisting moment in the wire
and other one, the vectorial direction which is perpendicular to the wire axis is a bending
moment to the wire.
1095
Hence as you can see that the force P has two components, one is T another one is V. T is the
direct tension that is causing in the wire and V is the shear that is being caused in the wire
because of P which are P sin  and P cos  , respectively. The twisting moment PR will have two
components one is causing twisting moment which is equals to PR cos  and another one is
causing a bending moment which is equals to PR sin  . Thus the axial force P introduces four
force components in the open-coiled springs and they are the tensile pull in the wire T, a shearing
force V, the twisting moment M t and a bending moment M b .
The stresses corresponding to each of these forces will be, because of the bending moment M b
MY
there will be normal stress and which is   . This is the bending normal stress. Then there
I
will be normal stress because of the axial tension T, T divided by cross sectional area will give
the normal stress. Then because of the direct shear V, we will have the shear stress which we call
as V divided by the cross sectional area. And the shear stress because of the twisting moment
T  T
M t will be, as we know that  , so   will introduce a shearing stress.
J  J
So as you can see that the axial force which is acting in the a open-coiled helical spring will be
introducing four components of the forces which are the tensile pull along the wire, the shearing
1096
force, the twisting moment in the wire and a bending moment in the wire. All these four force
components will introduce stresses in the member which are the normal stresses and the shear
stresses.
These two normal stresses which are resulting from the bending moment and the direct tensile
pull, we can have a combined normal stress. The shearing stresses which are resulting from the
twisting moment and the transverse shear, we can have a resulting shear stress. From the normal
and the shearing stress we can compute the resulting value of the maximum normal stress and the
maximum shear stress using more transformation equations.
The resulting stresses are shown in the above slide. To explain these in detail:
32 M b 32 PR sin 
First one, we have a normal stress due to bending = =
d3 d3
MY
Because it is a circular in cross section and we know that   . As you know for a circular
I
d4 d M d /2 32 M b
cross section I is equals to and Y  , so sigma equal to, 4 and this gives us
64 2  d / 64 d3
32 PR sin 
and M b as you have seen is equals to PR sin  . If you substitute, it gives as normal
d3
stress due to bending.
1097
4 P sin 
The second one, we have normal stress due to axial tension = T/A =
d2
d2
Tensile pull as we have seen is equals to P sin  and cross sectional area is . So the
4
4 P sin 
normal stress due to axial tension is .
d2
The third one, shear stress is due to transverse shear. As we have seen that the transverse shear,
V= P cos  and the maximum shear which you get at the diameter of the circular section is equal
4V d2 16 P cos 
to , as A  , the shear stress due to transverse shear V = .
3A 4 3 d 2
T  T d
The last one, shearing stress due to the torsion which is  , so   and   and
J  J 2
d4 16 M t
J . This gives raise to and twisting moment we had seen as  PR cos  . So
32 d3
16 PR cos 
shearing stress due to torsion = .
d3
If we combine the two stresses such as the normal stress with the normal stress, we will have the
resulting normal stress which we call  max and from the two shear stress we will have the  max .
1098
We can make use of this  max and  max to find out what will be the maximum and the minimum
principal stresses and the maximum shear stress because of these two actions.
32 PR sin  4 P sin  32 PR sin   d 

So, maximum normal stress = + = 1  
d3 d2 d3  8R 
d d d
If you look into this particular term , 8R = 4⨯2R = 4D. Hence,  and this particular
8R 8R 4 D
ratio is very small in comparison to 1. This indicates that the normal stress because of the
bending is much higher than the normal stress because of the axial tensile pull. So the
contribution of the axial tensile pull in the normal stress is very insignificant in comparison to the
normal stress that is being produced by the bending.
Likewise if we combine the shear stresses,

16 PR cos  16 P cos  16 PR cos   d 
Maximum shear stress = + = 1  
d 3
3 d 2
d 3
 3R 
d
Again here if you look into ratio is very small in comparison to 1 and thereby the
3R
contribution in the shear stress because of the twisting moment is much higher than the
contribution of the direct shear stress because of the transverse shear V. In fact subsequently we
look into for evaluation of the deflection of the spring because of the axial load. We have
computed the value of the deflection primarily from the actions of the twisting moment and the
bending moment, because the actions of the axial tensile pull and the transverse shear force are
very small compared to twisting and bending moments.
Once we have the maximum value of normal stress, which we have called this as  max which is
the sum of the two normal stresses and sum of the two shear stresses we have called them as  max ,
we can compute the maximum normal stress,
 max  
2
1 =   max    max 
2
2  2 
1099
The value under the root is the maximum shear stress that will be generated in the spring wire.
This expression as we had seen earlier that we can obtain from the transformation equations or
we can evaluate from the Mohr’s circle.
Now, if we neglect the axial tensile pull due to direct tension and the shear stress due to the
transverse shear then the value of the maximum normal stress,
16 PR sin   16 PR sin    16 PR cos  

2 2
16 PR
1 =      = (sin   1)
d 3
 d
3
  d 3
 d3
As you know that this particular part which is under the root gives us the value of the maximum
16PR
shearing stress. So the maximum shearing stress,  max =
d3
These are the two values of maximum normal stress and the maximum shear stress when we
disregard the tensile stress because of the direct tension and the shearing stress due to the
transverse shear.
Having looked at the stresses, let us look into the aspects of the deflection that it will be
occurring in an open-coiled helical spring.
1100
As we had seen that in case of close-coiled helical spring that d   R d
If you remember that the close-coiled helical springs, when it was subjected to the axial pull, we
had evaluated the vertical component of the deflection that it is undergoing because of the
twisting moment. There of course we had disregarded the effect of the transverse shear, we had
considered the deflection because of the twisting moment. And we had shown you that because
of the twisting moment, it undergoes a vertical deflection which is equals to R d , where d is
the rotation that is being generated because of the twisting moment, T=PR.
Let us take the above as our basis to evaluate the deflection in open-coiled spring. We have seen
that the d = R d for a close coil. The difference between the close coil and open coil is the
helix angle. In the open-coiled spring, the angle which is very large, and the length 2 R
virtually becomes the length of hypotenuse side of the triangle, with an inclination of α.
Thus, in this particular open-coil, the deflection, d 1 = R d cos  , which is because of the
twisting moment T and because of the bending moment it will have, d 2 = R d sin  .
1101
As we have seen that d is the rotation of the spring, because of the twisting moment M t and
M t ds
d is equals to , where ds is the length along the spring wire and M t the twisting moment
GJ
which we have seen as PR cos  . We will substitute it in the equation, d 1  R d cos 
Here, the rotation d is the small increment in the vertical deflection d1 which is caused by the
L
small element ds. If we like to get the whole deflection over the entire spring which is,  d
0
1 ,
then we will have,  ds  L which is the length.

0
When the wire is wound in one plane the length of the wire is equals to 2 R . Because of this
inclination it has taken this particular length (hypotenuse side). Let us call this length as L . So
2 R
L cos  = 2 R , which gives, L = .
cos 
If there are N number of turns, then the total length of the spring will be 2 R into N and that
divided by the cos  will give us the final length of the spring.
Here we have substituted in the expression for ∆1 then,

M t RL cos 
∆1 =
GJ
2 RN d4
As we know, M t = PR cos  , L= , J= , we get,
cos  32
PR 2 cos2  2 RN 64 PR 3 N cos 
1  =
(G. d 4 / 32) cos  Gd 4
This is the value of 1 the deflection that the spring undergoes because of the twisting moment
M t which is equals to PR cos  .
1102
Now, because of the bending moment which is equal to PR sin  , will cause the deflection in the
vertical direction which is, d 2  R.d .sin  .
 E
M  1 d
In this particular case, as we know that = Y R , where is nothing but curvature = .
I R ds
d M b M .ds
So,  , here M b is the bending moment and therefore d  b
ds EI EI
R.M b .ds.sin 
Hence, d  2 
EI
2 RN
L
If we integrate then d 2 becomes  2 and  ds  L and length will be again,

0
cos 
If we substitute M, ds and I, we get,
128PR 3 N sin 2 
2 
Ed 4 cos 
If we combine the value of  2 with 1 , we get the total deflection that will be caused in the
spring because of the twisting moment and the bending moment.
1103
Here are the two expressions that we have obtained for 1 because of the twisting moment M t
and  2 because of the bending moment M b . Note that we have disregarded the deflection in the
spring because of the axial tensile pull and the transverse shear. As we have seen that the effect
of the tensile pull and the transverse shear is very small in comparison to the twisting moment
and the bending moment and accordingly we have disregarded those components.
64 PR 3 N cos 
As you can see that the 1 , the deflection because of the twisting moment is 1 
Gd 4
128PR 3 N sin 2 
and the deflection because of the bending moment which is  2  .
Ed 4 cos 
The total deflection will be sum of these two which is
64 PR 3 N  cos2  2sin 2  
∆ = 1   2 equals to 
d 4 cos   G E 
As you know, P is the axial pull, R is the mean radius of the spring coil, N is the number of turns
and d is the diameter of the wire with which the spring is formed, G is the shear modulus and E
is the modulus of elasticity and α is the helix angle which is tan-1(P/ 2 R ).
Now, because of this load, not only the spring will undergo a deflection, it will under angular
rotation as well.
1104
If we hold the spring as shown in the above slide and the load is applied at the bottom of this
spring, then the spring will be subjected to deflection and also it will undergo angular rotation.
We need to find out the angular rotation and because of this angular rotation, it will try to
increase this wound and bending will try to reduce this wound.
We need to find out the value of the  angular rotation.
1105
64 PR 2 N sin 
Due to twisting moment, we will have the rotation 1  .
Gd 4
128PR 2 N sin 
And due to bending moment will have the rotation which is 2  .
Ed 4
Algebraically, we can add them up as 1  2 , but as we have noticed that because of the twisting
moment the angular rotation will have a clockwise movement, which will try to increase the
number of wounds and in case of bending it will have an anti-clockwise movement and that will
try to unwind the spring.
So the final angular rotation with respect to the top will be the difference between the two,
64 PR 2 N 1 2
θ = 1  2 and if we try to find out the final  , which is   sin     .
G E 
4
d
Now, because of this angular rotation, it is expected that there is going to be increasing the
number of wounds. If we call this as n , then 2 n is the rotation that it undergoes in a deformed
state and earlier it was 2 N . That increase is 2 n  2 N from which we can compute that

increase in the number of wounds which is n , where n =  n . Here, ‘n’ is the number of
2
wounds that the spring had originally and because of the application of the load P, this particular
spring has undergone an angular rotation  . This will give us the number of increase in the
wound which is n because of the axial load P applied on the spring. Hence these are the stresses
and the deflection on the rotation that an open-coiled spring is subjected to.
We have now seen the difference between the close-coiled helical spring and the open-coiled
helical spring. We have seen the load transfer mechanism into these two types of system. In case
of close-coiled helical spring the wound is such that virtually the helix lies in one plane and
thereby it is subjected to a direct shear and a twisting moment which is PR. Where as in case of
open-coiled helical spring because the helix is under angle with respect to the horizontal plane
and thereby the axial force which is acting through the center of the helix introduces four
components of the forces. They are the axial tensile pull in the wire, the transverse shear in the
1106
wire, the twisting moment and a bending moment and these four forces caused four stresses
which we have seen as individual normal and the shearing stresses.
From those individual normal and the shearing stresses we computed the maximum value of the
normal stress and the shearing stress that the wire will be subjected to. Also consequently
because of the application of the load we have seen that how the spring undergoes deflection and
the angular rotation, which can be computed, which can increase the number of wounds or
decrease the number of wounds depending on the application of the load. Let us look into some
examples where in we can make use of this formula for evaluating the stresses in open-coiled
helical spring.
The first example is that an open-coiled helical spring has a mean radius of 150mm, which is the
value of R is 150mm. And it has 20 coils, which is the number of turns N is 20 and the diameter
of the wire is 20mm at a pitch of 100mm which is the p. We will have to find out the maximum
stresses in the wire when the spring is subjected to an axial load of 200 N. Also you will have to
find the vertical deflection and increase in the number of coils. The value of E is given as
200GPa and value of G the shear modulus as 80GPa.
1107
The values given are

R = 150mm, N = 20, d = 20 mm, p = 100 mm, P = 200N, E =200GPa and G = 80GPa.
First, we calculate the value of the helix angle α.

P
tan  = = 100/(2π⨯150) = 0.106, which gives,  = 6.06
2 R
Once we know the value of  , we can compute the four force components that will be acting in
the spring which is twisting moment M t is equals to PR cos  , the bending moment M b is
equals to PR sin  , the axial tensile force that will be acting in the spring wire is equals to
P sin  and the transverse shear V is equals to P cos  .
The twisting moment M t = PR cos  = 200⨯150⨯ cos(6.06 ) = 29830N-mm
The bending moment M b = PR sin  = 200⨯150⨯ sin(6.06 ) = 3170N-mm
The axial tensile pull T = P sin  = 200  sin(6.06 ) = 21.11N.
The transverse shear V = P cos  = 200  cos(6.06 ) = 198.8N.
These are the force components the spring wire is subjected to. Let us compute the value of the
stresses corresponding to each of these force quantities.
1108
32 M b
The values bending stress  b 
d3
Substituting the value of M b = 3170N-mm and d = 20mm, gives us, σb = 4.04 MPa.
T
The normal tensile stress due to tensile pull = = 21.11⨯4/(π⨯202) = 0.07 MPa.
A
Here you can look into these numerical values that the normal stress which is getting generated
because of the axial pull is very small in comparison to the normal stress that got generated
because of the bending moment M b . This is insignificant in comparison to this bending stress.
Let us look into the value of shearing stress that is getting generated because of the twisting
16 M t
moment,  1 
d3
If we substitute M t = 29830 N-mm and d = 20, which gives us a value of τ1 = 19 MPa
4V
The shearing stress because of the transverse shear, τ2 = . This is the maximum stress as we
3A
have observed that when we have computed the shear stress in a circular cross section. We had
1109
observed that the maximum stress occurs at the center and the value of the maximum shearing
4V
stress is equals to and that is what has been taken here.
3A
d2
As V=198.9 N and A = , this gives as a value of τ2 = 0.84MPa.
4
If you look into this particular stress that is getting generated because of the transverse shear V is
very small in comparison to the shear stress that is getting generated because of the twisting
moment M t . This  2 is almost insignificant in comparison to the shear stress  1 .
If you look into the other values, the stresses which have generated because of the bending and
the direct axial, they are also is much less in comparison to the shearing stress that is getting
generated because of the twisting moment. Off course this depends on the helix angle as well. If
the alpha angle varies then there will be change in this stresses. The total normal stress which we
have is the normal stress because of the bending and the normal stress because of the tensile pull.
This comes as equals to 4.11MPa. The total shearing stress that we have is    1   2 which
equals to 19.84MPa. This is the value of the shearing stress that is getting generated because of
the twisting moment and the transverse shear.
Once we have this value of σ and τ, we can substitute these values in the expression or we can
plot them in the More’s circle to get the value of the maximum normal stress.
  
2
4.11
1       2    2.055  19.842 = 22 MPa
2
2 2 2
 
2
The maximum shearing stress =     2 which is  2.055  19.842 = 19.95 MPa

2
2
Let us look into the value of the deflection that the spring will be subjected to because of the
action of this load which is acting in the spring.
64 PR 3 N  cos 2  2sin 2  

d 4 cos   G E 
We have seen that the deflection expression for deflection =
1110
.
Now, α= 6.06 , N=20, R=150mm, P=200N,
G=80GPa= 80  103 MPa and E=200GPa= 200  103 MPa
If we substitute these values for P, R, N, d,  and G, we get,  = 68mm
We have observed that not only the spring will undergo the deflection but it will undergo angular
64 PR 2 N 1 2
rotation as well. The value of the angular rotation is   sin     .
G E 
4
d
If we substitute the values of P, R, N, d, G, E and  , we get,

64  200  1502  20  1 2 
 sin(6.06 )   3
 80  10 200  10 
4 3
20
On further simplification,   0.0095

As we had seen that the increase in the total number of coils, n = n,
2
Where n is the number of turn that we had initially and n is the number of turns that have been
introduced after this angular rotation. So the increase in the number of turns is,
 0.0095
n  n  = = 0.0015.
2 2
1111
Let us look into another example: “In an open-coiled helical spring of 10 coils the stresses due to
a bending and torsion are 100MPa and 110MPa respectively when the spring is loaded axially.
The mean diameter of the coil is 8 times the wire diameter, that is D is 8 times d. Find the
maximum allowable axial load P and the wire diameter d for a maximum extension of 18mm.
The value of E and G are given as 200GPa and 80GPa.” The value of delta is given. We will
have to find out ‘P’ and ‘d’.
1112
If we look into these values given;
N=10, σb=100 MPa, τ = 110MPa, D=8d, δ=18mm
E=200GPa and G=80GPa
We have to compute the value of P, D and d.

As we have seen that the bending moment M b = PR sin  .
MY d d4 MY
If we write the stress   where Y  and i  , therefore this equals to
I 2 64 I
32M d3
 and thereby M b  b
d3 32
d3
M b = PR sin  is equal to b .
32
Since D=8d. So R=4d.

d3
Hence, P  4d sin   b
32
The bending the stress  b =100MPa. Substituting in the above equation gives as a value of
P sin   2.45d 2
T d
The twisting moment M t is equals to PR cos  and again as we know that   and   ,
J 2
d4
J .
32
16T d3
Hence   and therefore the twisting moment is equals to   . Thus,
d3 16
d3
M t  PR cos   
16
Now, τ = 110MPa and R = 4d. Hence if we simplify the above equation, we get
d3
M t  P  4d  cos    110 or P cos   5.4d 2
16
1113
P sin  2.45  2.45 
Now, M b / M t =  , which gives us a value of helix angle,   tan    24.4
P cos  5.4  5.4 
If we substitute the value of α in the equation P sin  we get,

P sin(24.4 )  2.45d 2
Hence,
P  5.93d 2
As we know the limiting deflection, δ=18mm and the value of the delta is given by,
64 PR 3 N  cos2  2sin 2  
 
d 4 cos   G E 
If we substitute the values of G, E, α, N and R=4d, we get P  33.03d
We have seen that P  5.93d 2 and now we have P  33.03d from the limiting deflection delta. If
we equate these two, we get, d  5.57mm and if we substitute this value of d in the expression
P  33.03d , we can get the value of P=184N.
Hence these are the values of the allowable P and the diameter of the wire that is to be used for
forming the spring.
1114
Let us see another example; “Find the mean diameter of an open-coiled spring of helix angle 300
to give a vertical deflection of 25mm and an angular rotation of the loaded end of 0.02radian
under an axial load of 40N. The spring is made of a wire of 6mm and the value of E and G are
given as 200GPa and 80GPa respectively.”
If we look into this example, the value of alpha is given as 300, the deflection delta is given as
25, theta is given as 0.02radian and P is equals to 40N, the value of d is 6mm. Now we will have
to find out the mean diameter D or the mean radius R.
1115
64 PR 3 N  cos2  2sin 2  
As we know,    and since δ=25mm, if we substitute the values
d 4 cos   G E 
except this R and N, then we get, R 3 N = 923.4  103 .
We know the limiting angular rotation is 0.02radian. If we substitute the values in the formula,
64 PR 2 N 1 2
 sin     for except R and N, we get the value of R 2 N = 8.1  103 .
G E 
4
d
If we divide R 3 N / R 2 N , we get, R=114mm. Hence the diameter is equal to 228mm for this
particular spring.
(Refer Slide Time: 56:20 - 56 42:)
To summarize, in this particular lesson we have looked into some aspects of the previous lessons
and also we have derived the formulae for evaluating the stresses and deflection in open-coiled
helical springs. We have also looked into the examples for evaluating stresses and deflection in
open-coiled helical spring.
To summarize the module, this particular module consists of two lessons. In the first lesson, we
were introduced to the concept of the spring, we had looked into the different types of springs
and we had discussed several aspects of the stresses and deflection in close-coiled springs and in
1116
the second lesson of this particular module we have looked into the stresses and deflection in
open-coiled helical springs.
Here are the questions for you to go through.
1117
What is spring constant and what are the differences between closed coiled and open-coiled
helical springs?
What are the forces, the open-coiled helical springs are subjected to?
Look into these questions and if you go through both the lessons of this module, you will get the
answers for these questions.
Thank you very much.
1118

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INDEX

S.No. Topic Page No.

6 Analysis of Stress - v 110

11 Analysis of Strain – V 236

16 Application of Stress/Strain II 368

26 Stresses in Beams - I 641

31 Deflection of Beams - II 762

36 Combined Stresses - III 944

Module 6 is on stresses in beams, which will have also four lessons.

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Force (P) = Mass(kg) x acceleration(m/s2)

In mechanics of materials or Strength of Materials, what we are concerned with is internal

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These are the questions for you.

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What is the definition of normal stress?

Normal stress is the normal component perpendicular to the particular section.

What is meant by free body diagram?

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Thereby in this particular x-plane we have three stress components:

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Likewise on the y-plane, we have σy τyx and τyz

On z-plane, we have σz , τzx and τzy

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τxx τxy τxz

τij = σx τxy τxz

Equality of Cross Shear

Similarly, τxz = τzx and τzy = τyz

Elements in Plane Stress

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Differential Equations of Equilibrium

We get, (δσx/δx) + (δτyx/δy) + (δτzx/δx) + X = 0

(δτzx/δx) + (δτzy/δy) + (δσz/δz) + Z = 0

These are called the equations of equilibrium.

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Stress Analysis of Axially Loaded Members:

τθ= P sinθ/A' = P sin2θ/2A

maximum τθ= P/2A when θ= 45 degrees

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So, F = ∫A (σ. dA)

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