UM Panabo College

Department of Teacher Education

P.N. Arguelles St., San Francisco, Panabo City
Telefax # (084) 628-6437
Week 8-9: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected to

a. Apply the principles and approaches of literature through analytical writing.

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Apply the principles and approaches of literature
through analytical writing.

Metalanguage

The most essential terms below are operationally defined for you to have a better understanding of
this section in the course. I would like to highly recommend that you refresh your knowledge about
ULOa to ULOc to understand further ULOd.

Grammar – a set of rules that explains how words are used in a language
Pedagogy – method and practice of teaching
Linguistics – a scientific study of language and its structure, including the study of morphology, syntax,
phonetics, and semantics include sociolinguistics and dialectology
Functional Grammar - Functional Grammar (henceforth FG) is a general theory of the grammatical
organization of natural languages that has been developed over the past fifteen years by Simon
Dik and his associates.

Essential Knowledge

Teaching profession requires a lot of effort and dedication. To achieve the quality teaching and
learning, teacher must not only acquire proper training but also right attitude, character or behavior to
perform his or her duty in transferring, influencing and molding the learners‘ mind.

DESIGNING GRAMMAR-FOCUSED COMMUNICATION TASKS

Consideration in L2 grammar task design
What is a focused grammar task?
A focused grammar task is a task that is intended to elicit the understanding or use of some specific
grammatical feature(s) through the design of the task and by the use of methodological procedures that
focus attention on specific form(s) in the implementation of the task.
Designing grammar tasks
Loschky and Bley Loschky and Bley-Vroman (1993) suggest Vroman (1993) suggest that such tasks can
cater for:
a. task-naturalness naturalness
b. task-usefulness
c. task-essentialness essentialness They recognize the difficulty of constructing tasks that make
production of the target structure ‗essential‘.
Three types of grammar tasks
1. Input-based grammar task based grammar task
2. Production Production-based grammar task based grammar task
3. Consciousness Consciousness-raising task raising task
Input-based grammar task based grammar task
 Students listen to instructions (e.g. where to draw in locations on a map), descriptions or a
narrative text.

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 UM Panabo College
Department of Teacher Education
P.N. Arguelles St., San Francisco, Panabo City
Telefax # (084) 628-6437
 The input is designed so that the students have to process the target feature in order to
understand it.
 The teacher ‗negotiates‘ the input with the students
 The students demonstrate they have successfully processed the target structure non
processed the target structure non-verbally (e.g. drawing in verbally (e.g. drawing in the
locations of the map).
 The teacher checks they have completed the task successfully.
Example of an input Example of an input-based task based task
1. The teacher displays twenty picture cards (they show ten different items different items – ten
showing single items and some pairs ten showing single items and some pairs of items)
2. The teacher tells the students they are going shopping and she will tell them what to put in their
shopping basket.
3. The teacher gives instructions: e.g. Find the toothbrush. Put it in your basket. Find the
toothbrushes. Put them in your basket.
4. The students listen and carry out the instructions. Teacher provides feedback as they do the
task. 5. After all the instructions completed, the teacher checks the students‘ shopping bags.
Advantages of input Advantages of input-based structure based structure tasks
1. A cognitive advantage: Learners gain knowledge through processing input not through production.
Asking learners to attend to input and produce at the same time can overload short produce at the same
time can overload short-term memory.
2. An affective advantage Comprehension-based instruction creates less anxiety.
3. An efficiency advantage There is a lag between the development or receptive and productive
competence. Learners can be exposed to more language if he/she is not required to produce it. Differences
in language aptitude are less apparent in listening.
4. Utility advantage A comprehension A comprehension-based approach lends itself to self based
approach lends itself to selfdirected study.
Production Production-based grammar tasks based grammar tasks
 Students provided with ‗data‘ for the task (this can be pictorial, oral or written)
 The teacher explains the intended outcome of the task.
 The students perform the task either with the whole class or in small groups.
 While the task is being performed students receive corrective feedback when they make errors
in the target structure.
 The teacher checks the outcome of the task.
Example of a production Example of a production-based task based task
You are going to find out about how a wife (Emi) and her husband (Bo) share out the household
chores. You will need to ask your teacher questions to find out.
Consciousness Consciousness-raising activities raising activities
1. Students provided with data that illustrate the target feature.
2. Students work in pairs to carry out some operation of the data (e.g. identify grammatical and
ungrammatical sentences; classify exemplars of the target feature into categories; reproduce a
text).
3. Students formulate an explicit rule for the target feature.
Example of a consciousness Example of a consciousness-raising task raising task
1. Listen while you teacher reads out the passage about Monika Kovac. You can write down key
words.
2. Listen again.
3. Now work in pairs and try to write the passage out.
4. When you have finished write a grammar rule to explain when to use the simple past tense (e.g.
‗won‘) and when to use the present perfect tense (‗has won‘).

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 UM Panabo College
Department of Teacher Education
P.N. Arguelles St., San Francisco, Panabo City
Telefax # (084) 628-6437

Monika Kovak is a tennis player. She is only 14 years old, but she has already won many tournaments in
her life. She started playing tennis with her father when she was three years old. Two years ago she went
to America to a famous tennis school in California. Monika and her father have travelled to many
countries. She has played in several big tournaments. Last month she went with her father to a tournament
in Australia. Monika played well, but she didn't win.
Why do TBLT?
1. A task-based approach helps learners develop the procedural knowledge needed to communicate
in the real-world. 2. An L2 is best learned through communicating. It involves incidental
acquisition. 3. Students are more likely to develop intrinsic motivation in a task-based approach.
4. A task-based approach enables teachers to see if students are developing the ability to
communicate in an L2.
Criteria for tasks in general
Focused grammar tasks must satisfy the criteria for tasks in general:
1. primary focus on meaning
2. some kind of gap
3. the learners choose the linguistic and nonlinguistic resources needed to complete the task
4. a clearly defined outcome other than practising the grammatical feature.
Two ways of using focused grammar tasks
1. Task-supported language teaching (TSLT) supported language teaching (TSLT) – caters to
intentional language learning.
2. Task-based language teaching (TBLT) based language teaching (TBLT) – caters to incidental
language acquisition
Task-supported language teaching supported language teaching
 Provide oral or written input (audiotape, reading selection) that addresses the topic (structured
input)
 Review the point of grammar, using examples from the material (structured input)
 Ask students to practice the grammar point in communicative drills that focus on the topic
(structured output)
 Have students do a on the topic (communicative output).
An alternative sequence
1. Students do a CR task to clarify their explicit knowledge of the target feature.
2. Students to an input Students to an input-based task to provide an based task to provide an
opportunity to process the target feature under real-operating conditions. operating conditions.
3. Students practice production of the target feature under controlled conditions.
4. Students practice production of the target feature in a communicative task.
Promoting interaction through task-essential design and corrective feedback
The efficacy of CF The value attributed to CF in language pedagogy varies according to the tenets of
different methods. Thus, in audiolingualism ―negative assessment is to be avoided as far as possible since
it functions as ‗punishment‘ and may inhibit or discourage learning,‖ whereas in humanistic methods
―assessment should be positive or non-judgmental‖ in order to ―promote a positive self-image of the
learner as a person and language learner,‖ and in skill-learning theory ―the learner needs feedback on how
well he or she is doing‖ (Ur, 1996, p. 243). However, in the post-method era, language teaching
methodologists are less inclined to be so prescriptive about CF, acknowledging the cognitive contribution
it can make while also issuing warnings about the potential affective damage it can do. Ur recognized that
―there is certainly a place for correction‖ but claimed ―we should not over-estimate this contribution‖
(because it often fails to eliminate errors) and concluded that she would rather invest time in avoiding
errors than in correcting them—a position that accords with a behaviorist view of language learning.
Other methodologists, however, distinguish between ―accuracy‖ and ―fluency‖ work and argue that CF

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 UM Panabo College
Department of Teacher Education
P.N. Arguelles St., San Francisco, Panabo City
Telefax # (084) 628-6437
has a place in the former but not in the latter. Harmer (1983), for example, argued that when students are
engaged in communicative activity, the teacher should not intervene by ―telling students that they are
making mistakes, insisting on accuracy and asking for repetition‖ (p. 44). This is a view that is reflected
in teachers‘ own opinions about CF (see, for example, Basturkmen, Loewen, & Ellis, 2004). Harmer‘s
advice has the merit of acknowledging that CF needs to be viewed as a contextual rather than as a
monolithic phenomenon. However, as we will see later, SLA researchers—especially those working
within an interactionist framework (see, for example, the collection of papers in Mackey, 2007)—take a
different view, arguing that CF works best when it occurs in context at the time the learner makes the
error.
Corrective Feedback Definition Example
Strategy
Recast The corrector incorporates the L: I went there two times.
content words of the T: You‘ve been. You‘ve been
immediately preceding there twice as a group?
incorrect utterance and
changes and corrects the
utterance in some way (e.g.,
phonological, syntactic,
morphological or lexical).
Repetition The corrector repeats the L: I will showed you.
learner utterance highlighting T: I will SHOWED you. L: I‘ll
the error by means of emphatic show you.
stress.
Clarification request The corrector indicates that L: What do you spend with
he/she has not understood what your wife?
the learner said. T: What?
Clarification request The corrector indicates that L: What do you spend with
he/she has not understood what your wife?
the learner said. T: What?
Explicit correction The corrector indicates an L: On May.
error has been committed, T: Not on May, In May. We
identifies the error and say, ―It will start in May.‖
provides the correction.
Elicitation The corrector repeats part of L: I‘ll come if it will not rain.
the learner utterance but not T: I‘ll come if it ……?
the erroneous part and uses
rising intonation to signal the
learner should complete it.
Paralinguistic signal The corrector uses a gesture or L: Yesterday I go cinema. T:
facial expression to indicate (gestures with right forefinger
that the learner has made an over left shoulder to indicate
error. past)
Guidelines for corrective feedback
1. Teachers should ascertain their students‘ attitudes towards CF, appraise them of the value of CF, and
negotiate agreed goals for CF with them. The goals are likely to vary according to the social and
situational context.
2. CF (both oral and written) works and so teachers should not be afraid to correct students‘ errors.
This is true for both accuracy and fluency work, so CF has a place in both.

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 UM Panabo College
Department of Teacher Education
P.N. Arguelles St., San Francisco, Panabo City
Telefax # (084) 628-6437
3. Focused CF is potentially more effective than unfocused CF, so teachers should identify specific
linguistic targets for correction in different lessons. This will occur naturally in accuracy work based
on a structure-of-the-day approach but can also be usefully applied in fluency work.
4. Teachers should ensure that learners know they are being corrected (i.e., they should not attempt to
hide the corrective force of their CF moves from the learners). Whereas it will generally be clear to
learners that they are being corrected in the case of written CF, it may not always be clear in the case
of oral CF.
5. Teachers need to be able to implement a variety of oral and written CF strategies and to adapt the
specific strategies they use to the particular learner they are correcting. One way of doing this is to
start with a relatively implicit form of correction (e.g., simply indicating that there is an error) and, if
the learner is unable to self-correct, to move to a more explicit form (e.g., a direct correction). This
requires that teachers be responsive to the ―feedback‖ they get from learners on their own corrective
feedback.
6. Oral CF can be both immediate and delayed. Teachers need to experiment with the timing of the CF.
Written CF is almost invariably delayed.
7. Teachers need to create space following the corrective move for learners to uptake the correction [3].
However, whether the correction is or is not appropriated should be left to the learner (i.e., the
teacher should not require the learner to produce the correct form). In the case of written CF,
learners need the opportunity to attend to the corrections and revise their writing.
8. Teachers should be prepared to vary who, when, and how they correct in accordance with the
cognitive and affective needs of the individual learner. In effect this means they do not need to
follow a consistent set of procedures for all students.
9. Teachers should be prepared to correct a specific error on several occasions to enable the learner to
achieve full self-regulation.
10. Teachers should monitor the extent to which corrective feedback causes anxiety in learners and
should adapt the strategies they use to ensure that anxiety facilitates rather than debilitates.

Options along the implicit-explicit continuum

Implicit Focus on Form Two principal procedures: 1. Request for clarification (i.e. Speaker A says
something that Speaker B does not understand; B requests clarification allowing A opportunity to
reformulate) 2. Recast (i.e. Speaker A says something that Speaker B reformulates in whole or in part)
Examples of Implicit Focus on Form Learner: He pass his house. Teacher: He passed his house? (=
recast) Learner: Yeah, he passed his house. Learner: He pass his house Teacher: He did what? ( = request
for clarification) Learner: Passed his house
Explicit Focus on Form 1. Explicit correction (e.g. ‗Not x, y‘) 2. Metalingual comment (e.g. ‗Not present
tense, past tense‘) 3. Query (e.g. ‗Why is can used here?‘) 4. Advise (e.g. ‗Remember you need to use the
past tense‘).
Example of Explicit Focus on Form Learner: Possibly he is a doctor. Teacher: Use ‗may‘. Learner: He
may is a doctor. Teacher: Not ‗is‘ – ‗be‘. Learner: He may be a doctor.
Task-based language teaching based language teaching In task In task-based language teaching the
focused based language teaching the focused task is used without prior explicit instruction.
Promoting collaboration and the co-construction of language knowledge
Emergence of hyper collaborative and multilingual culture
The potential of language learning within this hyper-collaborative participatory coconstruction of reality
offers each individual the opportunity to define his or her own role at various junctures regarding the
manner in which to contribute, the extent to which to contribute, and the nature of the content to choose to
contribute. This understanding does not suggest that all members of participatory culture contribute in
productive or meaningful ways, but recognizing the potential may prepare us as CALL professionals to
create and manage the contexts that optimize these experiences. Such experiences can be designed to

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 UM Panabo College
Department of Teacher Education
P.N. Arguelles St., San Francisco, Panabo City
Telefax # (084) 628-6437
benefit from what we have learned about behavior in participatory culture. By empowering students who
are already so aware of the nature of participatory culture to recognize the unique potential of
environments, we can design projects, activities, and groups in optimal ways. While our understanding
and use of these contexts is emerging, and therefore in need of continued observation, there are some
characteristics that we can anticipate. We can see that these forms of participation are occurring in many
languages, by many second or additional language speakers. Not only does this participation take place
across languages, but it also appears to offer many unique opportunities for multilingual speakers. We can
see common examples of language mixing and code switching across discourse functions within a single
dialog (Lee, 2011). We can also observe that these experiences have allowed our students to develop a
sense of membership within a community of learners. This sense of membership can be an important step
toward engaging and motivating students (Mills, 2011). Others have recognized that students are able to
establish their own voice within these contexts, validating their identity and contributions in unique ways
(Kilmanova & Dembovskaya, 2013). These contexts and the interactions that they support promote the
negotiation of meaning and uptake of corrective feedback (Bower & Kawaguchi, 2011). Students are also
able to take authority over their own learning (Bloch, 2007). This establishment of authority over the
learning process is one of the core elements identified by many scholars when discussing language learner
autonomy (Benson, 2001; Fuchs, Hauck, & Müller-Hartmann, 2012).
This observation is reflected in the characteristics of a successful autonomous collaborative learner (p.
49):
1) the ability to use language to independently contribute personal meanings as a collaborative member
of a group;
2) the ability to use appropriate strategies for communicating as a collaborative member of a group; and
3) the willingness to demonstrate these abilities within the group.

Providing assistance in the zone of proximal development

Definition
Vygotsky‘s zone of proximal development describes how cognitive growth occurs in children. Rather
than considering a child‘s potential in terms of a static measure such as an IQ2 score, Vygotsky felt that a
developmental measure was needed to better assess children‘s educative potential. The ZPD provides a
conceptualization of how developmental potential might be understood. Vygotsky (1978, p. 86) defined
the ZPD as the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem
solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult
guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.
ZPD in L2 learning context (the adapted definition)

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 UM Panabo College
Department of Teacher Education
P.N. Arguelles St., San Francisco, Panabo City
Telefax # (084) 628-6437
Vygotsky‘s definition of the ZPD was designed as a way to consider the developmental potential of
children. However, in the L2 learning context, many learners are adults. Prompted by this fact as well as
the finding that adult peers need not necessarily be more capable in order to provide assistance in the
ZPD, Vygotsky‘s definition has been adapted to better suit the adult L2 developmental context (Ohta,
2005). The adapted definition states that the ZPD is the distance between the actual developmental level
as determined by individual linguistic production, and the level of potential development as determined
through language produced collaboratively with a teacher or peer.
Four stages of the ZPTD
The stages of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) traditionally proceed from expert- to self-
assistance (Stages I & II) and later from internalization, as concepts are automatized, to recurrence
through earlier stages (Stages III&IV) as the learners de-automatize what they have learned (Gallimore &
Tharp, 1990).
Initial stages of the ZPTD: self- and teacher-assistance (Stages I & II)
Due to the weight of prior learning experiences that candidates bring to their teacher education programs,
the zone of proximal teacher development (ZPTD) requires a reversal of the first two stages (teacher-
assistance, then self-assistance) in such a way that starts with candidates‘ reflection (self-assistance) on
prior experiences and assumptions. Warford (2011) believes that the distinction between self- and
teacher-assistance, from a teacher development perspective, is not an ‗either...or‘ phenomenon but rather
a point of emphasis. Obviously, there is some mediation provided by the teacher educator, even at this
self-assistance stage, but the emphasis is on setting the field by promoting reflection on one‘s experiences
and tacit beliefs with regard to teaching and learning; modeling or direct teaching should not prevail here.
This focus on candidates‘ actual level of development represents a departure from the ZPD, as it was
originally conceived. Advanced stages of the ZPTD: internalization and recurrence (Stages III & IV)
The ZPTD progresses toward internalization and repeated application of the pedagogical concepts they
have learned (Stages III and IV). As internalization grows, candidates demonstrate their capacity to use
the pedagogical knowledge and skills espoused by their particular program. Videotaped microteaching
demonstrations are common assignments employed at this stage. In order to promote internalization and
deeper integration of their learning experiences into the larger ontogenetic framework of professional
growth, writing increases in importance as a tool for weaving together personal, professional and
theoretical narratives. Rather than relying on the instructor‘s evaluations of their execution of the teaching
episode, rubrics should instead focus on the distance between the candidate‘s capacity to reflect on the
strengths and needs reflected therein.
The ―Recurrence‖ stage (Stage IV) of the ZPTD may aptly be described as the ‗theory into practice‘
stage, as candidates prepare to confront the dichotomy of theory and practice in all its intensity. With
regard to innovative tools and techniques learned in the program, this means letting go of more traditional
variants that are much more known and natural by comparison. Rather than avoiding or dismissing
discrepancies between pedagogical values in the academy and the field, a Vygotskyan approach embraces
conflict as a catalyst for developmental change.
According to Reiman (1999), reflection at this stage promotes equilibration, the process of
accommodating new information into a conceptual understanding, which necessarily entails discomfort,
stress, conflict, sadness and loss. According to Lempert-Shepell (1995) ―the teacher is not only expected
to be a cultural mediator but also a teacher-researcher; consequently, the teaching candidate should
experience investigative learning during their professional preparation‖ (p. 438). Ideally, this disposition
toward investigative learning should be supported through the first years of teaching, perhaps through a
Master‘s level extension program, one that continues to support beginning teachers‘ recursion through the
concepts learned in their coursework in away that responds to classroom-centered questions. For
Vygotsky recursion, the process of retracing the prior steps of the ZPD, represented an essential, final
stage of concept development.
Factors affecting the ZPTD

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 UM Panabo College
Department of Teacher Education
P.N. Arguelles St., San Francisco, Panabo City
Telefax # (084) 628-6437
1. Peers and mentors The idea that teachers do benefit from the encouragement and support of their
collaborative colleagues and coaches is widely accepted. As Tschannen-Moran et al. (1998) hold, the
increased collaboration with either supportive colleagues or literacy coaches can support teachers
when they seem to lose their self-confidence due to a lack of experience and self-efficacy.
2. Contextual constraints Teacher's freedom of action and decision making are always constrained by
contextual factors. Some of the decisions made in the class by the teacher are affected by the outside
forces which originate in social, economic, political or educational policies. In other words, the
microcontext of the classroom is, to some extent, shaped by the larger sociopolitical macrocontext
(Singh & Richards, 2006, as cited in Shabani et al., 2010). One factor to narrow teachers' ZPD and
restrict his personal choices, goal setting and activities is compliance with the norms prescribed and
imposed by the local school or institution the teachers work in.
3. Mediatory artifacts and technology The next triggering factor to influence teacher learning is the
'mediatory artifacts' which include technology, handouts, worksheets, video, physical classroom
layout, etc. (Singh & Richards, 2006, as cited in Shabani et al., 2010). Technology has proved to
serve as a reliable source of electronic scaffolding and, thus, a positive change in teacher's
professional development. Internet, computer and associated software known as technological
artifacts can mediate teacher's learning (Lantolf, 2004).
Improving the ZPTD
1. Diary writing
Diary as a tool at the teacher's disposal is the "first person account of one's own language learning or
teaching experience writing candid entries in a personal journal for later review and analysis" (Bailey,
1990, p.215). In diary writing, the teacher provides a genuine picture of his teaching practice either
during or after the teaching session. To learn from diaries, teachers must feel free to reflect,
experiment, criticize, doubt, express frustration, and raise questions in the journal (Bailey, ibid).Then,
he should embark on post-activity reflection and ask questions to analyze his diaries.
2. Self-scaffolding
Vygotsky‘s original definition of ZPD ignores the impact of assistance that is received via literary
sources. Teachers may spend a great deal of time using L2 materials outside of interaction with
another person. They can be scaffolded by materials such as textbooks, worksheets, and dictionaries.
Ohta (2005) proposed that rather than understanding the ZPD as a strictly interpersonal space, it may
be more useful to consider how the mechanisms of the ZPD may be internalized over the course of
development such that literate adults become able to manage the ZPD for themselves as they interact
both with people and with other L2 sources. As a result, teachers can scaffold themselves without
getting help from others.
3. Conducting action research
To keep abreast of state-of-the-art teaching, action research can provide the ground for the teacher
learner to test different teaching methods and activities in the class and get feedback from the students
so as to revise and develop his underlying understanding of language teaching and learning processes.
4. Analysis of teaching practice
Teachers can improve their ZPTD through the analysis of teaching practices using demos, videos, and
field observations. In this way, they will be able to reflect on what has happened in the classroom and
think of other strategies to use in the
classroom.
5. Having discussions with learners
Learners can also help teachers in
providing feedback on the strengths and
weaknesses of the classroom. Having
discussions with learners would aid
teachers in whether they are on the right
track or whether they have to make some

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 UM Panabo College
Department of Teacher Education
P.N. Arguelles St., San Francisco, Panabo City
Telefax # (084) 628-6437
kind of modifications or change in their teaching practice.
Primary thought about Zone of Proximal Development:
(A) Particular difficulties that a child can overcome without assistance,
(B) Particular difficulties that a child can solve
with assistance, and
(C) Particular difficulties that a child is,
almost all the time, unable to overcome at this
particular developmental level (Vygotsky,
1962).
ASSESSING GRAMMAR WITHIN A
FRAMEWORK OF COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE
Defining grammar for the purpose of assessment
Many pedagogical grammars are formal, comprising morphosyntactic rules from traditional and structural
linguistics and, to a lesser extent, from Generative Linguistics. According to Chomsky
(2004), a faculty of language must provide first, a structured inventory of possible lexical items (the core
semantics of minimal meaning-bearing elements) and second, the grammatical rules or principles that
allow infinite combinations of symbols, hierarchically organized. The grammatical principles provide the
means to construct from these lexical items the infinite variety of internal structures that enter into
thought, interpretation, planning, and other human mental acts. Generative Linguistics‘ principles and
parameters approach continues to be productive in accounting for similarities and differences across
languages; however, its newer Minimalist Program has not had an impact on pedagogical grammars. This
is because ―the emphasis in Generative Linguistics has been on identifying ever larger regularities in
grammar, to the point that the ‗essence‘ of grammar has been distilled in the Minimalist Program to
Merge and Move, or perhaps only to Internal and External Merge‖ (Culicover & Jackendoff, 2005, p.
534). Such minimalism may be useful for addressing its goal of accounting for language evolution or
language acquisition under conditions of inadequate input, but it is not going to advance the quest to
facilitate the teaching of second and foreign languages because of its level of abstraction (Larsen-
Freeman, 2005, 2006a).
Perhaps no term in the language teaching field is as ambiguous as grammar. It has been used to mean:
1. an internal mental system that generates and interprets novel utterances (mental grammar)
2. a set of prescriptions and proscriptions about language forms and their use for a particular language
(prescriptive grammar)
3. a description of language behavior by proficient users of a language (descriptive grammar)
4. the focus of a given linguistic theory (linguistic grammar)
5. a work that treats the major structures of a language (reference grammar)
6. the structures and rules compiled for instructional and assessment purposes (pedagogical grammar)
7. the structures and rules compiled for instructional purposes for teachers (usually a more
comprehensive and detailed version of point (6)) (teacher‘s grammar)
Designing classroom-based assessments of L2 grammar ability
1. What do you do?
1.1 Planning assessment • How does planned assessment relate to teaching & the intended
learnings (including relevant curriculum standards & frameworks)?
• How are learners‘ existing knowledge, language background,
capabilities, and interests taken into account?
• How are learners‘ social, emotional & psychological attributes
taken into account?
• What role do learners have in setting learning goals and making
decisions about when, how & why they will be assessed?

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1.2 Framing assessment
1.3 Conducting assessment
1.4 Using assessment
2. What do you look for?
• What is the balance of skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing), knowledge (vocab, grammar,
cultural) and abilities addressed in assessment? Does this reflect the relevant curriculum priorities?
UM Panabo College
Department of Teacher Education
P.N. Arguelles St., San Francisco, Panabo City
Telefax # (084) 628-6437
• How do learners become aware of when, how & why they will be
assessed?
• Who carries out assessment (teacher, student, peers, others) &
whose judgement ‗counts‘ in grading decisions?
• What proportion of assessment is planned & formal and what
proportion is unplanned & incidental (e.g., observation)? • What
evidence of learning is provided by routine classroom activities &
interactions (e.g., class discussions)?
• Who is the main target of informal (incidental) assessment (the
whole class, groups/pairs, individual students)?
• Does formal & informal assessment focus on processes and well
as products, e.g., are learners encouraged to discuss the basis for
their responses?
• Where do formal assessment activities come from (e.g., textbook,
self-designed, other teachers) & how well do they fit the intended
purpose (see 1.4) in terms of nature, scope & level?
• Do you use a range of assessment methods and is the method
appropriate for the intended purpose (see 1.4)?
• How do you ensure the fairness, quality & reliability
(trustworthiness) of assessment activities and processes?
• Is assessment conducted in an ethical manner (e.g., preserving
student confidentiality)?
To document growth in learning
To judge & grade students
To report to stakeholders (student, parents, school, external
authorities)
To prepare students for exams
To inform teaching
• How is assessment used to diagnose needs & plan teaching?
• How is assessment used to evaluate teaching?
To enhance learning, motivation & self-regulation by providing
quality feedback
• Does feedback focus on features of performance (rather than on
innate qualities e.g., ‗intelligence‘)?
• Does feedback explain which aspects were done well? e.g., ‗You
used a good variety of vocab & sentence structures‘
• Does feedback tell the student how to improve? e.g., ‗You need to
review the work we did last week on use of the passive form‘
• Does the timing (immediate/delayed) & format of feedback (e.g.,
comments only vs. marks) encourage learner uptake?
To manage teaching
• Is assessment used to discipline learners or to encourage them to
work harder?
• Is assessment used to socialize learners into a new assessment
culture (e.g., using assessment rubrics, preparing for high stakes
exams)
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Telefax # (084) 628-6437
• What are the valued qualities (e.g., accuracy, fluency, variety), behaviours (e.g., effort,
presentation, attendance) & student-centred factors (e.g., well-being) communicated in
o written or verbal instructions,
o written or verbal feedback, and
o formal reporting? Are these qualities consistent with the intended learnings (including relevant
curriculum standards & frameworks)?
3. What beliefs or understandings do you use?
• What are your beliefs and understandings about o the nature of the subject (the nature of
language; relationship of language & culture)
o how students learn a second language
o how language should be taught, &
o how language should be assessed (e.g., learner agency, appropriate uses of assessment)?
• What is the basis for these beliefs & understandings?
• How do these beliefs & understandings influence your assessment practices?
4. What are your learner’s understandings?
• How do you ensure students understand the focus & purpose of assessment?
• How do students perceive their role in planning, conducting & judging assessment?
• How do you ensure students have understood & engaged with feedback?
5. How does the context for teaching shape your assessment practices?
Who influences decisions about content & methods in your assessment (school, supervisors,
students, external authorities)?
• What other factors do you need to take into account when planning & conducting assessment
(e.g., class size, learner characteristics, external examinations, student & parental expectations)?
• What is the impact of testing and assessment practices both locally and in the broader context and
what is your capacity to influence change?
Task-base performance assessment
Task-based testing is nothing new. The ability to perform real-world tasks which such tests can measure
is extensively adopted as an exit requirement in vocational training programs (Hauptman, LeBlanc &
Wesche, 1985; Jones, 1979). Applied psychologists have studies real-world task performance by, for
example, airline pilots, with the aim of identifying the factors that contribute to their difficulty, and of
improving task performance by reducing time-sharing problems caused by competing task demands for
limited attentional and memory resources (Kramer, Sirevaag & Braune, 1987; Logan, 1979; Robinson,
1995a, 1995b; Wickens, 1989). Task-based testing is not new in the field of language pedagogy either. In
fact the integration of task-based language testing into communicative language teaching programs
(Baker, 1990; Brumfit, 1984; Carroll, 1980; Carroll & Hall, 1985; Delamere, 1985; Morrow, 1979;
Swain, 1985; Weir, 1990; Wesche, 1981, 1987), learner-centred programs (Brindley, 1989, 1991; Nunan,
1988) and programs of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; McNamara,
1989; Paltridge, 1992) has long been a goal of curriculum designers.

Dynamic assessment
What is Dynamic Assessment?
DA is an umbrella term that describes a heterogeneous group of approaches that are linked by one key
element: instruction and feedback are provided as part of the assessment process and are contingently
related to the individuals ongoing performance. Thus, the nature and extent of assistance that are provided
depend on the individual differences manifested within the assessment context. This, of course, represents
a significant departure from conventional testing procedures which usually preclude any forms of
intervention other than strictly delineated inputs geared to assist administration and maintain rapport.
Unlike conventional tests that are concerned primarily with ultimate performance (product), dynamic
approaches tend to be equally interested in gauging the individuals use of cognitive and metacognitive
strategies, their responsiveness to examiner assistance and support, and their capacity to transfer learning

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Department of Teacher Education
P.N. Arguelles St., San Francisco, Panabo City
Telefax # (084) 628-6437
operating within the intersubjective realm of tester and testee, to subsequent unassisted situations.
DA is described as a subset of interactive assessment that includes deliberate and planned ublications
teaching and the assessment of the effects of that teaching on subsequent performance. Its principles rest
on four assumptions.
Evaluating student performances
Assessment bridges the gap between teaching and learning. Perhaps second only to teaching, assessing
student performance is a fundamental role in the life of a teacher. Assessment is important because it
provides students with feedback about their performance; this information reinforces their areas of
strength and highlights areas of weakness. Using this feedback, students can direct their study strategies
and seek additional resources to improve their performance.
From the perspective of the teacher, another equally important function of student assessment is providing
evidence necessary for decisions about student progress. The various student assessments within a class
define the types and levels of achievement expected of students. As part of a course of study, student
assessments describe a developmental process of increasing competency across a range of domains
deemed necessary for graduation.
Any thoughtful teacher realizes the important role that student assessments play in their lives as teachers
as well as in the lives of their students. Less obvious are the principles of educational measurement
underlying sound student assessment practices. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of
some of the key features to consider when choosing among various student assessment strategies. This
chapter will also provide information on how to create fair student assessments, that is, assessments that
are both reliable and valid.
Reasons for Assessing Student Performance
As stated above, the assessment of student performance provides feedback to students about what they
have or have not learned, and provides information that teachers can use in student progress decisions.
However, these are only two of many possible goals that can influence your selection of student
assessment strategies. As you can see by the list below, the goals that can drive the selection of student
performance measures are many and far reaching:
• Providing feedback to students about their mastery of course content
• Grading or ranking students for progress and promotion decisions
• Offering encouragement and support to students (or teachers)
• Measuring changes in knowledge, skills or attitudes over time
• Diagnosing weaknesses in student performance
• Establishing performance expectations for students
• Identifying areas for improving instruction
• Documenting instructional outcomes for faculty promotion
• Evaluating the extent that educational objectives are realized
• Encouraging the development of new curriculum
• Demonstrating quality standards for the public, institution or profession
• Articulating the values and priorities of the educational institution
• Informing the allocation of educational resources
Assessment Versus Evaluation
Both assessment and evaluation refer to processes of gathering information for the purposes of decision-
making. In medical education, assessment most often refers to the measurement of individual student
performance, while evaluation refers to the measurement of outcomes for courses, educational programs
or institutions. Practically speaking, students are assessed while educational programs are evaluated.
However, it is often the case that aggregated student assessments serve as an important information
source when evaluating educational programs.
Formative Versus Summative Assessment

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Telefax # (084) 628-6437
Formative assessments are used to give students feedback about their learning. Practice test questions or
problem sets, in-class peer-graded assignments and reviews of video recorded simulated patient
encounters are examples of frequently used formative assessment strategies. Formative assessments are
most valuable when they are separated from summative assessments, so that they are perceived to be low
threat performance experiences. For conscientious students, this represents an opportunity to document
both strengths and weaknesses. However, some students might dismiss formative assessments for their
lack of consequences, and not put their best effort forward to use these experiences to maximal advantage.
Summative assessments are used to gather information to judge student achievement and to make student
progress decisions. These assessments are very familiar to students and teachers, and for students often
provoke anxiety. A substantial component of this anxiety comes from the student progress decisions that
are predicated on performance. However, to the extent that uncertainty about the summative assessment
strategy itself is a source of anxiety, teachers can take steps to reduce student anxiety. This includes
providing information about the types of assessments to be used, their timing within a course, how they
are scored and how each contributes to the final grade or progress decision. Students often become
anxious in an unfamiliar assessment situation, such as a standardized patient encounter or new computer-
based testing software. Sample interactions, in-class demonstrations or opportunities for non-graded
practice can help students anticipate what to expect under these circumstances, which might help reduce
their anxiety.
Evaluating the quality of textbook and website practice activities
Textbooks are typically the main source of learning material for students and the source of information on
a specific subject or field. Textbooks also typically reflect society‘s values and aspirations of a nation.
These are the visible, tangible and practical manifestation of the curriculum, designed to teach students
what governmental educational authorities believe must be taught. In other words, textbooks ―tell children
what their elders want them to know‖ (Kalmus, 2004, p.13). ―Textbooks can give teachers a sense of
security and confidence as they steer their way through the innovation‖ (Mustapha, 2008). ―Textbooks
certainly provide an important tool in transferring knowledge (Pallo, 2006, p.779). This transfer of
knowledge is not limited to merely conveying the information about a subject, but also aims at developing
an understanding of the subject. One of the classical definition of textbook that was latter adopted by
UNESCO is ―A textbook is an exposition of generally accepted principles in one subject, intended
primarily as a basis for instruction in classroom or pupil – book – teacher situation‖ (Brammer, 1967 as
cited in Laspina, 1998, p-28). Hence a textbook plays multifarious roles in the educational context.
Amongst them are the following key roles:
1. address students‘ needs;
2. provide a framework for teaching;
3. help new teachers as a resources material; and
4. influence teaching learning processes.
Garvin’s Eight Dimensions of Product Quality
Below is a brief of Garvin‘s (1988) eight dimensions for a quality product:
1. Performance refers to primary operating characteristics e.g. speed, comfort, ease of use etc. for
multiple performance features, and the relative importance of each. The Performance of a textbook
refers to traits that help students in achieving the learning outcomes laid down in curriculum, and that
cater to individual cognitive, social, cultural, religious, ethnic and other needs
2. Features are extras, add-ons, or gimmicks that enable a customer to customize a product somewhat.
Features of textbooks refer to traits like promote student thinking and suggests activities for further
study through Teachers‘ Guide, Teaching Kit, Ematerial, and Assessment.
3. Reliability reflects the probability of a product malfunctioning or failing within a specified time
period. Reliability refers to the likelihood that a textbook will be useful as expected and nothing will
be wrong within the time period during which it is intended to be used. Reliability of a textbook
means that it provides updated and accurate information-valid for the period for which it is
prescribed, and offers clarity in conveying meanings and is understandable for every reader using the

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Department of Teacher Education
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Telefax # (084) 628-6437
text.
4. Conformance is the degree to which a product's design and operating characteristics meet to pre-
established standards. Conformance refers to the extent to which a textbook meets pre-set
standards. These are found in public and education policies, curriculum guidelines and
objectives/standards, national ideology and culture etc. These pre-set standards are consistent with the
scope of the content given in the curriculum guidelines.
5. Durability refers to the length of time, or extent of use, before the product deteriorates and must be
replaced; durability is a function of the product's operating environment and reliability.
As a measure of textbook life or duration, durability has both economic and technical dimensions.
Economic dimension refers to physical state of textbook and technical dimension refers to content
matter in textbook. In terms of physical state, durability is typically defined as the length of time a
textbook can be used by students before it deteriorates beyond usefulness and replacement becomes
preferable to continued repair. This depends largely on paper quality, quality of printing and binding
and care of use. From content matter perspective, durability refers the validity of the information
content before this information becomes invalid or obsolete
6. Serviceability is the speed, ease, and convenience of making maintenance work or repairs and the
courtesy and competency of service people.
Textbook serviceability refers to the review of textbook and to the manner of the delivery of its
content in the classroom. Review refers to periodic content evaluation in order to keep the book valid
without changing its basic structure. Delivery refers to the availability of textbooks‘ teachers‘ guides
to guide classroom instruction. In brief, review and delivery seek to ensure, through periodic
examinations and updates of content and teachers‘ guides that the textbook is fit for long term use. In
turn these require the availability and capacity of professionals and reviewers.
7. Aesthetic refers to the look, sound, smell, feel, or taste of the product based on personal taste; though
subjective, some aesthetic judgments tend to be common.
How a product looks, feels, sounds, tastes, or smells is often a matter of personal preference. But
there are general areas of agreement. For textbooks, the aesthetic dimension refers to the formulation
of the title, layout, format, illustrations, and other graphics-acceptability with respect to age / level /
relevant to content and context. Good looking title that attract students of the age and grade for which
it has been developed. In brief, the esthetics of textbook include: a) title, binding, font and font size,
page layout/format and illustrations, and b) other graphics-acceptability with respect to age / level /
relevant to content and context.
8. Perceived Value is a subjective opinion about the product based on images or attitudes formed by
advertising and/or the reputation of the producer.
For textbooks, perceived quality refers to positive perceptions of teachers, parents, and students
regarding textbook appearance, content and publication quality.
Description of the Identified Indicators of Quality Textbook
1. Indicator 1- Curriculum Policy
Matches objectives of the Curriculum (conformance); and aligns to Philosophy and Intent (perceived
quality)
2. Indicator 2- Curriculum Scope
Covers the scope of content specified in the curriculum (conformance); and structures in a way that
can be used with minor reviews and updates (serviceability)
3. Indicator 3- Content reliability
Provides up to date, credible and correct information for the period for which it is to be prescribed
(durability) and the textual content is free of misconceptions (reliability) and usable at least for the
period of curriculum revision cycle without requiring major structural changes (serviceability)
4. Indicator 4- Vocabulary, Illustrations and Format
Uses words from graded vocabulary and defines new terms (conformance); uses language appropriate
for the student and the subject (serviceability); contains illustrations from the local environment and

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Department of Teacher Education
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Telefax # (084) 628-6437
allied with text, (perceived quality); Clear unambiguous line diagrams, and good quality photographs
(aesthetics);sets attractive title, page and font size, page layout, and color according to grade
(aesthetic); and selects durable binding, and proper gramage of paper according to size and grades
(durability).
5. Indicator 5- Horizontal and Vertical Alignment of the Text
Uses sequential activities, content of the same level/grade books for explanations, examples, and
exercises and provides challenging but enjoyable exercises (performance); creates links of the content
with one grade below and above (conformance); and connects to everyday experiences and prior
learning (feature)
6. Indicator 6- Cognitive Development
Presents materials and exercises/questions at a variety of cognitive levels; provide first hand
experiences; and structures material in a coherent and logical way (performance); shows diversity and
allows for inclusion (features); and contains authentic learning opportunities appropriate to the
subject (reliability)
7. Indicator 7- Critical and Creative Learning
Fosters critical and creative learning through applying relevant contexts, experiences, phenomena and
thinking over learning process; guides interpretations and reasoning; suggests activities for further
study; provides research-based assessment that has content validity (feature); builds upon prerequisite
skills and ideas (conformance); and provides opportunity to think critically about controversial issues
(aesthetics)
8. Indicator 8- Assessment and Evaluation
Allows for authentic demonstrations for learning at all levels (reliability); integrating
tasks/culminating activities (performance); and presents opportunities for students to self-assess
(feature).
9. Indicator 9 Acceptability
High levels of academic credential of authors (reliability), locally available, affordable price
(perceived value); deliverable within available duration for the grade (performance); and provides
opportunities to incorporate use of technology by students (durability)
10. Indicator 10 Environment
Safety warnings for students are written and/or expressed symbolically (feature).
11. Indicator 11 Bias Free
Free from gender, ethnic, religious, sectarian, geographical, cultural and occupational biases
(performance); presents different points of view/contributions (performance); and shows diversity and
allows for inclusion (feature)

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson:

Online references:
*Kessler, Greg. (2013). Collaborative language learning in co-constructed participatory culture. CALICO
Journal. 30. 307-322.
*Khaghaninejad, Mohammad. (2015). Dynamic Assessment: From Theory to Practice.
*Mavis, Brian. (2010). Assessing Student Performance. 10.1007/978-90-481-3641-4_11.
*Retrieved from: http://screle.shisu.edu.cn/sites/default/files/publicresources/documents/Designing
%20and%20implementing%20grammar%20tasks%286%29.pdf
*Retrieved from: http://www.altaanz.org/uploads/5/9/0/8/5908292/3.si1hill_final_formatted_ proofed.pdf
*Retrieved from: http://www.fameconsultants.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Indicators-for-
a-Quality-Textbook-Evaluation-Process-in-Pakistan.pdf

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Department of Teacher Education
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Telefax # (084) 628-6437
*Retrieved from: http://www.ijoart.org/docs/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.pdf
*Retrieved from: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82645123.pdf
*Retrieved from: https://escholarship.org/content/qt2504d6w3/qt2504d6w3.pdf?t=piybmd
*Retrieved from:https://teach-grammar.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Teaching-and-Testing-
Grammar.pdf
*Robinson, Peter. (1996). Task-based testing, performance-referencing and program development.

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