State-of-the-Art of Integral Abutment Bridges:

Design and Practice

M. Arockiasamy, P.E.1; Narongrit Butrieng2; and M. Sivakumar3

Abstract: The superstructure for integral abutment bridges is cast integrally with abutments that are supported by a single row of piles.
Thermal expansion or contraction and concrete creep and shrinkage induce bending stresses in the piles. Very limited design and
construction guidelines are available and no unified design procedures exist nationwide; hence, there is a lack of enthusiasm to adopt
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integral abutment bridges for long spans. Current design and construction practices of integral abutment bridges have been reviewed.
Important design parameters are identified with an emphasis on temperature, creep, and shrinkage effects of concrete bridge decks,
varying soil strata, and the pile-soil interaction. A parametric study is described regarding the effects of a predrilled hole, the type of fill
in the predrilled hole, elevation of the water table, soil type, and pile orientation. The results from the parametric study should aid in the
selection and design of piles for integral abutment bridges.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲1084-0702共2004兲9:5共497兲
CE Database subject headings: Bridge abutments; Creep; Shrinkage; Temperature effects; Piles; Lateral loads; Lateral displacement;
Bridge design.

Introduction ture, are constructed as a rigid connection of the deck to a pile-

Traditionally, a system of expansion joints, roller supports, and
other structural releases is provided in highway bridges to permit
thermal expansion and contraction, creep, and shrinkage. When
expansion joints fail to function properly, joints can create prob-
lems. When they leak, the underlying structural elements deterio-
rate, and when they are unable to move, bridge elements may
experience overstress or even damage.
The increased cost of maintenance or replacement of these
faulty expansion joints, along with the initial cost of their design,
manufacture, and installation, led to the advancement of the case
for integral abutment bridges. Integral bridges are also chosen
because of their resistance to the pressure associated with grow-
ing concrete pavements. Available design and construction guide-
lines on integral abutment bridges are limited. No unified design
procedures exist for adoption by bridge design engineers. Impor-
tant design parameters for the integral abutment are identified and
studied with an emphasis on the effect of temperature, creep, and
shrinkage on concrete bridge decks and the pile-soil interaction.
In integral abutment bridges, the abutment and superstructure
are cast integrally to avoid the high costs associated with instal-
lation, maintenance, and rehabilitation of expansion joints. Inte-
gral abutments, which provide primary support to the superstruc-
1
Professor and Director, Center for Infrastructure and Constructed Fa-
cilities, Florida Atlantic Univ., 777 Glades Rd., Boca Raton, FL 33431.
2
Civil Engineer, PSA Engineering, 17819 Davenport Rd., Dallas, TX
75252.
3
Graduate Research Assistant, Florida Atlantic Univ., Boca Raton, FL
33431.
Note. Discussion open until February 1, 2005. Separate discussions
must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing
Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos-
sible publication on May 7, 2002; approved on April 9, 2003. This paper
is part of the Journal of Bridge Engineering, Vol. 9, No. 5, September 1,
2004. ©ASCE, ISSN 1084-0702/2004/5-497–506/$18.00.
supported substructure. Thermal expansion or contraction and
concrete creep and shrinkage induce bending stresses in the piling
that supports the abutments. The substructure must absorb the
induced movements of the superstructure; hence, it has to be flex-
ible enough to accommodate the movements. This flexibility is
provided by the use of a stub abutment supported by a single row
of piles. Piles in integral abutment bridges are subjected to hori-
zontal movement. This causes the piles to act under combined
bending and axial loads. In order to understand the response of
laterally loaded piles supporting the abutment of the integral abut-
ment bridge, evaluation under various conditions is needed. It is
observed from the summary of current practice adopted in inte-
gral abutment bridges by different state Departments of Transpor-
tation 共DOTs兲 共Kunin and Alampalli 2000兲 that a parametric study
on the effects of a predrilled hole, type of fill in the predrilled
hole, elevation of the water table, soil type, and pile orientation
will demonstrate the advantages and disadvantages of the adop-
tion of different practices 共Arockiasamy 2001; Butrieng 2001兲.
Factors Influencing the Behavior of Integral
Abutment Bridges
In addition to the primary effects due to dead load, live load, etc.,
integral bridges are subjected to secondary effects due to 共1兲 creep
and shrinkage; 共2兲 thermal gradients; 共3兲 differential settlement
and differential deflections; 共4兲 pavement relief pressures when
moisture and sustained high temperatures trigger pavement
growth; and 共5兲 soil-pile interaction.
Time dependent creep and shrinkage effects are important in
integral abutment bridges. Axial shortening and rotation at the
girder ends will induce stresses in the continuous deck. The forces
introduced into the structure due to creep and shrinkage can act as
relieving mechanisms for stresses developed from thermal gradi-
ents. The interaction of creep and shrinkage with temperature and
humidity changes may aid in relieving stresses caused by annual

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J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(5): 497-506

 Fig. 1. Typical shrinkage, creep, and differential settlement effects in continuous integral abutment bridges: 共a兲 Moment due to differential
shrinkage effects of composite concrete bridges; 共b兲 moment due to creep effects for composite prestressed concrete bridges; 共c兲 differential
settlement of abutment with respect to pier; 共d兲 differential settlement of pier with respect to abutment
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temperature variations. Shrinkage is directional, causes increased
stresses due to restraint, and partially offsets the effects of creep,
passive pressure, and thermal changes. Thermal movements are
significant and can cause serious problems if not adequately con-
sidered. Settlement of abutments of multiple span integral bridges
induces bending moments similar to those induced by shrinkage.
Settlement of piers induces moments similar to those induced by
creep, as shown in Fig. 1. Integral bridges should not be used
unless the probability of appreciable abutment settlement is re-
mote 共Burke 1993兲. Pavement pressures transmitted through
movement of joints that are provided between the deck and the
highway pavement should be considered in the design of the su-
perstructure. If there are no joints, the thermal expansion of the
deck can cause very high thrusts within the concrete pavement
and, possibly, bursting 共Hambly 1997兲. Lateral movement due to
thermal expansion and contraction of the superstructure leads to
reduction in the vertical load-carrying capacity of the pile. Lon-
gitudinal movement of the integral bridges causes passive pres-
sure on the structure, which depends on the area of abutment
exposed to pressure, and the magnitude is related to the magni-
tude of soil compression 共Burke 1993兲.
Parallel, flared, and U-type wing walls are the different types
of wing walls adopted for integral abutment bridges. The size of
structures that must move with integral abutments is kept to a
minimum. Hence, in some cases wing walls are designed struc-
turally independent of the abutment with separate foundations, so
that they do not have to move during thermal expansion or con-
traction of the deck 共Kunin and Alampalli 2000兲. The orientation
of the wing walls, which are an integral part of the abutment
system and are designed to retain the approach fill beyond the
width of the bridge, can affect the magnitude of the passive earth
pressures. Tests show that U-type wing walls result in greater
earth pressures than transverse wing walls 共Thomson and
Lutenegger 1998兲.
is the stub type, in which the abutment is supported by a single
row of piles as shown in Fig. 2. The piles are driven vertically
without any batter. This arrangement of piles permits the abut-
ment to move in a longitudinal direction under temperature ef-
fects 共New Jersey DOT 1987兲.
Piles
The analysis of a pile under lateral loads in the integral abutment
should consider soil-structure interaction. Because the deflected
shape of the loaded pile is dependent upon the soil response and,
in turn, the soil response is a function of pile deflection, the sys-
tem response cannot be determined by the traditional rules of
static equilibrium. Further, soil response is a nonlinear function of
pile deflection. Determination of the practical point of fixity of the
buried pile is rather complex in structural engineering.
A rational design method is developed for integral abutment
piles considering the inelastic redistribution of the thermally in-
duced moments. This method is based upon the ability of steel
piles to develop plastic hinges and undergo inelastic rotation
without local buckling failure 共Abendroth et al. 1989兲. The later-
ally loaded pile may be modeled as an equivalent beam column
without transverse loads between the member ends and with a
base fixed at a specific soil depth. This soil depth, called the
equivalent embedded length, is the depth from the soil surface to
the fixed base of the equivalent cantilever 共Abendroth and Gre-
imann 1983兲. Either a fixed head or a pinned head for the beam
column approximates the actual rotational restraint at the pile
head.

Design Guidelines and Practice

Abutment
In integral abutment bridges, the ends of the superstructure gird-
ers are fixed to the integral abutments. When an integral bridge is
supported by either flexible capped pile piers or freestanding piers
with movable bearings, all longitudinal forces are taken by abut-
ment backfill, pavements, and to a slight extent by the flexible
abutment piles. Resistance to thermal movements is shared
among all the substructure units and must be considered in the
Fig. 2. Typical stub abutment
design of integral abutments. The most desirable type of abutment

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J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(5): 497-506

 Fig. 3. 共a兲 Elevation and 共b兲 plan of prestressed concrete girder
integral abutment bridge 共base case兲
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Approach Slab
Due to the difficulties in obtaining proper embankment and back-
fill compaction around abutments, approach slabs are recom-
mended. Approach slabs offer many benefits other than acting as
a bridge between the abutment and the more densely compacted
embankments. Approach slabs provide a transition from the ap-
proach to the bridge, if embankment settlement occurs. Such tran-
sitions provide a smooth ride, thereby reducing impact loads to
the bridge. They also provide greater load distribution at bridge
ends, which aid in reducing damage to the abutments, especially
from overweight vehicles. Finally, properly drained approach
slabs help control roadway drainage, thus preventing erosion of
the abutment backfill or freeze/thaw damage resulting from satu-
rated backfill 关American Iron and Steel Institution 共AISI兲 1996兴.
Approach slabs are poured separately from the superstructure
slab, but joined together.
Wing Wall
In-line wing walls cantilevered from the abutment are preferred.
When the alignment and velocity of streams make in-line walls
subject to possible scour, or when right of way to other traffic
poses a problem, then flared walls cantilevered from the abutment
or U-type wing walls can be adopted.
Backfill
It is important to provide an effective maintainable drainage sys-
tem below the surfacing and at the bottom of the backfill. Porous
granular backfill is widely used. The advantages of granular back-
fill are easy compaction in narrow space and drainage of water
from the abutment. Because uniformly graded material does not
compact well and provides less interlocking of particles, acting
Fig. 4. Cross section of bridge deck 共base case兲
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J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(5): 497-506
Fig. 5. Thermally induced secondary pile forces
more like marbles, well-graded material is desirable. Backfilling
of the abutment is not allowed until the abutments have cured to
attain sufficient strength. 共New York DOT 1999兲.
Intermediate Piers
Piers for integral bridges have similar design requirements and
share common design procedures with the piers of more tradi-
tional bridges. The primary distinguishing features of the piers for
an integral abutment bridge involve their ability to accommodate
potentially large superstructure movements and the sharing of lat-
eral and longitudinal forces among the substructure units.
Forces induced by the distribution of the superstructure move-
ments must be computed. In addition, the distribution of exter-
nally applied loads to the substructure units must be estimated. As
the superstructure expands and contracts, the top of the piers
would be forced to undergo displacements relative to their bases.
These displacements induce curvatures in the piers that can be
closely estimated based on the magnitude of the movements and
the fixity conditions at the top and bottom and the height of the
piers. Bearings at the piers of an integral abutment bridge struc-
ture should be fixed only when the amount of expected expansion
from the bearing to both abutments or the adjoining pier is equal;
otherwise, expansion bearing should be used 共New Jersey DOT
1987兲.
Fig. 6. Equivalent cantilever: 共a兲 Fixed-head condition and 共b兲
pinned-head condition
 Superstructure
Many of the state DOTs require no special considerations for the
superstructure design of integral abutment bridges. Fixity at the
abutments is considered during girder design. When selecting
span ratios for multispan bridges, consideration is given to pro-
viding nearly equal movement at each abutment. Prestressed gird-
ers may be connected by doweling them to the abutments. Steel
superstructure girders are directly attached to the piles using
welded plates by some of the DOTs. Other types of connections,
such as bolting the girder to the abutment, may also be used.
Response of Laterally Loaded Piles in Integral
Abutment Bridges
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Piles in integral abutment bridges are subjected to horizontal
movement resulting from temperature and shrinkage effects. The
solution of the problem of the pile under lateral load must satisfy
two general conditions: 共1兲 the equations of equilibrium must be
solved; and 共2兲 deflections and deformations must be consistent
and compatible. Further, the solutions should recognize that, as
the backfill is acted upon for several cycles, the backfill becomes
remolded. Thus, an array of load-deflection, moment, and shear
conditions can be investigated. Important to the solution is the
development of a pseudomodulus of elasticity for the embank-
ment soils that are acted upon by piles subjected to lateral loads.
The nonlinear p-y curve procedure provides the best fit between
the calculated displacement of laterally loaded piles and the val-
ues measured in full-scale tests. The soil response is described by
a family of nonlinear curves ( p-y curves兲 that compute soil re-
sistance p as a function of pile deflection y.
Numerical Example „‘‘Base Case’’…
Laterally Loaded Pile for Integral Abutment Bridges
A numerical example 共‘‘base case’’兲 is shown considering the
factors discussed previously. Fig. 3 shows the plan and elevation
of the two-lane bridge designed under the base case. The super-
structure has two lanes. The superstructure is assumed to have
seven AASHTO Type III bridge girders 共Fig. 4兲. The abutment
and approach slab are designed based on load combinations and
load factors corresponding to AASHTO Strength I. The horizontal
displacement at each abutment due to a temperature drop of 4.4°C
共40°F兲 and shrinkage are calculated according to AASHTO guide-
lines 共AASHTO 1998兲. Piles are designed for the forces for ser-
vice load conditions that are calculated based on the inelastic
redistribution of thermally induced moments 共Fig. 5兲. The stress
in the pile due to longitudinal displacement of the superstructure
is assumed to have no significant effect on the pile capacity, ex-
cept for the secondary P-⌬ effects due to the creep, shrinkage,
and temperature effects.
For piles that have sufficient ductility to develop a mechanism
with associated plastic hinge rotation, the support movement and
thermal stresses do not affect significantly either the plastic col-
lapse load or the elastic buckling load. For an equivalent cantile-
ver with a horizontal translation, ⌬ 共Fig. 6兲, the combined effects
of moment, M, and shear, H, balance the overturning moment,
P⌬. For the fixed head pile, P⌬⫽HL⫹2M , and for the pinned-
head pile, P⌬⫽HL⫹M . For the present case, a useful and con-
servative bound will be to assume that the P-⌬ effects are re-
sisted entirely by the moment, M ⫽ P⌬/2, and M ⫽ P⌬ for the
fixed-head pile and pinned-head piles, respectively.
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J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(5): 497-506
Fig. 7. Soil properties and forces for service load condition on the
pile 共base case兲
The length of pile is calculated based on skin friction capacity
by the ␣ 共alpha兲 method 共AASHTO 1998兲. The equivalent canti-
lever length and the critical length of the pile are determined
based on equivalent soil stiffness (k e ), which assumes that the
embedded pile is fixed at its base at some distance below the
ground surface. Beyond this length, lateral displacement and
bending moments are negligible. The p-y curve method is used to
obtain the equivalent soil stiffness 共Greimann et al. 1987兲. The
adequacy of the pile section is checked by using the interaction
equations suggested by the American Institute of Steel Construc-
tion 共AISC 1994兲.
SAP 2000, a computer structural analysis program, was used
in the analysis of the intermediate pier, abutment, and piles for the
service loads. The pile section in the base case is designed based
on the maximum factored load of 791.4 kN. The piles are de-
signed with a 2.44 m depth predrilled hole filled with medium
sand, and the level of the water table is located at the top of the
pile. The H P10⫻57 section with F y ⫽414 MPa 共60 ksi兲 is used in
the design with the pile oriented about the weak axis. The prop-
erties of multilayered soils, the predrilled hole, and the pile forces
for the service load condition are given in Fig. 7. The moment-
induced secondary pile forces are determined by considering pas-
sive earth pressure, horizontal force, and moment induced in the
pile from horizontal translation 共Fig. 6兲. The pile is analyzed
using the LPILE 共Reese et al. 2000兲 and FB-Pier 关Florida DOT
and Federal Highway Administration 共FHWA兲 2001兴 computer
programs.
LPILE is a special purpose program using finite-difference
procedures for analyzing a pile under lateral loading. FB-Pier is a
nonlinear finite-element analysis program designed for analyzing
bridge pier structures composed of nonlinear pier columns and
cap supported on a linear pile cap and nonlinear piles/shafts with
nonlinear soil. FB-Pier incorporates both the axial and lateral soil-
pile interactions. The axial soil-pile interaction is modeled
through hyperbolic tip resistance–vertical displacement (t-z)
curves and the lateral soil-pile interaction is modeled with non-
linear soil resistance–horizontal pile displacement ( p-y) curves.
 Table 1. Pile Lengths and Forces on Piles under Service Load Condition
Parametric study cases
Items Base case I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI
Degree of compaction of Medium Loose Dense Medium N/A Medium Medium Medium N/A N/A N/A Medium
sand in predrilled hole
Depth of predrilled hole 共m兲
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2.44 2.44 2.44 4.88 N/A 2.44 2.44 2.44 N/A N/A N/A 2.44
Pile length 共m兲 13.94 13.94 13.94 19.28 12.42 13.94 13.94 13.94 14.40 6.40 28.35 13.94
Location of water table 0 0 0 0 0 2.44 4.88 13.94 0 0 0 0
from top of pile 共m兲
Soil type Multiple layer Multiple layer Multiple layer Multiple layer Multiple layer Multiple layer Multiple layer Multiple layer Stiff clay Very stiff clay Dense sand Multiple layer
Pile orientation Weak axis Weak axis Weak axis Weak axis Weak axis Weak axis Weak axis Weak axis Weak axis Weak axis Weak axis Strong axis
Equivalent length
L stiffness 共m) 2.64 3.18 2.18 2.67 1.50 2.87 2.87 2.87 1.50 1.19 2.64 3.23
L moment 共m) 3.18 3.63 2.62 3.20 1.78 3.45 3.45 3.45 1.78 1.42 3.18 3.86
L buckling 共m) 3.73 3.73 3.73 5.89 3.28 3.73 3.73 3.73 3.28 2.59 5.79 4.14
Service loads on pile
Horizontal force H T (kN) 102.31 59.39 183.54 98.58 276.47 79.09 79.09 79.09 276.47 347.64 102.58 164.10

Moment M T (kN-m) 97.47 71.57 138.49 91.50 205.42 79.00 79.00 79.00 205.42 205.42 93.96 183.50
JOURNAL OF BRIDGE ENGINEERING © ASCE / SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2004 / 501

Passive earth pressure P p (kN) 379.89 379.89 379.89 379.89 379.89 379.89 379.89 379.89 379.89 379.89 379.89 379.89
Axial force due to abutment 49.56 43.02 62.19 48.98 77.45 45.86 45.86 45.86 77.45 86.34 49.60 62.19
movement P T (kN)
Axial force due to DL, LL, 462.19 462.19 462.19 462.19 462.19 462.19 462.19 462.19 462.19 462.19 462.19 462.19
IM, etc. P E (kN)
Total axial force P (kN) 511.74 505.20 524.38 511.17 539.64 508.05 508.05 508.05 539.64 548.53 511.79 524.38

Secondary moment M (kN-m) 4.77 4.72 4.89 4.77 5.04 4.74 4.74 4.74 5.04 5.12 4.78 4.89
Value from interaction equation 0.254 0.253 0.256 0.298 0.257 0.254 0.254 0.254 0.257 0.252 0.303 0.228

J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(5): 497-506

 Table 2. Summary of Results from LPILE and FB-Pier Analyses
Parametric study cases
Items Base case I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI
Results from LPILE
Maximum moment 共kN-m兲 4.87 4.87 4.96 4.86 5.08 4.81 4.81 4.81 5.07 5.14 4.88 4.93
Maximum shear 共kN兲 2.97 2.75 3.28 2.82 4.35 3.04 3.11 3.11 4.36 5.04 3.15 2.60
Maximum axial force 共kN兲 511.74 505.20 524.38 511.17 539.64 508.05 508.05 508.05 539.64 548.53 511.79 523.31
Maximum horizontal 0.74 1.18 0.57 0.76 0.33 0.62 0.62 0.62 0.33 0.25 0.57 0.39
displacement 共mm兲
Maximum stress 共MPa兲 63.97 63.39 65.47 63.91 67.27 63.45 63.45 63.45 67.24 68.31 64.03 54.11
Results from FB-Pier
Maximum moment 共kN-m兲 5.13 5.13 5.19 5.24 5.26 5.04 5.03 5.03 5.30 5.24 5.49 5.02
Maximum shear 共kN兲 3.19 2.98 3.92 3.73 5.64 3.45 3.46 3.46 5.81 4.74 3.90 2.77
Maximum axial force 共kN兲
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496.57 490.12 509.07 490.75 525.89 492.93 488.88 488.88 524.24 532.52 474.47 502.80
Maximum horizontal 0.912 1.359 0.742 1.135 0.483 0.792 0.785 0.785 0.551 0.373 1.664 0.447
displacement 共mm兲
Maximum vertical 2.748 2.705 2.837 2.672 3.574 2.723 2.718 2.718 3.284 17.450 2.446 2.675
displacement 共mm兲
Maximum stress 共MPa兲 61.55 61.05 62.99 61.46 64.76 61.04 60.65 60.65 64.74 65.32 60.74 51.60

The details of the pile analysis for the numerical example 共base
case兲 are given in Column 2 of Table 1.
Parametric Study
A parametric study was carried out for the response of laterally
loaded piles supporting the abutment of the integral abutment
bridge under various conditions. The lateral movement of the pile
is mainly a function of horizontal soil stiffness, stiffness of the
pile, and presence of an oversized predrilled hole filled with soil
of the desired stiffness 共orientation of the pile兲. The stiffness of
the soil is dependent on the type of soil, the depth of each soil
layer, the degree of compaction of the soil surrounding the pile,
and the presence of the water table. The parameters considered
include a predrilled hole filled with sand having different degrees
of compaction, different depths of predrilled hole, piles without a
predrilled hole, variations in the elevation of the water table, dif-
ferent soil types, and pile orientation. Eleven cases were consid-
ered in this study based on the identified parameters. The proce-
dure adopted in the analysis of the pile in the base case is used for
the analysis of piles under various cases of the parametric study.
The analytical input data are computed by considering a typical
pile for an integral abutment bridge.
The results from the analyses 共Table 1兲, including maximum
moment, shear, axial force, horizontal displacement, vertical dis-
placement, and stress from LPILE and FB-Pier, are synthesized
and presented in Table 2 to develop a better understanding of the
pile response. The results from the parametric study also serve as
a guide to select, modify, or revise the size of the pile for a given
site condition.
Different Cases of Parametric Study
Degrees of Compaction and Predrilled Hole
The influence of degree of compaction, depth of predrilled hole,
and effect of the provision of a predrilled hole is examined in
Cases I–IV.
The effect of the predrilled hole on laterally loaded pile behav-
ior is studied based on properties of soils in the predrilled hole.
Three different degrees of compaction of sand in the predrilled
hole are discussed 共base case and Cases I and II兲 keeping the
depth of the predrilled hole constant. In the base case, the sand
filled in the predrilled hole of 2.44 m 共8 ft兲 is medium compacted.
The predrilled hole is filled with loose sand in Case I and with
dense sand in Case II. In the parametric study, only one type of
soil 共sand兲 is considered with different degrees of compaction.
However, the influence of different grades of granular fills can
also be evaluated.
Two cases of different depths of the predrilled hole are con-
sidered, one in the base case and the other in Case III. The degree
of compaction of sand is kept constant in both cases, but the depth
of the predrilled hole is varied. The depth of a predrilled hole is
2.44 m 共8 ft兲 and 4.88 m 共8 ft兲 in the base case and Case III,
respectively.
The influence of a predrilled hole on the behavior of a laterally
loaded pile is examined in two different cases: 共1兲 the base case,
in which a predrilled hole is provided; and 共2兲 Case IV, with no
predrilled hole.
Water Table Level
Cases V, VI, and VII examine the effect of the location of the
water table. In Cases V and VI, the water table is located at 2.44
m 共8 ft兲 and 4.88 m 共16 ft兲 below the top of the pile, respectively.
The water table is located below the tip of the pile in Case VII.
The soil and pile properties for Cases V–VII are kept constant
with the same value as used in the base case.
Type of Soil
The behavior of a laterally loaded pile is studied in different types
of soil. Three cases of piles, i.e., Cases VIII, IX, and X are evalu-
ated in three different soil layers—stiff clay, very stiff clay, and
dense sand, respectively—and the results are compared with the
base case.
Pile Stiffness „Pile Orientation…
The behavior of laterally loaded piles is examined with the ori-
entation of the pile along weak and strong axis bending while
other parameters are maintained constant. In the base case, the

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J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(5): 497-506

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Fig. 8. Variation in displacement, moment, shear due to varying
degrees of compaction of fill in the predrilled hole
pile oriented along the weak axis of bending is analyzed, whereas
the pile oriented about the strong axis is analyzed in Case XI.
Analytical Results
Horizontal displacement and variations of moment and shear
along the depth of the pile for Cases I–IV are shown in Figs.
8 –10. From the results shown in Table 2 共base case and Cases I
and II兲, the horizontal displacement at the top of the pile depends
on the degree of compaction of sand in the predrilled hole. The
dense sand in the predrilled hole reduces the displacement at the
top of the pile with a corresponding increase in stress. In the case
of the pile without any predrilled hole 共Case IV兲, the pile experi-
ences a slightly higher stress as compared with the piles with the
predrilled hole. Hence, it may be concluded that predrilled holes
with granular fill do not contribute significantly to the stress in the
pile. In terms of pile length requirements, longer predrilled holes
filled with medium sand 共Case III兲 require longer pile lengths for
a given loading condition. Although piles without predrilled holes
JOURNAL OF BRIDGE ENGINEERING © ASCE / SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2004 / 503
J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(5): 497-506
Fig. 9. Variation in displacement, moment, shear due to variation of
depth of predrilled hole
produce slightly higher stresses 共6%兲, the length of the pile re-
quired is less by 11% in comparison to the piles with predrilled
holes. A predrilled hole filled with sand allows the pile to be more
flexible, with reduction in the shear, moment, and stress values.
Fig. 11 shows the results from the analyses for different water
table levels 共base case, Cases V, VI, and VII兲. Though there are
variations in horizontal displacement, moment, and shear along
the depth of the pile, it can be seen that the variation is less than
1.5% in maximum horizontal displacement, moment, shear, and
stress values among the four cases. Thus, the location of the water
table has very little influence on the pile response. It is, therefore,
conservative to assume that the water table elevation is located at
the top level of the pile in the pile analysis, which gives the
maximum values among different cases.
The results from the analyses of the laterally loaded piles
driven in different soil types show significant variations in maxi-
mum shear, axial force, and horizontal displacement, with smaller
variation in the moment 共Fig. 12兲. Moments are higher for piles in
the order of very stiff clay 共Case IX兲, stiff clay 共Case VIII兲, and
dense sand 共Case X兲 when compared with the moment for the pile
driven in three different soil layers 共base case兲. The axial force is
low in the pile driven in dense sand and high in piles driven in
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Bertha Olmos on 08/24/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Fig. 10. Variation in displacement, moment, shear—with and with-
out predrilled hole
very stiff clay. Very stiff clay allows a maximum displacement of
0.37 mm, and the corresponding maximum displacement in dense
sand is 1.66 mm 共Table 2兲. The variation in stress between the
soils seems to be about 7%. In case of pile length requirements,
dense sand requires longer piles.
Significant variations in maximum shear and horizontal dis-
placement on piles oriented along the weak and strong bending
axis are observed from the analyses 共base case and Case XI兲
shown in Fig. 13. The maximum stress in the pile oriented along
its strong axis is about 16% smaller than that of the pile oriented
about the weak axis because of the larger section modulus. The
horizontal displacement in Case XI is less by about 50%.
Summary and Conclusions
A review has been made on current design and construction prac-
tices of integral abutment bridges. Only limited design and con-
struction guidelines for integral abutment bridges are available in
the specifications for highway bridges provided by American As-
504 / JOURNAL OF BRIDGE ENGINEERING © ASCE / SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2004
J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(5): 497-506
Fig. 11. Variation in displacement, moment, shear due to different
water table elevation
sociation of State Highway Transportation Officials 共AASHTO兲.
No unified procedure is available for the design and construction
of integral abutment bridges. This leads to wide variations in the
analysis, design, and construction procedures of integral abutment
bridges from one state to another. Factors influencing design as-
pects of integral bridges are identified and discussed. Secondary
effects are evaluated considering creep, shrinkage, and tempera-
ture on concrete bridge decks of integral abutment bridges. A
parametric study was carried out on the laterally loaded piles
supporting integral abutments with emphasis on predrilled holes,
elevation of the water table, soil types, and pile orientation. The
following are concluded from the parametric study:
1. The horizontal displacement at the top of the laterally loaded
pile in a predrilled hole filled with sand depends on the de-
gree of compaction of the sand. Dense sand in a predrilled
hole reduces the displacement at the top of the pile with a
marginal increase in stress. In the case of a pile without any
predrilled hole, the pile experiences higher stresses depend-
ing on the type of soil. Hence, it may be concluded that
predrilled holes do not contribute significantly to the stress.
2. In terms of pile length requirements, longer predrilled holes
filled with medium sand require longer piles for a given
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Bertha Olmos on 08/24/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Fig. 12. Variation in displacement, moment, shear due to different

soil types
Fig. 13. Variation in displacement, moment, shear due to different
orientation of piles 共weak and strong axis bending兲

loading condition. Although piles without predrilled holes

produce slightly higher stresses, the pile length required will
with that for the pile driven in three different soil layers.
be less when driven in relatively stiff soil. The piles with
Hence, the size of the pile depends on the type of soil in
predrilled holes are more flexible and experience slightly
which it is driven.
lower stresses when compared with those without predrilled
5. Maximum shear and horizontal displacement vary signifi-
holes. Hence some of the state agencies have opted for the
cantly, depending on the orientation of the pile axis. Though
use of piles with predrilled holes. However, it can be seen
a pile oriented along the weak axis is subjected to higher
that the length of the pile required is more with the adoption
stresses, it allows the pile to undergo larger horizontal dis-
of a predrilled hole.
placements, which is desirable. This confirms the current
3. The water table elevation has very little significance on the
practice of orienting the piles supporting the integral abut-
response of laterally loaded piles provided for integral abut-
ments along the weak axis.
ment bridges, because the maximum horizontal deflection,
moment, shear, and stress do not vary significantly for dif-
ferent water table elevations. The location of the water table
elevation at the top level of the pile gives the maximum Acknowledgments
horizontal displacement and moment, and hence it is a con-
servative assumption. This study is based on the project ‘‘Design Considerations for
4. Significant variations in maximum shear, axial force, and Integral Abutment Bridges in Florida,’’ sponsored by the Florida
horizontal displacement are found depending on the soil type Department of Transportation 共FDOT Project Contract No. BC
in which the pile is driven. Moments are higher for piles in 342; Project Manager: Marc Ansley兲. The writers thank Dr. Steve
stiff clay, very stiff clay, and dense sand when compared Nix, Chairman, Department of Civil Engineering, and Dr. Karl

JOURNAL OF BRIDGE ENGINEERING © ASCE / SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2004 / 505

J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(5): 497-506

 Stevens, Dean, College of Engineering, Florida Atlantic Univer-
sity, for their continued interest and encouragement throughout
the project.
Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper:
F y ⫽ characteristic strength of steel section;
H ⫽ horizontal force required to translate pile 共Fig.
6兲;
H T ⫽ horizontal force due to translation of abutment
共Fig. 5兲;
h ⫽ height of abutment;
k ⫽ stiffness of soil;
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Bertha Olmos on 08/24/19. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
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