NPHY 211 EC

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences

Study guide compiled by: Prof SES Ferreira

Copyright © 2019 edition. Review date 2024.
North-West University

No part of this study guide may be reproduced in any form or in any way without the written permission of the publishers.
It all starts here
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ya badiri
MODULE CONTENTS
Module information ............................................................................................................................iv
Welcome............................................................................................................................................iv
Module outcomes ..............................................................................................................................iv
Prerequisites......................................................................................................................................iv
Study material....................................................................................................................................iv
Evaluation .......................................................................................................................................... v
How to use this study guide...............................................................................................................vi
Icons ..................................................................................................................................................vi
Warning against plagiarism .............................................................................................................. vii

Study unit 1 Vector analysis ................................................................................................ 1

Study section 1.1 Vector algebra ................................................................................................... 2
Study section 1.2 Differential calculus ........................................................................................... 3
Study section 1.3 Integral calculus ................................................................................................ 4
Study section 1.4 Curvilinear coordinates ..................................................................................... 5

Study unit 2 Electrostatics .................................................................................................. 7

Study section 2.1 The electric field ................................................................................................ 9
Study section 2.2 Description of electrostatic fields .................................................................... 11
Study section 2.3 Electric potential .............................................................................................. 23
Study section 2.4 Work and energy in Electrostatics .................................................................. 25
Study section 2.5 Conductors ...................................................................................................... 26

Study unit 3 Electrostatic fields in matter ........................................................................ 27

Study section 3.1 Polarization ..................................................................................................... 28
Study section 3.2 The field of a polarized object ......................................................................... 30
Study section 3.3 Electric displacement ...................................................................................... 32
Study section 3.4 Linear dielectrics ............................................................................................. 34

Study unit 4 Magnetostatics .............................................................................................. 35

Study section 4.1 Lorentz force law ............................................................................................. 37
Study section 4.2 Biot-Savart’s law ............................................................................................. 38
Study section 4.3 Ampère’s law .................................................................................................. 42

Study unit 5 Magnetostatics in matter .............................................................................. 43

Study section 5.1 Magnetisation .................................................................................................. 44
Study section 5.2 The field of a magnetised object ..................................................................... 46
Study section 5.3 The H field ....................................................................................................... 48

i
Study section 5.4 Linear and non-linear mediums ...................................................................... 50

Study unit 6 Electrodynamics ........................................................................................... 51

Study section 6.1 Electromotive force ......................................................................................... 52
Study section 6.2 Faraday’s law .................................................................................................. 55

List of main concepts.................................................................................................................... 58

ii
iii
Module information
Module code NPHY 211

Module Credits 8

Module name Electricity and magnetism

Name of lecturer(s) Prof. Ilani Loubser

Office telephone 018 299 4398

Email address ilani.loubser@nwu.ac.za

Office no. 214, Physics Wing, Building G5, Natural

Building and Office nr
Sciences
Monday, Thursday & Friday mornings (it is better to make
Consulting hours
an appointment by email).

Welcome
On behalf of Physics, we welcome you to this module on electricity and magnetism. In
this module we are going to cover basic principles as well as important applications of
the subject. The accent will not only be on the theory, but also on solving of problems.

Module outcomes
On completion of this module you should be familiar with the way in which the
experimental laws of electrostatics and magnetostatics in vacuum, as well as the laws
of electrodynamics, lead to the four laws of Maxwell in integral form. You will learn to
apply the laws to a variety of problems by being able to calculate the electrostatic and
magnetostatic fields. In the practical classes you will apply your new knowledge to
study these phenomena, to investigate the laws in action and to analyse and present
your results and reports on computer.

Prerequisites
NPHY 111 & NPHY 121 & MTHS 111

Study material

Prescribed textbook
David J. Griffiths: Introduction to Electrodynamics (4th or 5th edition).
Keep in mind that you are going to use this textbook again in the third year. Some
paragraphs are not treated fully in the second year. Use a pencil to cross out the non-
relevant sections (underlined in the study guide). These sections will be treated in
detail in the third year. Where necessary, sections in the textbook are replaced by
notes in this study guide, as well as by notes to be taken down in class. Some editions

iv
 of the textbook do not make the chapter number part of paragraph numbers, equations,
figures etc. as was done in the 3rd edition. I will do this in this guide, because it makes
referencing easier (For example paragraph 5.3.3 in the guide refers to paragraph 3.3 of
Chapter 5). Page numbers for both this and the 3rd edition are given, the latter in
square brackets.

Evaluation

Class tests
There will be regular class tests. The details will be given to you in class.

Exercises
Problems are solved by correct scientific thinking. If you know the study material, the
formulas you have to use will not be unfamiliar to you. You will know what each symbol
in an equation stands for. If you understand the learning material, it will (usually) be
easy to see how to apply a formula. Furthermore, you will know which formula to use.
As your experience increases, problem solving becomes easier. The purpose of the
exercises you must complete, is to increase your confidence and make you think and
learn. It will serve no purpose if you copy them from somebody else. What is
acceptable and also encouraged is to collaborate in groups. It is important that
everyone pulls his/her weight in such a collaboration.
In this study guide, problems are listed at the end of each learning section. After
completing such a learning section you are expected to do these exercises before the
start of the next contact session. Note that extra problems may be added in class and
that these may appear in the examination.

Semester test
More information will be given to you in the class.

Admission mark

The final module mark for NPHY211 can be broken down as follows:

Final module mark: 50% Exam + 50% Participation mark

Participation (Admission) mark: 70% Theory mark + 30% Practicals

Theory mark: See updated assessment plan on eFundi.

Examination
You will write one paper of three hours duration.
The rules of the Faculty of Science determine that a participation mark of 40% is
required for admission to the examination.

v
Absence
Sickness is the most common reason for missing a test. If you miss a class test or
homework test for this reason, you should submit a medical certificate to the secretary
at the earliest opportunity. For any other absence, the proper authorisation should be
submitted to the secretary.

How to use this study guide

A complete plan of the study material we will cover is given in this study guide. The
textbook will be followed for most of the module. We have assigned a priority to each
paragraph in the book in order to give you an indication of its importance for tests or
the examination. You should be familiar with this system. Keep in mind that even if a
section is assigned priority “c”, and the material will almost never be asked in an
examination, it will still be important in order to understand work of higher priority.
Priority Meaning Exam weight
The mathematics and physics of these sections must
a Approx. 75%
be known fully.
In these sections only the main concepts and
b definitions and the supporting mathematics are Approx. 20%
important.
c Important in forming a concept. Approx. 5%
d Skip these sections. 0%

Icons

Time allocation Learning outcomes

Assessment /
Study material
Assignments

Individual exercise Group Activity

Example Reflection

vi
Warning against plagiarism
ASSIGNMENTS ARE INDIVIDUAL TASKS AND NOT GROUP ACTIVITIES.
(UNLESS EXPLICITLY INDICATED AS GROUP ACTIVITIES)
Copying of text from other learners or from other sources (for instance the study guide,
prescribed material or directly from the internet) is not allowed – only brief quotations
are allowed and then only if indicated as such.
You should reformulate existing text and use your own words to explain what you
have read. It is not acceptable to retype existing text and just acknowledge the source
in a footnote – you should be able to relate the idea or concept, without repeating the
original author to the letter.
The aim of the assignments is not the reproduction of existing material, but to ascertain
whether you have the ability to integrate existing texts, add your own interpretation
and/or critique of the texts and offer a creative solution to existing problems.
Be warned: students who submit copied text will obtain a mark of zero for the
assignment and disciplinary steps may be taken by the Faculty and/or
University. It is also unacceptable to do somebody else’s work, to lend your work
to them or to make your work available to them to copy – be careful and do not
make your work available to anyone!
Plagiarism is a serious offence and you should familiarise yourself with the
plagiarism policy of the NWU. http://library.nwu.ac.za/copyright-and-plagiarism

vii
viii
 Study unit 1

Study unit 1
VECTOR ANALYSIS

Important information
This study unit contains the mathematical knowledge you will need to complete it. The
purpose here is to give you a brief overview of vector analysis, as applicable to
electrodynamics. It is important that you should master the material in this study unit
before progressing to the next one.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 1, bl. 1 – 58

Study outcomes
On completion of this study unit, you should –
• know the basic elements of vector algebra and be able to apply them;
• be able to explain the geometrical meaning of derivatives;
• understand the concept derivative that can be written by a Ñ-operator, and be
able to calculate it in Cartesian, spherical and cylindrical coordinates;
• be able to explain what is meant by line integration, surface integration and
volume integration;.
• be able to define the fundamental theorem of gradients and to apply it in
solving problems;
• be able to explain what is meant by infinitesimal displacement, infinitesimal
area element and infinitesimal volume element.

1
Study unit 1

Study section 1.1

Vector algebra
Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should -
• Know the basic elements of vector algebra and be able to use them.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 1, bl. 1-12. Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note the
priorities for purposes of the semester test and the examination

c 1.1.1 Vector operations

This was covered by the first year modules. You are supposed to know it
and to be able to use it. Check the book’s notation for a unit vector.
Example 1.1 is b priority.
c 1.1.2 Vector algebra: Component form
This was done in the first year. You should know it and be able to apply
it.
c 1.1.3 Triple products
Application of previous paragraphs. Skip this.
c 1.1.4 Position, displacement and separation vectors
Important for the rest of the course. Memorise the definitions.
d 1.1.5 How vectors transform
Skip this

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 Study unit 1

Study section 1.2

Differential calculus
Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should –
• be able to explain the geometrical interpretation of derivatives;
• understand and know the concept derivative that can be written by means of
the Ñ-operator, and you should be able to calculate it in Cartesian, spherical
and cylindrical coordinates (to be treated later).

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 1, p. 13-17. Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note the
priorities for purposes of the semester test and the examination.

b 1.2.1 "Ordinary" derivatives

Geometric meaning of this.
b 1.2.2 Gradient
You must know and understand the concept derivative that can be
written by means of the Ñ -operator. Equation (1.35) is important.

3
Study unit 1

Study section 1.3

Integral calculus
Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should be able to –
• explain what is meant by line integration, area integration and volume
integration;
• define the fundamental theorem of gradients and be able to apply it.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 1, bl. 24-31. Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note the
priorities for purposes of the semester test and the examination.

b 1.3.1 Line, surface and volume integrals

Important concepts.

b 1.3.2 The fundamental theorem of calculus

Equation (1.54) states what you already know: The integral of the
differential of a function is the function itself.

b 1.3.3 The fundamental theorem for gradients

You should know eq. (1.55) because you will need it to calculate
potentials. Note the two conclusions just before Example 1.9. Do
Example 1.9 as revision for line integrals. Pay special attention to the
strategy followed for path III.
d Par. 1.3.4-1.3.6 is study material for NPHY311.

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 Study unit 1

Study section 1.4

Curvilinear coordinates
Study outcomes
On completion of this learning section, you should be able –
• to explain what is meant by an infinitesimal displacement, infinitesimal volume
element and infinitesimal surface element for the different coordinate systems.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 1, bl. 38-45. Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note the
priorities for purposes of the semester test and the examination.

b 1.4.1 Spherical coordinates

Very important for the study material to follow. You must have a clear
understanding of what an infinitesimal displacement (1.68), an
infinitesimal volume element (1.69) and an infinitesimal surface element
is. Note that for the last one no general form exists. Study Example 1.13
on p. 41. An important illustration is given on p. 42 to show how the
gradient can be written in terms of spherical coordinates. It is important
that you should understand up to eq. (1.70). Cross out the rest of the
page.
b 1.4.2 Cylindrical coordinates
This is very important for the study material to follow, as in the case for
spherical coordinates. You must have a good understanding of what an
infinitesimal displacement (1.77) and infinitesimal volume element (1.78)
is. The expression for an infinitesimal surface element is also important,
but once again it is determined by the position where it occurs. Important
up to eq. (1.79), but cross out the rest of the paragraph.
d Rest of the chapter is study material for NPHY311.

5
Study unit 1

Individual activity
Self-evaluation questions on Study Unit 1
1.

If A = 2 xz xˆ + 2yx yˆ + 3 x 2 z zˆ ,
B = 2xy xˆ + y yˆ + xyz zˆ and

C = xyz 2 ,
calculate
a. A × B,
b. A ´ B and
c. ÑC

Give a geometrical interpretation for the fundamental theorem of gradients.

6
 Study unit 2

Study unit 2
ELECTROSTATICS

Important information
The purpose of this study unit is to familiarize you with the basic principles of
electrostatics, so that you will understand them and be able to apply them in solving
problems.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 2, p. 59 – 112 .

Study outcomes
On completion of this study unit, you should –
• know the basic properties of electric charge, as well as the superposition
principle as applied to charges;
• be able to describe charge density for a straight line, for a flat surface and for a
volume;
• be able to formulate Coulomb’s law;
• be able to define electric field and calculate it for various charge distributions;
• know the properties of electrical field lines and be able to construct them for
various charge distributions;
• be able to explain the similarity between force and field;
• be able to formulate Gauss’ law;
• be able to use Gauss’ law to calculate electrical fields for different charge
distributions;
• be able to write down the three types of symmetry where Gauss’ law is useful;
• be able to define conservative force fields for applications in electrostatics;
• be able to define electrical potential and potential energy;
• be able to explain the difference between electrical potential and potential
energy;

7
Study unit 2

• be able to calculate electrical potential for different charge distributions;

• be able to derive an expression to show the relationship between potential and
the electrical field;
• be able to calculate the electrical field from a given electrical potential;
• be able to derive and apply an expression for the work done on a moving
charge in the presence of other charges;
• be able to derive an expression for the energy of a set of point charges and to
calculate it for different charge distributions;
• be able to discuss basic properties of conductors;
• know how to define the concepts of induced charges and surface charges and
do calculations;
• be able to define capacitance and calculate it for simple examples;
• be able to derive an expression for the work required to change a capacitor.

8
 Study unit 2

Study section 2.1

The electric field
Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should –
• know the basic properties of electrical charge, as well as the principle of
superposition, as applied to electrical charges;
• be able to describe the charge density along a straight line, a flat surface and in
a volume;
• be able to state Coulomb’s law;
• be able to define electric field and calculate it for different charge distributions.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 2, p. 59 – 66 . Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note the
priorities for purposes of the semester test and the examination.

The electric field

b 2.1.1 Introduction
The principle of superposition is discussed, as it applies to charges.
a Definition: The interaction between any two charges is not at all
affected by the presence of any other charges.
a 2.1.2 Coulomb’s law
Well know from the first year. Afrikaans for permittivity of free space is
‘’permittiwiteit van vakuum’’.
a 2.1.3 The electric field
a Definition: The electric field at a point is the force experienced by a
unit test charge at that point.
a 2.1.4 Continuous charge distributions
You should know how to describe charge density along a line, on a flat
surface and in a volume. Note the warning in the footnote on p. 64.
Important: If you are dealing with point charges, you add, but if you
have a continuous charge distribution, you integrate.

9
Study unit 2

Example
a
Example 2.2 on p. 64.

Individual activity
Griffiths, Chapter 2. Problems 2.2, 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6.

10
 Study unit 2

Study section 2.2

Description of electrostatic fields

Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should be able to –
• name the properties of electrical field lines and draw them for different charge
distributions;
• explain the correspondence between force and field;
• formulate Gauss’ law;
• apply Gauss’ law to calculate the electric field for different charge distributions;
• name the three types of symmetries where Gauss’ law is useful;
• define conservative force fields and apply the concept to electrostatics.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 2, p. 66 – 78. Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note the
priorities for purposes of the semester test and the examination.

Description of electrostatic fields

Cross out the main heading of §2.2 on p. 66. You will become familiar
with these terms in NPHY311.
a 2.2.1 Electric field lines and Gauss’ law
Study the meaning of field lines and Gauss’ theorem. Stop at the
paragraph after eq. (2.13) on p. 69. The rest is study material for
NPHY311.
a Gauss’ law in words: The flux of the electric field through any closed
surface is directly proportional to the amount of charge enclosed by the
surface.
a 2.2.3 Applications of Gauss’ law
Symmetry is of cardinal importance when Gauss’ law is applied. Check
very carefully how the Gaussian surface is chosen. Charge outside of
the closed surface does not contribute to the electric field on the
surface.
a Examples 2.2, 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5.
a 2.2.4 Conservative forces

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Study unit 2

Cross out only the heading of the paragraph. You will become familiar
with these terms in NPHY311. Study everything up to p. 78, but ignore
all references to eq. (2.20) – this is study material for NPHY311.

Individual activity
Griffiths. Chapter 2. Problem 2.16.

Example
Additional examples for calculating electrical fields using Gauss’ theorem

Total charge +q

A spherical conductor with radius r has a total charge +q. Calculate E for r < a .
Step 1: Choose the Gaussian surface at radius r such that r < a .

Qing
ò E × da =
— e0 .
Then we have:
Step 2: First calculate the right hand side of the equation. Note carefully that the
enclosed charge is not +q, because r < a . We therefore have to first calculate the
amount of charge included in Gaussian surface. As the charge distribution is
continuous, integration is necessary.

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 Study unit 2

Q = ò r dt
Therefore enc where r is the charge density per unit volume. Since the
charge distribution is spherically symmetric, we can write the volume element as
dt = dr × rdq × r sin q df = 4p r 2 dr . This form follows because
p 2p -1 1
ò sin q dq × ò df = - ò d ( cos q ) × 2p = ò d x × 2p = 4p
0 0 1 -1 . The total charge enclosed in
the sphere with radius r, is obtained by integrating from 0 to r .
q
Qenc = ò r dt = ò dt
Then we have V . Do not forget that r is the charge density per
unit volume. Therefore, in this case r =+q/V where V is the volume throughout which
the charge is distributed.
3q r 3q 3q 4p 3
Qenc = ò dt = ò 4p r 2 dr = r
Then 4p a 3 0 4p a 3
4p a 3 3

r3
=q
a3

Step 3: Now calculate the left hand side:

ò E × da = ò E da ( E is parallel to da )
—
= E ò da ( E constant over Gauss surface )

= E 4p r 2 ,
so that
q r !
E= r
4pe 0 a 3 .

Another example
(from http://www.servtech.com/~wkomler/problems/..)

In the beautiful figure shown, a nonconducting spherical shell with

inner radius a and outer radius b has a volume charge density
of r = A r , where A is a constant and r is the distance from b
the center of the shell. In addition (just to make things a
interesting), a point charge of + q0 is located at the center of the
sphere.
I
Derive the equation which would give the magnitude of the E II
field in the three regions shown.
III

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Study unit 2

Because of the symmetry Gauss’ law is applicable:

Qenc
ò E × da =
— e0 .
The integral means “Add up everything inside me”. The “me” part depends on how far
away you want to be from the centre of the sphere. This arbitrary distance is what we
called r . E denotes the electric field at a distance of r from the centre, while da
denotes a piece of area of the spherical Gaussian surface that you’re supposed to
imagine exists with the very same radius r .

Inside the integral is the flux ( ) which involves the dreaded dot product.
E × da
Fortunately, for spherical surfaces, the E vector always points in the same direction as
the da vector. This means that the dot has no power over you:

ò E × da = —
— ò E da
ò da
= E—

= E ( 4p r 2 )
.
This side of Gauss’ Equation (the left side) is the same for all three regions shown. The
only thing that we’ll have to worry about is the right hand side of Gauss’ Law which
deals with the amount of charge that is enclosed within the Gaussian surface.

Region I – Inside the shell

The only charge enclosed within a Gaussian surface

r of radius r in this region is that point charge, q0 . To
find the equation for the E - field is rather easy:
Qenc
q0 ò E × da =
— e0
q0
E ( 4p r 2 ) =
e0
q0
E= (r < a)
4p r 2e 0
As long as you stay inside the shell, you can use this equation to determine strength of
the E field.

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 Study unit 2

Region II – Within the shell

r This is the tough part of the question. You see, we’re given
the charge density r (how much charge can be found in a
a
given volume) which varies with how far you are from the
q0
centre. With r = A r , the further away you are, the less
charge there is. Well, as ugly as it seems, you’re gonna
have to add up the charge that’s within the shell. Since the
charge density changes with your position in the shell,
adding it up is a job for an integral.

The beginning of the whole process starts innocently enough:

Qenc
ò E × da =
— e 0 and
Qnc
E ( 4p r 2 ) = .
e0
Now, we have to figure out exactly how much charge exists inside the Gaussian
surface with radius r . Of course you have q0 . But you also have to include the charge
that exists between a and r .

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Study unit 2

Qenc = q0 + qshell r
é r2 ù
= q0 + 4p A ê ú
= q0 + ò rdt ë 2 ûa
r
æ Aö = q0 + 4p Aò rdr
= q0 + ò ç ÷ ( 4p r 2 dr )
r
a
a
èrø
r
= q0 + ò 4p Ardr
a
Qenc = q0 + 2p A ( r 2 - a 2 )

We can now finish this off:

Qenc q0 + 2p A ( r 2 - a 2 )
E ( 4p r 2
)= =
e0 e0

q0 + 2p A ( r 2 - a 2 )
E= (r < r < b).
4pe 0 r 2
Okay, I’m sure you can pretty up the final result, but this works just fine for me.

Region III – Outside of the shell

This can be done with the same procedure as above,

r but this time, regardless of how far out we are, all of
the charge will be within the Gaussian surface. What
will change is how we calculate Qenc . The integral will
a go from a to b , and not all the way out to r . You can
only add up charge where there’s charge, and there’s
no charge past b .
q0 Qenc = q0 + qshell

b = q0 + ò rdt

bæ A ö
= q0 + ò ç ÷ ( 4p r 2 dr )
a
èrø
b
é r2 ù
= q0 + 4p A ê ú
ë 2 ûa

And so, we finally come to the end of this question:

Qenc q0 + 2p A ( b 2 - a 2 )
E ( 4p r 2
)= =
e0 e0

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 Study unit 2

Qenc = q0 + 2p A ( b 2 - a 2 )

q0 + 2p A ( b 2 - a 2 )
E= (b < r )
4pe 0 r 2

Gauss summary
In most of the problems you have to calculate E for either spherical or cylindrical
symmetry. Therefore use Gauss:
Qing
ò E × da =
— e0
Left side:
ò E × da = ò E da ( E is parallel to da ) ....
—
= E ò da ( E constant over Gauss surface )
Now, determine if the problem is spherical or cylindrical.

For spherical problems we have:

da = r 2 sin q dq df
Therefore
p 2p
E ò da = Er 2
ò sin q dq ò df
0 0

= E (r )(2)(2p )
2

= E 4p r 2
For cylindrical problems we have:
da = sdf dz
l 2p
Therefore E ò da = Es ò dz ò df
0 0

= Es (l )(2p )
= E 2p sl
That is the left side. All that is really difficult is to determine the geometry.
Right side:
For the right side there can be a few combinations:
1. Calculate E outside a charged sphere/cylinder with total charge +q.
This is the easiest scenario. Draw a Gauss surface that contains the sphere/cylinder.
The total charge is
Qing = +q .

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Study unit 2

+q 1 +q
For a sphere E 4p r 2 = en E = ;
e0 4pe 0 r 2

For a cylinder +q 1 +q
E 2p sl = en E = .
e0 2pe 0 sl
2. Calculate E outside a charged sphere/cylinder with radius a and uniform
charge distribution r. (i.e. r is a constant in the sphere/cylinder).
Draw a Gaussian surface with radius r > a for a sphere and s > a for a cylinder
(Remember the notation of the book where r is the radius for a sphere and s the radius
for a cylinder). Next we must determine the amount of charge inside the Gauss
surface.
Because we have a volume charge density r, we must integrate over the volume to get
the total charge Qenc.

Then Qenc = ò r dt
For the sphere:

E 4p r 2 =
ò r dt
e0
r ò dt
= (r is constant)
e0
r ò r 2 sin q drdq df
=
e0
a p 2p
r ò r 2 dr ò sin q dq ò df
0 0 0
=
e0
1
r ( a 3 )(2)(2p )
= 3 ,
e0
r a3
therefore E=
3e 0 r 2

For the cylinder:

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 Study unit 2

E 2p sl =
ò r dt
e0
r ò sdsdf dz
=
e0
a l 2p
r ò sds ò dz ò df
= 0 0 0

e0
1
r a 2 2p l
= 2 ,
e0
r a2
therefore E=
2 se 0
Note: We only integrate up to a because the charges are only located inside the
sphere/cylinder.
3. Calculate E inside a charged sphere/cylinder with radius a and uniform charge
distribution r. (i.e. r is a constant in the sphere or cylinder).
Draw a Gaussian surface with radius r < a for a sphere and s < a for a cylinder. (Keep
the notation of the book in mind: r is radius for sphere and s radius for cylinder). We
must now calculate the amount of charge included in the Gaussian surface.
Because we have a volume charge density r, we must integrate to get the total charge
Qenc.

Then Qenc = ò r dt
For the sphere:

E 4p r 2 =
ò r dt
e0
r ò dt
= (r is constant)
e0
r ò r 2 sin q drdq df
=
e0
r p 2p
r ò r 2 dr ò sin q dq ò df
0 0 0
=
e0
1
r ( r 3 )(2)(2p )
= 3 ,
e0

19
Study unit 2

rr
therefore E=
3e 0
For the cylinder:

E 2p sl =
ò r dt
e0
r ò sdsdf dz
=
e0
s l 2p
r ò sds ò dz ò df
= 0 0 0

e0
1
r s 2 2p l
= 2 ,
e0
rs
therefore E=
2e 0
Note that we do not integrate up to a as in 2, but to the radius of the Gaussian surface.
We are only interested in the total amount of charge included inside the Gaussian
surface. Remember that the charge outside of the Gaussian surface plays no role
at all.
4. Calculate E inside or outside a charged sphere with radius a and charge
distribution r = B/r, with B a constant.
Here r is no longer uniform, but it has a spatial dependence. Therefore we cannot take
r out of the integral as above.
For the case of spherical symmetry and E inside a sphere we have:

Qenc = ò r dt
r p 2p
B
= ò r 2 dr ò sin q dq ò df
0
r 0 0
r
= B 4p ò rdr
0

r2
= B 4p .
2
For E outside a sphere we integrate up to a and we have:

20
 Study unit 2

Qenc = ò r dt
a p 2p
B
= ò r 2 dr ò sin q dq ò df
0
r 0 0
a
= B 4p ò rdr
0

a2
= B 4p .
2

5. Calculate E inside or outside a charged cylinder with radius a and charge distribution
r = B/s, with B a constant.
The problem is as in 4 above, with difference that now we calculate in cylindrical
coordinates.
For E inside a cylinder:
s l 2p
B
Qenc = ò r dt = ò sds ò dz ò df
0
s 0 0
s
= B 2p l ò ds = B 2p ls;
0

And outside:
a l 2p
B
Qenc = ò r dt = ò sds ò dz ò df
0
s 0 0
a
= B 2p l ò ds = B 2p la.
0

Make sure that you can integrate successfully. For example, if you change r to r = Br3,
r = B/r4 etc., you must be able to calculate the field.

6. Finally, we may have a sphere/cylinder with a total charge +q. Calculate E

inside the sphere/cylinder with radius a.
Note that the Gaussian surface is now inside the sphere/cylinder and not outside as in
1. First we must therefore determine the amount of charge included inside this surface.
To do this, we must integrate as in 4 and 5 above, BUT we do not know r. This must
first be determined.
Note that r is the charge per unit volume, where

21
Study unit 2

q
r= with V the volume.
V
4
For a sphere V = p a 3 ,
3
3q
therefore r = ; en
4p a 3
for a cylinder V = p a 2l ,
q
therefore r = 2 .
pa l

The rest is now as in 4 and 5 above.

22
 Study unit 2

Study section 2.3

Electric potential

Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should be able to –
• define electrical potential and potential energy;
• explain the difference between potential and potential energy;
• calculate the electrical potential for different charge distributions;
• derive an equation giving the relationship between potential and the electric
field;
• calculate the electric field if an electric potential is given.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 2, p. 78 – 88. Study only the following paragraphs. Note the
priorities for semester test and examination purposes.

2.3.1 Introduction to potential

a You should know everything except the paragraph on Ñ ´ E = 0 on p.
80.
b 2.3.2 Comments on potential
Cover everything, but cross out the part on "The answer is that the three
components ..." (bottom p. 80) up to and including "... no need to fuss
with components" (on p. 80), which is material for NPHY311. The rest is
important.
a Example 2.7 on p. 82.
d 2.3.3 to 2.3.5 is study material for NPHY311.

23
Study unit 2

Individual activity
Griffiths. Chapter 2. Problems 2.21 and 2.22.

24
 Study unit 2

Study section 2.4

Work and energy in Electrostatics
Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should be able to –
• to derive an expression for the work done on a moving charge in the presence
of other charges;
• derive an expression for the energy of a set of point charges for different
charge configurations

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 2, p. 91 – 97. Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note the
priorities for semester test and examination purposes.

a 2.4.1 The work done to move a charge

a Definition: The potential difference between points a and b is equal to
the work done per unit charge to move a charged particle from a to b.
a 2.4.2 The energy of a set of point charges
It is important to be able to derive eq. (2.42). Take note of eq. (2.40);
further on we shall only use the alternative form (2.41). Make sure that
you understand the double summation.
a 2.4.3 The energy of a continuous charge distribution
Up to eq. (2.43). Cross out the rest (NPHY311), but take note of eq.
(2.45), without worrying about the deriving it.
a Example 2.9 on p. 95.
d 2.4.4 Leave this for NPHY311.

25
Study unit 2

Study section 2.5

Conductors
Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should be able to –
• discuss basic properties of conductors;
• explain and apply the concepts of induced charges and surface charges;
• define capacitance and calculate it for simple examples;
• derive an expression that gives the amount of work required to charge a
capacitor.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 2, p. 97 – 112. Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note the
priorities for semester test and examination purposes.

b 2.5.1 Basic properties

You have to know this in order to be able to solve problems.
a Example 2.10 on p. 100.
c 2.5.2 Induced charges
Just read this.
d 2.5.3 Leave out.
a 2.5.4 Capacitors
You have to know eq. (2.53) and be able to derive eq. (2.55).
a Examples 2.11 and 2.12[

Individual activity
Self-evaluation questions on Study Unit 2
A Uniformly charged sphere with radius a has a charge +q. Calculate E for r < a .
A charged sphere with radius a has a charged density r = B/r where B is a constant
and r is the distance from the centre. Calculate E for r < a .
A long, straight cylinder, (radius a) has a uniform charge density r. Calculate the
potential just outside the cylinder.
Given da = sdf dz and dt = sdsdf dz and dl = dssˆ.

One of the properties of a conductor is that E is always perpendicular to its surface.

Briefly describe what you think would have happened if this were not true

26
 Study unit 3

Study unit 3
ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS IN MATTER

Important information
Michael Faraday found that when non-conducting matter is placed between the plates
of a capacitor, the capacitance increases. Materials with this property are called
dielectrics. This is the subject of this study unit. The basic purpose of this study unit is
to familiarize you with the basic principles of electrical fields in matter, so that you can
describe them and use them in solving problems

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 4, p. 167 – 209. Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note
the priorities for semester test and examination purposes.

Study outcomes
On completion of this study unit, you should be able to –
• describe the polarizability of an atom and show the dependence of this
phenomenon on the electric field;
• describe what happens to a polar molecule or a neutral atom when placed in an
external electric field;
• derive an expression for the energy of a dipole in an electric field;
• define polarization as used in this module;
• give a physical interpretation of bound charges;
• show that the surface charge density of bound charges is equal to the
polarization;
• prove that ò P × da = -Q (enclosed) ;
—
Surf
b

• derive Gauss’s Law in a dielectric and apply it;

• explain the differences between the electric D and E field;
• define the concepts susceptibility, permittivity, and dielectric constant.

27
Study unit 3

Study section 3.1

Polarization
Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should be able to –
• explain the polarization properties of an atom, as well as the dependence of
this phenomenon on the electrical field;
• describe what happens to a polar molecule or a neutral atom when they are
placed in an external electric field;
• derive an expression for the energy of a dipole in an electric field;
• define polarization, as used in this module.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 4, p. 167 – 173 . Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note
the priorities for semester test and examination purposes.

4.1 Polarization
a 4.1.1 Dielectrics
Read only. Electric fields can stretch dielectric atoms or molecules and rotate
them.
a 4.1.2 Induced dipoles
Neutral atoms or molecules are stretched by the electric field. Note that the
dipole moment has the same direction as the electric field. Up to example.
(4.1). Leave the rest.
a 4.1.3 Polar molecules
Such molecules are rotated by the electric field. Up to eq. (4.4) and the
sentence "... of the applied field".
a Problem 4.7: Prove that energy of a dipole in an electric field is given by
U = -p × E .

28
 Study unit 3

The work done by the electric field if

q ® q + dq is
dW = F × dl = - F^ dl = -qE sin q s dq .
.
Therefore, the potential energy is

U = -W = - ò dW
= - ò -qsE sin q dq
= - qsE cosq + const.

Choose U = 0 when q = 90°. Therefore, the constant = 0 and

U = –qsE cosq or
U = –p.E

Energy states
Configuration Angle between E and p U
E and p oppositely 180° +pE Highest
directed
E normal to p 90° 0
E and p in same direction 0° -pE Lowest

a 4.1.4 Polarization
Definition: Polarization is the dipole moment per unit volume.

29
Study unit 3

Study section 3.2

The field of a polarized object
Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should be able to –
• give a physical interpretation of bound charges;
• show that the surface charge density of bound charges is equal to the
polarization;
• prove that ò P × da = -Q (enclosed) .
—
Surf .
b

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 4, p. 173 – 179. Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note
the priorities for semester test and examination purposes.

4.2.1 Bound charges

d Leave out altogether.
4.2.2 The physical interpretation of bound charges
a Up to the middle of p. 177 at "... where the bound charge comes from". The
rest is study material for NPHY311.
a To prove: ò P × da = - Q (enclosed)
—
Surf .
b
(A1)

Consider a cylindrical (closed)

surface with axis parallel to the
polarization vector P. The flux of P
through the curved part of the closed
surface is zero. (P ^ da) , and the
same for the right hand end of the
plane (P = 0 outside the medium).
For the left hand end plane the polarization vector and the surface vector are
oppositely directed, so that P × da = - P da . Assume that P is constant over
the entire surface. Then

ò P.da = - PA .
—
Opp .

30
 Study unit 3

But we have already proved that Qb (enclosed) º PA, so that

ò P.da = -Q (enclosed) .
—
Surf .
b

31
Study unit 3

Study section 3.3

Electric displacement
Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should be able to –
• derive and apply Gauss’ law in dielectrics;
• explain the differences between the electric D field and E fields.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 4, p. 181 – 185 . Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note
the priorities for semester test and examination purposes.

a 4.3.1 Gauss’ law in the presence of dielectrics

The style of the text here is meant for NPHY311. Ignore the discussion
given by the book. We replace it by the following:
The electric field D
Consider a random closed surface in some space where an electric field
E exists. The field is as result of both the free charge Q free and the
bound charge Qb (The polarizing electric field is weakened by the
polarization of the medium, because of the induced bound charge.)
Gauss’ law for a medium then gives the flux of the electric field through a
closed surface as:

e0 ò E × da = Q
—
Surf .
free (enclosed) + Qb (enclosed)

And by means of eq. (A1) we replace Qb (enclosed) , so that

ò (e E + P) × da = Q
—
Surf .
0 free (enclosed) (A2)

We now define a new quantity for the electrical field, called the electric
D field, as
D = e 0 E + P. (A3)

By eq. (A2) we have

32
 Study unit 3

ò D × da = Q
—
Surf .
free (enclosed) , (A4)

so that this quantity is determined only by the free charge in space, in

other words the D field is produced by the free charges only. This means
that D is independent of the dielectric medium. On the other hand, the
electrical field E is produced both by the free charges and the bound
charges. It is difficult to measure the field E (which is defined as the force
per unit positive test charge), because we have to place a test charge in
space. The test charge has an effect on the charges in the
neighbourhood, and in the real world this will change the electric field.
d 4.3.2 Leave out.
d 4.3.3 Leave out.

33
Study unit 3

Study section 3.4

Linear dielectrics
Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should be able to –
• define the concepts of susceptibility, permittivity and the dielectric constant.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 4, p. 185 – 186 . Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note
the priorities for semester test and examination purposes.

4.4 Linear dielectrics

a 4.4.1 Susceptibility, permittivity and the dielectric constant
Up to eq. (4.34). The following equation is treated in NPHY311.
The rest of the chapter has priority d.

Individual activity
Self-evaluation questions on Study Unit 3
1. Consider a dielectric “tube” (length s and cross-section area A) parallel to the
polarization vector P. Illustrate that the surface charge density is equal to P.
2. Prove that the polarization flux through a closed surface is directly proportional
to the enclosed bound charge.
3. Briefly discuss the difference between the electric D field and the electric E
field.

34
 Study unit 4

Study unit 4
MAGNETOSTATICS

Important information
In this study unit we will start with the theory of magnetic fields and the laws which
apply to them. The purpose of this unit is to familiarise you with the basic principles of
magnetostatics so that you can describe them and use them in solving problems.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 5, p. 210 – 265.

35
Study unit 4

Study outcomes
On completion of this study unit, you should be able to –
• formulate the Lorentz force law and apply it in solving problems;
• prove that magnetic forces do not do any work;
• write down an equation that gives the force exerted by a magnetic field on a
current carrying conductor, and to derive this equation;
• write down Biot-Savart’s law and use it in solving problems;
• write down Ampere’s law and use it in solving problems;
• write down the types of symmetry where Ampere’s law can easily be applied.

36
 Study unit 4

Study section 4.1

Lorentz force law

Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should be able to –
• formulate the Lorentz force law and apply it in the solving of problems;
• prove that magnetic forces do not do any work;
• write down an equation that gives the force exerted by a magnetic field on a
current carrying conductor, and to derive this equation.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 5, p. 210 – 222. Study the paragraphs indicated below only. Note
the priorities for semester test and examination purposes.

Lorentz Force law

b 5.1.1 Magnetic fields
The discussion is useful and informative.
a 5.1.2 Magnetic forces
The Lorentz Force Law combines electric and magnetic forces.
a Example 5.1: The cyclotron, on p. 212. Ignore example (5.2).
a 5.1.3 Electric currents
It is important that you should be able to derive the expression for the
force on a current carrying conductor. You should know the study
material up to (5.17). The rest is for NPHY311
a Example 5.3 is an application of §5.1.3.

37
Study unit 4

Study section 4.2

Biot-Savart’s law
Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should be able to –
• write down Biot-Savart’s law and use it to solve problems.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 5, p. 223 – 228. Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note
the priorities for semester test and examination purposes.

Biot-Savart’s Law
a 5.2.1 Steady currents
Cross out (5.33) as well as the sentence in which it occurs. It is work for
NPHY311. The rest is important.
a 5.2.2 The magnetic field of a steady current
a Examples 5.5 and 5.6
d Cross out equations (5.42) and (5.43) on p. 227.

Individual activity
Griffiths, Chapter 5. Problems 5.8, 5.9 and 5.10

38
 Study unit 4

Example

Calculate the magnetic field at a distance s from an infinitely long, straight, current
carrying conductor if a constant current / flows through it.
p
Solution: a= +q
2
Use Biot-Savart’s law: p
sin(a ) = sin( + q )
µ0 dl ´ rˆ 2
4p ò r 2
B(r ) = I
= cos(q )

( )
In the diagram given dl ´ rˆ points out of the page with magnitude

dl ¢ sin a = dl ¢ cos q .

Further l ¢ = s tan q , so that

s
dl ¢ = dq
cos 2 q ,
and s = r cos q , so that

1 cos 2 q
=
r2 s2 .
We can therefore combine everything to get
q2
µ0 I æ cos 2 q ö æ s ö
4p qò è s 2 ø è cos 2 q ø
B= ç ÷ç ÷ cos q dq
1

µ0 I
= (sin q 2 - sin q1 ).
4p s
This equation yields B for any straight, current carrying conductor in terms of the
angles q1 and q2 as shown in the figure.
If the conductor is infinitely long, we have q1 = -p/2 and q2 = p/2. Then follows that

39
Study unit 4

µ0 I æp ö æ pö
B= (sin ç ÷ - sin ç - ÷)
4p s è2ø è 2ø
µI
= 0 .
2p s
Calculate the magnetic field for the following configuration:

µ0 I
B= (sin q 2 - sin q1 ) .
4p s
Start by considering one of the sides of the square conductor:

q1 q2
R

In this example s = R, and as we calculate the field for a point in the centre, we get
p
q2 = (45o )
4 . 1 1
+
p 2 2
q1 = - (-45o )
4 2
= = 2
So that 2
µ0 I æp ö æ pö
B= (sin ç ÷ - sin ç - ÷)
4p R è4ø è 4ø
2 µ0 I
= ,
4p R
If we add the contributions of all four sides we get:

40
 Study unit 4

2 µ0 I
B=
pR .
If we have a polygon with n-sides, we get:
p
q2 =
n
p
q1 = -
n
so that
nµ 0 I
B= sin(p / n) .
2p R

For a circle we get:

nµ 0 I
B= sin(p / n) .
2p R

For small q we have sinq»q.

n µ0 I æ p ö µ0 I
Therefore if n ® ¥, B ® ç ÷= .
2p R è n ø 2 R

Summary

Biot-Savart’s law gives the magnetic field for a

number of configurations:
Example:

Long straight conductor µ0 I

B=
2p s
Square 2 µ0 I
B=
pR
Polygon with n sides nµ 0 I
B= sin(p / n)
2p R
Circle µ0 I
B=
2R

41
Study unit 4

Study section 4.3

Ampère’s law
Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should be able to –
• write down Ampère’s law and use it in solving problems;
• write down the types of symmetry where Ampère’s law can easily be applied.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 5. p. 229 – 243. Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note
the priorities for semester test and examination purposes.

Ampère’s Law
Cross out this heading. This work is for NPHY311.
a 5.3.1 Straight-line currents
Ampère’s law is given by eq. (5.44). You should know this up to eq.
(5.45). The rest is priority d (NPHY311).
d 5.3.2 NPHY311 work.
d 5.3.3 NPHY311 work.
a Examples 5.7, 5.8, 5.9
d 5.3.4 Leave this for NPHY311.

Individual activity
Griffiths. Chapter 5. Problem 5.16.

Individual activity
Self-evaluation questions on Study Unit 4
1. Use Biot-Savart’s law to calculate the magnetic field at distance s from a line
segment, for a long, straight conductor carrying a constant current I.
2. Prove that the magnetic field does not do any work on a charge.

42
 Study unit 5

Study unit 5
MAGNETOSTATICS IN MATTER

Important information
In this study unit we will study the magnetic properties of materials. The aim of this
study unit is to familiarize you with the basic principles of magnetic fields in matter, so
that you can explain them and use them in solving problems.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 6. p. 266 – 295 .

Study outcomes
On completion of this study unit, you should be able to –
• explain the difference between diamagnets, paramagnets and ferromagnets;
• calculate the torque and force on a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field;
• calculate the potential energy of a magnetic dipole in an external magnetic
field;
• define magnetisation;
• give a physical interpretation of a bound current and derive an expression for it
in terms of the magnetisation;
• prove that ò M × dl = I
— b
;
• define Ampere’s law for magnetised materials, derive and apply it;
• explain the difference between H and B fields;.
• understand what is meant by susceptibility and permeability;
• explain how permanent magnets are produced and to give a short description
of a hysteresis loop.

43
Study unit 5

Study section 5.1

Magnetisation
Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should be able to –
• explain the difference between diamagnets, paramagnets and ferromagnets;
• calculate the torque and force on a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field;
• calculate the potential energy of a magnetic dipole in an external magnetic
field;
• define magnetisation.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 6, p. 266 – 295. Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note
the priorities for semester test and examination purposes.

6.1 Magnetization (Magnetisation)

a 6.1.1 Diamagnets, paramagnets and ferromagnets
What is the difference between these three kinds of magnets?
a 6.1.2 The torque on a magnetic dipole
Up to and including eq. (6.2). Note the physical description of
paramagnetism. Cross out the rest of this paragraph.
Now we prove eq. (6.34) of problem 6.21 on p. 291:
The potential energy of a magnetic dipole in an external magnetic
field
In 6.1.2 we have proved that the torque on a magnetic dipole with
dipole moment m in an external magnetic field B is given by
N = m´B (6.1)

We also know that by definition the torque is given by N = r ´ F or

N = rF^ , where F is force with point of application P (The distance
between P and the axis of rotation is r). The component of F
perpendicular to r is F^ so that F^ = F sin q . The component
F^ therefore tends to rotate the point P around the axis.
If the rotation angle is dq the increase in potential energy is
dU = rdq F^ = N dq , where r dq is the displacement of the point P

44
 Study unit 5

perpendicular to the vector r.

For the magnetic dipole with moment m we then find

N = m´B
or N = mB sinq
and dU = mB sinq dq
(6.34)
U = ò dU = mB ò sinq dq + constant
= -mB cos q + constant
= -m × B.
We have chosen the potential energy to be U = 0 at q = p / 2 so that
the constant = 0.
c 6.1.3 The effect of a magnetic field on atomic orbits
We recommend that you read this and that you pay special attention to
the explanation of diamagnetism.
a 6.1.4 Magnetization (Magnetisation)
You must know the definition (6.9).

45
Study unit 5

Study section 5.2

The field of a magnetised object
Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should be able to –
• give a physical interpretation of a bound current and derive an expression for it
in terms of the magnetisation;
• prove that ò M × dl = I
— b
.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 6, p. 277 – 282. Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note
the priorities for semester test and examination purposes.

The field of a magnetised object

d 6.2.1 Bound currents (Ampere loop currents)
a 6.2.2 Physical interpretation of bound currents
Study up to "Using the outward ..." at the top of p. 278. Cross out the
rest of this paragraph – it is intended for NPHY311. However, it is
replaced by the following:
The loop currents I (see fig. 6.15, 6.16 and 6.17) give rise to surface
currents around a piece of magnetised material. The magnitude of
these currents describes the magnetic effect of the material.
In general, we can write the result M = I/t as
M = I / t = K b amp/m (A5)

A subscript b is used here to indicate that the loop currents are bound
currents.

46
 Study unit 5

a To prove:

ò M × dl = I
— b
(A6)

a d Consider some matter in a very long

I
solenoid. The current through the windings
M b c produce a magnetic field that leads to a
magnetisation M in the matter. Choose a
rectangular path abcd so that it lies partly
inside and partly outside the matter.
.
Now we have
b c d a

ò M.dl = ò M.dl + ò M.dl + ò M.dl + ò M.dl

— a b c d

= 0 + M (bc) + 0 + 0.
The fourth integral is zero, because M = 0 outside the matter. The first
and third integrals are zero, because M = 0 for the parts outside the
matter, and further M is perpendicular to dI where the path is inside the
matter. Also
M = I/t, and bc = t, where I is the bound current and t the length of the
piece of matter. (see fig. 6.17). Therefore

ò M × dl = I
— b
.

b 6.2.3 The magnetic field inside matter

Difference between micro- and macroscopic fields.

47
Study unit 5

Study section 5.3

The H field
Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should be able to –
• define, derive and apply Ampere’s law for magnetised materials;
• explain the difference between H and B fields.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 6, p. 279 – 287. Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note
the priorities for semester test and examination purposes.

a 6.3.1 Ampere’s law in magnetised materials

We are going to prove eqs. (6.18) and (6.20) by using our usual
integration techniques. Cross out the other equations on p. 280 – they
are for NPHY311.
We have:

ò B × d l = µ I (enclosed)
— 0
(5.37)
= µ0 ( I free + I b ),
and the free current is
1
I free =
µ0 ò B × dl - I
— b

1
=
µ0 ò B × dl - —
— ò M × dl (A7)

æ 1 ö
ò çè µ0 B - M ÷ø × d l .
=—

Define the H field as:

1
Hº B - M, (6.18)
µ0
so that the H field can be written in integral form:

ò H × dl = I
— free (enclosed). (6.20)

48
 Study unit 5

a 6.3.1 The differences between H and B and between D and E : start on p.

280 from: " H plays a role in ..." up to p. 282.
d 6.3.2 Leave out.
d 6.3.3 Leave out.

49
Study unit 5

Study section 5.4

Linear and non-linear mediums
Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should be able to –
• understand what is meant by susceptibility and permeability;
• explain how permanent magnets are produced and to give a short description
of a hysteresis loop.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 6, p. 284 – 293. Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note
the priorities for semester test and examination purposes.

Linear and non-linear mediums

a 6.4.1 Magnetic susceptibility and permeability

Up to (but not including) example 6.3.
b 6.4.2 Ferromagnetism
How are permanent magnets produced?

Individual activity
Self-evaluation on Study Unit 5
Explain how diamagnets and paramagnets are prodused.
How are bound currents produced?

Assume that ò M × dl = I
— b
. Use this to deduce Ampère’s law for magnetised
materials by introducing the H field.

50
 Study unit 6

Study unit 6
ELECTRODYNAMICS

Important information
This is the most important study unit in this module, especially if you plan further
studies in physics and engineering. In the previous work we treated electrostatics and
magnetostatics separately, but here they combine in the form of the electromotive force
and Faraday’s law. The purpose of this study unit is to give you an introduction to
electrodynamics.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 7, p. 296 – 336 .

Study outcomes
On completion of this study unit, you should be able to –
• give both forms of Ohm’s law and apply them;
• deduce an expression for the electromotive force (EMF) and use it;
• deduce an expression for the EMF in terms of the magnetic flux;
• prove that magnetic fields do not do work;
• formulate Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws and apply them;
• deduce and apply the laws of inductance.

51
Study unit 6

Study section 6.1

Electromotive force
Study outcomes
On completing this study section, you should be able to –
• state two forms of Ohm’s law and apply them;
• deduce an expression for the electromotive force (EMF) and use it;
• deduce an expression for the EMF in terms of the magnetic flux;
• prove that magnetic fields do not do work.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 7, p. 296 – 311. Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note
the priorities for purposes of the semester test and the examination.

a Electromotive force
b 7.1.1 Ohm’s law
Cross out the paragraph just before example 7.3, which starts with
"For steady currents..."
a 7.1.2 The electromotive force
a 7.1.3 EMK from movement
A very important point made here is that magnetic fields cannot do
work. To prove that the EMF is equal to the work done per unit charge,
we consider the force exerted per unit charge on the loop fpull by the
person pulling it. We further accept that, except for collisions, the
charges can move freely inside the loop. In the vertical section ab of
Figure 7.10, the charges are forced against the side of the loop and in
the process also experience the force fpull. In the horizontal parts of ad
en bc that are inside the magnetic field, the charges are also pressed
against the sides, but because in this case they can “slide” freely along
the conductor's side, they do not experience fpull. In the whole section of
the loop outside the magnetic field, they move freely and unaware of
the force on the loop.
The section up to and including eq. (7.13) and the paragraph following
it are very important. Cross out the rest.

52
 Study unit 6

Individual activity
Griffiths. Chapter 7. Problems 7.7 and 7.11.

Example
Example problem 7.7

A metal bar, mass m, slides frictionless on two parallel tracks, which are at a distance l
from each other. A resistor R connects the two tracks and a uniform magnetic field B,
directed into the page, exists over the entire region.

1. Calculate the current in the resistor if the bar moves with speed v to the right.
df dx
e =- = - Bl = - Blv
dt dt
but e = IR (Ohm)
Blv
I= .
R
2. Will the current flow clockwise or anticlockwise?
Anticlockwise.

3. What is the magnitude of the magnetic force on the bar? In which direction is the
force?

B 2l 2v
F = IlB = to the left.
R
4. If the initial (t = 0) speed of the bar is v0 and it is allowed to slide further on its
own, what will its speed be at any later time t?

53
Study unit 6

dv B 2l 2
F = ma = m =- v
dt R
therefore
dv æ B 2l 2 ö
= -ç ÷v
dt è Rm ø
and
B 2l 2
- t
v = v 0e mR
.

54
 Study unit 6

Study section 6.2

Faraday’s law
Study outcomes
On completion of this study section, you should be able to –
• formulate Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws and apply them;
• derive and apply the laws of inductance.

Study material
Griffiths. Chapter 7, p. 312 – 331. Study only the paragraphs indicated below. Note
the priorities for semester and examination purposes.

a Faraday’s law
a 7.2.1 Electromagnetic induction
Up to and including eq. (7.15). Leave out the differential form (Eq.
(7.16)) It will be covered by NPHY311. Carry on from "In Experiment
3…”
Lenz’s law: When an EMF is generated by a change in magnetic flux,
the polarity of the induced EMF is such that it produces a current
whose magnetic field opposes the change in magnetic flux which
generated the EMF.
a Example 7.6: Application of Lenz’s law.
d 7.2.2 Leave out.
a 7.2.3 Inductance

m m

m
I1

B
I2

These notes replace the section from "There is a cute formula…" up to

"…it does reveal two important things about mutual inductance". This is
followed by point 2 which states that M21 = M12. We are going to prove
this in a different way.

55
Study unit 6

Consider two loops in which current flows and which are at rest. If the
current through loop 1 is constant and equal to I1, it produces a
magnetic field B1. The flux of B1 through loop 2 we call F2. Equation
(7.22) on page 322 then defines the mutual inductance M21 for the two
loops:
F 2 = M 21 I1 .

Similarly it will be true that

F1 = M 12 I 2 .

The left hand figure shows two parallel loops. We shall now calculate
the work required to bring loop 1 from infinity to its present position. We
follow two steps, as indicated by the right hand figure. Initially loop 1 is
moved until its magnetic dipole moment is perpendicular to the
magnetic field produced by loop 2. Then no work is done on 1, because
the torque on loop 1 is perpendicular to its displacement. When the
centre of loop1 is where it should be, it is rotated until it has reached its
final position, parallel to loop 2. The work done on loop 1 to rotate it is
equal to the difference in potential energy between the two states. In
other words:
W = m1 B2 = I1 A1 B2 = I1F1 ,
where A1 is the surface area of loop 1. But consider the case where
loop 2 moves from infinity to loop 1. The work done in this case is
W = I 2F 2 ,
which is exactly the same as in the first case. Why is it the same? In
both cases the end result is the same. Therefore
F 2 F1
=
I1 I2
and it follows that
M 21 = M 12 .
a Example 7.11.
a Example 7.12.
a 7.2.4 Energy in magnetic fields
Up to and including (7.30).
a Example 7.13.
d The rest of the chapter is treated in NPHY311.

56
 Study unit 6

Individual activity
Self-evaluation questions on Study Unit 6
1. Why does current flow almost immediately when a contact breaker in a circuit is
closed?
2. Briefly discuss why generators can be considered to be sources of EMF.

h B

L
2L

0
L 2L 3L
3.
(a) A conductor of length L and height h is moved with constant velocity v through a
uniform magnetic field B.
Give a quantitative discussion of the –
(i) magnetic flux F; and
(ii) induced EMF e as function of the position of the leading edge of the loop, from 0
up to 3L as shown in the figure.
(b) Calculate the amount of work that must be done to increase the current from 0 to
I, in a circuit where the inductance is L.

57
List of main concepts

List of main concepts

Afrikaans English

Arbeid Work

Absorpsie Absorption

Behoudswette Conservation laws

Cartesiese Cartesian

Deurgelate Refraction

Diamagnete Diamagnets

Differensiaal Differential

Divergensie Divergence

Dotproduk Dot product

Diëlektrika Dielectrics

Differensiaal Differential

Digtheid Density

Dipool Dipole

Eenhede Units

Energie Energy

Elektriese veld Electric field

Elektrodinamika Electrodynamics

Elektromagneties Electromagnetic

Elektromotoriese krag (EMK) Electromotive force (EMF)

Elektrostatika Electrostatics

Ferromagnete Ferromagnets

Vloed Flux

Geïnduseerde Induced

Geleier Conductor

Gebonde ladings Bound charges

Gebonde strome Bound currents

Gradiënt Gradient

58
 List of main concepts

Golwe Waves

Golfvergelyking Wave equation

Golffunksie Wave function

Histereselus Hysteresis loop

Integraal Integral

Induktansie Inductance

Invallende Incidence

Intensiteit Intensity

Kapasitansie Capacitance

Koaksiale Coaxial

Kontinuïteitsvergelyking Continuity Equation

Konstante Constant

Komplekse notasie Complex notation

Konserwatiewe Conservative

Koördinaatsisteme Coordinate systems

Krag Force

Kromlynige Curvilinear

Kruisproduk Cross product

Lading Charge

Leier Guide

Lyn Line

Magnetiese veld Magnetic field

Magnetostatika Magnetostatics

Meetkundige Geometrical

Oppervlak Surface

Paramagnete Paramagents

Polarisasie Polarization

Puntlading Point charge

Randvoorwaardes Boundary conditions

Rotasie Curl

Sferiese Spherical

59
List of main concepts

Silindriese Cylindrical

Simmetrie Symmetry

Skalaar Scalar

Stelling Theorem

Stroom Current

Stroomdraende Geleier Current carrying conductor

Permeabiliteit Permeability

Permittiwiteit Permittivity

Potensiaal Potential

Potensiële energie Potential energy

Produkreëls Product rules

Sinusvormige Sinusoidal

Straling Radiation

Superposisie Superposition

Susseptibiliteit Susceptibility

Toetslading Test charge

Transversaal Transverse

Uniforme Uniform

Vektor Vector

Veld Field

Vergelyking Equation

Volume Volume

Voortplanting Propagation

Weerkaatste Reflected

Wringkrag Torque

Yktransformasie Gauge transformation

60
 List of main concepts

Cartesian. dl = dx !x + dy !y + dz z" ; dt = dx dy dz
¶t " ¶t " ¶t "
Gradient: Ñt = x+ y+ z
¶x ¶y ¶z
¶u x ¶u y ¶u z
Divergence: Ñ×v = + +
¶x ¶y ¶z

Spherical. dl = dr r" + r dq θ" + r sin df f" ; dt = r 2 sin q dr dq df ; da = r 2 sin q dq df

¶t " 1 ¶t " 1 ¶t "
Gradient: Ñt = r+ θ+ f
¶r r ¶q r sin q ¶f

1 ¶ 2 1 ¶ 1 ¶uf
Divergence: Ñ×v =
r ¶r
2 ( r ur ) +
r sin q ¶q
( sin q uq ) +
r sin q ¶f

Cylindrical. dl = ds s" + s df f" + dz z" ; dt = s ds d f dz ; da = s d f dz

¶t " 1 ¶t " ¶t "
Gradient: Ñt = s+ f+ z
¶s s ¶f ¶z

1 ¶ 1 ¶ uf ¶u z
Divergence: Ñ×v = ( s us ) + +
s ¶s s ¶f ¶z

1) A × ( B ´ C) = B × ( C ´ A ) = C × ( A ´ B )

2) A ´ ( B ´ C) = B ( A × C) - C ( A × B )

3) Ñ ( f g ) = f ( Ñg ) + g ( Ñf )
4) Ñ ( A × B ) = A ´ (Ñ ´ B ) + B ´ (Ñ ´ A ) + ( A × Ñ ) B + ( B × Ñ )

5) Ñ × ( f A ) = f ( Ñ × A ) + A × ( Ñf )

6) Ñ × ( A ´ B ) = B × (Ñ ´ A ) - A × (Ñ ´ B )

7) Ñ ´ ( f A ) = f ( Ñ ´ A ) - A ´ ( Ñf )

8) Ñ ´ ( A ´ B ) = ( B × Ñ ) A - ( A × Ñ ) B + A (Ñ × B ) - B (Ñ × A )

9) Ñ × (Ñ ´ A) = 0

10) Ñ ´ ( Ñf ) = 0

11) Ñ ´ (Ñ ´ A ) = Ñ (Ñ × A ) - Ñ2 A

b
Theorems: ò ( Ñf ) × dl = f (b ) - f (a )
a ò (Ñ#A)dt = —
ò A # d a ò (Ñ ´ A ) # d a = —
ò A # dl

61