1.Why chemical equation is called as dynamic equation?

Reactants change into products and products change into reactants even after
equilibrium is achieved
2. Homologous and hetrologous equilibrium?

Homogeneous equilibriaAll reactants and products are in samePhase

N2(g) + H2(g) = NH3(g]

N2(g) + O2(g) → NO2(g)

Heterogeneous equilibria All reactant and products are not in same

3. Law of mass action

At Constant Temperature, the rate of chemical reaction is directly proportional to the

product of the activities or concentrations of the reactants

4.Reaction quotient?Reaction quotient ‘Q’ is defined as the ratio of product of initial

concentrations of products to the product of initial concentrations of reactants under
non-equilibrium conditions. For example, in the equilibrium.aA + bB ⇌IL + mM

5.State Le Chatelier’s principle ? If a system at equilibrium is subjected to disturbance

or stress, then the equilibrium shifts in the direction that tends to nullify the effect of the
disturbance or stress.

6.Effect of Inert Gas on a Reaction at Equilibrium?A gas is said to be inert if it does not
react with either the reactants or the products present in the equilibrium mixture. The
effect of the addition of an inert gas can be studied at constant volume and also at
constant pressure.Addition of inert gas at constant volume: When an inert gas is added
to a reaction mixture in a state of equilibrium at constant volume, then the total pressure
of the system will increase. But the partial pressures and also the molar concentrations
of the reactants and products will remain unchanged. Thus, there will be no change in
the state of equilibrium.Addition of inert gas at constant pressure: When an inert gas is
added at constant pressure, the volume of the equilibrium mixture increases. As a
result, the number of moles per unit volume will decrease. Therefore, according to the
Le Chatelier’s principle, the equilibrium will shift towards the side where the number of
moles per unit volume increase. This will depend upon the nature of the reaction. For
example, in the equilibrium reaction listed below, the addition of an inert gas at constant
pressure will shift the equilibrium to the right.

PCl 5 (g) Rightarrow PC*l_{3}(g) + C*l_{2}(g)An inert gas shifts the equilibrium
depending upon the nature of the reaction when added at constant pressure.
7. Prediction of direction of reactions with kc ? If QC<KC, net reaction goes from left to
right If QC>KC , net reaction goes from right to left.If QC=KC At equilibrium

8.van hoff ? ‘i’ is known as the Van’t Hoff factor. It accounts for the extent of
dissociation or association for any electrolyte. The value of ‘i’ would be more than 1 in
case of dissociation and less than 1 in case of association as per the following relation

I = [Total number of particles after dissociation or association] / [Total number of

particles before dissociation or association]Because NaCl dissociates into Na+ ions and
Cl- ions

NaCl → Na+ + Cl-

That is one molecule of NaCl is dissociating into 2 ions. Therefore the Vant Hoff factor
should 2

Unit 9

9.Molality? It is defined as the moles of the solute present in Kg of the solvent. It is

denoted by ‘m’.molality= No. Of moles of solute/ mass of solvent in 1kg

11.Normality ?: It is defined as the number of gram equivalents of solute present per

litre of solution. It is denoted by ‘N’.Normality(N)= Number of gram equivalents of solute/
Number of litres of the solution

12.Mole fraction? is defined as the amount of a constituent Divided by the total amount
of all constituents in a mixture

13.FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY? Temperature , pressure , nature of solute.

14.Vapour pressure? of a liquid at any temperature can be defined as the pressure

exerted by the vapours of the liquid in equilibrium with the liquid itself.

15. Henry’s law?. At constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the pressure of the gas. Dalton concluded independently that solubility of
a gas in a liquid is a function of partial pressure of the gas. Thus, most commonly,
Henry’s law states that the partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase(p) is proportional
to mole fraction of gas(x) in the solution, i.e., p = K_x K_{H} = Henry’s law
constant.PSlope = K is a function of nature of gas.Higher the value of K_{H} at a given
pressure, to keep the value of partial pressure constant, mole fraction must be
decreased, and hence solubility is decreased.XValues of Henry’s law constant for some
selected gases in water

16.raoults law ? . But whereas Raoult’s law defines the proportionality constant as the
vapor pressure of the pure component, Henry’s law defines the propor- tionality
constant as some experimentally determined value.
17.Give differences between ideal and real gas solution? An Ideal Gas is a Gas
which follows the ideal gas law at all temperature& pressure. The Ideal Gas Equation is
PV = nRT.

An Ideal gas has negligible volume & negligible intermolecular forces.A real gas is the
one which does not follow ideal gas equation at all temperature and pressure. It has a
definite volume and it also has intermolecular forces of attraction operating between the
molecules.

18. Positive deviation? The condition in which the vapour pressure observed is greater
than predicted and occurs when the A-B molecular interaction forces are lower than the
attraction of the corresponding average of A-Aand B-B

19. Negative deviation? There is a decrease in the vapor pressure of the mixture that
results in the negative deviation from Raoult’s law.

20. Colligative properties ? The properties of solutions that depend only on the total
number of soluble particles and not on nature of solute particles in solution are called
Colligative properties. Colligative properties include freezing point depression, boiling
point elevation, vapour pressure lowering, and osmotic pressure.

21.Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure? Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by

the vapours over the liquid under the equilibrium conditions at a given temperature. Now
let us take an example of a pure liquid, the surface of the liquid is occupied by the
molecules of the liquid. Suppose a non-volatile solute is now added to this pure liquid.
Since the solute molecules are non-volatile, the vapour above the solution consists of
only solvent molecules. After adding the solute, the vapour pressure of the solution is
found to be lower than that of the pure liquid at a given temperature.it is called relative
lowering of Vapour pressure

22.What is the boiling point elevation? Whenever a substance is dissolved in a solvent,

the boiling point of the solvent is raised slightly compared with the b.p. of the pure
solvent.This occurs because the thermodynamic activity of the liquid solvent is
dependent on its concentration whereas the activity of the vapour phase solvent is
dependent only on its partial pressure

23. Colligative properties ? The properties of solutions that depend only on the total
number of soluble particles, and not on nature of solute particles in solution are called
Colligative properties.

24.Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure ? Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by

the vapours over the liquid under the equilibrium conditions at a given temperature. Now
let us take an example of a pure liquid, the surface of the liquid is occupied by the
molecules of the liquid. Suppose a non-volatile solute is now added to this pure liquid.
25. Depression in freezing point?When a non- volatile solute is added to solvent,
freezing point of solvent decreases. For example, if sugar or salt is added to water, the
solution freezes below zero degrees centigrade (f’p of water = 0°c). This is depression
in freezing

26.osmotic pressure ? The excess of pressure on the side of solution that stops the net
flow of solvent into solution through semipermeable membrane is called osmotic
pressure.The expression for osmotic pressure is Π=ICRT

27.reverse osmosis? If the pressure higher than the osmotic pressure is applied to the
solution, the solvent will flow from the solution into the pure solvent through the
semipermeable membrane.

28. How molar mass of a solute is determined from osmotic pressure

measurements?Molarity= Mole(V) Volume in litresAnd moles= Weight(W)Molar
mass(m)

29. The determination of molar mass? from elevation in boiling point is called as
ebullioscopy

30.To determine the molar-mass of a solute? the following expression is used delta P
/P1=w2M1/w1M2

31. Catenation? The large number of organic compounds is due to the ability of carbon
atom to form long chains with other carbon atoms through the sharing of electrons. This
unique property of carbon is known as catenation.

Unit 11

32. Characteristics of organic compound? Their main constituents are Carbon,

Hydrogen, Oxygen and some times elements such as Phosphorus, Nitrogen, and
sulphur are present.They are essentially covalent compounds.They undergo addition,
substitutin or elimination reactions.

33. Homologous series ?

Homologous series is a series of organic compounds that have similar chemical

properties but different number of carbon atoms and the successive members of the
series differ by CH2 Group.The members of homologous series are arranged in the
order of increasing molar mass.

34. Trans cis with butene 2? 1)trans-2-butene< cis-2-butene < 2-methyl propene

2) cis-2-butene< trans-2-butene < 2-methyl propene

3) 2-methyl propene < trans-2-butene < cis-2-butene
35.Optical isomerism ? present when there is an asymmetric carbon in the structure,
i.e., a carbon bonded to four different atoms or groups of atoms.

36.detection of nitrogen halogen sulphur? Lassaigne test method is used to test

nitrogen, sulphur and halogens. This test involves two steps.Preparation of sodium
fusion extractDetection of elements using sodium fusion extract.

37.Chromatography?Chromatography, technique for separating the components, or

solutes, of a mixture on the basis of the relative amounts of each solute distributed
between a moving fluid stream, called the mobile phase, and a contiguous stationary
phase. The mobile phase may be either a liquid or a gas, while the stationary phase is
either a solid or a liquid.Kinetic molecular motion continuously exchanges solute
molecules between the two phases. If, for a particular solute, the distribution favours the
moving fluid, the molecules will spend most of their time migrating with the stream and
will be transported away from other species whose molecules are retained longer by the
stationary phase. For a given species, the ratio of the times spent in the moving and
stationary regions is equal to the ratio of its concentrations in these regions, known as
the partition coefficient. A mixture of solutes is introduced into the system in a confined
region or narrow zone whereupon the different species are transported at different rates
in the direction of fluid flow. The driving force for solute migration is the moving fluid,
and the resistive force is the solute affinity for the stationary phase; the combination of
these forces, as manipulated by the analyst, produces the separation.

38. Retention factor? If the relative configuration of the atoms/ groups a chiral centere in
an optically active molecule remains the same before and after the reaction, the
reaction is said to proceeed with retention of configuration. On the other hand, if the
relative configuration

39. classification .organic compounds? Oraginc compund classified into Open chain
compound and Cyclic Compound.open chain is classified Straight chain Compound
andbranched chain compund .cyclic chain is classified into Homocyclic Compounds
and heterocyclic compound

Homocyclic classified into Alicyclic Compunds and Aromatic Compounds

Open chain compound C*H_{3}*C*H_{3} Ethane CH3-CH-C13 etc CH3 Isobutane

Close Chain compound Branched chain Compound Etc Cydahexane 7. Aromatic
compound e.t.c Benzene
39.crystallization step ? Firstly the solution is heated and the solvent molecules start to
evaporate.As the solution begins to cool down the pure substance starts to form
crystals, which gets collected at the surface of the solution.The crystals are then
collected and dried.
40.method to detect nitrogen in food ? Kjeldahl’s method for detection of nitrogen in
organic compounds can be used for

41.Method to purify liquid? liquid which decomposes at its boiling point is separated by
distillation under reduced pressure.

42.functional group and eg ?Functional group – An atom/group of atoms joined in a

specific manner which is responsible for the characteristic chemical properties of the
organic compounds.Examples are hydroxyl group (-OH), aldehyde group (-CHO),
carboxylic group (-COOH) etc.

43.mole ? A mole is defined as the quantity of a material that includes precisely

6.022*10 23 Of the substance’s elementary entities.

44.Avogadro’s number. ?Avogadro’s number, number of units in one mole of any

substance, equal to 6.022×1023.

45.gram equalent mass ?

Is equal to molar mass /equivalence factor

46.molar volume ? One mole of any gas at a given temperature and pressure (STP)
has same fixed volume and is known as its molar gas volume

47.oxidation? It is loss of electrons or gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen.Since loss of

electron is taking place so we can say that there will be increase in oxidation number.

48.Limiting reagent ? is that species which is present in limit or less amount with
respect to other reactant species or which completely get consumed in a chemical
reaction.

49.difference b/w molecular mass and molar mass ? The molecular mass is the mass
of 1 molecule in amu(atomic mass unit) example: mass of 1 H2O molecule is 18 amu
Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of molecules i.e. mass of 6.022 *10^23 molecules.It is
the same number as Molecular mass but the unit is grams. ( Mass of 6.022 *10^23
molecules of H2O is 18 grams.)

50.calculate molar mass of acetone , sulphuric acid

Molar mass of C*H_{3} COCH 3

Acetone = =(3 x 12)+(1 x 6)+(16x1)= 36 + 6 + 16= 58g

Molar mass of H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid) = 2 + molar mass of sulphur + 4= [2 (1) + 32 +

4(16)]= 98 g/mol

51. Empirical formula of honey

Honey - Ch2O

Caffeine - C4H5N2O

52. Heisenberg uncertainty principal ? states that it is impossible to determine the

exact position and the exact momentum of the particle simultaneously. According to
Heisenberg uncertainty. Principal, b Delta dot X*Delta*P >= h/(4pi) . Thus, lesses the
error in the momentum more will be the error in the position

53.alfbau principle ? In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled with
electrons in order of increasing energies.”Electrons enters the orbitals according to
following(N+L)Rules.

a) Orbitals are filled in order of increasing value of (N+L).

Thus, 4s orbital is filled before 3d orbital. For 4s orbital,(N+L)=4+0=4. For 3d orbital,

(N+L)=3+2=5.

b) If two orbitals have same value of (N+L)Then the orbital with lower value of n will
be filled first.Thus, 3d orbital is filled before 4p orbital. For 3d orbital,
(N+L)=3+2=5. For 4p orbital, (N+L)=4+1=5. 3d orbital has lower value of n than
4p orbital.
53.Pauli exclusion principle? states that no two electrons can have the same
value of four quantum numbers.Thus, it excludes the electrons from having the
same quantum numbers and hence it is called exclusion principle.
54.Hund’s rule ? states that,
(i) In an atom no electron pairing takes place in the p,d or f orbital until each
orbital of the given subshell contains one electron.
(ii) The unpaired electrons present in the various orbitals of the same subshell
should have parallel spin.
55. Exchange energy?Electrons with the same spin have a tendency to
exchange their positions when they are present in the degenerate orbitals of a
subshell. The energy released during this exchange is called exchange energy.
56. electronic configuration Mn2+ ?answer (Ar]3d54s0
Electronic configuration of ?answer (Ar]3d34s0
57.find out radial nodes for 2s,4p,5d,4f orbital exhibit?
2s-1,4p-2 ,5d-2 ,4f-0
58.Orbital? is a three dimensional region in space around the nucleus in which
the probability of finding an electron is maximum.
59.Write the main points of bohrs atomic model . Write any two limitations .
Limitations ;
Bohr’s biggest contribution in his model was to introduce quantum principles to
classical physics, but his model had a few limitations:
Spectra of Large atoms:
The Bohr model could only successfully explain the hydrogen spectrum.
It could NOT accurately calculate the spectral lines of larger atoms.
The model only worked for hydrogen-like atoms
That is, if the atom had only one electron.Bohr’s model could not account for this
Solved by accounting for the existence of a tiny magnetic moment of each
electron
60.debroglie ?
The maximum kinetic energy of the charged particle that is accelerated through a
potential V, then
K = eV
61.bohrs model of the atom
(1) Atom has nucleus in the centre.
(2) Electrons revolve around the nucleus.
(3) Certain special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons, are allowed inside
the atom.
(4) While revolving in discrete orbits the electrons do not radiate energy.
(5) These orbits or shells are called energy levels.
(6) These orbits or shells are represented by the letters K, L, M, N or the
numbers n = 1, 2, 3, 4
62.What are Quantum numbers? Explain quantum number in brief.? The
numbers which identify the state of an electron, specify the energy associated
with it and its location around the nucleus are called quantum numbers. These
numbers are used to designate and distinguish electrons in atomic orbitals.There
are four quantum numbers, the principal quantum number(N)
Azimuthal quantum number(L), the magnetic quantum number(M)
, and spin quantum number(S) Atomic orbitals can be completely described in
terms of a set of three quantum numbers N,L,M,S
. These quantum numbers partly describe an electron in a particular orbital.In
order to specify an electron in an atom completely a fourth quantum number
called spin quantum number(S)