STUDY UNIT 5

TORSION

Synopsis This study unit lays a foundation to the study of pure torsion in both solid and
tubular members. It gives illustrated definitions of key terminology in torsion with
aid of either diagrams and formulae or even both, as each case permits. It
introduces the most important and fundamental formulae pertaining to pure
torsion without engaging the learner into rigorous derivations. Problems of uniform
and non-uniform torsion are presented and discussed through examples. The
important subject of torque and power transmission through shafts and bolts is
also covered.
Pre-requisites Mechanics I: Moments of forces
Objectives To enable students solve for shear stresses and strains in prismatic shafts under
torsion.
Learning Understand the formula governing torsion and angle of twist as applied to solid
Outcomes and hollow shafts for linear elastic materials. Describe all its limitations in problem
solving.
Apply analysis to non-uniform torsional compound shafts connected either in
series or parallel.
Calculate transmitted power by circular shaft trough rigid flanges.
Study plan 4 hrs
and Literature
Sources
Keywords Torque, Torsional rigidity, Torsional formula,
Further 1. Gere, J.M. & Goodno, B.J. Mechanics of Materials (8th Edition). Cengage
Reading Learning, Stamford, 2013.
2. Drotsky, J.G. Strength of Materials for Technicians (4th Edition). Pearson
Education South Africa (Pty) Ltd, Cape Town, 2011.

5.1. Definitions and Assumptions

Uniform Torsion: Torque is constant over the length of a prismatic shaft.

Non-uniform Torsion: Torsional moment and/or torsional rigidity of the cross section varies over
the length.

Angle of twist proportional to the internal torsional moment and the torsional flexibility of the
circular bar.

Assumptions:

1. Statically determinate
2. Linear elastic behaviour and small rotations of statically determinate members.
5.2 Torsion

Twisting when loaded by moments or torques that tend to produce rotation about the longitudinal
axis of the material. For example when you turn a screw driver your hand applies a torque to the
handle and twists the shank of the screwdriver. Other examples of bars in torsion are drive shaft in
automobiles, axles, propeller shafts, steering rods, and drill bits.

A moment of a couple is equal to the product of one of the forces and its perpendicular distance
between the lines of action of the forces. Thus consider a key being turned in key hole to open a
door.

5.3 Torsional deformations of circular bar

φ(x) φ
T
p q

T q'

L
Figure 5.1. Pure torsion

Assumptions are that:

• All cross-section remain plane and circular and all radii remain straight.

• If the angle of rotation between one end and another is small neither the length of the bar nor
its radius will change.

5.4 Angle of rotation/twist: The angle through which the action of a torque turns the other end.
Because of the rotation a straight longitudinal line on the surface pq will become a helical curve
pq ' where q' is the position of point q after the end cross section has rotated through an angle  .
The angle of rotation changes along the length of the bar and at a length x from one end it will be  x
that is between zero at the left end and  at the right end. If any section of the bar has the same
radius and is subjected to the same torque (pure torsion), the angle  x will vary linearly.

5.5 Shear strains at the outer surface

The lengths AB = AB' and DC = DC'

The magnitude of the shear strain at the outer surface is equal to the decrease in the angle at A

The shear strain at the outer surface is related to the angle of twist.

In pure torsion, the rate of twist is equal to the total angle of twist  divided by the length of the bar
L.
5.6 Shear strains within the bar

Because radii and the cross sections of a bar remain straight and undistributed during twisting, the
preceding relationship will also hold true for a similar element situated on the surface of an interior
cylinder of radius  . Thus the interior elements are also in pure shear with the corresponding shear
strains given by the equation:


 =  =  max [5.1]
r

The shear strains in a circular bar vary linearly with the radial distance  from the center, the strain
being zero at the center and reaching a maximum value at the outer surface. The equations are
limited to bars with small angles of twist. They are dependent only on geometry not on material
properties.

5.7 Circular Bars of Linearly Elastic Materials

The magnitude of shear stresses if material is linear elastic can be obtained from

 = G [5.2]

Where G is the shear modulus of elasticity and gamma is the shear strain in radians. If this is
substituted into the other equations, we have


 max = Gr  = G =  max [5.3]
r

Where  max is the shear stress at the outer surface of the bar (radius r) ,  is the shear stress at the
interior point (radius  ), and  is the rate of twist. Note that  has the units radians/length.

The equation shows that stress variation from the centre of the shaft to the outer surface is linear.
This linear variation is due to Hooke's law. If the stress-strain relation is nonlinear, the stresses will
vary nonlinearly and the methods of analysis will be needed to solve such a problem.

5.8 The Torsion Formula

The shear force acting on this element is  .dA . The moment of this force about the axis of the bar is
 . .dA . Substituting for  yields

 max
dM =  2 dA [5.4]
r

The resultant momentum over the entire cross section (total torque) is given by the summation of
these elemental moments.

 max  max
T =  dM = 
2
dA = Ip [5.5]
M
r A
r
Where integral is actually the polar moment of inertia I p of the circular cross section, and for a circle
of radius r and diameter d the polar moment of inertia is given by

r 4 d 4
Ip = =
2 32

The maximum shear stress is expressed as

Tr
 max =
Ip

This equation is known as the torsion formula.

It shows that the maximum shear stress is proportional to the applied torque and inversely
proportional to the polar moment of inertia I p .

Typical units used are:

4
Torque, T [ N .m] ; moment arm r [m ] ; Polar moment of inertia, I p [m ] .

Necessary substitutions into the torsion formula yields:

16T
 max = [5.6]
d3

This applies only to bars or solid circular cross-section. This equation shows that if the diameter is
doubled, the stress is reduced by a factor of 8. The shear stress at a distance of ρ from the center of
the bar is

 T
=  max = [5.7]
r Ip

Equation 2 is a generalised torsion formula.

5.9 Angle of twist

The angle of twist can then be written as

T
= , in which  is rad/length.
GI p

The quantity GI p is called the torsional rigidity and is inversely proportional to the angle of twist.
For pure torsion the total angle of twist is

TL
= , given that  = L.
GI p
 GI p
The quantity is termed the torsional stiffness of the bar. Torsional stiffness measures the
L
torque required to produce a unit angle of rotation. The torsional flexibility is the reciprocal of the
stiffness L GI p and is the angle of rotation by a unit torque.

GI p L
kT = ; fT = .
L GI p

5.10 Circular Tubes

The polar moment of inertia of the cross-section area of a tube is given by:

 
Ip =
2
(r 2
4
)
− r14 =
32
(d 4
2 − d14 ) [5.8]

Equation 3 can also be written

 rt  dt
Ip =
2
( 4r 2
)
+ t2 =
4
(d 2
+ t2 ) [5.9]

where r is the average radius of the tube equal to

( r1 + r2 ) ; d is the average diameter equal to
2
( d1 + d2 ) ; and t is the wall thickness equal to ( r2 − r1 ) .
2

For extremely small wall thicknesses, t may be disregarded and Ip approximated as:

 d 3t
I p = 2 r t =3
[5.10]
4

In design, the hollow bar is often considered to be more efficient than the solid bar due to the fact
that shear stresses do always occur on the outer fibres and they are zero at the center. A maximum
value of radius to thickness ratio of ( r2 t )max = 12 may be specified.

5.11 Power Transmission

In general, the work done b the torque of constant magnitude is equal to the product of the torque
and the angle through which it rotates:

W = T

where  is the angle of rotation in radians. Power is the rate at which work is done.

dW d
P= =T
dt dt
 d
where the rate of change of angle is the angular speed =  . Thus
dt

P − T [5.11]

where  is in rad/s.

This formula gives power transmitted by a rotating shaft transmitting a constant torque.

Illustrative Example 5.1

Go through Examples 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 in Drotsky under Mean torque

Activity 5.1

• Make the hollow shaft thickness small by increasing the inside diameter by 10 mm
and proceed with all the calculations as given in Example 4.1 except 4.1d. Compare
your answer with those obtained by decreasing the outside diameter by the same
amount of 10 mm.
• Calculate the equivalent solid shaft made of similar material that would transmit the
same amount of power at the same shaft speed. Compare the material mass
between the hollow and the solid shaft.

Practice Exercises 5.1

In Drotsky under Self-Assessment do questions 4.1 to 4.9

5.12 Non-uniform Torsion

The bar need not be prismatic and applied torques may act anywhere along the axis of the bar. Bars
in non-uniform torsion can be analysed by applying the formulae of pure torsion to finite segments
of the bar and adding the results.
The procedure for solving/analysing non-uniform torsion is given here:

Case 1: Bars with prismatic segments having constant torque throughout each segment.

• Divide the bar into segments in such a way that each segment is prismatic and subjected to a
particular torque.

T3 T4
T1 T2

LAB LBC LCD

A B C D
Figure 5.2. Non-uniform torsion

If we assume that we have cut through anywhere on CD, we have:

TCD = −T1 − T2 + T3 [5.1]

If we assume cutting through anywhere on BC,

TBC = −T1 − T2 [5.2]

Whereas if we assume cutting through AB we have,

TAB = −T1 [5.3]

Each of these torques is constant throughout the length of its segment. An internal torque is positive
when its vector points away from the cut section and negative when its vector points towards the
section. The total angle of twist of one end of the bar with respect to the other is then obtained by
algebraic summation as follows:

 = 1 + 2 + ... + n [5.4]

where φn is the angle of twist of segment number n. We can also re-write the above expressions as:

n n
Ti Li
 =  i = 
i =1 Gi ( I p )
[5.5]
i =1
i

in which i resents each segment.

5.13. Shafts in parallel
2

1
T T

For this case, Drotsky shows that the applied torques and angle of twist are given by

T1 + T2 = T [5.6]

And the angle of twist

1 =  2 [5.7]

Illustrative Example 5.2

Go through Examples 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 in Drotsky under Compound shafts

Activity 5.2

• In Example 4.4, why would it be inappropriate to locate a joint (a welded or bolted

joint) over section BC?
• In Example 4.5, solve for the alloy shaft diameter of 50 mm with a hollow steel shaft
of 45 mm.
• Find out the effect of the length by changing the length of the shafts in Example 4.6
from 250 mm to 175 mm and 500 mm.

Practice Exercises 5.2

In Drotsky under Self-Assessment do questions 4.10 to 4.21

5.14. Rigid-flange couplings

Drotsky shows a solid geometry of rigid flange couplings. It is assumed that the bolts act in shear and
that the friction between the couplings due to the tightening of the bolts are negligible. Thus the
torque transmitted by the bolts is given is equal to the applied torque.

Illustrative Example 5.3

Go through Examples 4.7 and 4.8 in Drotsky under Rigid flanges

Activity 5.3

• In Example 4.7, how many bolts would be required if the available bolt diameter was
12 mm?
• In Example 4.8, what size of bolts would necessitate an equivalent rigid flange
coupling with 10 bolts located on a single pitch circle diameter 80 mm?

Practice Exercises 5.3

In Drotsky under Self-Assessment do questions 4.21 to 4.24