HUM 4229

Society, Ethics and Technology

Introduction to Ethics: Ethical Theories

Imran Rahman
Department of EEE
Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology
 Ethics is a branch of
philosophy that addresses
questions about morals, i.e.
questions about what is good
and bad, right and wrong,
just and unjust.
What
A discipline dealing with what
is is good and bad and with
Ethics? moral duty and obligation.
 An engineer with
ethics is a person who
is expected to possess
the moral integrity
with rich ethical values.

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ETHICAL THEORIES
Ethical theories attempt to organize
and explain common ethical opinions.
They provide a framework for moral
and legal decision-making, intended to
be acceptable to all members of some
society. These are applied consistently
to determine whether an action is
right or wrong.

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 Subjective
Relativism Cultural Relativism
ETHICAL
THOERIES
Divine Command
Act Utilitarianism
Theory

Rule Utilitarianism Kantianism

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 • There are no universal moral norms of
right and wrong

Subjective Relativism • All persons decide right and wrong for

themselves

• Example: The Abortion debate,

Stealing, etc.

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 Pros of Subjective Relativism

People can Unpleasant

make their Flexibility in debates are
own decision. making decisions. avoided.
1 2 3 4 5

Well meaning Opposing views

people can have do not need to be
opposite reconciled.
opinions.
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 Cons of Subjective Relativism

What is right and

what you do, those Ethical decisions
two aspects are not don’t have to be
clearly drawn. based on reason.
1 2 3 4

No moral distinction Tolerance becomes

between the action meaningless.
of different people.

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 • What is right or wrong depends on a
societies actual moral guidelines.

• These guidelines varies from place to

Cultural Relativism place and from time to time.

• A particular action may be right in

one society at one time and wrong in
other society or at another time.

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 Pros of Cultural Relativism

Different social contexts The actual behavior of a

demand different moral society reflects its values
guidelines. better than what it says.

1 2 3

One society should

not judge another by
its own standards.

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 Cons of Cultural Relativism

Many practices are

acceptable does not Cultural relativism
mean any cultural can be vague and
practice is acceptable subject to different
(many/any fallacy) interpretations.
1 2 3 4

There are no Societies do,

guidelines for in fact, share
reconciliation between certain core
values.
cultures in conflict.
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 • Good actions:
those aligned with God’s will.

Divine Command Theory • Bad actions:

those contrary to God’s will.

• Holy books reveals god’s will, should be

used as decision making guides.

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 Pros of Divine Command Theory

We owe obedience to God is the

God, our creator. ultimate authority.
1 2 3

God is all good and

all knowing.

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 Challenges of Divine Command Theory

In a multicultural and Equating “good”

secular society, it’s with “God” is
unrealistic to adopt a “false
religion based morality. equivalence”
1 2 3 4 5

Differing Some moral Not based on

interpretations of problems are not reason
what God’s law mentioned in the
really is. holy books.
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 • Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill

• Morality of an action has nothing to do with intent,

focuses on the consequences

• An action is good if it benefits someone;

Utilitarianism An action is bad if it harms someone
• Utility: tendency of an object to produce happiness
or prevent unhappiness for an individual or a
community.
Happiness = advantage = benefit = good = pleasure
Unhappiness = disadvantage = cost = evil = pain

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 • Based on the Principle of Utility, Also known as
Greatest Happiness Principle
• An action is right (or wrong) to the extent that it
increases (or decreases) the total happiness of the
affected parties.
Act Utilitarianism
• Happiness may have many definitions such as:
advantage, benefit, good, or pleasure
• Add up change in happiness of all affected beings
Sum > 0, action is good
Sum < 0, action is bad

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 • A pharmaceutical company releasing a drug that has
been governmentally approved with known side effects
because the drug is able to help more people than are
bothered by the minor side effects.
Act Utilitarianism
Examples • Customers who fly in first or business class pay a much
higher rate than those in economy seats, but they also
get more amenities. However, the higher prices paid for
business or first class seats help to ease the airline’s
financial burden created by making room for economy
class seats.

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 Pros of Act Utilitarianism

Flexibility and sensitivity

to circumstances.
1 2

It focuses on
happiness.

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 Cons of Act Utilitarianism

The boundaries of It is susceptible

an evaluation are to the problem of
not clear. “moral luck”.
. 3
1 2

Not practical to
calculate for every
moral decision.

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HIGHWAY ROUTE
• State may replace a curvy stretch of highway
SCENERIO
• New highway segment 1 mile shorter
• 150 houses would have to be removed
• Some wildlife habitat would be destroyed
Costs
• $20 million to compensate homeowners
• $10 million to construct new highway
• Lost wildlife habitat worth $1 million
Benefits
• $39 million savings in automobile driving costs

Conclusion????
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 • The Greatest Happiness Principle is applied to moral
rules

• A rule is right to the extent that it increases the total

Rule Utilitarianism happiness of the affected parties

• We ought to adopt moral rules which, if followed by

everyone, will lead to the greatest increase in total
happiness

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 Pros of Rule Utilitarianism

Not every moral

decision requires the It overrides
utilitarian calculations. “moral luck”.
1 2 3 4 5

Calculating the It’s easier to resolve It appeals to a

total happiness is conflicting rules. large cross section
easier than in Act of society.
Utilitarianism.
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 Cons of Rule Utilitarianism

We are forced to use the same scale

or measure for all evaluations even if
the consequences are completely
different.
1 2

It ignores the unjust

distribution of good
consequences.

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 Difference between Act and Rule Utilitarianism
Act utilitarianism is the belief that an
action becomes morally right when it
produces the greatest good for the
greatest number of people.
Act utilitarianism is the belief that it is
alright to break a rule as long as it brings
a greater good.
Act utilitarianism seeks to benefit most
people, without consideration of justice
or the societal constraints such as laws.
Rule utilitarianism is the belief that the
moral correctness of an action depends
1
on the correctness of the rules that allows
it to achieve the greatest good.
Rule utilitarianism is a belief that even if a
2 rule cannot bring a greater good, breaking
it will not either.
Rule utilitarianism seeks to benefit most
3 people but through the fairest and most
just means available. 25
 • Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) a German philosopher

• Ethical philosophy claiming that motives & universal rules

are important aspects in judging what is right or wrong

• People’s wills should be based on moral rules, that is

Kantianism universalizable- must apply to all people at all time

• Therefore it’s important that our actions are based on

appropriate moral rules.

• To determine when a moral rule is appropriate Kant

proposed two Categorical Imperatives

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 Categorical Imperative

What is an imperative?
An imperative is a command.
So, "Pay your taxes!" is an imperative, as are "Don't kill innocent people!"

What is an categorical imperative?

These command unconditionally. Bind us with out considering what out desires may
be. A moral directive that binds all rational beings no matter what.

Example: “Don’t cheat on your taxes.” Even if you want to cheat and doing so would
serve your interests, you may not cheat.
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 • Act only from moral rules that you can at the same time
universalize.

• If you act on a moral rule that would cause problems if

First Formulation everyone followed it then your actions are not moral
of Categorical
Imperative • For example, if you expect other people to keep their
promises, then you are obligated to keep your own
promises.

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 Second • Act so that you always treat both yourself and other
Formulation of people as ends in themselves, and never only as a means
to an end.
Categorical
Imperative If you use people for your own benefit that is not
moral

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 Pros of Kantianism

It’s rational, i.e. people can use

logic to determine if the reason
for their actions meet one of the
Categorical Imperatives.
.
1 2 3

It produces universal All people are moral equals

moral guidelines. and deserve to be treated
similarly .

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 Cons of Kantianism

Sometimes a It allows no
single rule is not exceptions to moral
enough. rules.

1 2 3

There is no way to
resolve a conflict
between rules.

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PLAGIARISM
SCENERIO • Carla
• Single mother
• Works full time
• Takes two evening courses/semester
• History class
• Requires more work than normal
• Carla earning an “A” on all work so far
• Carla doesn’t have time to write final
report
• Carla purchases report and submits it
as her own work

Kantian Evaluation
Using First and Second Formulation???32
 Difference between Utilitarianism & Kantianism
Utilitarianism
A form of consequentialism
An act is right if it has good
consequences
Morality is fundamentally about the
consequences of our actions, specifically,
about the amount of happiness (or
unhappiness) we cause in the world
Kantianism
1 A form of non consequentialism
An act is right if it s done out of a sense of
2
moral obligation
Morality is fundamentally about what
3
goes on inside us, specifically about the
reasons (intentions) we have for acting,
not about the results (consequences)
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