Chapter 8

Equilibria
2
 Reversible Reactions &
Dynamic Equilibrium
Reversible reaction

• Some reactions go to completion where the reactants are used up to form the
products and the reaction stops when all of the reactants are used up

• In reversible reactions the products can react to reform the original reactants

• To show a reversible reaction, two opposing half arrows are used: ⇌

4
 “
The diagram shows an example of a forward and backward
reaction that can be written as one equation using two half
arrows

5
Dynamic equilibrium

◎ In a dynamic equilibrium the reactants and products

are dynamic (they are constantly moving)

◎ In a dynamic equilibrium the rate of the forward

reaction is the same as the rate of the backward
reaction in a closed system, and the concentrations
of the reactants and products is constant

6
The diagram shows a snapshot of a dynamic equilibrium in which molecules of
hydrogen iodide are breaking down to hydrogen and iodine at the same rate as
hydrogen and iodine molecules are reacting together to form hydrogen iodide

7
The diagram shows that the concentration of the reactants and products does not
change anymore once equilibrium has been reached (equilibrium was approached
using reactants)
8
The diagram shows that the concentration of the reactants and products
does not change anymore once equilibrium has been reached
(equilibrium was approached using products)

9
◎ A closed system is one in which none of the reactants or products
escape from the reaction mixture

◎ In an open system, matter and energy can be lost to the

surroundings

◎ When a reaction takes place entirely in solution, equilibrium can

be reached in open flasks as a negligible amount of material is lost
through evaporation

◎ If the reaction involves gases, equilibrium can only be reached in

a closed system

10
The diagram shows a closed system in which no carbon dioxide gas can
escape and the calcium carbonate is in equilibrium with the calcium
oxide and carbon dioxide

11
The diagram shows an open system in which the calcium carbonate is
continually decomposing as the carbon dioxide is lost causing the
reaction to eventually go to completion

12
Exam Tip

◎ A common misconception is to think that the

concentrations of the reactants and products are equal.
However, they are not equal but they remain
constant at dynamic equilibrium (i.e. the
concentrations are not changing).

◎ The concentrations will change as the reaction

progresses, only until the equilibrium is reached.

13
 Le Chatelier's
Principle
Position of the equilibrium

◎ The position of the equilibrium refers to the relative amounts of

products and reactants in an equilibrium mixture.

◎ When the position of equilibrium shifts to the left, it means the

concentration of reactants increases

◎ When the position of equilibrium shifts to the right, it means the

concentration of products increases

14
Le Chatelier’s principle

◎ Le Chatelier’s principle says that if a change is

made to a system at dynamic equilibrium, the
position of the equilibrium moves to minimise this
change

◎ The principle is used to predict changes to the

position of equilibrium when there are changes in
temperature, pressure or concentration

15
Effects of concentration

Effects of concentration table

16
Worked example: Changes in equilibrium position

17
Answer
Answer 1:
The position of the equilibrium moves to the left and more ethanoic acid and ethanol are
formed.
The reaction moves in this direction to oppose the effect of added ethyl ethanoate, so the
ethyl ethanoate decreases in concentration.

Answer 2:
The position of the equilibrium moves to the left and more ethanoic acid and ethanol are
formed.
The reaction moves in this direction to oppose the removal of ethanol so more ethanol (and
ethanoic acid) are formed from ethyl ethanoate and water.

Answer 3:
There is no effect as the water dilutes all the ions equally so there is no change in the
ratio of reactants to products.

18
Effects of pressure

Changes in pressure only affect reactions where the reactants

or products are gases

19
Worked example: Changes in pressure

20
Answer

Answer 1:
The equilibrium shifts to the left as there are fewer gas molecules on the left.
This causes a decrease in pressure.

Answer 2:
The equilibrium shifts to the left as there are no gas molecules on the left but
there is CO2 on the right.
This causes a decrease in pressure.

Answer 3:
The equilibrium shifts to the right as there is a greater number of gas molecules
on the right.
This causes an increase in pressure.

21
Effects of temperature

22
Worked example: Changes in
temperature

23
Answer

Answer 1:
The reaction will absorb the excess energy and since the forward
reaction is endothermic, the equilibrium will shift to the right.

Answer 2:
The reaction will absorb the excess energy and since this causes
a shift of the equilibrium towards the right (as more CO 2(g) is
formed) this means that the reaction is endothermic (because
endothermic reactions favour the products).

24
Effects of catalysts
• A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction
(they increase the rate of the forward and reverse reaction equally)

• Catalysts only cause a reaction to reach its equilibrium faster

• Catalysts therefore have no effect on the position of the equilibrium

once this is reached

25
Equilibrium expression & constant
◎ The equilibrium expression is an expression that
links the equilibrium constant, Kc, to the
concentrations of reactants and products at
equilibrium taking the stoichiometry of the
equation into account

◎ So, for a given reaction:

aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD

26
 ◎ the Kc is defined as follows:

Equilibrium expression linking the equilibrium concentration of

reactants and products at equilibrium

• Solids are ignored in equilibrium expressions

• The Kc of a reaction is specific and only changes if the temperature of the reaction
changes
27
Worked example: Deducing
equilibrium
expressions

28
29
Partial pressure

• For reactions involving mixtures of gases, the equilibrium constant

Kp is used as it is easier to measure the pressure than the
concentration for gases

• The partial pressure of a gas is the pressure that the gas would
have if it was in the container all by itself

• The total pressure is the sum of the partial pressure

30
Equation to calculate the total pressure in a mixture
of gases

31
 “
The diagram shows that each gas in the mixture has a
partial pressure contributing towards the total pressure

32
 Mole fraction

The mole fraction of a gas is the ratio of moles of a particular

gas to the total number of moles of gas present

Equation to calculate the mole fraction of a particular gas in a

gas mixture

33
 ◎ To calculate the partial pressures of each gas the

“
following relationship can be used:

◎ The sum of the mole fractions should add up to 1.00, while

the sum of the partial pressures should add up to the total
pressure.

34
Equilibrium Constant: Partial Pressures
Equilibrium expressions involving partial pressures

◎ Equilibrium expressions in terms of partial pressures are written similarly to

those involving concentrations with a few differences

The diagram shows a comparison of writing equilibrium expressions in terms of partial

pressures and concentrations
35
Worked example: Deducing equilibrium expressions of gaseous
reactions

36
37
 Equilibrium Constant:
Calculations
Calculations involving Kc

• In the equilibrium expression each figure within a square bracket

represents the concentration in mol dm-3

• The units of Kc therefore depend on the form of the equilibrium

expression

• Some questions give the number of moles of each of the reactants

and products at equilibrium together with the volume of the reaction
mixture

• The concentrations of the reactants and products can then be

calculated from the number of moles and total volume 38
Equation to calculate concentration from number of
moles and volume

39
Worked example: Calculating Kc of ethanoic acid

40
 Answer

Step 1: Calculate the concentrations of the reactants and products

41
 Step 2: Write out the balanced chemical equation with the
concentrations of beneath each substance

Step 3: Write the equilibrium constant for this reaction in terms of

concentration

42
Step 4: Substitute the equilibrium concentrations into the
expression

Step 5: Deduce the correct units for Kc

All units cancel out

Therefore, Kc = 4.03
43
• Note that the smallest number of significant figures used in the
question is 3, so the final answer should also be given to 3
significant figures

• Some questions give the initial and equilibrium

concentrations of the reactants and products

• An initial, change and equilibrium table should be used to

determine the equilibrium concentration of the products using
the molar ratio of reactants and products in the
stoichiometric equation

44
Worked example: Calculating Kc of ethyl ethanoate

45
Answer

Step 1: Write out the balanced chemical equation with

the concentrations of beneath each substance using an
initial, change and equilibrium table

46
Step 2: Calculate the concentrations of the
reactants and products

47
Step 3: Write the equilibrium constant for this reaction in
terms of concentration

Step 4: Substitute the equilibrium concentrations into the

expression

48
 Step 5: Deduce the correct units for Kc

All units cancel out

Therefore, Kc = 0.288

49
Calculations involving Kp

• In the equilibrium expression the p represent the partial

pressure of the reactants and products in Pa

• The units of Kp therefore depend on the form of the

equilibrium expression

50
Worked example: Calculating Kp of a gaseous
reaction

51
Answer

Step 1: Write the equilibrium constant for the reaction in terms of partial
pressures

Step 2: Substitute the equilibrium concentrations into the expression

Step 3: Deduce the correct units of Kp

The units of Kp are Pa-1

Therefore, Kp = 9.1 x 10-6 Pa-1

52
• Some questions only give the number of moles of gases present
and the total pressure

• The number of moles of each gas should be used to first

calculate the mole fractions

• The mole fractions are then used to calculate the partial

pressures

• The values of the partial pressures are then substituted in

the equilibrium expression

53
Worked example: Calculating Kp of hydrogen iodide
equilibrium reaction

54
•Step 1: Calculate the total number of moles

Total number of moles = 1.71 x 10-3 + 2.91 x 10-3 + 1.65 x 10-2

= 2.112 x 10-2

•Step 2: Calculate the mole fraction of each gas

•Step 3: Calculate the partial pressure of each gas

H2 = 0.0810 x 100 = 8.10 kPa
I2 = 0.1378 x 100 = 13.78 kPa
55
•Step 4: Write the equilibrium constant in terms of partial pressure

•Step 5: Substitute the values into the equilibrium expression

Other questions
related to
equilibrium
expressions may
= 54.7 involve
•Step 6: Deduce the correct units for Kp calculating
quantities
All units cancel out present at
Therefore, Kp = 54.7 equilibrium given
appropriate data
56
Worked example: Calculating partial pressures

57
Answer
There are equal volumes of reactants A and B in a 1:1 molar
ratio.
This means their partial pressures will be the same.

B therefore also has an equilibrium partial pressure of 0.5

Total pressure = sum of equilibrium (Σ) partial pressures

Therefore, the sum of all the partial pressures must equal to

3 atm

0.5 + 0.5 + pc = 3 atm

pc = 2 atm

58
 Changes that Affect the Equilibrium
Constant

Changes in concentration

• If all other conditions stay the same, the equilibrium

constant Kc is not affected by any changes in
concentration of the reactants or products

• For example, the decomposition of hydrogen iodide:

2HI ⇌ H2 + I2

59
• The equilibrium expression is:

Adding more HI makes the ratio of [ products ] to [ reactants ]

smaller

To restore equilibrium, [H2] and [I2] increases and [HI]

decreases

Equilibrium is restored when the ratio is 6.25 x 10-3 again

60
Changes in pressure

• A change in pressure only changes the position of the equilibrium (see

Le Chatelier’s principle)

• If all other conditions stay the same, the equilibrium constant Kc is not
affected by any changes in pressure of the reactants and products

61
Changes in temperature
• Changes in temperature change the equilibrium constant Kc
For an endothermic reaction such as:

• An increase in temperature:
[H2] and [I2] increases
[HI] decreases

• Because [H2] and [I2] are increasing and [HI] is decreasing, the
equilibrium constant Kc increases

62
For an exothermic reaction such as:

An increase in temperature:

[SO3] decreases

[SO2] and [O2] increases

Because [SO3] decreases and [SO2] and

[O2] increases the equilibrium

constant Kc decreases63
Presence of a catalyst

• If all other conditions stay the same, the equilibrium

constant Kc is not affected by the presence of a catalyst

• A catalyst speeds up both the forward and reverse reactions at

the same rate so the ratio of [ products ] to [ reactants ]
remains unchanged

64
Worked example: Factors affecting Kc

65
Answer
◎ Only a change in temperature will affect the value
of Kc and any other changes in conditions would result in
the position of the equilibrium moving in such way to
oppose this change.

◎ Adding a catalyst will increase the rate of reaction

meaning the state of equilibrium will be reached faster but
will have no effect on the position of the equilibrium and
therefore Kc is unchanged.

66
Worked example: Factors which increase Kp value

67
Answer

◎ Only temperature changes permanently affect the

value of Kp

◎ An increase in temperature shifts the reaction in

favour of the products.

◎ The [ products ] increases and [ reactants ]

decreases, therefore, the Kp value increases.

68
Industrial Processes

Haber & Contact Processes

◎ Equilibrium reactions are involved in some stages

of large-scale production of certain chemicals

◎ An understanding of equilibrium and Le

Chatelier’s principle is therefore very important in
the chemical industry

69
Haber process

◎ The Haber process involves the synthesis of ammonia

according to:

N­2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) ΔHr = -92 kJ mol-1

◎ Le Chatelier’s principle is used to get the best yield of

ammonia

70
Maximising the ammonia yield
Pressure
• An increase in pressure will result in the equilibrium shifting in the direction of the
fewest molecules of gas formed to reduce the pressure

• In this case, the equilibrium shifts towards the right so the yield of ammonia increases

• An increase in pressure will cause the particles to be closer together and therefore
increasing the number of successful collisions leading to an increased reaction rate

• Very high pressures are expensive to produce therefore a compromise pressure of 200
atm is chosen

71
Temperature

• To get the maximum yield of ammonia the position of equilibrium

should be shifted as far as possible to the right as possible

• Since the Haber process is an exothermic reaction, according to Le

Chatelier’s principle the equilibrium will shift to the right if the
temperature is lowered

• A decrease in temperature will decrease the energy of the surroundings

so the reaction will go in the direction in which energy is released to
counteract this

72
Removing ammonia

• Removing ammonia by condensing it to a liquid causes the

equilibrium position to shift to the right to replace the ammonia causing
more ammonia to be formed from hydrogen and nitrogen

• The removed ammonia is stored at very low temperatures and there

is no catalyst present with the stored ammonia so the decomposition
reaction of ammonia to decompose back into hydrogen and nitrogen will
be too slow

73
Catalysts

• In the absence of a catalyst the reaction is so slow that hardly anything happens in
a reasonable time!

• Adding an iron catalyst speeds up the rate of reaction

Contact process

• The Contact process involves the synthesis of sulfuric acid according to:

• 2SO­2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g) ΔHr = -197 kJ mol-1

• Le Chatelier’s principle is used to get the best yield of sulfuric acid

74
• Since the reaction is exothermic, the equilibrium shifts to the right

• However, at a low temperature the gases won’t have enough kinetic

energy to collide and react and therefore equilibrium would not be
reached therefore compromise temperature of 400-450 oC is used in
the Haber process

• A heat exchanger warms the incoming gas mixture to give molecules

more kinetic energy such that the gas molecules collide more
frequently increasing the likelihood of a reaction

75
 Maximising the sulfuric acid yield
Pressure
◎
An increase in pressure will result in the equilibrium shifting in the direction of the fewest
molecules of gas formed to reduce the pressure
◎
In this case, the equilibrium shifts towards the right so the yield of sulfuric acid increases
◎
In practice, the reaction is carried out at only 1 atm
This is because Kp for this reaction is already very high meaning that the position of the
equilibrium is already far over to the right
◎
Higher pressures than 1 atm will be unnecessary and expensive

76
Temperature

◎ The same principle applies to increasing the

temperature in the Contact process as in the Haber
process

◎ A compromise temperature of 450 oC is used

77
Removing sulfuric acid

◎ SO3 is removed by absorbing it in 98% sulfuric acid

◎ The SO3 reacts with the solution and more H2SO4 is formed

Catalysts

◎ The Contact process uses vanadium(V) oxide as a catalyst to increase the

rate of reaction

78
 Acids & Bases
Common Acids
◎ An acid is a substance that neutralises a base forming a salt and
water:
2HCl(aq) + CaO(s) ⇌ CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
acid salt

◎ Acids react with bases to form salt and water

◎ Acids are also substances that release hydrogen ions when they
dissolve in water:
◎ HCl(g) → H+(aq) + Cl– (aq)

79
 Names & formulae of some common acids table

• In organic acids (such as carboxylic acids) only some of the

hydrogen atoms can form ions when the acid dissociates
80
Common Alkalis
◎ A base is a compound that neutralises an acid forming a salt and water
2HCl(aq) + CaO(s) ⇌ CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
base salt
◎ A base is a substance that accepts hydrogen ions or a compound that contains
oxide or hydroxide ions
For example:

NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)

base hydroxide ions
◎ For example:
NaOH(s) + aq → Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)
base hydroxide ions
◎ A base that is soluble in water is called an alkali
81
Names & formulae of some common alkalis table

82
Brønsted–Lowry Theory
◎ The Brønsted-Lowry Theory defines acids and bases in
terms of proton transfer between chemical compounds

◎ A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a species that gives away a

proton (H+)

◎ A Brønsted-Lowry base is a species that accepts a proton

(H+) using its lone pair of electrons

83
The diagram shows a Brønsted-Lowry acid which donates the proton
to the Brønsted-Lowry base that accepts the proton using its lone pair
of electrons
84
 Species that can act both as acids and bases are
called amphoteric Eg. water as a Brønsted-
Lowry acid

The diagram shows water acting as a Brønsted-Lowry acid by

donating a proton to ammonia which accepts the proton using its
lone pair of electrons
85
 The diagram shows a dot &
cross diagram for the
reaction of water with
ammonia to show how
water acts as a Brønsted-
Lowry acid and ammonia
as a Brønsted-Lowry base

86
 Eg. water as a Brønsted-Lowry base

The diagram shows water acting as a Brønsted-Lowry base by

accepting a proton from hydrochloric acid proton using its lone pair
of electrons
87
 The diagram shows a
dot & cross diagram
for the reaction of
water with
hydrochloric acid to
show how water acts
as a Brønsted-Lowry
base and ammonia as
a Brønsted-Lowry
acid

88
 The Brønsted-Lowry Theory is not limited to aqueous solutions
only and can also be applied to reactions that occur in the gas
phase

Example of a Brønsted-Lowry acid and base reaction in the gas state

89
 Exam Tip

An atom of hydrogen contains 1 proton, 1 electron and 0 neutrons.

When hydrogen loses an electron to become H+ only a proton
remains, which is why a H+ ion is also called a proton.

Simple explaination for Brønsted–Lowry Theory

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZiokqP0aZ1E

90
Acid & Base Dissociation
Strong acids

◎ A strong acid is an acid that dissociates almost

completely in aqueous solutions
◉ HCl (hydrochloric acid), HNO3 (nitric acid) and
H2SO4 (sulfuric acid)

◎ The position of the equilibrium is so far over to the right

that you can represent the reaction as an irreversible
reaction

91
The diagram shows the almost complete dissociation of a strong acid in
aqueous solution

92
• The solution formed is highly acidic due to the high concentration of the
H+/H3O+ ions

• Since the pH depends on the concentration of H+/H3O+ ions, the pH can

be calculated if the concentration of the strong acid is known

pH is the negative log of the concentration of H+/H3O+ ions and

can be calculated if the concentration of the strong acid is
known using the stoichiometry of the reaction

93
Weak acids
• A weak acid is an acid that partially (or incompletely) dissociates in
aqueous solutions

◉ Eg. most organic acids (ethanoic acid), HCN (hydrocyanic acid),

H2S (hydrogen sulfide) and H2CO3 (carbonic acid)

• The position of the equilibrium is more over to the left and an

equilibrium is established

94
• The solution is less acidic due to the lower concentration of
H+/H3O+ ions

• Finding the pH of a weak acid is a bit more complicated as now

the concentration of H+ ions is not equal to the concentration of
acid

• To find the concentration of H+ ions, the acid dissociation

constant (Ka) should be used

95
Acid & equilibrium position table

96
Strong bases
• A strong base is a base that dissociates almost
completely in aqueous solution

• E.g. group 1 metal hydroxides such as NaOH (sodium

hydroxide)
•
The position of the equilibrium is so far over to the right
that you can represent the reaction as an irreversible
reaction

97
 The solution formed is
highly basic due to the
high concentration of
the OH– ions

The diagram shows the almost complete dissociation of a strong

base in aqueous solution

98
Weak bases
• A weak base is a base that partially (or incompletely)
dissociates in aqueous solutions

◉ NH3 (ammonia), amines and some hydroxides of transition

metals

• The position of the equilibrium is more to the left and an

equilibrium is established

99
 The solution is less basic
due to the lower
concentration of OH– ions

The diagram shows the almost complete

dissociation of a weak base in aqueous solution

100
101
 Exam Tip
◎ Hydrogen ions in aqueous solutions can be written as either as H 3O+ or as H+ however, if H3O+
is used, H2O should be included in the chemical equation:
HCl(g) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
or
HCl(g) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

◎ Remember that some acids are both strong and weak acids – for example, H2SO4 (sulfuric
acid) has two hydrogen ions that can ionise.
◎ H2SO4 acts as a strong acid: H2SO4 → H+ + SO4–
◎ HSO4– acts as a weak acid: HSO4– ⇌ H+ + SO42-
◎ Also, don’t forget that the terms strong and weak acids and bases are related to the degree of
dissociation and not the concentration.
◎ The appropriate terms to use when describing concentration are dilute and concentrated.
102
 The pH Scale
◎ The pH scale is a numerical scale that shows how acidic or alkaline a solution is

◎ The values on the pH scale go from 1-14 (extremely acidic substances have values of
below 1)

◎ All acids have pH values of below 7, all alkalis have pH values above 7

◎ The lower the pH then the more acidic the solution is

◎ The higher the pH then the more alkaline the solution is

103
The pH scale showing acidity, neutrality and alkalinity

104
pH of water
An equilibrium exists in water where few water molecules dissociate into
proton and hydroxide ions

H2O(l) ⇌ H+(aq) + OH–(aq)

The equilibrium constant for this reaction is:

Kc x [H2O] = [H+] [OH–]

105
• Since the concentration the H+ and OH– ions is very small, the concentration of
water is considered to be a constant, such that the expression can be rewritten
as:

Kw = [H+] [OH–]
Where Kw (ionic product of water) = Kc x [H2O]
= 10-14 mol2 dm-3 at 298K

• Water at 298K has equal amounts of OH– and H+ ions with concentrations of
10-7 mol dm-3

106
◎ To calculate the pH of water, the following formula should
be used:

pH = -log (10-7)
=7
Thus, water has a pH of 7
107
pH of acids

• Acidic solutions (strong or weak) always have more H+ than

OH– ions

• Since the concentration of H+ is always greater than the

concentration of OH– ions, [H+] is always greater than 10-7 mol
dm-3

• Using the pH formula, this means that the pH of acidic

solutions is always below 7

• The higher the [H+] of the acid, the lower the pH

108
pH of bases
◎ Basic solutions (strong or weak) always have more OH–
than H+ ions

◎ Since the concentration of OH– is always greater than

the concentration of H+ ions, [H+] is always smaller than
10-7 mol dm-3

◎ Using the pH formula, this means that the pH of basic

solutions is always above 7

◎ The higher the [OH–] of the base, the higher the pH

109
Strength of Acids & Bases
Strong & Weak Acids & Bases

◎ Strong and weak acids can be distinguished from

each other by their:

◉ pH value (using a pH meter or universal

indicator)
◉ Electrical conductivity
◉ Reactivity

110
pH
• An acid dissociates into H+ in solution according to:
HA → H+ + A–
• The stronger the acid, the greater the concentration of H+ and
therefore the lower the pH
• pH value of a strong acid & base table

111
• The most accurate way to determine the pH is by reading it off
a pH meter
• The pH meter is connected to the pH electrode which shows the
pH value of the solution

The diagram shows a digital pH meter that

measures the pH of a solution using a pH electrode
112
 • A less accurate method is to measure
the pH using universal indicator paper

• The universal indicator paper is dipped

into a solution of acid upon which the
paper changes colour

• The colour is then compared to those

on a chart which shows the colours
corresponding to different pH values

The diagram shows the change in colour of the

universal indicator paper when dipped in a strong
(HCl) and weak (CH3COOH) acid. The colour chart is
used to read off the corresponding pH values which
are between 1-2 for HCl and 3-4 for CH 3COOH
113
Electrical conductivity

• Since a stronger acid has a higher concentration of H+ it conducts

electricity better

• Stronger acids therefore have a greater electrical conductivity

• The electrical conductivity can be determined by using a conductivity

meter

• Like the pH meter, the conductivity meter is connected to an electrode

• The conductivity of the solution can be read off the meter

114
The diagram shows a digital conductivity meter
that measures the electrical conductivity of a
solution using an electrode

115
Reactivity

• Strong and weak acids of the same concentrations react

differently with reactive metals

• This is because the concentration of H+ is greater in strong acids

compared to weak acids

• The greater H+ concentration means that more H2 gas is

produced

116
The diagram shows the reaction of 0.1 mol dm-3 of a strong acid
(HCl) with Mg. The reaction produces a lot of bubbles and hydrogen
gas due to the high concentration of H+ present in solution
117
The diagram shows the reaction of 0.1 mol dm -3 of a weak acid (CH3COOH) with Mg.
The reaction produces less bubbles and hydrogen gas due to the lower
concentration of H+ present in solution
118
 Exam Tip

The above-mentioned properties of strong and weak acids depend on their

ability to dissociate and form H+ ions.

Stronger acids dissociate more, producing a greater concentration of H +

ions and therefore showing lower pH values, greater electrical
conductivity and more vigorous reactions with reactive metals.

119
Neutralisation Reactions
o A neutralisation reaction is one in which an acid (pH <7) and a
base/alkali (pH >7) react together to form water (pH = 7) and a salt

o The proton of the acid reacts with the hydroxide of the base to
form water

o The spectator ions which are not involved in the formation of

water, form the salt

120
The diagram shows a neutralisation reaction of HCl and NaOH
and the two individual reactions that take place to form the water
and salt
121
The name of the salt produced can be predicted
from the acid that has reacted

Acid reacted & salt table

Note that the reaction of an acid and metal carbonate also

forms carbon dioxide:
acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
122
 pH Titration Curves
What are pH titration curves
◎ Titration is a technique used in neutralisation reactions between acids and alkalis to determine
the concentration of the unknown solution
◎ It involves adding a titrant of known concentration from a burette into a conical flask
containing the analyte of unknown concentration
◎ An indicator is added which will change colour at the endpoint of the titration
◎ The endpoint is the point at which equal number of moles of titrant and analyte react with each
other
◎ The equivalence point is halfway the vertical region of the curve
Equivalence point → moles of alkali = moles of acid
◎ This is also known as the equivalence point and this is the point at which neutralisation takes
place

123
The diagram shows a pH titration curve where the equivalence point is the point at which
equal number of moles of titrant and analyte have reacted

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Sketching pH titration curve
o Draw a horizontal line running parallel to
the x-axis at pH 7 Everything below this
o Draw axes with volume added (cm3) on the line will be in the acidic region and
x-axis and pH on the y-axis everything above it in the alkaline region

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• Determine which substance is in the conical
flask. If it is a strong acid the initial pH is
about 1 or 2
• If it is a weak acid the initial pH is about 3-4
• If it is a strong alkali the initial pH is about
13-14
• If it is a weak alkali the initial pH is about 11
• Determine what type of acids and alkali are
used Strong acid + strong alkali
• Strong acid + weak alkali
• Weak acid + strong alkali
• Weak acid + weak alkali

126
Draw the pH titration curve

127
Strong acid + strong alkali pH titration curve
• Initially there are only H+ ions present in solution from the
dissociation of the strong acid (HCl) (initial pH about 1-2)

• As the volume of strong alkali (NaOH) added increases, the

pH of the HCl solution slightly increases too as more and more
H+ ions react with the OH– from the NaOH to form water

• The change in pH is not that much until the volume added gets
close to the equivalence point

128
• The pH surges upwards very steeply

• The equivalence point is the point at which all H+ ions

have been neutralised (therefore pH is 7 at equivalence
point)

• Adding more NaOH will increase the pH as now there is an

excess in OH– ions (final pH about 13-14)

129
The diagram shows a pH titration curve of 1.0 mol
dm-3 HCl (25 cm3) with NaOH

130
• The pH titration curve for HCl added to a NaOH has the same shape
• The initial pH and final pH are the other way around
• The equivalence point is still 7

The diagram shows a pH titration curve of 1.0 mol dm -3 NaOH (25 cm3) with HCl

131
Strong acid + weak alkali pH titration curve

• Initially, there are only H+ ions present in solution from the

dissociation of the strong acid (HCl) (initial pH about 1-2)

• As the volume of weak alkali (NH3) added increases, the pH of

the analyte solution slightly increases too as more and more H+
ions react with the NH3

• The change in pH is not that much until the volume added gets
close to the equivalence point

132
• The equivalence point is the point at which all H+ ions have
been neutralised by the NH3 however the equivalence point is
not neutral, but the solution is still acidic (pH about 5.5)

• This is because all H+ have reacted with NH3 to form NH4+

which is a relatively strong acid, causing the solution to be
acidic

• As more of the NH3 is added, the pH increases to above 7 but

below that of a strong alkali as NH3 is a weak alkali

133
• The equivalence point is the point at which all H + ions
have been neutralised by the NH3 however the equivalence
point is not neutral, but the solution is still acidic (pH about
5.5)

• This is because all H+ have reacted with NH3 to form NH4+

which is a relatively strong acid, causing the solution to be
acidic

• As more of the NH3 is added, the pH increases to above 7 but

below that of a strong alkali as NH3 is a weak alkali

134
• The pH titration curve for strong acid added to a weak alkali has the same
shape
• The initial and final pH are the other way around
• The equivalence point is still about 5.5

The diagram shows a pH titration curve of 1.0 mol dm -3 HCl (25 cm3) with NH3
135
Weak acid + strong alkali pH titration curve

• Initially there are only H+ ions present in solution from the

dissociation of the weak acid (CH3COOH, ethanoic acid) (initial
pH about 3-4)

• As the volume of strong alkali (NaOH) added increases, the pH

of the ethanoic acid solution slightly increases too as more and
more H+ ions react with the OH– from the NaOH to form water

• The change in pH is not that much until the volume added gets
close to the equivalence point

136
• The pH surges upwards very steeply

• The equivalence point is the point at which all H+ ions have

been neutralised by the OH– ions however the equivalence
points is not neutral, but the solution is slightly basic (pH about
9)

• This is because all H+ in CH3COOH have reacted with OH–

however, CH3COO– is a relatively strong base, causing the
solution to be basic

• As more of the NaOH is added, the pH increases to about 13-14

137
The diagram shows a pH titration curve of 1.0 mol dm -3 CH3COOH (25 cm3) with
NaOH
• The pH titration curve for weak acid added to a strong alkali has the same
shape
• The initial and final pH are the other way around
• The equivalence point is still about138 9
Weak acid + weak alkali pH titration curve

• Initially there are only H+ ions present in solution from the

dissociation of the weak acid (CH3COOH, ethanoic acid) (initial
pH about 3-4)

• In these pH titration curves, there is no vertical region

• There is a ‘point of inflexion’ at the equivalence point

• The curve does not provide much other information

139
The diagram shows a pH titration curve of 1.0 mol dm -3 weak acid (25 cm3) with
weak alkali

140
 Indicators used in Titration
◎ Indicators are substances that change colour when they are added
to acidic or alkaline solutions

◎ When choosing the appropriate indicator, the pH of the

equivalence point is very important

◎ The two most common indicators that are used in titrations are
methyl orange and phenolphthalein

◎ Both indicators change colour over a specific pH range

141
The diagram shows the change in colour from red to yellow of methyl orange
over a pH range of 3.1-4.4 and from colourless to pink of phenolphthalein over
a pH range of 8.3-10

142
Indicator & pH range table

143
 Choosing indicators for
titrations
◎ Strong acid and strong alkali

◉ The colour change for both

indicators takes place at a pH range
that falls within the vertical region of
the curve

◉ Therefore, both indicators can be

used
The diagram shows that both indicators can
be used to determine the endpoint of the
titration of a strong acid and strong alkali
144
 ◎ Strong acid and weak alkali

◉ Only methyl orange will

change colour at a pH close
to the equivalence point and
within the vertical region of
the curve

The diagram shows that only methyl orange can be

used to determine the endpoint of the titration of a
strong acid and weak alkali
145
 ◎ Weak acid and strong alkali

◉ Now, only phenolphthalein

will change colour at a pH close
to the equivalence point and
within the vertical region of the
curve

◉ The pH range at which methyl

orange changes colour falls
below the curve
The diagram shows that only phenolphthalein
can be used to determine the endpoint of the
titration of a weak acid and strong alk
146
 ◎ Weak acid and weak alkali

◉ Neither indicator is useful,

and a different method
should be considered

The diagram shows that nether indicators can be

used to determine the endpoint of the titration of a
weak acid and weak alkali
147
 Thanks!

Any questions?

148