THE THREE PILLARS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: THE STATE OF

THE ART

Álaze Gabriel do Breviario

BRIEF RESUME:

Masters student in Administration, advanced corporate finance research line (Must University-
2025). Specializing in Tax Management (USP-2025), with full scholarship. Specializing in Corporate
Treasury (USP-2025), with full scholarship. Specializing in Educational Use of the Internet (UFLA-
2025). Specializing in Neurosciences, Behavior and Psychopathology (PUC-PR-2025). Specialist in
Finance and Controllership (USP-2023), with full scholarship. Specialist in Financial Management
(UNINTER-2022). Specialist in Teaching and Research for Higher Education (UNIMES-2015).
Specialist in Finance and Controlling (UBC-2014). Bachelor of Accounting Sciences (UNIMES-2019).
Studied an incomplete Bachelor's degree in Statistics (UFSCar-2013-2017). Business Management
Technologist (UBC-2012). Author of a one hundred percent original THEORY OF
PREDESTINATION, without involvement with other predesinatory, reincarnationist, and non-
scientific theories - although this theory needs refinements and hypothesis testing to corroborate its
conclusions. Produces scientific research on: scientific paradigms; organizational theories; scientific
research methodology; teaching in higher education; Distance Education (EaD); Discounted Cash
Flow-DCF); synergies; Mergers and Acquisitions (FA). Blog administrator. He works as a writer,
speaker, consultant and mentor. Competitor. He has very fragmented and diversified academic and
professional trajectories with a concentration in the administrative and accounting areas. Participated in
the extension course PRE-ACADEMIC TRAINING: AFFIRMATION IN THE POST UFPR CLASS
2022 (UFPR-2022). Participated in the short course VALUATION AND FINANCIAL MODELING
(FreeHelper-2021). Participated in the VALUATION AND VALUE METRICS update course (USP-
2021), with a full scholarship. Participated in the extension course EQUITY IN ACCESS TO
POSTGRADUATION FOR POPULATIONS UNDERREPRESENTED IN MASTERS COURSES
(UFSCar-2013).
Orcid: 0000-0002-9480-6325.

SYNOPSIS:

This work qualitatively addresses the three constituent pillars of scientific research
methodology, namely: epistemological, logical and technical. Since the vast literature on this topic
greatly contradicts itself when it comes to its constituent pillars, this work carries out, in a very
comprehensive but not exhaustive way, a review of the critical literature and other documents on the
topic, with the objective to clarify its correct understanding and its appropriate use. Therefore, this
book is aimed primarily at university students. To this end, it uses: the neoperspectivist paradigm, as its
epistemological axis; the hypothetical-deductive method, as the basis of its thought structure; and the
non-participant observational method, of the bibliographic and documentary type, as the procedural
basis of its investigation. It discusses the obstacles to scientific progress, among the main ones,
imperfect human interpretations and poor adaptations and/or applications of research methods by the
researcher. Considers and presents ethics as a driving element of authentic scientificity. It is concluded
that this work brings significant terminological, conceptual, taxonomic and content advances to the
topic investigated.
 I dedicate this work to my carnal family (mother, Éric,
Érica and Igor) and to my spiritual family, that is, to my
brothers and sisters in faith.
THANKS

Firstly, I thank Jehovah God for the gifts of life, intelligence, conscience, understanding,
wisdom and science and, above all, because without Him nothing is possible.
To my family, especially my mother, Sônia, and my younger brother, Igor, who always
supported me in whatever was necessary for me to prepare this work.
To my undergraduate and postgraduate professors, through whom I learned to research and
from whom I absorbed as much knowledge and experience as possible, which were undoubtedly
essential for the production of this book.
To the brothers and sisters in my faith, in Jehovah's Organization, who supported me morally
and financially so that I could publish this book through Appris.
To the professionals at Editora e Livraria Appris, who helped me a lot, in whatever was
necessary, for the complete publishing of this book.
To all the people whose names are not found here, but who, in some way, contributed to this
work being carried out.

For all things I have strength thanks to the One who

gives me power.
(Philippians 4:13)
 PRESENTATION

To prepare this work, focused on the methodology of scientific research , seeking a coherent
classification for the different types of existing knowledge, I read many books, manuals, articles,
theses, dissertations. I observed some type of inconsistency in all the content I analyzed, from the least
to the most rigorous scientific research, reaching the conclusion that the inconsistencies observed were
due to human imperfections, which is why I believe – and I say right now – that neither This work of
mine nor any other, despite the improvements brought, will eliminate them completely.
However, there is no need to be discouraged, because science advances little by little, slowly,
much less quickly than technology, which changes every moment. For this reason, I continued hard in
my bibliographic and documentary research looking for one or a few classifications that could cover,
with more coherence, the different types of existing knowledge. After years of investigation, I came up
with some proposals, one of which I present below:

Table 1 – A more coherent classification of the different types of existing knowledge

Factual
Religious
Scientific
Artistic
Physicist Philosophical
(Natural) Factual
No
Religious
Scientific
Artistic
(common sense)
Philosophical

Scientific Parapsychological
Metaphysical
(supernatural) No Mediumistic
Scientific
Clairvoyant
(common sense)

Source: prepared by the author

 This classification is more coherent because it categorizes the different types of existing
knowledge in a more organized, clear and broad way, taking into account the emergence of new
scientific methods and techniques for obtaining and processing data, that is, building knowledge. In this
table, we observe 11 types of knowledge, taking into consideration only three criteria, whether it is
natural or supernatural, whether the methods and techniques used for its construction are scientific or
not, and the origin of knowledge.
However, we could continue categorizing it, for example, by its focus: if focused on technique,
then it is technical ; if focused on abstractions, then it is a theorist ; if focused on both, then it is
historicist . Thus, we would have the amount of knowledge multiplied by three, that is, 33 types. With
each classification criterion added, we increase the complexity of the classification and the number of
types of knowledge presented. But it's worth trying to categorize it to increase the understanding and
use of human knowledge.
Still after this last criterion, we could typify it by area of concentration (social, human, exact,
engineering, biological) and by sub-area of concentration (the type of social science, for example,
applied or not applied, the type of human science etc.). Finally, there are many criteria used in the vast
literature on scientific research methodology, but none that presents it in a clearer, more organized and
broader way than the one I present.
Furthermore, this work does not exhaust the topic, for two main reasons, namely:

1. Every point of view is a view from a point. In other words, when investigating a certain topic,
the investigator sees it from one angle. Each researcher sees things from different angles than their
peers, and in an imperfect way, that is, incomplete, not complete. This way, no matter how good the
work gets, there are always areas for improvement.

2. There is no such thing as an exhausted topic, but rather an exhausted researcher on a topic.
In other words, the researcher can do his best in investigating a certain topic, he can research it his
entire life, he can dedicate his entire career around the topic, which will never exhaust him, either
because other discoveries make him obsolete, either because other researchers see it from other angles
capable of expanding, deepening or even modifying it. Finally, for this reason, there is always scope for
further deepening of the contents of any investigation.

This work presents a more complete, comprehensive, clear and reliable theoretical-
methodological framework of the major theme: scientific research methodology . On the
epistemological pillar, it presents the main paradigms and theories developed to date – including a new
paradigm, even mentioned in the synopsis of this compendium, which could represent a great advance
in the way we see science, the world, man, life and ethics. Regarding the logical pillar, it presents the
main logical methods, or structural bases of scientific thought – including some little or not mentioned
by the classics on the subject. Regarding the technical pillar, it presents the main techniques of
scientific research, classifying them into very well thought out and organized categories, in order to
facilitate their understanding and their appropriate use by any researcher interested in this topic.
With this in mind, I invite you, dear reader, to embark on this fantastic journey of discovery in
the scientific world, which will undoubtedly greatly enrich your academic, professional and human
career.
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

The. C. = before the birth of Jesus Christ below = below

BCE = before the Common Era (of Christ) intro. = introduction

ad hoc = for this specific case ip. v. ( ipsis verbi ) = letter by letter,
verbatim

ad lit. ( ad litteram ) = literally ip. lit. ( ipsis literis ) = literally

amp. = enlarged loc. cit. ( locus citatum ) = place cited

apud = cited by, according to, according to ms. = manuscript

art. = article n. or nº = number

current. = updated NA = Author's Note

increase. = increased (a) nb = note well, observe well

bibliogr. = bibliography NE = Editor's Note

bible. = library NR = Editor's Note

w. = chapter N. Red. = Editor's Note

here. = approximately, for dates NT = Translator's Note

CA = upper case op. cit. ( opus citatum ) = in the work

cited

Cb = lower case obs. = observation

chap. = chapter org. = organizer

w. geog. = geographic chart original. =original

w. topogr. = topographic map p., pp. = page, pages

cf., cp. = conform-check, compare p. = pagination

cf. infra = check line, page below passim = here and there; in various
places

cit. = quote P. ex. = for example

cit. = cited prof. = Teacher

cm = centimeter qv = to see, to want to see

Coord. = Coordinator, coordination reprint. = reprint

comp. = length reproduction. = reproduction

dept. = department rev. = revised, revision, revised

dc = after the birth of Jesus Christ resp. = responsible

Dir. = Direction, director rev. = magazine

diss. = dissertation s. = second

div. = division s. or ss. = next or following

doc. = documentation/documents S. = Are

Dr. = Doctor, doctor century. = century

eg ( exempli gratia ) = for example, namely Mon. = next

ed. = edit sd ( sine data ) = no date

Ed. = Publisher if ( sine editor ) = without publisher

et al ( et alli ) = and others sl ( sine loco ) = no local

et seq. = next or that follows sn ( sine nomine ) = no editor

etc ( et cetera ) = and others snt = no typographic notes

ex. = example sequentia or seq. = next or that follows

fasc. = issue sep. = reprint

f. = sheet sic or sic? = like this, is it really like

that?

fig. = figure(s) Sto = saint

leaf. = leaflet sum. = summary

govt. = government supra, vide supra = above, see above

grav. = engraving t. = take

ie ( id est ) = this is tab. = table(s)

ibibem or ibid = in the same place trans. = translation, translator

id. ( idem ) = same author, same as v., vol., vols. = volume (s)
previous

ill. = illustrations vg (verb gratia) = for example

 in. = in v. Also. = see also

in-fine = at the end xerogr. = xerography

SUMMARY

1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 15
2. LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................. 16
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 17
2.2 Scientific epistemology ......................................................................................... .. 18
2.2.1 Historical summary of the theory of science ............................................... .. 19
2.2.2 Criteria or mechanisms of scientificity or truth ........................................... .. 20
2.3 Scientific gnosiology ................................................................................................ 21
2.3.1 The researchers ............................................................................................... 22
2.3.2 The examiners ................................................................................................. 23
2.3.3 Auxiliaries ....................................................................................................... 24
2.3.4 The target audience ......................................................................................... 25
2.4 Scientific ontology ................................................................................................... 26
2.4.1 Delimitation of the scientific object ................................................................ 27
2.4.2 Characterization of the scientific object .......................................................... 28
2.5 Scientific theoretical framework .............................................................................. 29
2.5.1 The validity of scientific research sources ...................................................... 30
2.5.2 The relevance of information for scientific study ........................................... 31
2.5.3 The contributions of bibliographic material .................................................... 32
2.6 Scientific ethics ........................................................................................................ 59
2.7 Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 100
3. THE METHODOLOGICAL PILLARS ........................................................................ 101
3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 102
3.2 The epistemological pillar ........................................................................................ 103
3.2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 104
3.2.2 The phenomenological-hermeneutic method, approach or paradigm ............. 105
3.2.3 The empirical-analytical method, approach or paradigm ............................... 106
3.2.4 The critical-dialectical (historical-structural) method, approach or paradigm 107
3.2.5 Other paradigms and theories ......................................................................... 108
3.2.6 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 109
3.3 The logical pillar ...................................................................................................... 109
3.3.1 The phases of scientific research .................................................................... 109
3.3.1.1 Preparation of the preliminary research project
3.3.1.1.1 Research planning
3.3.1.1.1.1 Delimitation and characterization of the object
3.3.1.1.1.2 Determination of relevance
3.3.1.1.1.3 Determination of feasibility
3.3.1.1.1.4 Preliminary project planning
3.3.1.1.2 Organization of research
3.3.1.1.2.1 Location of instruments
3.3.1.1.2.2 Separation of instruments
3.3.1.1.2.3 Handling of instruments
3.3.1.1.2.4 Instrument maintenance
3.3.1.1.2.5 Previous search for research sources
 3.3.1.1.3 Search execution
3.3.1.1.3.1 Contact with all subjects
3.3.1.1.3.2 Movement between loci
3.3.1.1.3.3 Contact with object components
3.3.1.1.3.4 Accidents and incidents
3.3.1.1.3.5 Planning the results produced
3.3.1.1.4 Search control
3.3.1.1.4.1 Survey execution reviews
3.3.1.1.4.2 The interview
3.3.1.2 Transformation of the preliminary project into a final research project
3.3.1.2.1 Research redesign
3.3.1.2.1.1 In-depth characterization of the object
3.3.1.2.1.2 Further determination of relevance
3.3.1.2.1.3 Explanatory depth of feasibility
3.3.1.2.1.4 Project planning
3.3.1.2.2 Reorganization of the search
3.3.1.2.2.1 Location of instruments
3.3.1.2.2.2 Separation of instruments
3.3.1.2.2.3 Handling of instruments
3.3.1.2.2.4 Instrument maintenance
3.3.1.2.2.5 Previous search for research sources
3.3.1.2.3 Search re-execution
3.3.1.2.3.1 Contact with all subjects
3.3.1.2.3.2 Movement between loci
3.3.1.2.3.3 Contact with object components
3.3.1.2.3.4 Accidents and incidents
3.3.1.2.3.5 Planning the results produced
3.3.1.2.4 Search recontrol
3.3.1.2.4.1 Re-elaborations and revisions
3.3.1.2.4.2 Public defense
3.3.2 The structural bases of scientific thought
3.3.2.1 The inductive structural basis
3.3.2.1.1 Syllogistic-inductive
3.3.2.1.2 Semantic-inductive
3.3.2.1.3 Pragmatic-inductive
3.3.2.2 The deductive structural basis
3.3.2.2.1 Axiomatic-deductive
3.3.2.2.2 Hypothetical-deductive
3.3.2.2.3 Syllogistic-deductive
3.3.2.3 The abductive structural basis
3.4 The technical pillar.................................................................................................... xxx
3.4.1 Approaches to scientific research
3.4.1.1 The quantitative approach
3.4.1.2 The qualitative approach
3.4.1.3 The mixed approach
3.4.1.3.1 Sequential explanatory strategy
3.4.1.3.2 Sequential exploratory strategy
3.4.1.3.3 Sequential transformative strategy
3.4.1.3.4 Concomitant triangulation strategy
 3.4.1.3.5 Concurrent embedded strategy
3.4.1.3.6 Concurrent transformative strategy
3.4.2 The procedural bases of scientific research
3.4.2.1 The observational procedural basis
3.4.2.2 The experimental procedural basis
3.4.2.3 The statistical procedural basis
3.4.2.4 The clinical procedural basis
3.4.3 Scientific research techniques
3.4.3.1 General techniques for collecting and processing data
3.4.3.1.1 Experimentation
3.4.3.1.2 Note
3.4.3.1.2.1 Participant Observation (OP)
3.4.3.1.2.1.1 Action research
3.4.3.1.2.1.2 On-site case studies
3.4.3.1.2.1.3 On-site survey research On -site interview
3.4.3.1.2.2 Non-Participant Observation (ONP)
3.4.3.1.2.2.1 Bibliographic survey
3.4.3.1.2.2.1.1 RBI
3.4.3.1.2.2.1.2 RBN
3.4.3.1.2.2.1.3 RBS
3.4.3.1.2.2.1.4 MBS
3.4.3.1.2.2.2 Documentary survey
3.4.3.1.2.2.3 Ex loco case studies
3.4.3.1.2.2.4 Ex loco survey Ex loco interview
3.4.3.1.3 Sampling
3.4.3.1.3.1 Probabilistic sampling
3.4.3.1.3.2 Non-probability sampling
3.4.3.1.4 Testing
3.4.3.2 Specific techniques for data collection
3.4.3.2.1 Scientific reading
3.4.3.2.2 Observational protocol
3.4.3.2.3 Interview
3.4.3.3 Specific techniques for recording data
3.4.3.3.1 Manual planning
3.4.3.3.2 Electronic planning
3.4.3.4 Specific techniques for data systematization
3.4.3.4.1 Simple string search
3.4.3.4.2 Advanced string search
3.4.3.4.3 Inclusion/exclusion factors
3.4.3.5 Specific techniques for organizing data
3.4.3.5.1 Scientific reading
3.4.3.5.2 Coding
3.4.3.5.3 Categorization
3.4.3.5.4 Tabulation
3.4.3.6 Specific techniques for analyzing or interpreting data
3.4.3.6.1 Scientific reading
3.4.3.6.2 Bibliometric Analysis (AB)
3.4.3.6.3 Content Analysis (CA)
3.4.3.6.4 Discourse Analysis (DA)
 3.4.3.6.5 Biblical exegesis
3.4.3.6.6 Meta-analysis
3.4.3.7 Specific techniques for formalizing data
3.4.3.7.1 Scientific summary
3.4.3.7.2 Scientific review
3.4.3.7.3 Banner or poster
3.4.3.7.4 Mockup
3.4.3.7.5 Work of art
3.4.3.7.6 Machine
3.4.3.7.7 Electronic device
3.4.3.7.8 TCC - Dissertation - Thesis - Book
3.4.3.7.9 Business Plan
3.4.3.7.10 Pedagogical Political Project
3.4.3.7.11 Software
3.4.3.7.12 Building
3.4.3.7.13 Scientific article
3.4.3.7.14 Cultural exhibition or- Museum
3.4.3.8 Specific techniques for presenting data
3.4.3.8.1 Oral presentation
3.4.3.8.2 Visual exposure
3.4.3.8.3 Mixed exposure
3.4.4 The types of scientific research ......................................................................... xxx
3.4.4.1 Field research ........................................................................................ xxx
3.4.4.2 Theoretical or basic research
3.4.4.3 Practical or applied research
3.4.4.4 Original research
3.4.4.5 Exploratory research
3.4.4.6 Analytical research
3.4.4.7 Synthetic search
3.4.4.8 Descriptive research
3.4.4.9 Explanatory research
3.4.4.10 Comprehensive search
In vitro research
3.4.4.12 Ex-post-facto research
3.4.4.13 Market research
3.4.4.14 Research and development
3.4.4.15 Oral survey

3.4.5 The instruments of scientific research

3.4.5.1 Observational protocol
3.4.5.1 Interview protocol
3.4.5.2 Questionnaire
3.4.5.3 Form
3.4.5.4 Field diary
3.4.5.5 Tests
3.4.5.6 Social scales
3.4.5.7 Bibliographies
3.4.5.8 Documents
3.5 Conclusions
4 CONCLUSIONS AND FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 Final conclusions
4.2 Final considerations
5 REFERENCES
5.1 Test execution corpus
5.2 Definitive execution corpus
SCIENTIFIC GLOSSARY
SINGLE ANNEX: Structure of scientific work
APPENDIX 1: Founding bases of the main paradigmatic approaches in EO
APPENDIX 2: Bibliographic and documentary surveys
 1. INTRODUCTION

This work's theme is Scientific Research Methodology. The importance of this topic is well-
known in academia in general, as scientists, as well as aspiring scientists, must make use of this content
from the moment they decide to scientifically investigate an object.
This theme is justified due to the need for a more complete theoretical-methodological
framework, which partially eliminates the contradictions existing in the vast critical literature on the
subject as well as promoting their complementarities.
The problem question that drives this research is to discuss what the fundamental pillars of
scientific research methodology are, classifying them appropriately, clarifying their correct
understanding and their appropriate use. In this sense, its general objective is to provide the academic
community with a more complete, coherent and comprehensive manual on the subject that clarifies the
correct understanding and appropriate use of the three pillars of scientific research methodology. It also
has the following specific objectives: a) propose a new taxonomy of knowledge; b) partially eliminate
the immense terminological, conceptual, taxonomic and content imprecision present in the vast critical
literature on the topic investigated.
For this reason, there are two hypotheses originating from this research, namely: 1. through a
good bibliographic and documentary survey, it is possible to eliminate a large part of the
aforementioned inaccuracy found in the literature on the aforementioned topic, as well as promoting its
complementarities; and, 2. through the detailed study of the main bibliographies and documents on a
given topic, it is possible to reach its state of the art, that is, its current state.
To this end, a comprehensive bibliographic and documentary review was carried out on the
topic. Its general foundations can be found in Barros and Lefheld (2000; 2007), and in Köche (1997;
2011); its epistemological foundations can be found in Vasconcellos (2010), Teixeira (2012), Vergara
(2012), Bêrni and Fernandez (2012), Menezes (1938), Piaget (1973) and Giles (1979); its logical
foundations can be found in Popper (1972), Bacha (1999), Débora et al. (2020), in Kant (2001), and in
Pereira (2009); its technical foundations can be found in Creswell (2010), Gil (1999; 2010), Marconi
and Lakatos (2003; 2007; 2008), Luna (2011), Eco (2012), Martins (2008), Moura and Ferreira ( 2005),
Oliveira (1997), Severino (2007), Soares (2003), Thiollent (2003), Yin (2010), Rodrigues (2006),
Castro (1978), Acevedo and Nohara (2010), Rodrigues (2007), Sampieri, Collado and Lucro (2006),
among many others.
Methodology, as a discipline, is concerned, a priori, with the study of the phases, approaches
and logical means of investigating a given object. The term methodology derives from the Latin
expression methodus which means way or means to accomplish something, and the Greek expression
logos which means study, analysis. Therefore, research methodology becomes, a priori, the study of the
appropriate means or paths to investigate an object (BARROS; LEHFELD, 2000).
There are several criteria to classify or characterize scientific research, among them, the nature,
the way of obtaining information, the approach and the objectives (RODRIGUES, 2006; GIL, 2010).
For example, in terms of nature, scientific research can be an original, primary work, or a summary or
review of subjects, secondary; as for obtaining information, it can be bibliographic, documentary, field
or laboratory; as for the approach, it can be quantitative, qualitative or mixed; As for the objectives, it
can be exploratory, descriptive or explanatory (CRESWELL, 2010; RODRIGUES, 2006).
What Gil (1999) calls methods that determine the logical bases of investigation and methods that
indicate the technical means of investigation, geographer Rodrigues (2006) calls approach methods and
procedural methods, respectively.
Briefly, the five approach methods presented by Rodrigues (2006, p. 137-143. My emphasis)
are:

The inductive method is one by which a general law is established from the observation and
repetition of regularities in particular cases, that is, through particular observations, the
affirmation of a general principle is reached. [...]
Unlike induction, the deductive method is a process of logical reasoning that, based on general
or universal principles and propositions, reaches less universal or particular conclusions. [...]
The hypothetical-deductive method [...] consists of formulating the notion of falsifiability as a
fundamental criterion for the explanation of scientific theories. [...]
The dialectical method seeks to contest a posited reality, emphasizing its contradictions. For
every thesis, there is an antithesis that, when opposed, tends to form a synthesis. [...]
The phenomenological method is the study of phenomena, in themselves, apprehending their
essence, structure of their meaning. [...] Phenomenology consists of the description of all
phenomena [...]

In the same vein, Rodrigues (2006, p. 143-149. My emphasis) presents eight procedural
methods, which, in summary, are:

The statistical method is based on the use of statistics to investigate a phenomenon or object of
study. This method contributes to the collection, organization, description, analysis and
interpretation of data, and to the use of this data in decision making. [...]
The comparative method leads to investigation through the analysis of two or more facts or
phenomena, seeking to highlight the differences and similarities between them. [...]
 The experimental method consists of subjecting the studied phenomenon to the influence of
certain variables, under conditions controlled and known by the researcher, to verify the results
that these variables produce in the object. [...]
The typological method consists of creating ideal models that serve for the analysis or
evaluation of a concrete reality. [...]
The historical method leads to investigation based on the study of events, processes and
institutions of the past, seeking to explain their influence on contemporary social life. [...]
The functionalist method establishes an analogy between society and the organism. It studies
social phenomena based on their functions, analyzing the interrelated and interdependent parts
to understand the functioning of the whole, that is, the total social system. [...]
The structuralist method is used to study cultures, languages, etc., as a system in which the
constituent elements maintain structural relationships among themselves. [...]
The clinical method is mainly used by psychologists in a relationship between the researcher
and the researched. [...]

Based on these assumptions presented by Gil (1999; 2010) and Rodrigues (2006), it is clear that
these exemplified ways of sizing the Methodology are quite confusing, imprecise, incoherent, since,
using the logical principle of non-contradiction , the epistemological, logical and technical pillars differ
from each other and cannot be integral parts of each other, although the three make up the fundamental
pillars of the methodology of scientific research. However, not only this, but the divisions in general
adopted for the methodological pillars of scientific research are equally confusing and far from
covering all of its main aspects and, often, do not facilitate the researcher's work during his
investigation (TEIXEIRA, 2012 ; BARROS; LEHFELD, 2000; GIL, 1999, 2010; RODRIGUES,
2006).
The perception I had of the immense terminological, conceptual, taxonomic and content
imprecision present in the vast critical literature that I consulted on the methodology of scientific
research – as can be seen in the references listed in the final pages of this work – was my first
motivation to the construction of this compendium. So, when I carefully observed the words of Barros
and Lehfeld (2000, 2007), I found that they make it easily understood that the methodological pillars of
scientific research methodology consist of three fundamental axes: the epistemological basis of
investigation , which indicates the form of conceiving science, truth, life, man and the world in which
it is produced; the logical basis of investigation , which indicates the structure of thoughts and the
sequence of research phases; and the technical basis of investigation , which indicates the procedural
rites, regarding the approach(es), the technique(s) and the instruments used. From the perspective of
dimensioning the division of Methodology in a more precise, coherent and consistent way, I consider
his words (BARROS; LEHFELD, 2000, p. 13. My emphasis) as the foundations of this work:

[…] it is possible to size the division of Methodology into three interconnected aspects, that is,
the epistemological, the logical and the technical, elements necessary for the construction of
 Science:
a) Epistemological: refers to the study of questions that can be raised in the search for truth,
discussion of the limits, scope and value of scientific methods (critical study of scientific
methods);
b) Logical: presupposes the logical organization of reasoning in the practice of investigation
and scientific action;
c) Technical: is the scientific of the specific techniques and procedures used and particular
contexts of thematic research problematized in the different sciences.

However, my motivations were also two others. As a second motivation for the elaborations
and re-elaborations of this work, it was the perception I had, through the exchanges I had with other
academics, researchers and professionals, whether in several companies I worked for, in several
universities where I studied, or in various events scientific studies that I attended and/or participated in,
the immense difficulty on the part of researchers in general in understanding and adequately using the
methodology of scientific research. For example, in the first 15 years of working in the job market, I
experienced a lot of devaluation as a poor researcher, in a situation of socioeconomic vulnerability with
a high degree of complexity. Many co-workers said: “ You are a researcher and still working here!?!
For what? Our hierarchical superiors did not study or study, or know everything you know and are in
a better social and economic situation than yours or mine .”, things to that effect. Another example was
at conferences and scientific meetings where I was present and heard people say: “ I used discourse
analysis in my quantitative research .”, or “ I used content analysis in my qualitative research .”, or “
The method was adopted syllogistic inductive .”, or “ Philosophy is not science, nor is science
philosophy .”, or “ Epistemology studies the methodology of scientific research .”, or “ The researcher
needs to be neutral in the investigation of his object .”, not exactly in those words, but things along
those lines.
This difficulty I realized resulted from the immense terminological imprecision,
conceptual, taxonomic and content present in the critical literature on the subject, and which frightens
researchers when carrying out their scientific investigations, making them feel incapable of cementing
them, which, for many, including me, consists of the realization of a dream. So much so that, when I
was seven years old, when I started writing my autobiography in a notebook that I used as a diary, I
told myself that one day I wanted to write a book about science, a time when I I didn't even know what
science or writing a book actually was. But my desire remained and culminates in the present
compendium, which I use to help anyone who, like me, sees in scientific research a path to realizing
dreams, to transforming the reality around us and to self-realization in all aspects. fields of life. I will
be very pleased to see the content of this work benefiting all the people who benefit from it in their
scientific investigations.
 The third motivation for the construction of this compendium was the perception I had, during
the elaboration and re-elaboration of the scientific research I carried out, of my existential overcoming,
that is, of the changes in my own paradigms of man, of life, of science , of the world and its spatio-
temporal formation, led me to the conclusion of the existence of three trajectories, or directions, or,
preferably, epistemological axes, that is, three distinct paths to construct knowledge, namely: [1 ] the
scientist , directed towards the abstract, theoretical, phenomenological field; [2] the technicalist ,
directed to the concrete, practical, empirical field; and, [3] a path pointed in a direction between the
abstract and the concrete, partly theoretical, partly practical, both phenomenological and empirical,
which I preferred to call historicist , as it better portrays the way in which the human and social
sciences are constructed throughout the process of spatio-temporal formation of the world itself.
Regarding these aspects of overtaking, Vasconcellos (2010, p. 163) corroborates:

Once the breakthrough has been made, that is, the paradigm shift, the systemic scientist
broadens the focus, rescues and integrates traditional science. However, what he rescues is no
longer the same traditional science, because he himself is no longer the same , he has revised his
assumptions, he has a new way of being in the world. Yes, the scientist, not science, has
undergone a metamorphosis and will now experience its structural couplings based on this new
structure.
In my opinion, the scientist cannot rescue the epistemology of traditional science. You can only
rescue your theories, your techniques. But these will no longer be the same, as they have also
changed in the relationship with this new scientist, who now has a new perspective on them.
I often say that the new-paradigmatic scientist carries, in a shoulder bag, the techniques,
resources and knowledge developed by traditional science and feels free to use them whenever
he wants. However, you will use them in a completely different way than you did before this
overtake. For example, a new-paradigmatic systemic psychologist may use a psychological test,
but his beliefs about the role of the test in the work he is developing with the client will already
be radically different, as will the way he will contextualize and develop this new use. Or a new-
paradigmatic systemic administrator may use, in training activities, techniques developed by
traditional science, but will no longer have the same expectations about their effects. In short,
once you know the rules of the game, you can no longer play naively.

Based on the three motivations mentioned above, which I had in 2015, when I was 25 years old,
it took me around five full years to prepare this work. As I read more and more works on the subject, I
refined it. In this way, I was able to put together a more complete, coherent and comprehensive picture,
without leaving aside the essence of each work investigated. Dozens of times, I read, re-read,
organized, reorganized, until this work fully fulfilled the objectives for which it was prepared.
This work was organized into five chapters. The first chapter refers to the introduction, which
specifies the theme, justification, problem question, hypotheses, objectives, a theoretical introduction to
the theme, the researcher's path, and the structure of this work. The second chapter refers to the
literature review, carried out in a very comprehensive way, encompassing scientific epistemology,
scientific gnosiology, scientific ontology, the scientific theoretical framework and scientific ethics; It
also includes a small introduction and conclusions of this chapter. The third chapter refers to the three
methodological pillars themselves, constituting the largest chapter, as it is the most important of this
work; encompasses the phases of scientific research, the epistemological pillar, the logical pillar, the
technical pillar, the general and specific techniques used in scientific investigation, the instruments
used in it, in addition to a small introduction and conclusions of this chapter. The fourth chapter refers
to the conclusions and final considerations of this work, summarizing the main terms, concepts,
taxonomies and contents developed throughout. The fifth chapter refers to the references used in the
preparation of this compendium, separated into two groups: the test execution corpus and the
definitive execution corpus , concepts explained throughout chapter 3. Last but not least, it presents
There is a scientific glossary, a single annex and two appendices, useful for a proper understanding of
the contents contained in this compendium.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In an attempt to define knowledge, epistemologists sought clarifications by comparing and

analyzing both the different sciences and their respective histories, finding plausible answers that it is a
process. For example, the scientific epistemology literature highlights that, although for a time, many
scientists, especially mathematicians and physicists, believed in the infallibility of scientific
knowledge, or even that some knowledge could be considered absolute, irrefutable or unquestionable,
the history of science itself knowledge proves the opposite (PIAGET, 1973). Corroborating these
statements, Piaget (1973, p. 8) emphasizes:

[…] mathematicians, varying their opinion about the nature of mathematical “beings”,
remained, until recently, impervious to the ideas of revision and reflective reorganization; logic
was for a long time considered complete and it was necessary to wait for Goedel's theorems to
force it to re-examine the limits of its powers; physics, after the Newtonian victories, believed
until the beginning of this century [Piaget refers to the 19th century] in the absolute character of
an important number of principles; Even sciences as young as sociology or psychology, if they
could not boast of solid knowledge, did not hesitate until recently to attribute to human beings
and, therefore, to the thinking subjects they studied, an immutable “natural logic”, like the
wanted Comte (despite his law of three states and insisting on his common and constant
processes of reasoning) or invariable instrument of knowledge.

However, in addition to science, there are other types of knowledge, such as philosophical,
religious and common sense, and their respective peculiarities require methods, or logical paths of
investigation, that are specific and different from each other. Hence the existence of different
epistemologies, such as scientific, philosophical, logical, mathematical, physical, religious, genetic,
etc., each with its own characteristics (PIAGET, 1973). It is precisely for this reason that Piaget (1973,
p. 14) defines epistemology as being:

[…] the theory of knowledge is valid and, even if this knowledge is never a state and always
constitutes a process, this process is essentially the passage from a lower validity to a higher
validity. The result of this is that epistemology is necessarily interdisciplinary in nature, since
such a process raises, at the same time, questions of fact and validity. […]

Next, the aforementioned author (1973, p. 14) highlights that epistemology goes far beyond
logic and the psychology of cognitive functions, being, therefore, different from them, as he goes on to
say:

[…] If it were just about validity, epistemology would be confused with logic: the problem,
however, is not purely formal, but determines how knowledge reaches reality, therefore what
are the relationships between the subject and the object. If it were only about facts,
epistemology would be reduced to a psychology of cognitive functions and this is not competent
to resolve questions of validity. […]

In short, epistemology is the science that studies the process of constructing valid knowledge,
providing, for this purpose, the necessary clarifications regarding the criteria of scientificity, or truth,
regarding the history and evolution of knowledge, regarding the relationships between subject and
object as well as the criteria for the adequate interpretation of reality (PIAGET, 1973).
Another relevant issue to consider about epistemological studies is that the delimitation of the
boundaries between philosophy and science is complex, according to Piaget (1973, p. 97-98):

Will it be said that science reserves the domain of experimental reality and that philosophy is
pure deduction? But mathematics here is to show the properly scientific role of a well-
conducted deduction. Will it be said that science is a posteriori knowledge and that philosophy
reserves the a priori ? […] Is science then, as Brunschvicg wanted , knowledge itself and
philosophy “reflective analysis” or reflection on the conditions of this knowledge? However,
according to one of this master's profound formulas, the scientific process is also, at times,
reflexive […]

Therefore, the aforementioned author (1973, p. 83-100), after analyzing the pros and cons
regarding the frontiers of scientific knowledge, based on the best epistemological scholars, presents his
conclusions with the following words:

Therefore, I definitively see nothing but one distinguishing criterion between the sciences and
philosophy; the former would deal with particular issues, while the latter would tend to total
knowledge. […] what is a formulated scientific problem and how is it taken to dissociate a
question from the field of philosophy? Two conditions seem necessary and sufficient in this
regard. The first simply defines the domain to be studied, avoiding the method, convention and
almost a kind of gentleman's agreement , of discussing all other issues with the subject. One
could say with familiarity (and I excuse myself before the metaphysicians present here) that the
philosopher recognizes himself by the fact that he talks about everything at the same time – and
is forced to do so by the mutual superposition of preliminary questions – while the man of
science strives to just deal with one thing after another. The second condition derives
psychologically from this same delimitation: determined not to skip the steps, the man of
science subjects himself, in each particular question, to accumulating facts from experience or
to axiomatically penetrating his reasoning, until the agreement of all researchers on the facts or
deductions; Therefore, contrary to its morality of objectivity, any premature systematization is
prohibited. […]

In this vein, when trying to differentiate scientific knowledge, or the so-called private sciences,
from philosophical knowledge, Giles (1979, p. 106) points out:

Philosophical and scientific knowledge is founded on the irrefutable fact that we are not in the
situation of facts as an object in objective space, as it is for us a principle of curiosity, of
investigation, of interest for other situations, as variants of the current situation. The attempt to
construct ideal variables that objective and outline the functioning of this effective
communication will be called science. Philosophy will be called the awareness that it is
necessary for us to maintain open and successive communication between men who think and
speak, some in the presence of each other and all in relation to the world, as we perceive it
behind us, around us and before us, at the limits of our historical field, as the ultimate reality
whose presence is retraced by our theoretical constructions, which could not replace it.

Therefore, there is still little clarity regarding the boundaries between science and philosophy,
the delimitation of which is restricted to the fact that philosophy aims to know being as being and
science as particular beings (PIAGET, 1973). However, what can we say about the type of knowledge
produced in academic work in undergraduate, specialization, master's, doctorate and post-doctorate
courses in Philosophy: is it scientific or philosophical? To answer this question satisfactorily, we need
to understand the nature of science and philosophy well, which is why it is considered in the next
paragraphs.
Science is hypothetical knowledge and, for this reason, testable and fallible, systematically
constructed and proven factually and empirically, which is concerned with studying particular beings.
Philosophy is non-hypothetical knowledge and, for this reason, non-testable and infallible, also
constructed systematically, but proven purely by logic (KÖCHE, 1997; PIAGET, 1973; GILES, 1979).
 Furthermore, science and philosophy differ in terms of the research system used. For example,
experimental research or quantitative research is not used in the process of philosophical investigation,
since it is non-hypothetical, non-testable, exclusively qualitative knowledge. As for the structure of
philosophical thought, the technique used is always deduction. In the process of scientific investigation,
in turn, qualitative, quantitative or mixed approaches are used, in addition to experimental methods,
due to their hypothetical nature, that is, subject to testing and, therefore, fallible. Regarding the
structure of scientific thought, several techniques are used, including deduction and induction
(RODRIGUES, 2007; CERVO; BERVIAN; DA SILVA, 2007).

2.2 Scientific epistemology

The so-called theory of scientific knowledge, or just Theory of Knowledge, is concerned with
the criteria used to classify, produce, evaluate and validate knowledge as being valid, reliable, safe,
within a certain degree, or level, of scientificity, or for real. This discipline studies the different types of
knowledge, their characteristics, their uses throughout the millennia of human history, as well as the
importance of each of them for our daily lives, increasingly seeking: greater precision in the results
produced; greater data reliability; greater mastery of the methodologies used; greater rigor in the
guidance, review and examination of scientific research; greater ethics of subjects involved in scientific
research. (TEIXEIRA, 2012; KÖCHE, 1997; SOARES, 2003).

2.2.1 Historical summary of the theory of science

In short, we can conceive of science as knowledge based on facts. In this way, science is
concerned with “knowing things, facts, events and phenomena, to try to establish a prediction of the
course of events that surround man and control them”. (KÖCHE, 1997, p. 43).
It is worth noting that, although the practical application of scientific discoveries satisfies
human needs and establishes practical control over nature, science is not merely reduced to the activity
of providing practical control over natural phenomena. Regarding this aspect, Köche (1997, p. 43)
highlights:

This scientific and reductionist understanding is erroneous and limited. […] The main cause
that leads man to produce science is the attempt to develop answers and solutions to his doubts
and problems and that lead him to understand himself and the world in which he lives.
 Even though science as it is modernly conceived has its origins in the context of the
Renaissance, which took place in France, in the 16th century, it already existed, in other forms, as early
as the eighth century before Christ, in the Greek world, before prehistoric philosophers. -Socratics.
Corroborating this point, Köche (1997, p. 44) tells us:

[…] in Antiquity, in Greece, from the 8th century BC and reaching its culmination in the 4th
century BC, known as philosophy of nature, its sole concern was the search for knowledge, the
understanding of the nature of things and man. Scientific knowledge was developed by
philosophy. There was no distinction that is established today between science and philosophy.

The theory of science, responsible for the study and analysis of the historical evolution of
knowledge, advocates the scientific division into three distinct historical periods, each with its own
theoretical models and paradigms regarding its vision of the world, science and method. According to
Köche (1997, p. 44), the three scientific stages in the history of knowledge are: “ […] Greek science,
which covers the period from the 8th century BC to the end of the 16th century, modern science, from
the 17th century to the beginning of the 20th century, and contemporary science that appears at the
beginning of this century until our days.”
In Greek science, philosophers were the producers of science and used methods that were quite
different from those known. For example, pre-Socratic philosophers used the procedure of rational
speculation, whose task was to elaborate and clarify the possible order behind the apparent disorder of
sensitive and perceptible phenomena (KÖCHE, 1997).
Socratic thinking about the construction of knowledge, until then philosophical in its time, is
based on a “wonderful art, capable of extracting from the interlocutor the true science that he already
possesses within him, without knowing it”, according to Giles (1979, p. 44. My emphasis) continues
saying:

[…] is maieutics , the art of the midwife, which helps the intellect to give birth to creatures of
thought. Through a process of continuous interrogation, Socrates gradually leads the
interlocutor to the goal, which is the concept, a constitutive element of science. With this
science, the unity of vision of reality is achieved without detriment to the plurality and variety
that the concept can reflect in the sensible.
The essential moments of this science are definition , which coincides with the very idea of
concept, and induction – the form of argument that goes from the particular to the general, from
the individual to the species – which contains the law immanent within itself. It is this dynamic
force of science that leads from what is known to what was unknown, from conquered truth to
the conquest of new truths.
 Later, in the 5th century BC. C. emerged with Plato (429-348/7 BC) the Platonic model, whose
“form, accessible to the senses, only shows us how things are, but not what they are” (KÖCHE, 1997,
p. 45). As, for Plato, what is real is what is thought, what is intuited, then, as Köche says (1997, p. 46):

What provides us with what things are, their true knowledge, science, is intelligence,
understanding, which is intuitive rational knowledge, developed through dialectics – intuition of
universal principles, analysis and synthesis –, conceived by Plato as a rational scientific method.
The essence of the world is only accessible to understanding, because ideas, the models of all
things, as real, eternal, immutable, immaterial, perfect and invisible entities, are not in our world
of sensitive and changeable appearances, but in a superior world and eternal.

Platonic thought is based on dialectics, given that thought does not immediately take possession
of the truth, but must seek it. In the words of Giles (1979, p. 46):

The first moment in the dialectic process consists of criticizing sensations and opinions. Answer
the question: “What is such a thing?” it means going beyond their fugitive appearances, in
search of a stable reality. Immediate experience, far from possessing the truth, presupposes it, a
truth that sensitive life hides from view, but that dialectics reveals to us. Rationality, truth, is the
fruit of a dialectical selection and purification in which we isolate and free the sensitive from all
the weight of materiality, to arrive at what we can safely look at.
Dialectic reveals to us the profound opposition that exists between the sensible and true reality.
Faced with the individuality of sensations, we see the universality of Forms or Concepts
asserting itself; faced with the instability and contingency of the former, the invariability of the
latter.
Dialectics also shows us the relationship between the soul and science. She already had the
knowledge before imprisoning herself in the body. Upon coming into contact with the material
object of this world, he remembers having contemplated the Idea, the Form, the original of this
object in the world of forms. This memory, or reminiscence of forms , presupposes the
immortality of the soul, which will suffer the punishment of being reincarnated until all its
faults are atoned for. Now, the art of maieutics, skillfully used, can extract from the mind this
science, which the individual already possessed without knowing it.

In other words, Plato only used the maieutico-inductive and dialectical method because he
believed in the immortality of the soul, and in reincarnation, which is why, for him, the human being
already knew the world and everything that exists in it before being born, but he forgot it when he
imprisoned himself in the body (GILES, 1979).
A century later, with Aristotle (384-322 BC), a disciple of Plato, the Aristotelian model
emerged, which presupposes the analysis of reality through its parts and principles that can and should
be observed, with the aim of, then postulate its universal principles, expressed in the form of
judgments, logically linked together (KÖCHE, 1997). Regarding this model, Köche (1997, p. 47. My
emphasis) explains:
 In this way, the Aristotelian model proposes a science ( episteme ) that produces knowledge that
aims to be a faithful mirror of reality, as it is based on the observable and due to its character of
necessity and universality. Develops knowledge of the essence of things and their causes,
answering the questions what is? and why is it? Atistotelian science manifests itself as a
qualitative science of discourse, which provides universal, stable, certain and necessary
knowledge, as proposed by the pre-Socratics.

Continuing in this vein, Aristotelian thought, in turn, is based on logic which, as Giles (1979, p.
48) explains, is:

[…] the instrument that helps us acquire scientific knowledge. It begins with the fundamental
classification of things, an essential classification for the elaboration of a scientific language.
What is essential in this elaboration is the possibility of naming things, giving them a stable
meaning, naming them univocally. This is how we can formulate a science, that is, a set of
propositions in which certain essential characteristics are predicates, attributed to certain classes
of things without ambiguity. This univocity is a fact in the world, which discourse, language,
reflects. These are not words as simple units of language, but as means for classifying things to
the extent that singular terms can designate them. These are primary units of scientific
discourse.

In the Greek historical-scientific period, which lasted more than 2,300 years, the world was seen
by the Greeks as endowed with a natural order and structure that governed the cosmos and governed all
events, in which every being acquired meaning, essential goals of philosophy and science (KÖCHE,
1997). In this sense, “scientific knowledge was demonstrated as right and necessary through logical
arguments”, so that the “value of an explanation was in its argumentative power that justified its
acceptance and plausibility” (KÖCHE, 1997, p. 48).
From the 15th century onwards, however, and especially in the 15th century, during the
Renaissance, the Platonic and Aristotelian models were harshly attacked. The Renaissance men Galileo
(1564-1642) and Bacon (1561-1626) rejected such philosophical models of producing science,
opposing Greek science and the religious dogmatism that prevailed at that time. Galileo and Bacon
(1620?) introduced scientific experimentation, “radically modifying the understanding and theoretical
conception of the world, science, truth, knowledge and method” (KÖCHE, 1997, p. 49).
The scientific revolution that occurred in the 17th century arose from the demand for precise,
quantitative methods of investigation and explanation of natural phenomena. The need for a numerical
relationship to address issues such as the speed of change and movement in physics showed how
inadequate Greek qualitative science was (KÖCHE, 1997).
Severely criticizing Aristotelianism and naive empiricism, Bacon (1620?) argues that vulgar
experience led to mistakes (KÖCHE, 1997). For him, “the levity with which observers allowed
themselves to be carried away by sense impressions and concluded generalizations using unduly
induction”, typical of the syllogistic method and abstraction, “did not offer complete knowledge of the
universe” (KÖCHE, 1997, p. 50). Regarding this aspect, Köche (1997, p. 50) emphasizes:

[…] Bacon proposed the need to invent a new instrument, a method of invention and validation
that would make research more effective. […] It was up to experience to confirm the truth. Only
it would be able to provide a true demonstration of what is true or false. Authority (religious and
dogmatic knowledge) could make people believe, however, it did not provide understanding of
the nature of the things in which they believed. Reason (in philosophical knowledge) could
complete authority; However, he would not be able to distinguish between the true and the
false.

Bacon's contributions to modern scientific conception were great. However, the Galileans were
even greater, as Köche (1997, p. 51) highlights:

Bacon was unable to make the leap from qualitative to quantitative, as did Galileo, the true
father of modern scientific evolution. However, the influence of Bacon's empiricism and
inductivism on the vulgarization of modern scientific thought was great. And there were also
many scientists who reaffirmed the idea that science should be based on the pure observation of
facts and not be carried away by a priori hypotheses to achieve objectivity in knowledge. And
among them was Newton.

Galilean scientific thought argued that “the certainty of validation of the explanation could not
be provided through simple demonstration using logical arguments (syntactic truth), according to the
Aristotelian model” (KÖCHE, 1997, p. 51). Opposing the Greek syllogistic method, which was merely
qualitative, Galileo (1620?) introduced the so-called scientific-experimental method, essentially
characterized by the insertion of mathematics and geometry “as languages of science and the
quantitative-experimental test of theoretical assumptions as the mechanism necessary to evaluate the
veracity of hypotheses and stipulate the so-called scientific truth” (KÖCHE, 1997, p. 51).
Still in the same direction as Baconian inductivism and empiricism and the Galilean scientific-
experimental method, Newton goes further, introducing the popularized model of the inductive-
confirmable method. Refusing to admit that he worked with a priori hypotheses, Newton “affirmed that
his laws and theories were taken from the facts, without interference from hypothetical speculation”
(KÖCHE, 1997, p. 55).
However, Newton's perfectionist view of his method of doing science led scientists to
mistakenly take his model as the absolute truth, irrefutable and unquestionable knowledge, the root of
positivist thinking. Corroborating these statements, Köche (1997, p. 57) emphasizes:
 The Newtonian paradigm, permeated by inductivism and empiricism, generated a blind
reliability in science, without a doubt, supported by the certainty and accuracy of the results of
theories obtained by a procedure judged to be perfect: it was thought that it could, without
subjective interference, theoretical, or metaphysics, discovering the laws or principles that
command the phenomena of reality. The accuracy of the results of Newtonian experiments and
the perfect agreement of their proofs with theories facilitated the acceptance of the belief that
Newtonian physics, constructed with the use of an inductivist and confirmabilist scientific-
experimental method, was providing man with “proven” knowledge. ”, “confirmed”
definitively, unquestionable and devoid of subjective interference. It was, therefore, knowledge
that had achieved “objectivity”, that is, it was a faithful mirror of reality, based on facts and not
on the assumptions of human subjectivity. The physics experiment, following theorization
consistent with the Newtonian paradigm, became the ideal model that should be copied by all
other areas of knowledge.

Nevertheless, such blind reliability in the powerful Newtonian inductive scientific-experimental

method culminated in the emergence of scientism, that is, the belief that the only valid knowledge was
scientific and that everything could be known by science, “making other areas of knowledge, not only
in the natural sciences, but also in the social and human sciences, sought this scientific ideal and
applied it to obtain experimentally proven theoretical results”, since they all wanted to enjoy the same
status of scientificity achieved by physics (KÖCHE, 1997 , p. 58).
At the beginning of the 20th century, however, a new conception of science emerged. Many
scientists, including physicists, began to realize that the science produced until then was not absolute,
as new scientific discoveries overturned previous ones. As examples of these scientific revolutions, we
have the advent of quantum mechanics, from Max Planck's quantum theories (1918), Einstein's theories
of relativity (1905), Bohr's principle of complementarity (1928), the new model of atom idealized by
Schrodinger (1926), Heisenberg's uncertainty principle (1927), microphysics and other relevant
theories in physics. Therefore, it was within physics itself that the break with scientism began
(KÖCHE, 1997).
Regarding the reasons for ideological changes in Philosophy regarding knowledge as well as
scientific conception in general, Chaui (2005, p. 124) explains:

The Christian perspective introduced some distinctions that broke with the Greek idea of a
direct and harmonious participation between our intellect and truth, our being and the world, as
ancient philosophers considered that we were entities participating in all forms of reality: by our
body, we participate in nature; by our soul we participate in divine Intelligence.

Among the contributions to the new scientific conception that supports the contemporary vision
of science and method, those of Einstein were the greatest, “not only for the content they presented, but
for the way they were achieved” (KÖCHE, 1997, p. 60 ). Regarding this aspect, Köche (1997, p. 60),
reports:

[…] Bacon stated that preconceived ideas should be eliminated from the investigator’s mind.
Einstein did not eliminate them. On the contrary, like the artist, he gave wings to sensitivity and
imagination. He subjectively projected a model of the world that was not captured by passively
recording sensory data, but influenced by his emotions, mystical passion, impulses of his
imagination, philosophical convictions and, as he himself stated, by a “cosmic religious
feeling”. […] It demonstrated that, more than a simple description of reality, science is the
proposal of an interpretation. The scientist is closer to the artist than the photographer.

Thus, Einstein's contributions to the discovery of the modern vision of science were two: one
was the first rupture that directly affected this process of discovering the modern vision of science, and
the other was “the demonstration that, no matter how great the number of evidence accumulated in
favor of a theory, it can never be accepted as definitively confirmed” (KÖCHE, 1997, p. 60). Satisfied
with this position, Köche (1997, p. 60) corroborates the following statements:

[…] The most solid explanatory schemes can be replaced by better ones. Scientific progress,
then, stops being cumulative and becomes revolutionary. And the criterion hitherto adopted to
distinguish science from non-science, that of confirmability obtained through the use of the
inductive experimental method, falls apart. And a new question arises: What criteria to use for
demarcate and distinguish science from other ways of knowing? Is it possible to have a
standard procedure, a scientific method, for doing science?

Modern science and perspectivist ideologies of knowledge started from the question of how we,
perverted and finite human beings, can know the infinite and divine truth, as Chauí (2005, p. 125)
corroborates:

For modern people, the situation is exactly the opposite. They ask: “How is knowledge of the
truth possible?” Indeed, if truth is what is in God's infinite intellect, then it is hidden from our
finite reason and we have no access to it. Truth, therefore, is not what is manifest in reality, but
depends on divine revelation. Now, revelation is only known through faith and for this the truth
is emunah , the confidence that leads us to say “so be it” and that our reason cannot understand.
On the other hand, since our limited intellect has been perverted by our sinful will, how can we
know even the truths of reason, that is, those that would be within our reach without the help of
revelation and faith? In other words, to what extent can we admit that our reason or natural light
is capable of true knowledge?

Therefore, it is clear that the examination of the human capacity to know becomes the crucial
problem of knowledge, the foundation reason for the birth of modern Philosophy and also of the so-
called Modern Science (CHAUÍ, 2005).
In the contemporary view of science, there is no scientific method, in the sense that there are no
formulas, or models or magical recipes, or even dogmatic prescriptions for creating knowledge.
Regarding this aspect, Köche (1997, p. 68) says with conviction:

[…] There is no model with ready, definitive norms, for the simple fact that the investigation
must be guided according to the characteristics of the problem to be investigated, the
hypotheses formulated, the conjunctural conditions and the critical skill and creative capacity
of the investigator. Practically, there are as many methods as there are problems analyzed and
researchers exist.

However, there are basic criteria that need to be used in the process of scientific investigation so
that knowledge can be considered valid, that is, true. It is exactly these basic criteria, or general steps,
that guide and support what is historically and epistemologically called “ scientific method ” (KÖCHE,
1997).
It is, therefore, in this way of thinking about the construction of knowledge that the
hypothetical-deductive scientific method was discovered, which proposes nothing more and nothing
less than starting from “a question elaborated by the subject that casts doubt on the knowledge already
produced, by perceiving it. it either as theoretically inconsistent or even incompatible with other
theories, or as inadequate to explain the facts” (KÖCHE, 1997, p. 71).
Still on the process of knowing from contemporary science, Köche (1997, p. 71) explains:

[…] In contemporary science, research is a process resulting from the identification of doubts
and the need to elaborate and construct answers to clarify them […] because there is a need to
construct and test a possible answer or solution to a problem, arising of some fact or some set of
theoretical knowledge [...] The research problem is that doubt, that question that cannot be
answered with the available knowledge. […] In these cases, questions and doubts arise, which
are unanswered within the framework of available knowledge. Or, in the light of new
theoretical references, the reliability of those theories as valid explanations for certain cases is
questioned, perceiving inconsistencies or gaps in them that must be corrected or eliminated.
[…] The research problem, therefore, arises from the crisis of available knowledge, as a
theoretical model that is insufficient to explain the facts.

As a rule, every hypothesis must be testable and rigorously tested in order to be validated and
any knowledge considered scientifically valid is not definitively so, but provisionally. That said, Köche
(1997, p. 74) agrees by saying that:

[…] Once the hypothesis is proposed, consequences must be logically deduced from it,
expressed in a common language in which observation is predominant. This translation
provides the passage of language from a more abstract level of science to a less abstract one that
contains directly empirical content that allows observation and testing. […] The hypothesis will
not be rejected if it withstands the rejection tests and will provisionally remain corroborated. If,
when confronted with the empirical basis, it does not stand up to the counter-evidence, it will be
rejected.
 Given that the history of science is full of so-called “recalcitrant” examples of theories and
hypotheses that, despite having falsifying evidence, still continued to be accepted in the scientific
community, it is inferred, then, that merely submitting a hypothesis to Isolated tests, comparing it
exclusively with its empirical basis, are not enough (KÖCHE, 1997). Regarding this aspect, Köche
(1997, p. 75) explains:

[…] This phase is necessary, but it is not sufficient. There is also a need to compare it with
other competing hypotheses, comparing its performance with that of other hypotheses and
theories. […] Once the hypothesis has been tested and evaluated, it is not convenient to say
“the hypothesis was accepted”, or confirmed, as an experiment never confirms it, or is valid in
a positive (ie, absolute) sense, due to greater severity, control and rigor that have been adopted.
It must be stated “the hypothesis was not rejected”, that is, based on the evidence of not having
found anything contrary when subjected to falsifiability tests and compared with the results of
other theories, it starts to provide a temporarily valid acceptance . […]

Therefore, when it comes to knowledge produced by imperfect humans, there is no absolute

truth(s) produced by humans. In this case, as Köche (1997, p. 75) points out, “the value of a theory lies
in its corroboration, that is, in the fact that it has not yet been rejected, after having gone through severe
tests”.
Based on these assumptions, science is not a system of certain or well-established statements,
but rather a systematic and continuous investigation process, which uses appropriate procedures in
order to locate possible errors in its theories, through falsifiability tests. and confrontation with other
theories, to replace them with others that do not contain the errors of the previous one and with greater
informative content. Science, therefore, never reaches the truth, never being able to claim to have
reached it or a substitute for truth, such as probability, but it only makes our understanding of reality
clearer and our understanding of reality less distant from the truth (ie, absolute). understanding.

2.2.2 Criteria or mechanisms of scientificity or truth

In the historical-evolutionary context of the Theory of Knowledge, many “theories of truth”

emerged, with the aim of establishing reliable criteria of truth, or scientificity, among which stand out
Aristotle’s “correspondence theory”, the “evidence theory” ”, by Descartes, and the “theory of
coherence”, also by Descartes, but revised by Hegel (GILES, 1979, p. 126-128). Regarding these
theories, Giles (1979, p. 126-129) points out:
 […] According to this theory, every proposition affirms something as being the case if it is
really the case; and it is false if, and only if, what it expresses is not the case. […]
According to the theory of evidence , a proposition is true if, and only if, it is self-evident or,
although not self-evident, is logically implied by premises that are self-evident. This theory
considers a conviction or feeling of evidence in itself as a sufficient condition of truth, although
such a conviction or feeling can (and does in fact happen) change both within the same person
and from person to person. Experience shows that evidence beliefs and feelings themselves can
be illusory and the theory does not establish criteria for distinguishing between those that are
and are not illusory. […]
The fundamental thesis of coherence theory is: there is one, and only one, coherent set of
propositions. […] We can define the notion of “coherent set of propositions” and “true
proposition” in terms of the notion of “involvement” and formulate the fundamental thesis of
the coherence theory of truth in the following terms: a set of propositions is coherent if , and
only if, (a) each proposition in the set involves the other propositions in the set; (b) every
proposition that is surrounded by a proposition that belongs to the set belongs to the set itself. A
proposition is true (in the sense of coherence theory) if, and only if, it belongs to a coherent set.
[…]
The archetype of this theory of coherence is found in Hegel's thought, although he referred not
to the involvement between propositions, but between attributes. He seeks to show that, from
the attribute of pure Being, we can ascertain how Being involves all the other attributes of
reality and how all these attributes involve each other.
(my emphasis)

In the first part of his book, when dealing with the theory of science, Köche (1997, p. 27)
presents the dissimilarities between common sense knowledge and scientific knowledge, emphasizing
that “the vagueness of the language used in common sense leads to a low power of discrimination
between potential confirmers and falsifiers of their statements”, thus making their control and
experimental evaluation almost impossible. On the other hand, the aforementioned author (1997, p. 30)
points out that scientific knowledge, as a research process that acts with the aim of constructing a safe
answer to answer existing doubts, “aims to achieve two ideals: the ideal of rationality and the ideal of
objectivity”.
Explaining the ideal of rationality, Köche (1997, p. 31) highlights:

The ideal of rationality is to achieve a coherent systematization of knowledge present in all its
laws and theories. […] This verification of logical coherence between statements, or between
theories and laws, is one of the mechanisms that provides one of the standards for acceptance or
rejection of a theory by the scientific community: the standards of syntactic truth. Scientific
statements must be free from ambiguity and logical contradiction. It is one of the necessary
conditions, although not sufficient. This criterion of truth refers exclusively to the form of
statements and serves to evaluate the agreement that exists between the different theories used
by the scientific community, allowing for intersubjective dialogue and possible consensus.

Then, the aforementioned author (1997, p. 32) goes on to explain the ideal of objectivity, with
the following words:
 The ideal of objectivity, in turn, intends that scientific theories, as theoretical models
representing reality, are conceptual constructions that faithfully represent the real world, that
contain images of this reality that are “certain”, evident, impersonal, capable of be subjected to
experimental tests and accepted by the scientific community as proven in their veracity. This is
the mechanism used to evaluate semantic truth.
The objectivity of scientific knowledge is based on two factors, interdependent on each other:
(a) the possibility of a statement being tested through factual evidence and (b) the possibility of
this testing and its results being able to undergo intersubjective critical evaluation carried out by
the community scientific.

Philosophical knowledge differs from scientific knowledge in terms of nature, object of

investigation, approach as well as the logical and technical means used in its production. The first has a
non-hypothetical, non-testable nature and, for this reason, infallible; philosophy is a science that
universally deals with being as being; its approach is essentially qualitative, not experimental; the
logical means commonly used are maieutics, by Socrates, dialectics, by Plato, and logic, by Aristotle,
and the technical means commonly used are induction, description, generalization. The second (the
scientific) has a hypothetical, testable nature and, for this reason, fallible; these are the so-called private
sciences, whose objects of investigation are particular beings; Private sciences, as they cover the most
diverse themes and areas of research, can make use of practically all logical and technical means of
investigation, always adapting them, of course, to the type of research carried out (GILES, 1979;
RODRIGUES, 2007; MENEZES, 1938).
Religious knowledge, in turn, has the same nature, approach and logical and technical means
used as philosophical knowledge, differing from it, however, in terms of the object of investigation,
which, in this case, deals with the relationship between reason and faith. , whose assumptions, already
in the Middle Ages, “Augustine sought to understand, because if we don’t believe, we won’t
understand” (GILES, 1979, p. 56).
Although syntactic and semantic truths alone are sufficient for the validity of religious and
philosophical knowledge, they do not guarantee the objectivity of scientific knowledge, which is why
Köche (1997, p. 32) highlights:

[…] Although science works with data, factual evidence, it is not free from errors in
interpreting this evidence. No matter how hard he tries, the scientist, the researcher, will always
be influenced by an ideology, a worldview, his training, cultural elements and the time in which
he lives. There is an expectation that guides your worldview and the search for explanations. To
minimize possible errors resulting from subjective expectations, science requires
intersubjectivity, that is, the possibility for the scientific community to make consensual
judgments about the investigation, its results and the methods used. Intersubjectivity is the third
mechanism used in scientific knowledge and which provides pragmatic truth .
 As can be seen, there are three truths that prevail in the process of scientific investigation:
syntactic truth , semantic truth and pragmatic truth . These are the main reasons why scientific
knowledge is considered safer, more correct and more reliable. Hence, the main dissimilarities between
so-called scientific and popular knowledge are: its systematic investigation, the rigor of its evaluation
and the high reliability of its information and results.
In this sense, for knowledge to be accepted as scientific by the scientific community, it “must
necessarily satisfy criteria that justify its acceptance” (KÖCHE, 1997, p. 34), which result from the use
of the so-called scientific method , that is, the set of “non-standard procedures adopted by the
researcher, guided by critical posture and attitudes and appropriate to the nature of each problem
investigated” (KÖCHE, 1997, p. 35).
Specifying the three criteria of scientificity adopted by the scientific community, when
validating knowledge as scientific, Köche (1997. p. 35-36) goes on to say:

[…] What is accepted to be called the scientific method is the critical way of producing
scientific knowledge, which consists of proposing well-founded hypotheses and structures in
their theoretical coherence (syntactic truth) and the possibility of being subjected to severe
critical testing (semantic truth) evaluated by the scientific community (pragmatic truth).
As can be seen, there is not just one criterion of truth to be adopted, but three: the syntactic, the
semantic and the pragmatic. Even so, the sum of the three is not enough to demonstrate the truth
of a given statement and justify its acceptance as a questionable result.
(my emphasis)

Schematically, the three criteria or mechanisms of scientificity or truth adopted by the scientific
community to determine whether knowledge is valid or not, can be represented as follows:

Table 2 – Scientific Criteria

SCIENTIFICITY CRITERIA

syntactic truth They are logical, coherent, consistent and testable statements.
Alluded to is the correspondence of statements with facts, after applying
Semantic truth
falsifiability tests.
Resulting from rigorous consensual evaluation by the scientific
Pragmatic truth
community regarding the research process, its results and methods used.
Source: prepared by the author based on Köche (1997)

However, it is inferred that, in the process of scientific investigation, subject and object are
always dependent and inseparable, which is why the creation of more solid foundations for the
construction of knowledge and the permanent testing of its hypotheses in a more rigid way is
encouraged. and severe, through the “use of statements with high testing discrimination power” and the
“use of the most reliable investigation methods” (KÖCHE, 1997, p. 33).
On the other hand, although scientific knowledge is safer than common sense, it is still fallible.
Its hypothetical nature needs to be continually subjected to critical review, both in terms of the internal
logical consistency of its theories and the validity of its research methods and techniques, which,
according to Köche (1997), has historically already occurred.
The biggest obstacle to scientific progress is not the method nor its adequate technical
procedures, but rather the degree of reliability of man's interpretation of reality (UBC, 2007). However,
in the process of constructing knowledge, human sensation and perception, elements that originate its
interpretation, are the main complicating factors, as Menezes (1938, p. 25-26) corroborates:

[…] The primary element of knowledge, sensation , a mere sign of contact with external
objectivity, already implies the imbalance that propagates as a nervous current capable of
reaching the individual's superior centers, where their conscious experience is registered and
organized.
Of course, this distinction of sensation as an element already implies artificial analysis; How
can we clearly separate sensation and perception , which is the most complex fact? This allows
infinite gradations. It has greater objective content. It is not a mere juxtaposition of added
sensations, but an indecomposable synthesis, a unit of its own physiognomy in psychic
phenomenology. The experience, which is organized in this living web that is constituted by the
connection between being and environment, is a dynamic process, of successive interrelations.

Regarding this aspect, Chauí (2005, p. 126) highlights a theory known as the critique of idols
idealized by Bacon, with the following words:

According to Bacon, there are four types of idols or images that form crystallized opinions and
prejudices, which prevent the knowledge of the truth:
1. Idols of the cave (the cave that Bacon speaks of is that of the myth of the cave): the opinions
that are formed in us due to errors and defects in our sense organs. They are the easiest to be
corrected by our intellect;
2. Idols of the forum (the forum was the place for public discussions and debates in ancient
Rome): these are the opinions that are formed in us as a consequence of language and our
relationships with others. They are difficult to overcome, but the intellect has power over them;
3. Idols of the theater (the theater is the place where we remain passive, where we are just
spectators and receivers of messages): these are the opinions formed in us as a result of the
powers of the authorities who impose their points of view on us and transform them into
decrees and unquestionable laws. They can only be undone if there is social and political
change;
4. Idols of the tribe (the tribe is a human grouping in which everyone has the same origin, the
same destiny, the same characteristics and the same behaviors): these are the opinions that are
formed in us as a result of human nature. They are characteristic of the human species and can
only be overcome if there is a reform of human nature itself.
The demolition of idols is, therefore, a reform of intellect, knowledge and society. For the first
two, Bacon proposes the establishment of a method, defined as the safe way of “applying
reason to experience”, that is, of applying logical thinking to the data offered by sensitive
 knowledge.

In this way, it is inferred that human interpretation results from their sensations and perceptions
towards the researched object. That said, the knowledge produced by man is as coherent, consistent,
correct, reliable or true as his interpretation of reality is (MENEZES, 1938; GILES, 1979).

2.3 Scientific gnosiology

Gnosisology is concerned with analyzing the being as an active subject, practitioner of action.
From this perspective, the gnosiological aspect of research alludes to the relationships that research
subjects establish with the objects of their respective investigations. Gnosiologically speaking, research
subjects can be classified into three large groups, namely: researchers, examiners and the target
audience (ECO, 2012).

2.3.1 The researchers

The researcher, whether he is the author or co-author of an investigation, is the main subject of
the research, as he is the author, he is the one who speaks with authority on a topic. His importance in
the investigation process is greater than that of the examiners, given that he is the one who spends
months, sometimes years, reading, meditating and drawing conclusions about everything that has been
said about his topic. In this vein, I echo Eco’s words (2012, p. 142) when he highlights:

How is it not up to par? Have you dedicated months, sometimes years, to the chosen topic,
perhaps read everything you needed to read about it, meditated, taken notes, and now you have
this talk of not being up to par? But what the hell have you been doing all this time? If you
didn't feel qualified, don't present your thesis. If you presented it, it is because you felt prepared
and, in any case, you have no right to an apology. So, once the opinions of others have been
exposed, once the difficulties have been expressed, once it has been clarified whether
alternative answers are possible on a given topic, go ahead. Say calmly: “we think that” or “it
can be concluded that”. When you speak, you are the authority. If you are discovered to be a
charlatan, even worse for you, but you have no right to hesitate. He has the role of an employee
of humanity, speaking on behalf of the collective on that subject. Be modest and prudent before
you open your mouth, but after you open it, be arrogant and proud.
Writing a thesis on topic X means assuming that until then no one had said anything so
complete and clear about the subject. This book has taught you that you must be cautious when
choosing your topic, be perceptive enough to opt for something limited, perhaps too easy,
perhaps ignobly sectoral. But, regarding what he chose, even if it was titled Variations in the
Sale of Newspapers on the Corner of Avenida Ipiranga and Avenida São João de 24 a 28 Aug.
1976 , you must be the highest living authority.
Even if you have chosen a compilation thesis, which summarizes everything that has been said
on the subject without adding anything new, you are an authority on what has been said by
 other authorities. No one should know better everything that has been said about it.
Naturally, you must work in a way that does not harm your conscience. But that's another thing.
The issue here is one of style. Don't be whiny and complex. This is annoying.

Nevertheless, I defend Eco's gnosiological ideologies, highlighting the relevance and authority
of the role of researchers in the research process, regarding the theme analyzed.

2.3.2 The examiners

Examiners are all the subjects who evaluate, review or examine scientific research. They can be
the supervising professors, the professors who review the work, or the professors who are part of the
examining board, whether for the qualification exam, a mandatory requirement in master's and doctoral
courses, or in the public defense of the Final Course Completion Work (TFCC). The activity of
examining scientific works requires examiners to have a great deal of theoretical and practical
knowledge of the topic examined. Examining boards need to be composed of professional, doctorate
professors, qualified in the topic, authorities in the subject researched, so that they can not only act as
experts, evaluating the work, but also as advisors to the student, providing tips to improve their
performance. work produced and your research activity in general.

2.3.3 Auxiliaries

Assistants are all subjects who assist the researcher in their research process. They may be the
people who organize, sanitize, store or carry out some maintenance in the places of investigation,
planning, or examination of work. They could be professionals from a library, a laboratory where an
experiment necessary for research is carried out, or a collaborator who helps the researcher at some
stage of their research. They also include people, whether individuals or legal entities, who contribute
financially to carrying out the work.

2.2.4 The target audience

The target audience refers to the subjects for whom the research is aimed. The question at hand
is: for whom am I directing this research, or this work? Whether for certain professionals, for an entire
community or a specific body, this is the target audience for the investigation. It is precisely by
thinking about the possible contributions to this audience with the results of the work that the
researcher carries out.

2.4 Scientific ontology

The term ontology, originating from two Greek roots, began to be used in the 16th century, and,
before that, it was the word metaphysics designated to refer to philosophical investigation that revolves
around the question “What is?” (CHAUI, 2005).
Explaining the words “metaphysics” and “ontology”, Chauí (2005, p. 180-181) draws attention
to the fact that the first has two meanings, namely:

1. It means “exists”, so the question refers to the existence of reality and can be transcribed as:
“What exists?”;
2. It means “the nature of something”, so the question refers to the essence of reality, and can be
transcribed as: “What is the essence of what exists?”
Existence and essence of reality in its multiple aspects are, therefore, the main themes of
metaphysics, which investigates the foundations, principles and causes of all things and the
intimate Being of all things, inquiring why they exist and why they are what are.

The use of the term “metaphysics” began around 50 BCE, by Andronicus of Rhodes, when he
collected and classified the works of Aristotle that, for many centuries, had been dispersed and lost.
However, this term was not used by Greek philosophers (CHAUÍ, 2005).
Later, in the 17th century, the German philosopher Jacobus Thomasius judged the word
“ontology” to be more appropriate than the word “metaphysics” to succinctly characterize the study of
Being itself, its existence and its essence, what Aristotle called philosophy first (CHAUÍ, 2005).
Regarding the origin of the term ontology, Chauí (2005, p. 183) explains:

[...] This word is made up of two others: onto and logia . Onto derives from two Greek nouns,
tà onta (“the goods and things actually possessed by someone”; and “the things actually
existing”). Tà onta derives from the verb to be, which, in Greek, is said to be einar . The present
participle of this verb is said on (“being, being”). In this way, the words tà onta (“things”) and
on (“being”) led to a noun: tò on , which means “the Being”. The Being is what it really is and
is opposed to what it seems to be, to appearance. Thus, ontology means “study or knowledge of
Being, beings or things as they are in themselves, really and truly, corresponding to what
Aristotle called first philosophy, that is, the study of Being as Being”.

In short, the ontological aspect of scientific research methodology consists of the study or
knowledge of the existence and essence of the researched object, delimiting it and characterizing it
really and truly.
 2.4.1 Object delimitation

The researcher's first task when planning scientific research is to delimit its object. Delimiting
means, a priori, specifying its limits. The researcher needs to know what he is actually researching and
to what extent he can understand the object of his investigation.

2.4.2 Characterization of the object

After delimiting the object of investigation, the researcher needs to characterize it.
Characterizing means, a priori, presenting its fundamental characteristics. The researcher needs to
know the essence of the object of his investigation, what space and time it is located in.

2.5 Scientific theoretical framework

In the Post-Industrial Era, the boom in bibliographic and cyber information has caused an
increasing need for more rigorous criteria for selecting sources, aiming to collect high-quality data.
That being said, according to Rodrigues (2007), we can highlight three main criteria: the validity of the
sources, the relevance of the information for the study and the contribution of the bibliographic
material.

2.5.1 The validity of scientific research sources

The validity of the source is analyzed by the technique called validation, which, as Rodrigues
(2007, p. 22) points out, “consists of recognizing the theoretical consistency of a discourse through the
effort of falsification”. After explaining that “falsification is the effort to invalidate a theory, proposing
problems or contrasting it with the ability to resolve impasses of another theory”, the author (2007, p.
22-23) emphasizes that “valid is that which continues to resist the effort of falsification or which
contains reliable factual information, and which continues to find application at the time of research.”

2.5.2 The relevance of information for scientific study

Regarding the relevance of the information for the study carried out, it is necessary to define, a
priori, what constitutes relevant content. For Rodrigues (2007, p. 20), pertinent are: “ […] the contents
[that] clarify the relationship between the subjects: either the work deals with the research problem, or,
at least, the theme, or it is not relevant . […]” (my emphasis).
Therefore, relevant is the information that clarifies the research question, or at least its theme.

2.5.3 The contributions of bibliographic material

When it comes to the contribution of bibliographic material, Rodrigues (2007) points out that
whether or not it is directly related to the theme or research problem is not what determines how much
the material contributes to the study carried out. In fact, the author (2007, p. 21) highlights that:

[…] although it deals with a different subject, it can indirectly represent additions to the
ongoing investigation, or even offer some specific and direct support to the researcher.
Conversely, there are works that, although dealing with the subject in question, may add
absolutely nothing, or almost nothing, to the researcher's knowledge base.

Hence, in order to exemplify this contributory issue of bibliographic material, Rodrigues (2007,
p. 21) goes on to say:

A book on politics can analyze the family system and kinship relations in a given society, thus
contributing to countless other researches not interested in politics, but focused on the study of
relatives or the family group, or on other themes that can incorporate a specific contribution in
this area, such as a social history. This is the use of Politics and relatives in Paraíba. […] (my
emphasis)

The degree of reliability of research sources depends on the type of data. If the data is primary,
that is, from the author himself, then we are talking about direct observation and, therefore, reliable
sources. If the data is secondary (critical literature), that is, manipulated by third parties – as in a review
or quote, for example – then we are talking about an indirect observation and, therefore, unreliable
sources. Corroborating these statements, Eco (2012, p. 39) says:

When we work on books, a first-hand source is an original edition or a critical edition of the
 work in question.
Translation is not a source: it is a prosthesis, like dentures or glasses, a means of achieving in a
limited way something that is out of reach.
An anthology is not a source: it is a collection of sources, which may be useful at first, but
writing a thesis about a certain author means trying to see things in him that others have not
seen, and an anthology only shows me what no one ignores.
Reviews made by other authors, even supplemented by the most extensive citations, are not
sources: they are, at most, second-hand sources.
A font is second-hand for several reasons. If I intend to write a thesis on Palmiro Togliatti's
parliamentary speeches, the speeches published by Umita constitute a second-hand source.
Nobody guarantees me that the rapporteur didn't make cuts or make mistakes. First-hand
sources will be the parliamentary minutes. If I managed to obtain the text written directly by
Togliatti, I would then have a first-hand source. If I want to study the United States Declaration
of Independence, the only first-hand source is the authentic document. But I can also consider a
good photocopy firsthand. The same can be said of the text critically prepared by any
historiographer of unquestionable seriousness (“indisputable”, here, meaning: never discussed
in the existing critical literature). It can be seen that the concept of “first” and “second” hand
depends on the angle of the thesis. If this attempts to discuss 43 existing critical editions, it is
necessary to go back to the originals; If you want to discuss the political meaning of the
declaration of independence, a good critical edition is more than enough.

Based on these assumptions, the research topic must adapt to the type of sources selected. If
they are “first-hand,” that is, primary, then my subject considers the thoughts of the authors themselves.
If they are “second-hand”, that is, secondary, then the theme considers, not the thoughts, but the
interpretations of the thoughts of the author(s), so that the focus of the research ceases to be what the
Author(s) said to be what others said, taking inspiration from them. These are precisely the ideas
conveyed by Eco (2012, p. 36) with the following words:

[…] If I chose Adam Smith's Economic Thought as my topic and I realize that, as the work
progresses, I get involved in discussing the interpretations of a certain author and neglect
directly reading Smith, I can do two things : either return to the source or modify the topic for
Smith's Interpretations in Contemporary English Liberal Thought . This will not exempt me
from knowing what Smith said, but it is clear that at this point my interest is to discuss not so
much what he said, but what others have said inspired by him. However, it is obvious that, if I
intend to criticize its interpreters in depth, I will have to compare their interpretations with the
original text.

Therefore, the type of fonts selected must always adapt to the chosen theme in terms of depth,
quality and breadth.

2.6 Scientific ethics

 The fundamental purpose of scientific research is the production of valid, safe, reliable
knowledge. To this end, it is necessary for this process to follow well-defined methods and procedures
that are scientifically valid and that simultaneously address ethical and moral issues (SPINK, 2012;
MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003; MENEZES, 1938; PIAGET, 1973).
Integrity in the scientific research process is one of the greatest concerns of the entire scientific
community, and should also be the case for the entire society. Regarding this aspect, Booth, Colomb
and Williams (2005, p. 325) say:

Everything we have said about research begins with our conviction that it is an entirely social
activity, one that unites us with those whose research we use and, equally, with those who will
use ours. It is also an activity no longer limited to the small academic social world. Research is
now at the center of industry, commerce, government, education, healthcare, military
operations, even entertainment and religion. It influences all sectors of our society and our lives,
public or private. [...]

In this vein, characterizing the ethical researcher, Booth, Colomb and Williams (2005, p. 326)
explain with the following words:

Ethical researchers do not steal, plagiarize, or claim the results of others.

They do not lie, distorting information from sources or inventing results.
They do not destroy sources or data, thinking about those who will come after them.
Responsible researchers do not present data whose accuracy they have reason to question.
They do not cover up objections that they cannot refute.
They do not ridicule researchers who have views contrary to their own, nor do they deliberately
present those views in a way that those researchers would reject.
They do not write their reports in a way that purposely makes it difficult for readers to
understand, nor do they oversimplify what is legitimately complex.

It is precisely because of the disrespect for the academic community and society, in addition to
many other damages caused, that the practice of plagiarism and other misconduct like this are
“violently” combatted, as emphasized by Booth, Colomb and Williams (2005, p. 328):

It is this concern for the integrity of the community's work that explains why researchers
condemn plagiarism so violently. Those who intentionally plagiarize steal more than just words.
By not identifying a source, the plagiarist steals part of the small reward that the academic
community has to offer, the respect that a researcher spends his entire life trying to achieve. The
plagiarist steals from the community of classmates, making the quality of their work appear
worse in comparison to his, and then perhaps steals again by receiving one of the few good
grades set aside to reward students who do good work. When he prefers not to learn the
techniques that research can teach, the plagiarist not only compromises his own education, but
also steals from society in general, which invests its resources in teaching students who will be
able to do good work later. Most importantly, plagiarism, like theft between friends, turns the
fabric of the community into tatters.
 Due to the need to combat bad practices or conduct when carrying out scientific research,
educational institutions as well as agents that promote scientific research have developed and
disseminated rules of good practice or good conduct. In this sense, the most adopted practices
worldwide are: a) the elaboration and dissemination of Codes of Scientific Ethics; b) the presentation
of content related to plagiarism and other misconduct on university home pages ; c) the implementation
of academic integrity centers in higher education and scientific research institutions; and d) the
integration of the study of academic writing and plagiarism in specific subjects in higher education
courses. Abroad, we have as an example the universities MIT, Harvard, Stanford, Cambridge, Oxford,
Suriss Federal, Inst. of Technology, Tokyo, National Taiwan University, Kyoto, Australian National
University, Queensland, Monashi, Cape Town, Prétoria, Stellenbosch, all of which adopt the four
practices presented.
In Brazil, the universities USP, Unicamp and UFSC are the first to adopt some of the texts to
combat plagiarism and other misconduct on their home pages . Furthermore, there is, for example, in
Brazil, the Fapesp Code of Good Scientific Practices, which establishes ethical guidelines for the
scientific activities of researchers who benefit from Fapesp grants and scholarships and for the exercise
of the role of scientific evaluator by their advisors. . It specifies, based on international experience in
dealing with the issue of ethical integrity of research, well-defined criteria regarding the conception,
proposition, implementation, communication of results, authorship, registration, conservation,
accessibility, potential conflict of interests, peer assessment and mentoring of scientific activities. It is
also explained about the allegation, investigation and declaration of scientific misconduct as well as the
responsibility of research institutions (FAPESP, 2012).
Among the most serious misconducts, the following are mentioned in this code: a) the
fabrication, or assertion that procedures or results were obtained or conducted that actually were not; b)
the falsification of data, procedures or research results in a materially modified, inaccurate or
incomplete manner; c) plagiarism, or the use of ideas or formulations, oral or written, from others
without giving them, expressly and clearly, due credit; d) breaking confidentiality regarding the data
and information collected, the procedures carried out and the partial results obtained, until the
publication of the final research results (FAPESP, 2012).
There is also here in Brazil the CNPQ Scientific Activity Integrity Commission, created by
Normative Resolution nº 006/12, which is responsible for coordinating preventive and educational
actions on the integrity of research carried out and/or published by researchers working in Brazil and
examine situations in which there are fundamental doubts regarding the integrity of research supported
by CNPQ; establishes 21 basic guidelines for integrity in scientific activity, among other standards
(CNPQ, 2012).
Defending a Kantian view of ethics and the need for international codes of ethics, El-Guindy
(2004, p. 101 and 103) highlights:

Ethics is universal, practical and sovereign, and only in these terms can the principles of ethics
produce their effects and establish their values. Ethics is not a special privilege for a certain
society or a peculiar reservation of a single ethnic group; ethics is the set of elements that define
the bases of relationships between people, societies and countries. [...]
It is necessary to have declared international codes of ethics, it is important that researchers are
well aware of these declarations, but the essential thing is that these principles become rules of
conduct that are respected and followed. This, today, is the great responsibility of scientists,
educators and students. [...]

There are several International Codes of Ethics 1guiding scientific discoveries, guiding their
progress. Among them, El-Guindy (2004) presents eight, namely: the Hippocratic Oath (5th century
BC), the Declaration of Geneva (1948), the Declaration of Monaco (1983?), the Code of Medical
Ethics of the Medical Association Americana (1867?), the Declaration of Helsinki (1964), the Venice
Declaration (1986), the Hawaiian Declaration (1977?) and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(1948).

2.7 Conclusions

In fact, it is a difficult task to demarcate science, separating what is and what is not scientific,
because “scientific demarcations are relative to conceptions of reality and cannot claim exclusivity”, in
addition to “never closing the discussion” (DEMO , 2013). When explaining in depth the subject of
scientific demarcation, Demo (2013) presents three limits inherent to such a process, one of them being
the very definition of the criteria for scientificity . Using the author’s words (DEMO, 2013, p. 42), the
transcription follows:

When we talk about scientificity criteria, we are assuming that we have in front of us a concept
that is not obvious and that needs definition, such as the concept of science. Let us then present
a definition criterion that can say what the concept is, what it is not, how it is defined, what its
context of validity is. Let us take the criterion of coherence. We said that it is one of the criteria,
that it is form, that it is internal, etc.
However, we immediately note that the concept of coherence is also not evident. We need to
define it equally. And we did so by appealing to its logical characteristic of lack of
contradiction. But the realization immediately emerges that neither logic nor contradiction are

1 In addition to the Codes of Ethics listed and transcribed here, there are many others, such as: a) Code of
Professional Ethics for Accountants; b) Administrator’s Code of Professional Ethics; c) OAB Code of Ethics and
Professional Discipline; d) Psychologist’s Code of Professional Ethics; e) Pedagogue’s Code of Professional Ethics; f) Code
of Professional Ethics for Social Workers; g) Code of Pastoral Ethics of the Methodist Church, etc.
 evident concepts. We need, again, to define them.
Now, what is this about? It is an infinite regression, as logicians say, which coincides with the
idea of an endless discussion. If we do not admit evidence, that is, things that are imposed as
defined in advance, absolutely clear to everyone: we assume that they present themselves in an
indistinct, debatable, non-evident way. Each term will have to be defined by a new term, and so
on indefinitely.
Discussion cannot be naturally suppressed. What we do is interrupt it at a certain point, due to
external coexistence, never due to internal exhaustion. We interrupt, either because we get tired
of arguing, or because we lose the thread, or because the context comes to satisfy us, or because
we agreed to interrupt. All this is external convenience, from which we cannot escape. Thus, the
first conclusion to be drawn is that scientific demarcation certainly has a relative value; It is the
typical case of a discussion, that is, of something that is by definition debatable.

Based on the assumptions presented, it is deduced that the criteria of scientificity guarantee
relative degrees of certainty, or security, or truth, since science is provisional, incomplete, unfinished,
fallible. We also conclude that the discussion about scientific demarcation is endless, just as it is about
absolute truth.

3. THE METHODOLOGICAL PILLARS

3.1 Introduction

Rodrigues (2006, p. 136) explains that “etymologically, the word method comes from the Greek
metá , which means 'through', 'to follow', and hodós , which means 'way'”. Therefore, the scientific
method is a reasonably safe way to reach knowledge of the truth, even partially. Or even, in the
author's words, “it consists of a set of rational and systematic procedures that make it possible to
achieve a certain objective” (RODRIGUES, 2006, p. 136).
Methodology, as a discipline, is concerned, a priori, with the study of the phases, approaches
and logical means of investigating a given object. The term methodology derives from the Latin
expression methodus , which means way or means to accomplish something, and the Greek expression
logos , which means study, analysis. Therefore, research methodology becomes, a priori, the study of
the appropriate means or paths to investigate an object (BARROS and LEHFELD, 2000).
There are several criteria to classify or characterize scientific research, among them, the nature,
the way of obtaining information, the approach and the objectives (RODRIGUES, 2006; GIL, 2010).
For example, in terms of nature, scientific research can be an original, primary work, or a summary or
review of subjects, secondary; as for obtaining information, it can be bibliographic, documentary, field
or laboratory; as for the approach, it can be quantitative, qualitative or mixed; As for the objectives, it
can be exploratory, descriptive or explanatory (CRESWELL, 2010; RODRIGUES, 2006).
 What Gil (1999) calls methods that determine the logical bases of investigation and methods that
indicate the technical means of investigation, geographer Rodrigues (2006) calls approach methods and
procedural methods, respectively.
Briefly, the five approach methods presented by Rodrigues (2006, p. 137-143. My emphasis)
are:

The inductive method is one by which a general law is established from the observation and
repetition of regularities in particular cases, that is, through particular observations, the
affirmation of a general principle is reached. [...]
Unlike induction, the deductive method is a process of logical reasoning that, based on general
or universal principles and propositions, reaches less universal or particular conclusions. [...]
The hypothetical-deductive method [...] consists of formulating the notion of falsifiability as a
fundamental criterion for the explanation of scientific theories. [...]
The dialectical method seeks to contest a posited reality, emphasizing its contradictions. For
every thesis, there is an antithesis that, when opposed, tends to form a synthesis. [...]
The phenomenological method is the study of phenomena, in themselves, apprehending their
essence, structure of their meaning. [...] Phenomenology consists of the description of all
phenomena [...]

In the same vein, Rodrigues (2006, p. 143-149, my emphasis) presents eight procedural
methods, which, in summary, are:

The statistical method is based on the use of statistics to investigate a phenomenon or object of
study. This method contributes to the collection, organization, description, analysis and
interpretation of data, and to the use of this data in decision making. [...]
The comparative method leads to investigation through the analysis of two or more facts or
phenomena, seeking to highlight the differences and similarities between them. [...]
The experimental method consists of subjecting the studied phenomenon to the influence of
certain variables, under conditions controlled and known by the researcher, to verify the results
that these variables produce in the object. [...]
The typological method consists of creating ideal models that serve for the analysis or
evaluation of a concrete reality. [...]
The historical method leads to investigation based on the study of events, processes and
institutions of the past, seeking to explain their influence on contemporary social life. [...]
The functionalist method establishes an analogy between society and the organism. It studies
social phenomena based on their functions, analyzing the interrelated and interdependent parts
to understand the functioning of the whole, that is, the total social system. [...]
The structuralist method is used to study cultures, languages, etc., as a system in which the
constituent elements maintain structural relationships among themselves. [...]
The clinical method is mainly used by psychologists in a relationship between the researcher
and the researched. [...]

Based on these assumptions presented by Gil (1999, 2010) and Rodrigues (2006), it is clear that
these exemplified ways of sizing the Methodology are quite confusing, since the epistemological,
logical and technical pillars differ from each other and cannot be integral parts of each other, although
the three make up the fundamental axes of scientific research methodology. However, not only this, but
the divisions in general adopted for the methodological pillars of scientific research are equally
confusing and far from covering all of its main aspects and often do not facilitate the researcher's work
during his investigation (TEIXEIRA, 2012; BARROS; LEHFELD, 2000; GIL, 1999, 2010;
RODRIGUES, 2006).
However, his words lead to the unanimous conclusion that the methodological pillars of
scientific research methodology consist of three fundamental axes: the epistemological basis of
investigation , which indicates the way of conceiving science, truth, life, man and the world in which it
is produced; the logical basis of investigation , which indicates the structure of thoughts and the
sequence of research phases; and the technical basis of investigation , which indicates the procedural
rites, regarding the approach(es), the technique(s) and the instruments used.
From this perspective, a very coherent, consistent and clear way of sizing the division of
Methodology – and considered the foundation of the present work – is as Barros and Lehfeld (2000, p.
13, my emphasis) go on to say:

[…] it is possible to size the division of Methodology into three interconnected aspects, that is,
the epistemological, the logical and the technical, elements necessary for the construction of
Science:
a) Epistemological: refers to the study of questions that can be raised in the search for truth,
discussion of the limits, scope and value of scientific methods (critical study of scientific
methods);
b) Logical: presupposes the logical organization of reasoning in the practice of investigation
and scientific action;
c) Technical: is the scientific of the specific techniques and procedures used and particular
contexts of thematic research problematized in the different sciences.

For this reason, the present work sizes the methodology of scientific research, as Barros and
Lehfeld (2007), into three pillars: the epistemological , the logical and the technical . Below is an
explanation of each of them.

3.2 The epistemological pillar

3.2.1 Introduction

Epistemology was once considered a mere chapter or area of the Theory of Knowledge.
Gradually, the scientific community began to realize that Science has other facets, underlying
epistemology, but distinct from it, which provide the basis for the construction of knowledge. Logic
and technique undoubtedly need to be adequately aligned with the epistemological approach in order to
produce acceptable, reliable and trustworthy knowledge. Regarding these aspects, Vasconcellos (2010,
p. 40 and 41) points out:

Originally, epistemology – which was considered a chapter of the theory of knowledge – was
concerned with the nature and scope of scientific knowledge, as opposed to vulgar knowledge.
How can one scientifically know the world, an object of study? How does the knowledge
obtained by a scientist differ from the knowledge obtained by a layman? It was considered that
the “way of knowing” the object scientifically – that is, this “process of knowing” – is
conditioned by the conception one has of the same object. Then, it was admitted that,
underlying epistemology, was ontology, which was concerned with studies or speculations
about the nature or “essence of being” to be known.
The second period in the evolution of the concept of epistemology, Bunge associates it with the
Vienna Circle, a meeting of important philosophers and scholars from the beginning of the 20th
century, among whom Ludwig Wittgenstein stood out. In 1921, Wittgenstein published the
Tratactus lógico-philosophicus . In this book, he considered that scientific propositions – that
is, what is said in language, about the world – reflect the world in a spectacular way.
“Analytical philosophy” or analysis of scientific propositions should indicate how to recognize
true propositions, those that adequately describe the natural world. So, during this period, the
philosophy of science, or epistemology, was reduced to the analysis of the language of science,
of scientific prepositions.
Finally, in a third moment in the evolution of the concept, there was a rebirth of epistemology
as a philosophy of science – no longer just a philosophy of the language of science – proposing
to address several of the problems or aspects of science and, therefore, having different
branches: logic of science, semantics of science, theory of scientific knowledge, methodology
of science, ontology of science, axiology (study of values) of science, ethics of science.

Therefore, epistemology is one of the three pillars of scientific research methodology, and,
alongside logic and technique, forms the founding framework of scientific knowledge. In this sense,
the critical literature on the methodology of scientific research is unanimous in considering the
researcher's conception of science as well as its nature and its construction process as a pillar. This
pillar is what the same literature calls the epistemological axis, dividing it into three main approaches,
methods or paradigms: the phenomenological-hermeneutic, the empirical-analytical and the critical-
dialectic, also well known as historical-structural (TEIXEIRA, 2012; GIL , 2010; BARROS;
LEHFELD, 2000, 2007; GIFTED, 2015). From this perspective, explanations follow about each of
them.

3.2.2 The phenomenological-hermeneutic method, approach or paradigm

The approach, or also correctly called method, phenomenological-hermeneutic, aims to describe

a phenomenon, demarcate it, delimit it, characterize it. However, it is not its aim to explore its causes
or effects. Interpretation as the basis for understanding the phenomena investigated is the axis of
scientific explanation. Regarding what type of situation to use it in, Teixeira (2012, p. 127-128,
 emphasis added) explains:

If the research problem points to a relationship between the phenomenon and the essence, that
is, the relationship between the lived phenomenon and the person who experiences the essence
of the phenomenon (what is the meaning of school failure for the student, the teacher and the
student's family), student?), the researcher must adopt the phenomenological-hermeneutic
approach. Interpretation as the basis for understanding phenomena is the axis of scientific
explanation.

The phenomenological-hermeneutic approach has a set of logical elements and gnosiological

and ontological assumptions that need to be taken into consideration when using it. Regarding this
aspect, Teixeira (2012, p. 130-131) presents the following table:

Table 3 – Logical elements and assumptions of the phenomenological-hermeneutic approach

No. Level/Aspect Defining characteristics

Use of non-quantitative techniques such as interviews,

1 Technical level testimonials, experiences, narrations, bibliographic techniques,
life stories and discourse analysis.

Theoretical Level (in

It privileges theoretical studies and the analysis of documents
two relation to the
and texts.
authors)

They explain criticisms of approaches based on experimentalism,

Theoretical Level (in quantitative methods and technical proposals. They make
relation to the type of complaints, explain ideologies, uncover and decipher implicit
3
criticism and change assumptions in speeches, texts and communications. The
proposals) proposals are interested in raising awareness and in alternative
and innovative practices.

Epistemological They trust in the logical process of interpretation and the

4 Level (scientificity researcher's ability to reflect (practical-communicative
criteria) rationality).

Science consists of understanding phenomena in their various

Epistemological manifestations. The phenomena that are the subject of research
5 Level (conception of (words, gestures, actions, symbols, signs, texts, artifacts, works,
science) speeches) need to be understood. Research is capturing the
meaning of phenomena.

Gnosiological Subject-centered process: subjectivity. Accepts the strong

6
Assumptions presence of the subject in the interpretation of the object studied.
 (conception of object
and subject and their
relationship)

Man is seen as a project, an unfinished being, a being of

Ontological
relationships with the world and with others. Educating them
7 Assumptions (notion
means developing the human project in a dialogical and
of man)
awareness-raising relationship.

Ontological
Transition from a synchronic view (the rx of the phenomenon) to
8 Assumptions (notion
a diachronic view.
of history)

Conception of reality Transcription of an isolationist, homogeneous, non-conflictive

9
and worldview vision to a dynamic vision.

Source: prepared by the author, based on Teixeira (2012, p. 130-131).

3.2.3 The empirical-analytical method, approach or paradigm

The approach, or also correctly called empirical-analytical method, aims to explore a

phenomenon, explaining its causes through everyday experiences and tested and proven experiments.
Causality is the axis of its scientific explanation. Regarding what type of situation to use it in, Teixeira
(2012, p. 127, emphasis added) highlights:

If the research problem points to the concept of cause (what is the cause of school failure in the
first grade?) or to a causal relationship (age, sex, education and teaching experience of the
teacher are related to school failure?), the researcher must adopt an empirical-analytical
approach . [...] Causality is the axis of scientific explanation.

The empirical-analytical approach also has a set of logical elements and gnosiological and
ontological assumptions that need to be taken into consideration when using it. Regarding this aspect,
Teixeira (2012, p. 129-130) presents the following table:

Table 4 – Logical elements and assumptions of the empirical-analytical approach

No. Level/Aspect Defining characteristics

Use of techniques for collecting, processing and analyzing

markedly quantitative data using statistical measures and
1 Technical level
procedures. Data will be collected through standardized tests and
closed questionnaires, presented in graphs or tables.

two Theoretical Level It privileges classic authors of positivism and analytical science.
 (in relation to the The theoretical foundation appears in the form of bibliographical
authors) reviews on the topic covered, with a succinct presentation of the
results of other research.

Theoretical Level
Some research excludes any discussion, confrontation, debate or
(in relation to the
questioning, supported by the neutrality of the scientific method.
3 type of criticism
Some research presents technical criticism with a specific
and change
interest in recovering harmony and balance in organizations.
proposals)

Epistemological
Validation is based on testing data collection and processing
Level
4 instruments with emphasis on the degree of statistical
(scientificity
significance (technical-instrumental rationality).
criteria)

Epistemological Science aims to search for the causes of phenomena and explain
5 Level (conception facts through the conditions and antecedents that generate them.
of science) You have to prove (mandatory) hypotheses.

Gnosiological
Assumptions
(conception of Object-centered cognitive process: objectivity. It assumes the
6
object and subject existence of immediate data devoid of subjective connotations.
and their
relationship)

A man is defined by his profile. It is considered a human

Ontological
resource ( imput ) or a product of the process ( output ), as an
7 Assumptions
agent, an employee. Educating him means training him through
(notion of man)
stimuli, reinforcements and development of skills and abilities.

Ontological
Synchronic concern: general and instantaneous view of the
8 Assumptions
object studied. The photo of the suit.
(notion of history)

Conception of
9 reality and Fixed, functional, predefined and predetermined vision.
worldview

Source: prepared by the author, based on Teixeira (2012, p. 129-130).

3.2.4 The critical-dialectical (historical-structural) method, approach or paradigm

The approach, or also correctly called critical-dialectic method, also known as historical-
structural, aims to explore a phenomenon, but seeking to explain its variations, be they causes or
effects, depending on changes in society, be they of a economic, civic, technological, cultural, political,
religious, etc. For this reason, this approach considers action as the fundamental epistemological
category for its scientific explanation. Regarding what type of situation to use it in, Teixeira (2012, p.
127, emphasis added) highlights:

If the research problem points to an interrelationship of the whole with the parts and vice versa,
of the micro elements with the macro, the historical elements (which historical, political and
social elements are implicated in school failure? How has the school failure in the first grade?),
the researcher must adopt a critical-dialectic approach . Considers action as the fundamental
epistemological category for scientific explanation.

Similarly to the other two epistemological axes, the critical-dialectic approach has a set of
logical elements and gnosiological and ontological assumptions that need to be taken into consideration
when using it. Regarding this aspect, Teixeira (2012, p. 132-133) presents the following table:

Table 5 – Logical elements and assumptions of the critical-dialectic approach

No. Level/Aspect Defining characteristics

Use of all techniques from the phenomenological-

1 Technical level hermeneutic approach and also action research and
participatory research.

It privileges studies on experiences, pedagogical practices,

Theoretical Level (in historical processes, philosophical discussions or
two
relation to the authors) contextualized analyzes based on a previous theoretical
framework.

They fundamentally question the static view of reality

Theoretical Level (in
implicit in previous approaches. It is markedly critical and
relation to the type of
3 aims to reveal the conflict of interests. They have a
criticism and change
transformative interest in participatory practices for social
proposals)
and political change.

They are based on the internal logic of the process and the
Epistemological Level
4 methods that explain the dynamics and internal
(scientificity criteria)
contradictions (transformative reason).

Science, as a product of human action, is considered a

Epistemological Level historical category and scientific production is a
5
(conception of science) construction. It revisits previous conceptions (explanation
and understanding), in a critical way, to overcome them.

Gnosiological Assumptions Process centered on the dynamic subject-object

6 (conception of object and relationship: concreteness. This is built on the object-
subject and their subject synthesis.
 relationship)

Man is seen both as a social and historical being,

Ontological Assumptions determined by multiple contexts and as a creator and
7
(notion of man) transformer of multiple contexts. Educating him is forming
him socially.

Ontological Assumptions Diachronic concern: sees the dynamics of the studied

8
(notion of history) object, the movement (the film of reality).

9 Dynamic, conflicting, heterogeneous vision. An organized

Conception of reality and perception of reality that is constructed through the
worldview researcher's daily practice and the concrete conditions of his
existence.

Source: prepared by the author, based on Teixeira (2012, p. 132-133).

3.2.5 Other paradigms and theories

Paradigms are points of view of a given object. As every point of view is the view of a point, so
the investigator's vision, however good he or she may be, is limited, unfinished, incomplete, imperfect,
subjective, partial. Still, points of view can be broader, more complete, and more focused than others,
but always allowing room for further deepening (GIFTED, 2015).
The phenomenological-hermeneutic, empirical-analytical and critical-dialectic (or historical-
structural) methods are just three paradigms, present in the areas of Human and Social Sciences
(GIFTED, 2015). In other scientific areas, different paradigms are adopted. For example, in research on
Organizational Studies 2, the paradigms are Functionalist, Interpretivist, Radical Structuralist, Radical
Humanist, Perspectivist, and Neoperspectivist.
For these reasons, it is up to the researcher to seek to know closely the paradigms that already
exist in investigations of the chosen topic, because each area of knowledge has its own paradigms. It is
also up to him to use them appropriately, pointing out their gaps, seeking to eliminate their
contradictions and advancing them to the extent possible and necessary.
Another issue is the theories chosen to investigate a given object. For each chosen paradigm,
there are specific theories to investigate a topic. For example, in Organizational Studies, there are
several theories used, such as Agency Theory, Network Theory, Field Theory, Institutional Theory,
Transaction Cost Theory, Social Representation Theory, Critical Theory, Structuring Theory,

2 For more information about paradigms in Organizational

Studies, please consult Appendix 1 , entitled Founding bases of the main paradigmatic approaches in EO .
Efficiency Theory etc. The creators of each of these theories already had their own paradigms when
they were constructed. For this reason, these paradigms need to be respected when choosing the
theory(s) used.

3.2.6 Conclusions

The axes, or methods, or approaches, or paradigms, are nothing more than the ways in which
the researcher(s) see their object of investigation, the world, man, life, truth and science. They can see
the investigation as being: a) objective, that is, finished, complete, without the investigator's
interference, neutral; b) subjective, that is, unfinished, incomplete, with the researcher's interference, is
never neutral; c) objective, but subjectively interpreted, that is, knowledge of the object is absolute, but
human interpretations about it are imperfect, unfinished, incomplete; and, d) intersubjective, that is,
knowledge is the fruit (result) of the encounter between theses (assertions, which can be affirmations or
denials) and their contradictions (which produces syntheses); For this reason, to be validated, peer
evaluation is necessary.
The paradigm chosen by the researcher is the starting point of his scientific investigation. He is
the one who will direct the entire research process, the way in which the researcher will treat his theme,
his object, the other research subjects, throughout his investigative work. The results of your work will
be evaluated according to the paradigms of your peers. For these reasons, the paradigmatic choice is
very important for conducting scientific research, and ideally it should precede logical and technical
choices.
Furthermore, the paradigmatic choice is linked to the theoretical choice, since paradigms and
theories talk to each other, so that such choices need to be made together, concomitantly.

3.3 The logical pillar

The logical pillar is tactical, managerial; studies the phases of scientific research and the
structural bases of scientific thought (GIFTED, 2015). Gifted (2015, p. 9) explains these aspects as
follows:

The logical pillar refers to the set of structural assumptions of thought,

guiding scientific research at a tactical level. It is, therefore, the tactical , or
managerial , pillar of scientific research. It considers the exact starting point of the reasoning
 used as well as the nuances of its advances. For this reason, its approaches
(methods) can be appropriately called tactical bases of research or structural bases of
research thinking (CRESWELL, 2010; TRIVIÑOS, 1987).

Below, the phases of scientific research and their structural bases of thought are thoroughly
explained.

3.3.1 The phases of scientific research

There are many ways to sequence the stages of research development (ECO, 2012). Throughout
his research on this subject, the author of this work found authorities on the subject in the literature
who presented the most varied ways of sequentially organizing an appropriate way of researching.
However, not aiming to be exhaustive on this subject, but merely to present some paths considered the
most appropriate for research produced in higher education, the main ones are presented below. Eco
(2012, p. 5) says:

In effect, developing a thesis means: (1) identifying a valuable theme; (2) collect documentation
about it; (3) put these documents in order; (4) re-examine the topic first-hand in light of the
documentation collected; (5) give organic form to all preceding reflections; (6) strive to ensure
that the reader understands what was meant and can, if necessary, resort to the same
documentation in order to return to the topic on their own.

According to the support material from Unimes Virtual (2015), the phases of scientific research
can be divided into three: decision-making , constructive and writing . The decision-making phase
refers to the choice of the research topic, the definition, and it is in this phase that the delimitation of
the research problem is made. The constructive phase , as the name suggests, is when the construction
of an action plan and execution of the research is created. And the writing phase involves analyzing
the data that was collected during the constructive phase of the research and preparing the final report,
concluding the research.
In the same material (UNIMES VIRTUAL, 2015), scientific research is divided into 11 stages,
namely: a) choosing the topic; b) literature review; c) justification; d) formulation of the problem; e)
determination of objectives; f) methodology; g) data collection; h) data tabulation; i) analysis and
discussion of results; j) conclusion of the analysis of results; finally, k) writing and presentation of the
scientific work.
Finally, from the data exploratory phase to the results dissemination phase, there are several
possible sequential strategies for carrying out the research phases. However, looking for a more generic
way to explain the phases that guide any and all scientific research, the author of this work presents
four fundamental steps, based on the administrative principles inherent to his training: planning ,
organization , execution and control of the search. This division of the stages of scientific research is
based on the famous PodcODC, that is, the system that synthesizes the functions of the administrator,
namely: Planning, Organizing, Directing (or leading) and Controlling (CHIAVENATO, 2003).
However, the following table presents seven steps that, according to Eco (2012), can be
followed when carrying out a scientific investigation:

Table 6 – Sequential strategy for qualitative or quantitative research

1st) Definition and characterization of the research object-theme: in this first stage,
the research problem is defined, which defines the object to be investigated, and the research
problem, in which it is characterized.

2nd) Determination of the feasibility of carrying out the research, based on the type of
research and the appropriate choice of logical and technical means of investigation: in this
second stage, the literature review, methodologies, execution schedule, and the budget to carry out
the research, with the definition of all these elements being necessary to determine its feasibility.

3rd) Determination of the relevance of the research, based on the selection of the most
reliable research sources: in this third stage, the objectives and justification of the research are
defined. First, feasibility must be ascertained, before relevance, because if carrying out the
research is unfeasible, there is no point in it being relevant, as it will not be carried out.

4th) Investigation of the object: in this fourth stage, the introduction of the work is
defined, because it is in this phase that the research itself begins, that is, the collection of data on
the investigated object, for further organization, analysis and interpretation, also This stage is
carried out with the aim of producing final results consistent with the pre-established objectives.

5th) Planning the data collected and results obtained: in this fifth stage, the results, the
research discussion, the conclusions, the final considerations, and the research summary are
defined, with the keywords. This is the writing stage of the research, in which all ideas go on
paper, whether printed or virtual.

6th) Examination of the scientificity of the research: in this sixth stage, reviews of the
entire work are carried out, with the help of a qualified supervisor, during the preparation of the
work and, in public defenses, based on in the guidelines provided by the examining board.

7th) Disclosure of final results: in this seventh stage, the work, already completely
completed, rigorously reviewed and scientifically approved, is ready to be published, with its
 public defense, in front of an examining board, being its first publication (ECO, 2012) .

Source: prepared by the author, based on Eco (2012)

3.3.1.1 Preparation of the preliminary research project or writing of a research essay

It is here, at this stage, that scientific investigation begins. At this stage, the first steps are taken
to build the scientific work. It is at this moment that all variables inherent to scientific research are
planned, organized, executed and controlled. The objective of this phase is to prepare a good research
project, or a good essay writing.
Managing means, according to scholars in this area, four things: Planning, Organizing,
Directing (or Executing) and Controlling (Podc). In the case of managing the scientific research
process, it is no different; Managing it therefore means planning, organizing, executing (or directing)
and controlling it.

3.3.1.1.1 Research planning

Research planning must always precede the execution phase. First, an initial text is prepared,
called a preliminary research project, or essay writing, in which the theme, the problem question, the
justification, the general objective, the specific objectives, the hypotheses (if any) are informed. , the
theoretical framework – in which the main concepts and theories to be used in scientific work are
presented – and, last but not least, the references used to compose the corpus for executing the
preliminary research project , which we can also call essay writing corpus , or just essay writing
corpus .
In this planning phase, the corpus of execution of the preliminary project or essay writing is
delimited, delimiting it spatially and temporally, that is, establishing a spatial and temporal lapse so that
data can be collected from bibliographies, documents, interviewees, etc. ., in order to achieve the pre-
established objectives.

3.3.1.1.1.1 Delimitation and characterization of the research object

The research object needs to be well defined, simple and objective. Well cut means well
delimited, well characterized, for example, with a specific spatial and temporal lapse. Simple means
understandable whether by an academic or by an ordinary person with little secular education.
Objective means straight to the point, without beating around the bush.
To give an example, if my objective is to investigate the mergers and acquisitions of any entity
in the Brazilian banking sector, my research object is the mergers and acquisitions of that bank; hence,
to be well defined, a spatial lapse can be established, for example, in the national territory, and a
temporal lapse, for example, in the last five years of the history of the institution chosen for the
research. This object is simple because it is easily understandable for all types of readers, and it is
objective because it bluntly points out the direction of the investigation, leaving no doubt as to the path
taken to achieve the proposed objectives.

3.3.1.1.1.2 Determination of the relevance of the research

Relevant research is important, salient, timely, appropriate, relevant research that suits the
purpose, that is, that satisfies the proposed objectives. For example, if the objective of the work is to
understand the relationship between the micro and macroeconomic dimensions of business mergers and
acquisitions in the Brazilian banking sector, the relevance is limited to the fact that such dimensions
have not yet been classified in the critical literature on the subject, and, For this reason, this research is
new, original, relevant, timely, appropriate, that is, pertinent.

3.3.1.1.1.3 Determination of research feasibility

Viable research is executable, operationalizable, practicable, feasible, passable, life-giving

research. To this end, it must be analyzed whether the researcher has all the materials, time and human
resources necessary to carry out scientific research. This involves knowing whether the researcher has
access to all the data necessary to carry out the research; if you have access to documents, libraries,
sectors, reports, financial statements, among other materials. As well as, whether there is a need for
approval from an ethics committee to investigate human beings in the development of research and,
more importantly, whether or not the research was approved by said committee; if the researcher has
full command of the theories and techniques chosen to develop the scientific research project.

3.3.1.1.1.4 Planning the preliminary research project

After determining the relevance and viability of scientific research, the next step is to plan, that
is, to put on paper – or a report, spreadsheet, or other electronic document – what you intend to
investigate. The planning of the preliminary research project – or essay writing – must include the
theme, the problem question, the justification, the general objective, the specific objectives, the
hypotheses (if any), the theoretical framework, the schedule, and the references from the research
planning corpus. Such planning can be carried out at any time during planning, using a suitable
instrument, such as the observational protocol, which is nothing more than a sheet, printed or
electronic, in which what is intended to be investigated is planned and takes shape.

3.3.1.1.2 Organization of research

At this stage, the databases are accessed, that is, their sources, by carrying out a prior search for
bibliographies and/or documents that will make up the corpus for executing the research draft , or
corpus for executing the research essay writing , or just test execution corpus . It is the data from
these sources that will make up the theoretical framework, methodologies, data analysis and final
results of the research.
Once properly planned, the research needs to be properly organized. This step involves locating,
separating, handling and maintaining the research instruments, as well as carrying out a prior search in
the environment where your data will be collected and processed. Each of these steps is explained
below:

3.3.1.1.2.1 Location of research instruments

At this stage, the research instruments must be located. The easier access to such instruments is,
the easier it will be to investigate the object of investigation. It must be assessed whether they are truly
suitable for carrying out the research, whether they will be able to help the researcher achieve all the
objectives proposed in the preliminary project or essay writing.

3.3.1.1.2.2 Separation of research instruments

Once the research instruments have been located, they must be separated to ensure that they will
be available for use at the right time in the investigation. Another factor to observe is whether they
were stored in a suitable place for handling.
 3.3.1.1.2.3 Handling research instruments

If the research instruments have been properly located and separated, the only question is
whether they work at the appropriate time. For example, if such instruments are machines and
electronic equipment, it is necessary to check whether they are in perfect working order before starting
to carry out the research.

3.3.1.1.2.4 Maintenance of research instruments

If the research instruments were properly located, separated and kept (stored), it remains to be
seen whether their maintenance will be necessary during the scientific investigation, and whether, of
course, the researcher will know how to provide them with due maintenance, for example, in the case
of electronic machines and equipment. Otherwise, he must count on the support of someone who
knows how to provide proper maintenance, so that the investigation is not blocked, terminated or made
unfeasible during its course.

3.3.1.1.2.5 Previous search for research sources

It is at this stage, which can be carried out separately or simultaneously with the previous stages,
that the research sources are accessed. For example, one can and should access databases, such as
Scielo, Spell, Capes, or another specific database, delimiting a spatial period – for example, in the
neighborhood where the researcher lives, or in a school in that neighborhood – and over time – for
example, in the last three years – in order to achieve the pre-set objectives.

3.3.1.1.3 Search execution

Once the scientific investigation has been planned and organized, we now move on to its most
laborious stage, which is carrying out the research. This stage involves contact with all research
subjects, movement between research locations, contact with components of the research object,
possible accidents or incidents during the research, preparation of the body of scientific work – for
example, the theoretical framework, methodologies, data analysis, and final results of the investigation
– and the planning of the results produced in the research. Each of these steps is explained below:
 3.3.1.1.3.1 Contact with all research subjects

To begin executing the preliminary research project, or writing an essay, the first step is to
establish contact with all research subjects, who may be researchers – supervisors and students –, or
assistants – such as library employees, companies or other institutions, technicians, or other
components that will help to carry out the investigation – with those being investigated –, people who
will be interviewed or will participate in some dynamic or who have some participation in the research
–, or even with the examiners . Contact with these subjects needs to be friendly, and to the extent
necessary in the course of the research, since, without this, there will be no scientific investigation.

3.3.1.1.3.2 Travel between research locations

The second step in executing the preliminary research project, or writing the essay – but which
can be followed separately or simultaneously with the first – is the issue of movement between the
research sites. This second step needs to be taken into consideration by all research advisors and
students, as it is very important for its operation.
For example, data collection can be carried out in a library, or in any institution (a company, an
NGO, a public body); Data organization can be carried out in a classroom, or even in a bedroom at
home (where we live); the analysis or interpretation of data can be carried out in a meeting room, office
or in the university professor's room, together with the supervisor(s); and so on. Since each stage of the
investigation can be carried out in a specific location, it is necessary to check how much time and other
resources will be used to move between them, who will make the move, when and how.

3.3.1.1.3.3 Contact with the components of the research object

Components of the research object are understood as the parts that make up the investigated
object. For example, if my object is an elementary or high school class at a school in the city where I
live, each student in the class is a component of it; if my object is the Health System of the
neighborhood where I live, each Basic Health Unit (UBS) is a component of it, and each employee is a
component of the respective UBS where they work; If my object is a machine, each internal system of
it is a component, and each part is a component of the respective system of which it is part.
Contact with the components of the research object needs to be friendly, as well as with the
research subjects, as data comes from them, which, after being organized and analyzed, will be
transformed into information that will make up the body of scientific investigation. It is necessary to
check whether or not there will be a need for any protocol – such as authorizations, forms,
questionnaires, reports, etc. – to contact the components of the research object.

3.3.1.1.3.4 Accidents or incidents during research

An accident is understood as an occurrence during research that is unscheduled, unexpected and

interrupts the investigation, causing bodily injury or any type of functional disturbance that leads to the
development of a disease, loss or reduction of the ability to research or even the death of any research
subject (investigators, assistants or those being investigated). By incident, in turn, we mean an
occurrence during the research, which was not planned, and which could lead to an accident, and,
consequently, to an interruption of the investigation.
For example, if, when moving between research sites , the researcher, assistant or person under
investigation carries some boxes and trips, they may just fall and knock over the material inside,
without causing any type of damage. physical or material. After restoring the box and the fallen
material, the subject continues to his destination. This situation is characterized as an incident during
research, or a near accident. However, if the research subject trips, falls on the boxes and is injured by
the contents that break, then there is an accident during the research, as the occurrence caused physical
injury and material damage, causing the subject to interrupt what I was doing.
In this sense, researchers – who are the main subjects interested in the research – must take into
account all facts that have occurred or may occur, accidents or incidents, always seeking their
prevention, and, when this is not applicable, remediation. , which, in this case, could consist, for
example, of compensation to the injured subject and his consequent replacement by another subject
capable of continuing the investigation.
To be more specific, in the collection of data from the Brazilian Demographic Census, carried
out by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), it compensates for any accidents that
occur during its research with its researchers, who are called census agents, mapping agents ,
supervisory census agent, municipal census agent, and other such names.

3.3.1.1.3.5 Planning the results produced in the research

Taking into account the first four stages of carrying out the research, this fifth stage can also be
carried out separately or simultaneously with the other stages already mentioned and explained. The
planning of the results produced in the research can be carried out at any time in observational
protocols, field diaries, records, forms, questionnaires, interview protocols, or other instruments used
during the investigation. The notes will serve as a basis for organizing and analyzing the data, so that
the research can be formalized.

3.3.1.1.4 Search control

After the stages of Planning, Organization and Execution of the research, comes its Control, as
explained in this section. In general, controlling means checking whether or not the steps are being
carried out as planned, whether each research subject is adequately performing their due role, whether
the expected results are being achieved.

3.3.1.1.4.1 Survey execution reviews

All data that has been collected, organized, analyzed and formalized needs to be reviewed. All
stages and substages of scientific research need to be reevaluated to know what was done correctly,
what was not possible, and what corrections are necessary. You may have forgotten to investigate an
important document or interview an individual necessary to properly carry out the research. It may be
that some investigation protocol or procedure was skipped. Or it may be that you want to modify the
research, adding a new objective to be pursued, as you assess that there is time and other resources left
for its operationalization.
For these reasons, reviews of research execution are fundamental to the success of the final
results of scientific work.

3.3.1.1.4.2 The interview

Once all the stages of scientific research for the production of the preliminary project or essay
writing have been carried out, with all your care taken, it comes to the moment of the interview, which
takes place in selection processes for stricto sensu postgraduate programs, master's degrees or
doctorate. This is when your first peer review takes place . The research results and methods are
judged by academics and professionals experienced in the area and theme investigated and, after
detailed assessment, which involves comparison with other research already carried out on the same
topic, they can approve it or not, depending on their assessment. Final. Despite this, the approved work
is just one of the steps necessary for admission to the master's or doctorate.
Reviewers play an essential role in academic publishing. Peer review helps validate research,
establishes a method by which research can be evaluated, and increases the possibility of making
contacts within research communities. Despite criticism, peer review is still the only widely accepted
method for validating scientific investigations.

3.3.1.2 Transformation of the preliminary project or essay writing into a final research project

It is here, at this stage, that the stages of construction of a definitive research project are carried
out, not meaning perfect or without areas for improvement, but rather a well-designed research project,
which satisfies all the objectives pre-established in the preliminary project. or in essay writing, which
answers the research problem question, whether or not it satisfies its initial hypotheses. So, the goal of
this phase is to transform the draft or essay writing into a final research project .
The same explanation about the verb administer, used in subtopic 3.3.1.1, is considered here.

3.3.1.2.1 Research redesign

Planning is the stage of outlining the research problem question, its general and specific
objectives, its initial hypotheses (if any), its theme, its theoretical framework, its references. Note that
in research planning, when preparing the preliminary project or writing an essay, these steps are
followed. However, for it to be transformed into a final research project, it is necessary for it to be
revised, that is, for all the steps taken initially to be re-read, re-evaluated, re-elaborated. This is what
this research redesign stage consists of.
Furthermore, this stage also has as its central objective the delimitation of your research project
execution corpus, which we can also call the research project execution corpus , or final writing
execution corpus , or just definitive execution corpus .

3.3.1.2.1.1 In-depth characterization of the object

The research object needs to be well defined, simple and objective. Well cut means well
delimited, well characterized, for example, with a specific spatial and temporal lapse. Simple means
understandable, whether by an academic or by an ordinary person with little secular education.
Objective means straight to the point, without beating around the bush.
 To give an example, if my objective is to investigate the mergers and acquisitions of any entity
in the Brazilian banking sector, my research object is the mergers and acquisitions of that bank; hence,
to be well defined, a spatial lapse can be established, for example, in the national territory, and a
temporal lapse, for example, in the last five years of the history of the institution chosen for the
research. This object is simple because it is easily understandable for all types of readers, and it is
objective because it bluntly points out the direction of the investigation, leaving no doubt as to the path
taken to achieve the proposed objectives.
In this first stage of replanning the research, the spatial and temporal lapse outlined in the
preliminary project or essay writing must be evaluated. To this end, it is verified whether or not there is
a need for new approaches to the topic, delimiting a smaller horizon for investigation, which almost
always occurs, due to time or other resources available for its operationalization.

3.3.1.2.1.2 Further determination of relevance

Relevant research is important, salient, timely, appropriate, relevant research that suits the
purpose, that is, that satisfies the proposed objectives. For example, if the objective of the work is to
understand the relationship between the micro and macroeconomic dimensions of corporate mergers
and acquisitions in the Brazilian banking sector, the relevance is limited to the fact that such
dimensions have not yet been classified in the critical literature on the subject, and, For this reason, this
research is new, original, relevant, timely, appropriate, that is, pertinent.
The deeper determination of the relevance of scientific research occurs based on a reanalysis of
the reasons why the project becomes relevant, whether it is really relevant, appropriate, timely or not. It
is recommended to discuss it with peers, that is, with academics or professionals in the field, to fine-
tune the general and specific objectives in order to execute a project that brings news, innovations,
problem solving, and useful results to the scientific community. and society in general.

3.3.1.2.1.3 Explanatory depth of feasibility

Viable research is executable, operationalizable, practicable, feasible, passable, life-giving

research. To this end, it must be analyzed whether the researcher has all the materials, time and human
resources necessary to carry out scientific research. This involves knowing whether the researcher has
access to all the data necessary to carry out the research; whether you have access to documents,
libraries, sectors, reports, financial statements, among other materials; whether there is a need for
approval from an ethics committee to investigate human beings in the development of research, and,
more importantly, whether or not the research was approved by said committee; whether the researcher
has full command of the theories, techniques and techniques chosen to develop the scientific research
project.
The explanatory deepening of feasibility is carried out by explaining what reasons lead one to
believe that the research is truly operational, feasible and executable. It is therefore necessary to check,
at this stage, whether the researcher has access to all the materials necessary to carry out the research
project; whether there will be enough time to collect and process data; if there are obstacles to carrying
out the investigation, such as, for example, approval by an ethics committee, etc.

3.3.1.2.1.4 Project planning

As you plan the project, you must always plan it, so as not to forget anything that was thought
or said about it. Such planning must be carried out in writing, using instruments specific to the type of
research being carried out, such as the observational protocol , which is the most used at this stage.

3.3.1.2.2 Reorganization of the search

If organizing means gathering the necessary resources to carry out something, then reorganizing
means doing this operation more than once. In fact, this name is due to the fact that, when preparing the
preliminary project or writing the essay, the research has already been organized, but, in this phase of
transformation, a new organization is necessary, the gathering of all own resources for carrying out the
research project.
At this stage, the databases are accessed, that is, their sources, by carrying out a prior search for
bibliographies and/or documents that will make up the corpus for executing the research project , or
corpus for executing the definitive writing of the research, or just definitive running corpus . It is
the data from these sources that will make up the theoretical framework, methodologies, data analysis
and final results of the research.

3.3.1.2.2.1 Location of instruments

At this stage, the instruments specific to the type of research being carried out must be located,
such as the observational protocol , the interview protocol , the field diary , the bibliographies , the
documents , the tests , the social scales , the forms , questionnaires , among others. You need to
ensure that they are available whenever necessary. When it comes to questionnaires, tests, social scales,
among others, they must first be prepared in accordance with the research objectives.

3.3.1.2.2.2 Separation of instruments

Once the instruments that will be used in scientific research have been located and prepared
(when applicable), they must, at this stage, be separated, storing them in a suitable place, so that they
can be easily found – and in a state of good conservation – whenever necessary.

3.3.1.2.2.3 Handling of instruments

Research instruments need to be properly handled for good conservation. If the research
instruments have been properly located and separated, the only question is whether they work at the
appropriate time. For example, if such instruments are machines and electronic equipment, it is
necessary to check whether they are in perfect working order before starting to carry out the research.

3.3.1.2.2.4 Instrument maintenance

If the research instruments were properly located, separated and kept (stored), it remains to be
seen whether their maintenance will be necessary during the scientific investigation, and whether, of
course, the researcher will know how to provide them with due maintenance, for example, in the case
of electronic machines and equipment. Otherwise, he must count on the support of someone who
knows how to provide proper maintenance, so that the investigation is not blocked, terminated or made
unfeasible during its course.

3.3.1.2.2.5 Previous search for research sources

It is at this stage, which can be carried out separately or simultaneously with the previous stages,
that the research sources are accessed. For example, one can and should access databases, such as
Scielo, Spell, Capes, or another specific database, delimiting a spatial period – for example, in the
neighborhood where the researcher lives, or in a school in that neighborhood – and over time – for
example, in the last three years – in order to achieve the pre-set objectives.
 3.3.1.2.3 Search re-execution

This phase is a re-execution because at the stage of preparing the preliminary project or writing
the essay, the research planning has already been carried out once. The research draft execution
corpus , or the research essay execution corpus , or just the essay execution corpus , was read,
analyzed, treated in order to produce the draft or essay writing. At this stage, the objective is to analyze
and adequately treat the research project execution corpus , or the final writing execution corpus ,
or just the definitive execution corpus , so that a final research project is produced .

3.3.1.2.3.1 Contact with all subjects

Just remembering that the research subjects can be researchers (supervisor and students),
assistants (library employees, companies, etc.), those being investigated , and examiners (peers).
Contact with and between research subjects is essential for its achievement. Access to the
resources used in the investigation is through the research subjects. Dialogue is essential for the
adequate operationalization of the objectives outlined in the research project or final writing . This is
the first step in executing the research project or final writing.

3.3.1.2.3.2 Movement between loci

The second step in the execution of the research project, or the final writing, – but which can be
followed separately or simultaneously with the first – is the issue of movement between the research
sites. This second step needs to be taken into consideration by all research supervisors and supervisees,
as it is very important for its operation.
For example, data collection can be carried out in a library, or in any institution (a company, an
NGO, a public body); Data organization can be carried out in a classroom, or even in a bedroom at
home (where we live); the analysis or interpretation of data can be carried out in a meeting room, office
or in the university professor's room, together with the supervisor(s); and so on. Since each stage of the
investigation can be carried out in a specific location, it is necessary to check how much time and other
resources will be used to move between them, who will make the move, when and how.

3.3.1.2.3.3 Contact with object components

 Components of the research object are understood as the parts that make up the investigated
object. For example, if my object is an Elementary or High School class at a school in the city where I
live, each student in the class is a component of it; if my object is the Health System of the
neighborhood where I live, each Basic Health Unit (UBS) is a component of it, and each employee is a
component of the respective UBS where they work; If my object is a machine, each internal system of
it is one of its components, and each part is a component of the respective system of which it is part.
Contact with the components of the research object needs to be friendly, as well as with the
research subjects, as data comes from them, which, after being organized and analyzed, will be
transformed into information that will make up the body of scientific investigation. It is necessary to
check whether or not there will be a need for any protocol – such as authorizations, forms,
questionnaires, reports, etc. – to contact the components of the research object.

3.3.1.2.3.4 Accidents and incidents

The same explanation of accidents and incidents provided in subtopic 3.3.1.1.3.4 is considered
here.

3.3.1.2.3.5 Planning the results produced

Taking into account the first four stages of carrying out the research, this fifth stage can also be
carried out separately or simultaneously with the other stages already mentioned and explained. The
planning of the results produced in the research can be carried out at any time in observational
protocols, field diaries, records, forms, questionnaires, interview protocols, or other instruments used
during the investigation. The notes will serve as a basis for organizing and analyzing the data, so that
the research can be formalized.

3.3.1.2.4 Search recontrol

Controlling is nothing more than checking whether the predefined objectives were effectively
achieved, whether the problem question was actually answered, and whether the initial hypotheses
were satisfied or not. Recontrol is nothing more than the repetition of the activity of controlling as
necessary.
 3.3.1.2.4.1 Re-elaborations and revisions

Scientific research work involves constant re-elaboration and revisions. You need to read and
re-read the work time after time looking for areas for improvement, which always exist, even after it is
finished. For it to become good quality research, peer evaluation is necessary, which is nothing more
than a thorough examination by academics and professionals on the subject, who, with their extensive
background, provide guidance for the its optimization.
There is no specific number of times you should read it to review it, but it is wise to do so until
you are sure that it has achieved the pre-established objectives in the research draft or essay writing. It
is also recommended that the researcher has acquired the confidence to carry out his/her public defense
in front of peers and other interested parties. Having followed these recommendations, the work is now
ready for the Qualification Examination (EQ) and possibly, perhaps very close to it, for the final
defense which, in the case of the master's degree, is a dissertation, and, in the case of the doctorate, it is
a a thesis.

3.3.1.2.4.2 Public defense

Once all the stages of scientific research have been carried out, with all the precautions taken, it
is time for the Qualification Examination (EQ), which is a public defense. This is when peer review
takes place . The research results and methods are judged by academics and professionals experienced
in the area and theme investigated, and, after detailed assessment, which involves comparison with
other research already carried out on the same topic, they can approve it or not, depending on their final
evaluation.
As a rule, the dissertation defense takes place at the end of the master's degree, and the thesis
defense takes place at the end of the doctorate. But, there is also the defense of the master's thesis.
Furthermore, in lato sensu postgraduate courses there is no longer, since 2018, the obligation to present
a course conclusion work (TCC), and in the case of scientific initiation, the final defense takes place in
the presentation of the report final to the research funding agency, such as CNPq, Fapesp or Fapemig.
Reviewers play an essential role in academic publishing. Peer review helps validate research,
establishes a method by which research can be evaluated, and increases the possibility of making
contacts within research communities. Despite criticism, peer review is still the only widely accepted
method for validating scientific investigations.
 3.3.2 The structural bases of scientific thought

3.3.2.1 The inductive structural basis3

The inductive structural basis, well known and used from ancient philosophers to today's famous
scientists, as well as other thought structure methods, has advantages and disadvantages (BÊRNI;
FERNANDEZ, 2012). Regarding the appropriate use of this method, BÊRNI; FERNANDEZ (2012, p.
35-37) highlight three essential steps:

According to the inductivist account, scientific knowledge begins with experience, that is, with
the free and unprejudiced observation of facts and phenomena. [...] It starts with singular
observations, which refer exactly to that observed phenomenon, in a specific place and time.
From these, singular statements (or allegations) are extracted. [...] Having collected and
recorded the unique observations, the second step would consist of trying to compare them,
trying to discover the relationships between the facts and the observed phenomena. The third
step, which concludes the process, requires generalization to be carried out, based on the
relationships verified. [...]

Although widely used, the inductive method presents a very serious problem for science and
philosophy, both in the theory of knowledge and in epistemology, such that some authors lend us their
ideas:

[...] Now, it is far from obvious, from a logical point of view, that there is justification in
inferring universal statements from singular statements, regardless of how numerous they are;
Indeed, any conclusion drawn in this way may always turn out to be false: no matter how many
cases of white swans we observe, this does not justify the conclusion that all swans are white.
The question of whether inductive inferences are justified and under what conditions is known
as the problem of induction . [...]. (POPPER, 1972, p. 27-28).

[...] Induction is a leap unauthorized by logic, considering that absolutely nothing guarantees
that the past will repeat itself in the future. There is no logical contradiction in saying, for
example, that “the Sun will not rise tomorrow”, even though it is known that it has been rising
for four billion years, every day. In fact, the logical and real possibility is open that something
unexpected will occur – a cataclysm, for example – that will prevent the sun from rising
tomorrow. (BÊRNI; FERNANDEZ, 2012, p. 44).

The inductive method is the result of experience and impressions from the senses, producing

3 In this topic, I sought to present the current state of inductive structural bases, without, however, exhausting them.
For more information, please consult your respective references.
what was called by Kant (2001) a posteriori knowledge , or empirical knowledge. In induction, the
conclusion states a truth that goes beyond the knowledge given by the premises. If all the premises are
true, then the conclusion is probably – but not necessarily – true.
For the rationalists of the scientific enterprise, the inductive method, as it is not based on reason
but on belief, could never serve as a means to produce science (BÊRNI; FERNANDEZ, 2012).
However, induction finds space in the scientific research literature to the extent that, through it,
it is possible to arrive at reasonably true, valid, safe knowledge, such as the two structural bases of
thought, inductive-syllogistics and semantics. -inductive, demonstrated below (BACHA, 1999).

3.3.2.1.1 Syllogistic-inductive

Normally, syllogisms are deductive reasoning formally structured from two propositions
(premises), from which a third conclusion is obtained by inference. For example: 1. All men are mortal;
2. The Greeks are men; 3. Therefore, the Greeks are mortal. However, syllogisms can also be inductive,
such as statistical syllogisms (BACHA, 1999; SILOGISMO, 2020).
Statistical syllogisms may use qualifying words, such as “most”, “often”, “almost never”,
“rarely”, etc., or may have a statistical generalization such as one or both of the premises. For example:
1. Almost all people are taller than 26 inches; 2. Gareth is a person; 3. Therefore, Gareth is taller than
26 inches. Premise 1 (the major premise) is a generalization, and the argument is an attempt to draw a
conclusion from that generalization. In contrast to a deductive syllogism, the premises logically support
or confirm the conclusion, rather than strictly implying it: it is possible for the premises to be true and
the conclusion false, but it is not probable (BACHA, 1999; SILOGISM, 2020).
The general form of statistical syllogisms is as follows: 1. X% of A are B; 2. OI is an A; 3. OI
has X% probability of belonging to B. In the summarized form described, A is called the "reference
class", B is the "class attribute" and OI is the Individual Object. Thus, in the previous example, "(things
have) a height greater than 26 cm" is the class attribute, and "people" is the reference class (BACHA,
1999; SILOGISM, 2020). Regarding these and other aspects of statistical syllogisms, Bacha (1999, p.
14) explains:

[...] According to Da Costa, one of the most elementary forms of statistical inference is the so-
called statistical syllogism, whose form is expressed as follows: k% of A are B, x is A,
therefore, x has k% probability of belonging to B. The weight of the syllogism depends on the
value of k; the larger it is, the stronger the argument.
 Unlike many other forms of syllogism, a statistical syllogism is inductive, so when evaluating
this type of argument, it is important to consider how strong or weak it is, along with the other rules of
induction (as opposed to deduction). In the previous example, if 99% of people are taller than 26
inches, then the probability of the conclusion being true is 99% (BACHA, 1999; SILOGISM, 2020).
Two dicto simpliciter fallacies can occur in statistical syllogisms. They are "accidents" and
"accident reversal." Faulty generalization fallacies can also affect any premise of the argument that uses
a generalization. One problem with applying the statistical syllogism to real cases is the reference class
problem: given that a particular case OI is a member of several reference classes A, in which the
attribute proportion of B may differ greatly, how should one decide Which class to use when applying
the statistical syllogism? (BACHA, 1999; SILOGISM, 2020).
The importance of the statistical syllogism was urged by Henry E. Kyburg, Jr. (1955?), who
argued that probability statements could be attributed to a direct inference. For example, when taking
off in an airplane, our confidence (but not certainty) that we will land safely is based on our knowledge
that the vast majority of flights land safely (BACHA, 1999; SILOGISMO, 2020).
The widespread use of confidence intervals in statistics is often justified using syllogistic-
inductive statistics, in words such as "If this procedure were repeated on several samples, the
calculated confidence interval (which would be different for each sample) would encompass the true
parameter population 90% of the time ." (SILOGISM, 2020, sp). The inference from what would
mostly happen in several samples to the confidence we should have in the specific example involves a
statistical syllogism (BACHA, 1999; SILOGISM, 2020).
In other words, the syllogistic-inductive structural basis is widely used in Statistical Inference,
therefore, above all, in the areas of Exact Sciences. But it can also be widely used in the areas of
Human and Social Sciences (BACHA, 1999; SILOGISMO, 2020).

3.3.2.1.2 Inductive-semantics

The semantic-inductive structural basis is based solely on the semantic theory of truth,
constructed by Alfred Tarski. A semantic theory of truth is a theory of truth in the philosophy of
language that states that truth is a property of sentences (PEREIRA, 2009; TEORIA..., 2020).
The semantic conception of truth was published by the Polish logician and mathematician
Alfred Tarski around 1930. In On the Concept of Truth in Formal Languages , Tarski (1935) attempted
to formulate a new theory in order to solve the liar's paradox and, during these attempts, made great
mathematical discoveries. The most notable was his indefinability theorem, similar to Gödel's
incompleteness theorem, which states that the concept of "truth" for sentences in a given language
cannot be consistently defined within that same language (PEREIRA, 2009; TEORIA. .., 2020).
Tarski (1935) developed a theory to give an inductive definition of truth. He poses several
conditions that any adequate definition of truth must satisfy. Among these conditions, the main one is
the one often referred to as T-scheme (or T-Convention or Tarski biconditional): φ ↔ T<φ> for any
and all sentences φ (PEREIRA, 2009; TEORIA..., 2020).
To formulate theories about language – avoiding semantic paradoxes, such as that of the liar –,
it is necessary to distinguish the language one is talking about (object language) from the language one
is using (metalanguage) (PEREIRA, 2009; TEORIA.. ., 2020). In this vein, Pereira (2009, p. 47)
emphasizes:

Thus, for Tarski, the main problem is to give a satisfactory definition of truth, to construct a
definition that is materially adequate and formally correct, that is, that preserves the real and
intuitive meaning of the notion of truth and that respects the formal rules to which we must
submit it. This takes into account his adherence to physicalism.

To exemplify this, let us take a sentence from object language. Tarski's (1935) material
adequacy condition, known as the T convention, states that every viable theory of truth must meet, for
every sentence S of a language, the following condition: "S" is true if, and only if, S it is really true. For
example, "The sky is blue" is true if and only if the sky is actually blue. Analyzing the sentence, we
realize that the first part discusses "The sky is blue" and the second part discusses the sky. These
sentences are called T sentences. As object languages and metalanguage are the same, we end up
considering the sentence as trivial (PEREIRA, 2009; TEORIA..., 2020).
Another example of a T sentence, but now with different object language and metalanguage, is:
" The sky is blue " is true, if and only if the sky is blue; in which the object language is English, and the
metalanguage is Portuguese (PEREIRA, 2009; TEORIA..., 2020) .
It is important to note that, as originally formulated by Tarski (1935), this theory applies only to
formal languages, which satisfy certain requirements that natural languages usually do not satisfy. One
of the reasons why he did not extend his theory to natural languages is, for example, that there is no
systematic way of deciding whether a given sentence, in a natural language, is well formed (PEREIRA,
2009; TEORIA..., 2020 ) .
 Tarski's (1935) approach was extended by Donald Davidson, albeit in a fragmented way, to
theories of meaning for natural languages, which means treating “truth” as a primitive concept, rather
than as a defined concept (PEREIRA, 2009; TEORIA..., 2020) .
For a language containing the connectives “not”, “and”, “or” and the quantifiers “for any and
all” and “exists”, Tarski's (1935) inductive definition of truth would have to meet the following
conditions: 1. The negation of A is true if and only if A is not true; 2. The conjunction of A and B is
true if and only if A is true and B is true; 3. The disjunction of A and B is true if and only if A is true or
B is true; 4. The universal quantification of A is true if and only if each object satisfies A(x); 5. The
existential quantification of A is true if and only if there is an object that satisfies A(x) (PEREIRA,
2009; TEORIA..., 2020) .
This explains how the truth conditions of complex sentences (constructed from connectives and
quantifiers) can be reduced to the truth conditions of their constituents. The simplest constituents are
atomic sentences. A contemporary semantic definition of truth for atomic sentences would be: 6. An
atomic sentence F (x1, …, xn) is true (relative to an assignment of values to the variables x1, …, xn) if
the corresponding values of the variables "behave " the relationship expressed by the predicate F
(PEREIRA, 2009; TEORIA..., 2020) .
(1935) himself defined truth for atomic sentences in a variant that does not use technical
semantic terms, as previously expressed. This is because he wanted to define these semantic terms in
terms of truth, as it would produce a circular definition if he used one of these terms in the definition of
truth itself. Tarski's (1935) semantic conception of truth plays an important role in contemporary logic
and in much of today's philosophy of language. A very controversial question is whether Tarski's
(1935) semantic theory should be considered as any correspondence theory or as a deflationary theory
of truth (PEREIRA, 2009; TEORIA..., 2020) .

3.3.2.1.3 Pragmatic or inductive

The Pragmatic-Inductive structural basis is based on the theoretical contributions of Charles

Sanders Peirce 4, William James 5, Josiah Royce 6and John Dewey 7. Also considered a metaphysical

4 Charles Sanders Peirce was an American philosopher, pedagogue, scientist, linguist and mathematician. His works
make important contributions to logic, mathematics, philosophy and, mainly, semiotics.
5 William James was an American philosopher and psychologist and the first intellectual to offer a psychology
course in the United States. James was one of the leading thinkers of the late 19th century and is considered by many to be
one of the most influential philosophers in American history while others label him the “father of American psychology.”
doctrine, this structural basis of thought argues that the meaning of an idea corresponds to the set of its
practical developments; Therefore, it is also called practical logic (GIFTED, 2015). Regarding these
aspects, Gifted (2015, p. 9. My emphasis) points out:

The structural basis of pragmatic-inductive thinking , also called practical logic , is one that
starts from a set of prepositions that follow one or more specific (particular) pragmatic
tendencies and heads towards generalized (general) conclusions . For this reason, it is more
suitable for technical studies, that is, those more focused on the field of techniques.

Original pragmatism is against Science for Science's sake: for him, a study is only justified if it
has some social utility, even in the long term, but always giving preference to what has immediate
utility. At the same time, however, he argues that a theory can only be considered true through its
practical evidence, thus having a lot of similarity to empiricism (PRAGMATISM, 2020).

This structural basis of thought is widely used in the area of Applied Social Sciences, such as
Administration, for example, and also in the area of Education. It is commonly used in case studies,
which start from singular cases, that is, specific (particular) and move towards generic (general)
conclusions; for this reason, it is more didactic than other structural bases of thought.

3.3.2.2 The deductive structural basis8

The deductive structural basis consists of the method of thought structure most used, accepted,
respected and defended by rationalist scientists – or deductivists –, due to the level of certainty it
produces. Originally developed by the renowned philosopher Aristotle, this basis has been commonly
used through the formal structure of syllogistic reasoning. And, like all other methods, it has
advantages and disadvantages (BÊRNI; FERNANDEZ, 2012).

6 Josiah Royce was an American philosopher. Royce is typically seen as under the influence of both the pragmatism
of his colleagues William James and Charles Sanders Peirce and the absolute idealism of Hegel. In his absolute pragmatism,
Royce incorporated Peirce's meaning of sign, considering it a “general theory of interpretation”.
7 John Dewey was an American philosopher and pedagogue. Dewey was one of the main representatives of the
pragmatist current initially developed by Charles Sanders Peirce, Josiah Royce and William James. He has also written
extensively on pedagogy, where he is a reference in the field of modern education. Dewey had strong political and social
commitments, expressed many times in publications in the newspaper The New Republic . .
8 In this topic, I sought to present the current state of deductive structural bases, without, however, exhausting them.
For more information on this, consult their respective references.
 Scientifically, the deductive method has always been the most accepted and, in particular, since
the emergence of modern science, with the development of the experimental method by Newton.
Historically, this method gave rise to two others that were very similar in terms of the structure of
thought: the axiomatic-deductive and the hypothetical-deductive. Regarding these aspects, Bêrni and
Fernandez (2012, p. 49) confirm:

In the deductive method, the path is opposite to that followed in the inductive method, since,
starting from some statements of a universal nature, particular statements are inferred. As a
result of the joint development of logic and mathematics, from the end of the 19th century, the
deductive method can be applied to two, historically more recent, schemes, which are the
axiomatic-deductive and the hypothetical-deductive.
The first case is useful when the starting premises are axioms, not demonstrable, as in the case
of formal sciences. In the second, illustrated by empirical sciences, the best results emerge from
situations in which the premises are hypotheses that refer to some aspect of reality. [...]

Both in the case of the axiomatic-deductive model and the hypothetical-deductive model, it is no
longer assumed that scientific knowledge begins in experience, as Bêrni and Fernandez (2012, p. 50)
point out:

[...] Given all the logical problems faced by the idea that it would be possible to access the
universal from the particular, it began to be assumed that knowledge already begins at the
abstract and theoretical level. In other words, it is assumed that the starting point of scientific
explanation is some type of intellectually structured prior knowledge on the subject, which can
be scientific or not. Popper, for example, when dealing with this issue, referred to this prior
knowledge as “our myths and prejudices”. Without such a mentally preconceived structure
about how the world should behave, it would not even be possible to recognize something in the
reality of facts as a “problem” to be explained, or as an explanandum -type sentence . In
addition to this, the scientist's creative ingenuity would also be necessary, without which an
interesting and innovative hypothesis could never be proposed.

The deductive method is an independent result of experience and impressions from the senses,
producing what was called by Kant (2001) a priori knowledge , or pure knowledge. In deduction, the
conclusion only explains or ratifies what had already been made known by the premises. If all the
premises are true, then the conclusions are necessarily true.
Based on the assumptions presented, it can be deduced that, for rationalists – or deductivists –,
the deductive method is the most reliable, reasonable and, therefore, safe basis for structuring thought
in the process of knowledge production (BÊRNI; FERNANDEZ, 2012).

3.3.2.2.1 Axiomatic-deductive
 Axiomatic is something evident , unquestionable , indisputable, it is relative to the axioms.
Axiomatic has meaning in several sciences, such as Logic, Mathematics, Engineering, all of which
have theories about the axioms. In Logic, there is the axiomatic system, which is a form of deductive
theory, built from initial terms, and which was developed through definition rules. In Mathematics,
there is also an axiomatic system, which is a set of axioms, which can be used for the logical derivation
of theorems (NAGAFUSHI; BATISTA, 2002; SISTEMA... , 2020).
In Logic, axiomatic is when an axiom, also called a postulate, is a sentence that has not been
proven or demonstrated and, even so, is considered obvious, it is a consensus to be able to accept a
theory. There is also a book called The Zurich Axioms , written by Max Gunther, which talks about the
tactics used by Swiss bankers to be successful (NAGAFUSHI; BATISTA, 2002; SISTEMA... , 2020).
Based on these assumptions, the axiomatic-deductive structural basis is one that starts from
generic axioms, to reach particular conclusions about a given object of scientific investigation
(NAGAFUSHI; BATISTA, 2002; SISTEMA... , 2020).
In Mathematics and Logic, an axiomatic theory is a theory based on a set of axioms from which
theorems are deduced using well-defined procedures (for example, a set of logical rules). Axioms are
established without deduction and taken as a starting point for deducing theorems. However, theorems
can be used to deduce other theorems (NAGAFUSHI; BATISTA, 2002; SISTEMA... , 2020).
As an additional condition, it is generally stated that the set of axioms must be decidable in the
sense of being a recursive set. Every finite set of axioms is decidable and, therefore, acceptable with
this condition (NAGAFUSHI; BATISTA, 2002; SISTEMA... , 2020).
The axiomatic method involves replacing a coherent body of propositions (ie, a mathematical
theory) with a simpler collection of propositions (ie, axioms). The axioms are developed so that the
original body of propositions can be deduced from the axioms (NAGAFUSHI; BATISTA, 2002;
SISTEMA... , 2020).
The axiomatic-deductive structural basis, or also called the axiomatic method, brought results in
logicism to the extreme. In the book Principia Mathematica , Alfred North and Bertrand Russel
attempted to show that every mathematical theory could be reduced to a collection of axioms. More
generally, the reduction of a body of propositions to a particular collection of axioms belies the
program of mathematical research. This was a prominent way in 21st century mathematics, in
particular, in subjects based around homological algebra (NAGAFUSHI; BATISTA, 2002;
SISTEMA... , 2020).
Explanation of the axioms used in a theory can help clarify the appropriate level of abstraction
that the mathematician would like to work with. For example, mathematicians have chosen that a ring
(mathematics) does not need to be commutative, which differs from Emmy Noether's (1933) original
formulation. Mathematicians decided to consider topological spaces more generally, without the axiom
of separation that Felix Haudorff originally formulated (NAGAFUSHI; BATISTA, 2002; SISTEMA...
, 2020).
The Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms (1908), the result of the axiomatic method applied to a
theoretical set, allowed the correct formulation of a set of theoretical problems and helped to avoid the
paradoxes of naive set theory. One of the problems was the continuum hypothesis (NAGAFUSHI;
BATISTA, 2002; SISTEMA... , 2020).

3.3.2.2.2 Hypothetical-deductive

The hypothetico-deductive structural basis, or also known as the hypothetico-deductive method,

consists of the construction of conjectures based on hypotheses, that is, if the hypotheses are true, the
conjectures will also be true. They can, therefore, appear in two ways: a) the crossing of a generic
hypothetical premise with another particular hypothetical premise, leading to a particular conclusion; or
b) the crossing of two generic hypothetical premises, leading to a less generic, or less universal,
conclusion. To exemplify the first case, we have: 1. All scientific investigations start from
bibliographical and/or documentary surveys (generic hypothetical premise); 2. This work is a scientific
investigation (particular hypothetical premise); 3. Therefore, this work is based on bibliographic and
documentary surveys (private conclusion). In this case, as the two initial hypothetical premises are true,
so is the immediate conclusion. To exemplify the second case, we have: 1. All scientific investigations
start from bibliographical and/or documentary surveys (generic hypothetical premise); 2. Bibliographic
and documentary surveys are observational research (generic hypothetical premise); 3. Therefore, all
scientific investigations are observational research (less generic conclusion). Also in this case, as the
two initial hypothetical premises are true, so is its immediate conclusion (GIFTED, 2015; POPPER,
1972; DÉBORA et al., 2020 ).
The hypothetical-deductive method was defined by Karl Popper (1972) – philosopher,
mathematician and deductivist physicist – based on his criticisms of induction. Basically, the
hypothetical-deductive method leads the researcher to the highest degree of skepticism about a given
subject (DÉBORA et al. , 2020).
The hypothetical-deductive structural basis has three moments during the investigative process,
namely: 1. Problem, which generally arises from conflicts in the face of existing expectations and
theories; 2. Proposed solution consisting of a conjecture (i.e., a new theory) and the deduction of
consequences in the form of propositions that are possible to be tested; and 3. Falsification tests –
attempts at refutation, using different means, such as observation and experimentation. This is where
possible research errors are eliminated (DÉBORA et al . , 2020; POPPER, 1972).
If the hypothesis is not proven by tests, it will be surpassed, that is, it will be falsified.
Therefore, a new reformulation of the problem and hypothesis will be necessary. If tests and
experiments confirm the hypothesis, it will be corroborated. But pay attention! Provisionally
corroborated, as it may be surpassed in a possible other study (DÉBORA et al., 2020; POPPER, 1972).
This happens a lot when we are certain of something in the present and, in the future, through
other techniques and other technologies this certainty is overturned. This is normal in science. The
absolute and immutable truth is never attainable for us imperfect human beings (DÉBORA et al .,
2020; POPPER, 1972).
Based on these assumptions, it is inferred that the hypothetical-deductive structural basis is
commonly used in literature reviews, as they respond deductively to the initial research hypotheses.

3.3.2.2.3 Syllogistic -deductive

Normally, syllogisms are deductive reasoning formally structured from two propositions
(premises), from which a third conclusion is obtained by inference. For example: 1. All men are mortal;
2. The Greeks are men; 3. Therefore, the Greeks are mortal. However, syllogisms can also be inductive,
such as statistical syllogisms, explained on the structural basis of syllogistic-inductive thinking
(BACHA, 1999; WIKIPEDIA, 2020a).
Born with the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, this structural basis of thought is widely used
in scientific, that is, theoretical, studies (GIFTED, 2015). Regarding these aspects, Gifted (2015, p. 10.
My emphasis) explains:

The structural basis of syllogistic-deductive thinking is that which starts from, and only
from, two propositions, one generic and one specific, called premises , leading the reasoning to
an obvious particular conclusion . This basis was born with the renowned philosopher
Aristotle, it was the most used in his time, both in deductive and inductive forms, and today it is
more frequent in scientific studies.

Still considered by many philosophers as the only way to reach the truth, this structural basis of
thought is, undoubtedly, the most used in Philosophical Sciences. However, according to the
explanation of other bases, we conclude that not everything in the world can be deduced or considered
absolute truth, when we talk about human complexity, nature, feelings, psychological, mind, social,
culture, art, etc. (BACHA, 1999; GIFTED, 2015).

3.3.2.3 The abductive structural basis9

The structural basis of abductive thinking is supported by the studies of Charles Sanders Peirce
10
(SERRA, 1995). It is one of the three forms of reasoning in Science (MENEGHETTI, 2007; DAVID
ALPA, 2017B).
We can exemplify abductive reasoning, contrasting it with inductive and deductive reasoning,
through the example of beans given by Charles Sanders Peirce: 1 – All the beans in that bag are white.
These beans are from that bag. Therefore, these beans are white (deduction); 2 – These beans are from
that bag. These beans are white. Therefore, all the beans in that bag are white (induction); 3 – All the
beans in that bag are white. These beans are white. Therefore, these beans are from that sack
(abduction).
Abduction means determining the premise . The conclusion and the rule are used to argue that
the premise could explain the conclusion . Example: "When it rains, the grass gets wet. The grass is
wet, so it might have rained." This type of reasoning is associated with diagnosticians and detectives,
etc. (FNDE, 2017; RACIOCÍNIO..., 2020).
Commonly used in Semiotics and Communication Sciences, abduction acts between the two
previous extremes, that is, induction and deduction (ABDUAÇÃO, 2020). It has an explanatory,
intuitive, expansive character, being the only one to produce creativity and innovation, as David Alpa
(2017, sp. My emphasis) says:

Abductive reasoning, on the other hand , acts between the two previous extremes, which
always seeks 100% reliability and which always seeks 100% validity. This middle ground
involves using characteristics of both, to conclude the best explanation of something . It is
worth noting that a better explanation is different from a greater probability, the abduction has
a explanatory and intuitive , it seeks to conclude the best explanation, also using its
background knowledge (repertoire of knowledge) and not the best mathematical probability.
Abductive reasoning is amplificative, it seeks validity just like induction and seeks the best
possible explanation just as deduction seeks truth. The interesting thing is that Abduction is the
only reasoning that produces creativity and innovation , as it is the only logic that
introduces a new idea .

9 For more information about the abductive structural basis, please consult their respective references.
10 Charles Sanders Peirce was an American philosopher, pedagogue, scientist, linguist and mathematician. His works
make important contributions to logic, mathematics, philosophy and, mainly, semiotics.
 Finally, we can conclude that the abductive structural basis serves Science as a constant process
of continuous improvement that seeks to balance the results obtained by both induction and deduction.
Therefore, abductive reasoning should be adopted more frequently in scientific studies (DAVID ALPA,
2017; SERRA, 1995).

3.4 The technical pillar

The technical pillar is the third of the three foundations, or columns, of scientific research
methodology. By technical, we understand the procedural basis of investigation, which, in turn, is
understood as a method that indicates the technical and instrumental means used in the research
(BARROS; LEHFELD, 2007; GIL, 2010). In this sense, there are three research approaches –
qualitative , quantitative and mixed – and four main procedural bases – observational ,
experimental , statistical and clinical . The nature of the research, taking into account the object
investigated, the researcher's time and technological and financial resources, determines the appropriate
procedural basis (BÊRNI; FERNANDEZ, 2012; RODRIGUES, 2006).

Research approaches11

By research approach, we can understand the predominant type of language and data used in the
elaboration and presentation of the results of a scientific investigation. In this sense, there are three
types of research approaches: quantitative, qualitative and mixed (CRESWELL, 2010). Below, each of
them is explained in detail.

3.4.1.1 The quantitative approach

The quantitative approach is one that studies quantifiable variables, such as income, age,

11 It is important to highlight that the author of the present work uses the term approach to mean the nature of the
information in terms of the predominant typicality of the language and the data underlying the results of scientific research:
whether alphabetic, numeric, or alphanumeric. If, to achieve the pre-established objectives, the results are based, supported,
on predominantly alphabetical data, then the nature – or approach – of the research is called qualitative; if predominantly
numerical, then it is said to be quantitative; and if predominantly alphanumeric, then it is considered mixed. It should be
noted, however, that each research approach has its own purposes, advantages and limitations, and for each of them there
are appropriate logical and technical means of investigation.
distances, time, height, age, blood pressure, in short, measurements in general. It does not just mean
using quantitative data, such as numbers and graphs, but supporting your results predominantly on data
of a mathematical, statistical, physical, chemical nature, etc. (RODRIGUES, 2007; SOARES, 2003).
Regarding this type of approach, Rodrigues (2007, p. 34) explains:

Quantitative means research that relies predominantly on statistical data. More than that: said
data must belong to the universe of inferential statistics. This does not mean that you cannot
include qualitative data. It also does not mean that it should be affiliated with the positivist
theoretical-methodological tradition. Neither is it linked to the statement of hypotheses, nor is it
intended for experimentation or fails to do so [...]

Regarding the uses and correct way of using this research approach, Soares (2003, p. 17)
explains:

To employ this approach, statistical resources and techniques are necessary, which can vary in
terms of complexity, ranging from the simplest, such as percentage, mean, mode, median and
standard deviation, to those with more complex use, such as correlation coefficient, regression
analysis, etc.
It is advisable to use the quantitative approach in descriptive procedures, in which we seek to
discover and classify the relationship between variables, as well as in investigations that seek to
determine causal relationships between phenomena.

The quantitative approach is widely used in academic work in the areas of Exact Sciences and
their Technologies, and in Applied Social Sciences (Accounting Sciences, Economics, Administration,
etc.), and very little used in the areas of Human and Social Sciences (SOARES, 2003; TRIVIÑOS,
1987; RODRIGUES, 2007).

3.4.1.2 The qualitative approach

The results of this approach are predominantly based on data of a qualitative nature, such as
qualities, defects or causal relationships – as long as they are based on the study of qualitative (or
categorical) variables, such as names, sex, color, smoker/non-smoker, healthy/sick, stage of a disease,
education, etc. (SOARES, 2003; TRIVIÑOS, 1987; RODRIGUES, 2007).
It is important to highlight and know that the qualitative approach receives several different
names in the vast literature on the subject (TRIVIÑOS, 1987; RODRIGUES, 2007). Regarding this
research approach, authorities on the topic lend us their ideas, as presented below:

In the field of those who work in qualitative approaches, these have received other names, in
addition to being known as ethnographic studies. Qualitative research is also known as “field
 study”, “qualitative study”, “symbolic interactionism”, “internal perspective”, “interpretative”,
“ethnomethodology”, “ecological”, “descriptive”, “participant observation”, “ qualitative
interview”, “case study approach”, “participant research”, “phenomenological research”,
“action research”, “naturalistic research”, “in-depth interview”, “qualitative and
phenomenological research”, and others that we will point out posteriorly. Naturally, we do not
intend to be exhaustive in the search for qualitative research names. Nor are we going to define
the type of research that would best represent the qualitative approach. Under these names, in
general, however, we must be alert regarding at least two aspects. Some of these approaches
totally or partially reject the quantitative point of view in educational research; and others
clearly denounce the theoretical supports on which they developed their interpretative
postulates of reality. [...] (TRIVIÑOS, 1987, p. 124).

Qualitative is research that – predominantly – ponders, weighs, analyzes and interprets data
relating to the nature of phenomena, without the quantitative aspects being its main concern, the
logic that guides the thread of its reasoning, the language that expresses its reasons . It also does
not denote theoretical-methodological affiliation, nor does it imply the use of hypotheses,
experimentation or any other detail. In short: qualitative is the name given to research that uses
discursive reason. [...] (RODRIGUES, 2007, p. 38).

There are several uses for this type of approach, as highlighted by the vast literature on this topic
(SOARES, 2003; TRIVIÑOS, 1987; RODRIGUES, 2007). Concerning the uses of this research
approach, Soares (2003, p. 19) mentions:

a) Describe the complexity of a given hypothesis or problem.

b) Analyze intention between variables.
c) Understand and classify dynamic processes experienced by social groups.
d) Present contributions in the process of change, creation or formulation of opinions of a given
group.
e) Allow, in greater depth, the interpretation of the particularities of individuals' behaviors or
attitudes.
f) Interpret data, facts, theories and hypotheses, etc.

Explaining in which research situations the qualitative approach is appropriate, Soares (2003, p.
19) uses the following words:

1. Situations in which it is necessary to replace statistical information with qualitative data.

2. Situations in which qualitative observations are used as indicators of the functioning of social
structures.
3. Situations in which the importance of a qualitative approach is evident in order to understand
the psychological aspect, whose data cannot be collected completely by other methods due to
the complexity involved in the research.

The qualitative approach is widely used, especially in academic work in the areas of Human and
Social Sciences, and less used in the areas of Exact Sciences (SOARES, 2003; TRIVIÑOS, 1987;
RODRIGUES, 2007).
 3.4.1.3 The mixed approach

The mixed research approach is one in which the results of scientific research are supported, or
based, predominantly on qualitative and, concomitantly, quantitative data. While the former serve as a
theoretical lens for investigation, the latter serve as precise foundations for the results produced. This
approach is normally used in research whose object is interdisciplinary, such as socioeconomic
phenomena in general, such as mergers, acquisitions, outsourcing, outsourcing and business
partnerships. For this reason, it is widely used in the field of Social Sciences, and, even more so, in the
field of applied Social Sciences, such as Administration, Accounting Sciences, Economic Sciences and
Law. It is not at all easy to use such an approach, which is why Creswell (2010, p. 243) justifies:

Combining data (and, in a broader sense, combining research questions, philosophy,

interpretation) is difficult especially when considering that qualitative data consists of text and
images and quantitative data consists of numbers. There are two different questions here: When
does a researcher combine data in a mixed methods study? And how does it occur? The first
question is much easier to answer than the second. The combination of the two types of data can
occur at different stages: in data collection, in data analysis, in data interpretation, or in all three
phases. [...]

In modern science, there are already several sequential strategies developed for mixed approach
research, aiming to facilitate its understanding and use (CRESWELL, 2010). Creswell, a university
professor who has taught courses and written about qualitative methodology and mixed methods
research for more than 35 years (as of 2010), presents in his work six sequential strategies for mixed
methods design, which, synthetically presented, are:

3.4.1.3.1 Sequential explanatory strategy

The sequential explanatory strategy is popular, and gives greater weight to quantitative data,
which are collected in a first stage, on which qualitative data are collected, in a secondary stage
(CRESWELL, 2010). Regarding this type of combination, Creswell (2010, p. 247-248, emphasis mine)
explains:

The sequential explanatory strategy is a popular strategy for mixed methods design and often
appeals to researchers with strong quantitative leanings. It is characterized by the collection and
analysis of quantitative data in a first phase of the research, followed by the collection and
analysis of qualitative data in a second phase that builds on the initial quantitative results.
 Greater weight is typically given to quantitative data, and data combining occurs when initial
quantitative results drive secondary qualitative data collection. Thus, the two forms of data are
separate but connected. An explicit theory may or may not inform the general procedure.

This technique of combining qualitative and quantitative data is strongly recommended for
researchers with strong quantitative inclinations, or when an explicit theory states that this is the ideal
general procedure for investigating the topic (CRESWELL, 2010).

3.4.1.3.2 Sequential exploratory strategy

The sequential exploratory strategy gives greater weight to data of a qualitative nature, which
are collected in a first stage, upon which data of a quantitative nature are collected, to support the first
(CRESWELL, 2010). Regarding this type of combination, Creswell (2010, p. 248, gMy emphasis)
emphasizes:

The sequential exploratory strategy involves a first phase of qualitative data collection and
analysis, followed by a second phase of quantitative data collection and analysis that builds on
the results of the first qualitative phase. The greatest weight is generally given to the first phase,
and the data is combined by its connection between the analysis of qualitative data and the
collection of quantitative data.

This combination technique is strongly recommended for researchers with strong qualitative
inclinations, or when an explicit theory informs that this is the ideal general procedure for investigating
the topic (CRESWELL, 2010).

3.4.1.3.3 Sequential transformative strategy12

The sequential transformative strategy is also a two-phase project: in the first phase, qualitative
or quantitative data is researched, to form a theoretical lens, and, in a second phase, qualitative or
quantitative data is researched, to complement it. (CRESWELL, 2010). Regarding this type of
combination, Creswell (2010, p. 248. G, emphasis mine) points out:

The sequential transformative strategy is a two-phase project, with a theoretical lens (e.g.,
gender, race, social science theory) overlaying the sequential procedures. It also has an initial
phase (quantitative or qualitative), followed by a second phase (qualitative or quantitative),
which builds on the previous phase. The theoretical lens is presented in the introduction to a
proposal, frames a directional research question that aims to explore an issue (e.g., inequality,
discrimination, injustice), creates sensitivity to collecting data from marginalized or
underrepresented groups, and ends with a call to action.

12 It was this combination technique that I used to prepare the TCC for my MBA, entitled Analysis of financial
statements in the process of business mergers and acquisitions .
 The greater weight of the data is given by the researcher at his discretion: it can be given to
qualitative or quantitative data, according to the contents investigated and results produced. For
example, in an investigation of the topic “Analysis of financial statements in the process of business
mergers and acquisitions”, it is advisable to create a theoretical lens, composed of qualitative data,
which will explain what mergers and acquisitions are, their history in Brazil and in the world, its
stages, the national and international legislation involved, etc. Then, at a later stage, it is advisable to
use quantitative data to exemplify how to analyze the financial statements in this process.

3.4.1.3.4 Concomitant triangulation strategy

The concomitant triangulation strategy, also referred to in critical literature as confirmation,

disconfirmation, cross-validation or corroboration, prioritizes neither qualitative nor quantitative data.
It, in fact, compares them in order to determine whether or not there is convergence, differences or
some combination between them (CRESWELL, 2010). Regarding this type of technique, Creswell
(2010, p. 249-250. G, emphasis mine) highlights:

The concurrent triangulation approach is probably the most familiar of the six main mixed
methods models. In a concurrent triangulation approach, the researcher collects quantitative and
qualitative data concurrently and then compares the two databases to determine whether there is
convergence, differences, or some combination. Some authors refer to this comparison as
confirmation, disconfirmation, cross-validation or corroboration.

For Creswell (2010), this technique is probably the most familiar among the six main mixed
methods models that he has studied for more than 35 years (based on the year 2010). In it, qualitative
and quantitative data are collected simultaneously.

3.4.1.3.5 Concurrent embedded strategy

The concomitant embedded strategy, like the concomitant triangulation strategy, also prioritizes
neither qualitative nor quantitative data. In it, qualitative and quantitative data are also collected
simultaneously (CRESWELL, 2010). Regarding this type of technique, Creswell (2010, p. 251-253. G,
emphasis mine) emphasizes:
 Like the concurrent triangulation approach, the concurrent embedded strategy of mixed
methods can be identified by its use of a data collection phase, during which both quantitative
and qualitative data are collected at the same time. Unlike the traditional triangulation model, a
concurrent embedded approach has a primary method that guides the project and a secondary
database that plays a supporting role in the procedures. [...] (CRESWELL, p. 251-253)

When using this technique, a secondary database is used as a project guide, playing a supporting
role in the procedures adopted (CRESWELL, 2010).

3.4.1.3.6 Concurrent transformative strategy

The concomitant transformative strategy uses, like the sequential transformative strategy, a
theoretical lens, which can be composed of both qualitative and quantitative data (CRESWELL, 2010).
Regarding this technique, Creswell (2010, p. 253. G, emphasis mine) highlights:

As with the sequential transformative model, the concurrent transformative approach is

guided by the researcher's use of a specific theoretical perspective as well as the concurrent
collection of quantitative and qualitative data. It can be based on ideologies, such as critical
theory, claims-making research, participatory research, or on a conceptual or theoretical
framework. This perspective is reflected in the objective or research questions of the study. It is
the driving force behind all methodological choices, such as defining the problem, identifying
the project and data sources, analyzing, interpreting and reporting results. The choice of a
concomitant model, be it triangulation or embedded design, is made to facilitate this
perspective. [...]

The difference between this technique and the sequential transformative technique is that its data
are collected concomitantly, and the data in that technique (sequential transformative) are collected
sequentially (CRESWELL, 2010).

3.4.2 The procedural bases of scientific research

As previously explained in this work, based on the assumptions presented by Gil (199; 2010), by
Rodrigues (2006) and by Barros and Lehfeld (2000), it is inductively and unanimously inferred that the
methodological pillars of scientific research methodology consist of in three fundamental axes: the
epistemological basis of investigation , which indicates the way of conceiving science, man, truth, life
and the world in which it is produced; the logical basis of investigation , which indicates the structure
of thoughts and the sequence of research phases; and the technical basis of investigation , which
indicates the procedural rites, regarding the approach(es), the technique(s) and the instruments used.
In this vein, the four main procedural bases of scientific research are presented in this topic,
namely: observational , experimental , statistical and clinical .

3.4.2.1 The observational procedural basis

The observational procedural basis indicates that the technical means used to collect data is
observation and the instrumental means inherent to it. Observation is understood as the data collection
technique in which the researcher observes the object being investigated, whether or not he participates
in this process. When the observer-researcher participates in the investigation process, it is said to be
participant observational research ; When, however, the observer-researcher does not participate in
the investigation process, it is said to be non-participant observational research .
observation (OP) , also called direct observation, carried out in loco (ie, directly at the location
of the object, in person, in direct contact with the research object), aims to collect, as a rule, or a priori
, primary data , while non-participant observation (ONP) , also called indirect observation, carried
out ex loco (ie, at a distance from the location of the object, without direct contact with it), secondary
data. However, in some cases, for example, when using a well-conducted documentary survey, through
the ONP, primary data can also be collected, but establishing an indirect relationship between the
investigating subject and the investigated object - hence the survey document is considered ONP. For
this reason, action research, on-site case studies, on-site interviews , participant biographies and
13
participant ethnographies can be carried out in OP . At the ONP, bibliographical research,
documentary research, ex loco case studies , ex loco interviews , non-participant biographies and non-
participant ethnographies can be carried out. In that tone, BÊRNI; FERNANDEZ (2012, p. 176-177)
explain:

The primary data follows the design of a study that will generate the informational base on
alternative styles of conducting experiments or obtaining information through direct questioning
of the agents involved with the phenomenon. This is the case, following the example, of
witnesses to a traffic accident.
Among the primary data to be collected, the following stand out: direct or participant
observation, formal or informal interviews, structured interviews using a questionnaire, free
script-based interviews, group discussions (distinguishing the construction of groups focal
points), consultation of personal documents, diaries, active and passive correspondence, life
stories. [...]
If more secondary information is needed, the researcher must resort to statistics previously
available in technical books, research reports, articles in technical journals, conference
proceedings, official documents (census, surveys, resolutions, reports), personal documents,
active correspondence and passive, life history, published or private diaries, administrative,
accounting and legal documents.

13 To resolve any doubts about ethnographies and their relationship with participant observation, read the book
Ethnography and Participant Observation , written by Michael Angrosino, in 2009, by the publisher Artmed, Qualitative
Research Collection.
 Based on the assumptions presented, it is deduced that the observational procedural basis is
partially empirical (OP) and partially non-empirical (ONP), unlike the other procedural bases, which
are all completely empirical. Furthermore, it can be deduced that it is the most used by researchers in
general, because of its ease of understanding and, especially, its use. Finally, it can also be deduced that
all theoretical, or basic, research is based on observational procedures, using technical and instrumental
means.

3.4.2.2 The experimental procedural basis

The experimental procedural basis indicates that the technical means used to collect data is
experimentation and the instrumental means inherent to it. By experimentation, we understand the data
collection technique in which the researcher experiments with the investigated object, either through
tests or its insertion in a strictly controlled environment according to their wants and needs. Regarding
the nature of experimentation, Rodrigues (2007, p. 42) explains:

It consists of experimentation, artificially provoked by the researcher, and has the factors
associated with the phenomenon controlled by the scholar. It is not suitable for the study of
phenomena that cannot be provoked for study purposes, or that, being capable of being
provoked, make it impossible to control them [...]

Based on the assumptions presented, it can be deduced that the experimental procedural basis is
not easier to understand and use, but that it is the most used in research whose objectives require
experiments, that is, subjecting the object of study to conditions rigorously tested or controlled. It can
also be deduced that this is one of the bases used in practical, or applied, research.

3.4.2.3 The statistical procedural basis

The statistical procedural basis indicates that the technical means used to collect data is a
statistical technique and the instrumental means inherent to it. The statistical technique most used in
scientific research is sampling, also known in the literature as a sample survey, because of the
effectiveness of its results, the quality of the information produced and the low degree of complexity
both in its understanding and in its use.
Sampling, or sample survey, is understood as the data collection technique in which the
researcher strategically selects the components of his research object. For example, if your research
object is citizens of a certain profile from the city of São Paulo, a predefined number of São Paulo
citizens of that profile are selected, randomly or not, and , through the instrumental means inherent to
this technique, normally, questionnaires or forms, data is collected for further analysis and
interpretation.
When the components of the research object are selected randomly, that is, probabilistically, the
technique is called probabilistic sampling . When, however, the components of the research object are
not randomly selected, that is, when the research defines which components it wants to choose, this
technique is called non-probability sampling . There are already several types of probabilistic and
non-probabilistic sampling, and also several statistical distributions developed for their use.

3.4.2.4 The clinical procedural basis

The clinical procedural basis indicates a clinical research, a clinical trial or a clinical study,
according to different denominations found in its critical literature. According to ANVISA, the clinical
procedural basis refers to "any investigation on human beings, aiming to discover or verify the
pharmacodynamic, pharmacological, clinical and/or other effects of product(s) and/or identify adverse
reactions to the product(s) under investigation with the aim of investigating its safety and/or
effectiveness."
Testing is a technique used to collect data especially in clinical studies. It is common to use tests
and social scales in research into health sciences in general, such as Medicine, Nursing, Occupational
Therapy, Psychology, Dentistry, Pharmacy, Veterinary Medicine, Nutrition, Physical Education,
Physiotherapy, Speech Therapy, Biomedical Engineering, etc.

3.4.3 Scientific research techniques

Technique is a set of precepts or processes that a science or art uses; it is the ability to use these
precepts or norms, the practical part. Every science uses countless techniques to achieve its purposes.
They can be classified as general for data collection, and specific, which can be for: collection,
recording, organization, systematization, analysis or interpretation, formalization and presentation of
data. The main scientific techniques are presented below:

3.4.3.1 Techniques for data collection

 3.4.3.1.1 Experimentation

Experimentation aims not only to analyze the research object, understanding its causes and
implications, but also to modify it, through experimental intervention , which is any action carried
out during an experiment with the ultimate objective of changing characteristics of the investigated
object. . Regarding experimentation as a data collection technique, some authors on the subject lend us
their ideas:

[...] In general, the stages of an experimentation process start from an exact formulation of the
problem and hypotheses that allow a precise delimitation of the variables that act on the
phenomenon, establishing exactly how to control them. Choosing the appropriate design is
essential for the success of the experiment.
Sample selection , randomly, is essential for the formation of experimental and control groups.
On the other hand, the development of instruments for data collection must be careful.
Instruments must be subjected to repeated tests to ensure their effectiveness. The timing of the
formulation of the null or statistical hypothesis is important.
has been reviewed , the experiment is then carried out . The results are subjected to appropriate
hypothesis testing to determine their reliability. [...]. (TRIVIÑOS, 1987, p. 109).

Experimentation consists of the set of processes used to verify hypotheses. It differs from
observation because it follows a guiding idea, and not simply because it involves the
intervention of the researcher in order to modify the object of the research. [...]
The general idea that governs experimental techniques is the following: the hypothesis
consisting, essentially, of establishing a relationship of cause and effect or of antecedent and
consequent between two phenomena, it is about discovering whether actually B (supposed
effect or consequent) varies each time A (supposed cause or antecedent) is varied and varies in
the same proportions. (CERVO; BERVIAN, 2002, p. 29).

Regarding the types of experimentation, Cervo and Bervian (2002, p. 29-30, . My emphasis)
14
present three techniques:

I. Method of constant coincidences: Bacon's tables

[...] The method of constant coincidences can be explained as follows: once the cause is
established, the effect occurs; If the cause is removed, the effect will not occur; If the cause
changes, the effect changes. [...]
The method of constant coincidences has more negative than positive value, since a constant
antecedent, related to a phenomenon, may very well not be its cause, but only a sine qua non
condition or a concomitant effect of the same cause.
[...]
III. Methods of exclusion, by Stuart Mill
[...] It recommends four processes or methods (broad sense):
a) Concordance method: corresponds to Bacon’s presence table. Two or more experiences are
carried out that only agree with each other due to the presence of a single antecedent.
Rule: if several cases of the same phenomenon only have a common antecedent, this is the
cause of that phenomenon.

14 Due to a technical error made during the observational protocol, the second technique mentioned was suppressed.
In this case, to learn more about it, consult the reference: Cervo and Bervian (2002, p. 29-30).
 b) Difference method: corresponds to Bacon’s absence table. Some new antecedent is
introduced or some of the existing ones are eliminated. If in one case the phenomenon occurs
and in another it does not, we are certain that this unique antecedent, introduced or eliminated,
is the cause of the phenomenon.
Rule: if a case in which the phenomenon occurs and another case in which it does not occur
have all common antecedents, except one, this antecedent is the cause of the phenomenon.
c) Method of concomitant variations: corresponds to Bacon's table of degrees. It consists of
varying the intensity of the supposed cause to see if the phenomenon varies in the same
direction and in the same proportions.
Rule: if the phenomenon varies, with all but one antecedent remaining invariable, this
antecedent that varied is the cause sought. This method often replaces the difference method.
d) Waste method: it is a particular case of difference.
Rule: if we separate from a phenomenon the part that is the known effect of certain antecedents,
the residue of the phenomenon is the effect of the antecedents that remain.

Based on the assumptions presented, it is deduced that experimental research has a greater
degree of complexity than observational research, that the techniques used in experiments require
greater experience and attention on the part of the subjects involved in the investigation, and that their
instruments need to be tested and suitable for each experimental type.

3.4.3.1.2 Note

Observation is the most used technique for data collection, and is present in all scientific
research, given that it is through it that the bibliographic and/or documentary review of the topic
selected for investigation is carried out. Regarding the types of observation, Marconi and Lakatos
(2008, p. 77-80, my emphasis) present eight:

The technique of unstructured or unsystematic observation , also called spontaneous,

informal, ordinary, simple, free, occasional and accidental, consists of collecting and recording
the facts of reality without the researcher using special technical means or needing to ask direct
questions. It is mostly used in exploratory studies and does not have previously elaborated
planning and control. [...]
Systematic observation also receives several designations: structured, planned, controlled. Uses
instruments to collect data or observed phenomena. It takes place under controlled conditions,
to meet pre-established purposes. However, standards should not be standardized or too rigid, as
both the situations and the objects and objectives of the investigation can be very different. It
must be carefully planned and systematized. [...]
non-participant observation , the researcher comes into contact with the community, group or
reality studied, but without integrating himself into it: he remains outside. He witnesses the fact,
but does not participate in it; does not get involved in situations; plays more of a spectator role.
This, however, does not mean that observation is not conscious, directed, or ordered for a
specific purpose. The procedure is systematic in nature. [...]
[Participant observation] consists of the researcher's real participation with the community or
group. He incorporates himself into the group, blends in with it. Stay as close as a member of
the group who is studying and participates in its normal activities. [...] In general, two forms of
participant observation are identified: a) Natural. The observer belongs to the same community
or group that he or she investigates; b) Artificial. The observer joins the group in order to obtain
 information. [...]
As the name suggests, [individual observation] is the observation technique carried out by a
researcher. In this case, his personality is projected onto the observed, making some inferences
or distortions, due to the limited possibility of contact. On the other hand, it can intensify the
objectivity of your information, indicating, when writing down the data, which are the real
events and which are the interpretations. It's a difficult task, but not impossible. In some
aspects, observation can only be done individually. [...]
Team observation is more advisable than individual observation, as the group can observe the
incident from different angles. When a team is vigilant, recording the problem in the same area,
there is an opportunity to compare their data later, to check the predispositions.
Normally, observations [in real life] are made in the real environment, recording data as they
occur, spontaneously, without due preparation. The best time to register is where the event takes
place. This reduces selective biases and misrepresentation in recall. [...]
Laboratory observation is that which attempts to discover action and conduct that took place
under carefully arranged and controlled conditions. However, many important aspects of human
life cannot be observed under ideal conditions in the laboratory. [...]

However, although critical literature presents several types of observation, there are basically
two types of observation: direct , or participant, which constitutes a technique applied in situ, that is, in
the place where the object of study is located; and indirect , or non-participant, which constitutes a
technique applied ex loco, that is, at a distance from the place where the object of study is located.
Whether participant observation, used, for example, in action research, observational case
studies and participant ethnography, or non-participant observation, used, for example, in
bibliographical research, documentary research or non-participant ethnography, there are important
precautions that need to be taken. Regarding this aspect, Martins (2008, p. 109) highlights:

Observation consists of a thorough examination that requires attention when collecting and
analyzing data. To this end, observation must be preceded by a survey of the theoretical
framework and results of other research related to the study. Formally, it is desirable to
construct an observation protocol, which will, of course, be part of the Case Study protocol.
Observing is not just seeing. Validity (are you observing what you actually want to observe?)
and reliability, or trustworthiness (do successive observations of the same fact or situation offer
similar results?) can be achieved if the observation is rigorously controlled and systematic. It
involves careful planning of the work and preparation of the observer. The plan will delimit the
phenomenon to be studied, indicate what should be observed, the ways of observing, the
duration, frequency, method of recording and controls to guarantee validity and reliability.

Observation can be direct, called participant observation (OP), when the observer-researcher
participates in the events to be studied, or it can be indirect, called non-participant observation (ONP),
when the observer-researcher uses only critical literature on the events to be studied without, however,
participating in them. Distinguishing the two types of observation, Martins (2008, p. 25) explains:
 OP is a special type of observation in which the researcher is not just a passive observer. Rather,
the researcher may assume a variety of roles within a Case Study and may, in fact, participate in
the events being studied. The observer-researcher will need to have permission from those
responsible to carry out the survey and not be confused with elements that evaluate, inspect or
supervise activities. The researcher's biggest challenge is to gain acceptance and trust from
members of the social group where he carries out fieldwork [...]

The main forms of participant observation are interviews , widely used in case studies, field
research in general, biographies and non-participant ethnographies (VERGARA, 2012; YIN, 2010),
and non-experimental intervention , used in research -action (THIOLLENT, 2011). In turn, the main
forms of non-participant observation are bibliographic surveys (secondary data) and documentary
surveys (primary data), used in all research when reviewing literature and other parts (GIL, 1999, 2010;
SEVERINO, 2007). In this vein, the following explains each of these forms of OP and ONP:

3.4.3.1.2.1 Participant observation (OP)

3.4.3.1.2.1.1 Action research

Action research, also known as non-experimental intervention, is a type of participant

observational research. Intervening means modifying the environment. Therefore, this technique aims
to change the characteristics of the object of investigation, to transform it. For this reason, action
research starts from changes that need to be made in a certain environment, be it a school, a
community, a company, an organization, and seeks to implement them in this environment, through the
participation of the researcher, together with the group. in which it is inserted. It differs from the
experimental intervention, typical of experimental studies.
Concerning the definitions and objectives of action research, Thiollent (2011, p. 20) points out:

Among the various possible definitions, we will give the following: action research is a type of
empirically based social research that is conceived and carried out in close association with an
action or the resolution of a collective problem and in which researchers and participants
representative of the situation or problem are involved in a cooperative or participatory way.

Explaining it differently from Thiollent (2011), Rodrigues (2007, p. 44) says about action
research, comparing it with participant research:

Participatory research is one that uses participant observation as an investigation technique. It

was born from criticism of objectivism. It emphasizes the idea that reality is greater than
objectively observable facts, generally associating itself with ideological debates. It constitutes
the proposal for a distinct model of research, inseparable from action, in which researchers
 participate in solving social problems. [...]
Both action research and participatory research are characterized by the involvement of
researchers and those being researched in the research process. In this sense, they distance
themselves from the principles of academic scientific research. The objectivity of classical
empirical research is not observed. Action research theorists propose its replacement by
observational relativity. [...]

It is important to highlight that there is no unanimity regarding the dissimilarities between

action research and participatory research, being “a question of terminology” (THIOLLENT, 2011, p.
21, 2003, p. 15). However, the author takes a position on the issue, arguing that all action research has
a participatory nature to the extent that the participation of people involved in the problems
investigated is absolutely necessary (THIOLLENT, 2011, 2003), although what in critical literature if
called participatory research, it is not action research (THIOLLENT, 2011, 2003).
Furthermore, for an investigation to be considered action research, there must be active
participation of both the researcher(s) and groups directly involved with the object when carrying out
the research (THIOLLENT, 2011, p 22, 2003, p. 16). The objective of such participatory
interrelationship of these subjects is to collectively construct thoughts about the investigated object,
drawing conclusions from the consensus of all participants.
Briefly, action research has the following characteristics (THIOLLENT, 2011, p. 22-23, 2003, p.
16):

a) there is a broad and explicit interaction between researchers and people involved in the
situation investigated;
b) this interaction results in the order of priority of the problems to be researched and the
solutions to be forwarded in the form of concrete action;
c) the object of investigation is not constituted by people but by the social situation and the
problems of different natures encountered in this situation;
d) the objective of action research is to resolve or, at least, clarify the problems of the observed
situation;
e) there is, during the process, monitoring of decisions, actions and all intentional activity of the
actors in the situation;
f) research is not limited to one form of action (risk of activism) it is intended to increase the
knowledge of researchers and the knowledge or “level of consciousness” of the people and
groups considered.

Commonly used to investigate everyday problems common in companies and schools, action
research depends on its objectives and the context in which it is applied. In addition to leading the
researcher(s) to extra-routine experiences, there are many benefits of this type of research, as presented
by Thiollent (2011, p. 49, 2003, p. 41), namely:

a) The collection of original information about situations or actors in movement;

b) The concretization of theoretical knowledge, obtained through dialogue in the relationship
between researchers and members representing the situations or problems investigated;
c) The comparison of the representations specific to the various interlocutors, with the
 appearance of a procession between formal knowledge and informal knowledge regarding the
resolution of different categories of problems;
d) The production of guides or practical rules to solve problems and plan corresponding actions;
e) Positive or negative lessons regarding the conduct of the action and its conditions for
success;
f) Possible generalizations established from several similar studies and with the improvement of
researchers' experience.

Action research presupposes direct involvement between the investigated subject and the
investigating subject and, for this reason, its results are quite reliable.

3.4.3.1.2.1.2 On-site case study

The case study stands out as a type of research that always has a strong descriptive nature and is
one of the types of qualitative research that has been gaining increasing acceptance in the area of
education (RODRIGO, 2008). Severino, 2007, p. 121, conceptualizes the case study as:

Research that focuses on the study of a particular case, considered representative of a set of
analogous cases, which are therefore significantly representative. Data collection and analysis
take place in the same way as in field research, in general.

Regarding the role of the researcher in this context, Rodrigo (2008, p. 3) highlights:

The researcher does not intend to intervene in the situation, but to make it known as it arises.
You can use various instruments and strategies. However, a case study does not need to be
merely descriptive. It can have a deep analytical reach, it can interrogate the situation. You can
compare the situation with others already known and with existing theories. It can help
generate new theories and new questions for future research. The characteristics or principles
associated with the case study overlap with the general characteristics of qualitative research.

It is worth noting that the case selected for research needs to be significant and well
representative, in order to be able to support a generalization to similar situations, authorizing
inferences. Field research procedures must be followed in the data collection and recording stage,
which must be worked on through rigorous analysis and presented in qualified reports (SEVERINO,
2007).
Still on the nature and appropriate use of this type of research, the following authors lend us
their knowledge with the following words:

What is the Case Study? It is a research category whose object is a unit that is analyzed in
depth. This definition determines its characteristics that are given by two circumstances,
mainly. On the one hand, the nature and scope of the unit. This could be a subject. For example,
examining living conditions (socio-economic level, parents' education, their profession, time
that parents dedicate daily to their child, guiding them in their studies, type of student's diet,
sports practice, sleep, perspectives of the student and parents in relation to the child's future, the
 opinion of teachers, classmates, etc.) surrounding a student who has repeated the first grade of
high school, at a public school. In the study of an 8th grade class from a private school, a
fishing community, a school in a popular village, etc. It is easy to understand that analyzing the
environment, negative or positive, that surrounds a person, is much simpler than interpreting the
problems presented by an agricultural community that intends to organize a production and
consumption cooperative.
Secondly, the complexity of the Case Study is also determined by the theoretical supports that
serve as guidance for the researcher in his work. An ahistorical approach, reduced to the
cultural characteristics of a specific environment in which the unit under examination is
inserted, of a qualitative phenomenological nature, is undoubtedly less complex than a vision in
which the phenomenon is observed in its evolution and its relationships fundamental structures.
(TRIVIÑOS, 1987, p. 133-134).

[...] This is an empirical investigation that researches phenomena within their real context
(naturalistic research), where the researcher has no control over events and variables, seeking to
grasp the entirety of a situation and, creatively, describe, understand and interpret the
complexity of a specific case. Through a deep and exhaustive dive into a delimited object -
research problem -, the Case Study allows penetration into social reality, not fully achieved by
quantitative assessment. [...]. (MARTINS, 2008, p. xi).

Among several types of case studies, Triviños ( 1987, p. 134-136 , my emphasis) presents three,
namely:

1st) Historical-organizational Case Studies

The researcher's interest lies in the life of an institution. The unit can be a school, a university, a
club, etc. The researcher must start from the knowledge that exists about the organization he
wants to examine. What material can be handled, what is available, even if it presents
difficulties for its study. This means that there are files that record documents relating to the life
of the institution, publications, personal studies with which it is possible to carry out interviews,
etc. This necessary prior information is basic to preliminarily outline the data collection.
2nd) Observational Case Study
This is a typical category, we could say, of qualitative research. The most important information
collection technique is participant observation , which, remember, sometimes appears as a
synonym for a qualitative approach. The focus of the examination may be a school, a club, a
Neighbors' Association, a Production and Consumption Cooperative, etc. Now it is not the
organization as a whole that is of interest, but rather a part of it. [...]
It is very interesting to highlight that the researcher can go to organizations with very defined
purposes. And maybe everything will work out. [...] This means that the researcher must get in
touch with the organizations and, perhaps, resolve with them what they mutually consider
important to work [...]
3rd) The Case Study called Life Story
Generally, the technique used to investigate in “History of Life” is the semi-structured interview
carried out with a person of social importance (famous writer, famous scientist, enlightened
philanthropist, renowned politician, etc.), or with a person from a popular village (such as the
former teacher, president of the Mothers' Association, distinguished workers, any family, etc.).
The interview goes deeper and deeper into the subject’s “Life Story”. [...]
(my emphasis)

Characterizing and typifying case studies, Yin (2010, p. 38-41) explains explanatory or causal
case studies, descriptive case studies and exploratory case studies, as he says:
 A case study is an empirical investigation that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in
depth and in its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between the phenomenon and
the context are not clearly evident. [...]
Case study investigation faces the technically nuanced situation in which there will be many
more variables of interest than data points, and as a result it relies on multiple sources of
evidence, with the data needing to converge in a triangular manner, and as a further result ,
benefits from the previous development of theoretical propositions to guide data collection and
analysis. [...]
And, yes, case studies have a distinct place in evaluation research [...]. There are at least four
different applications. The most important thing is to explain the presumed causal links in real-
life interventions that are too many.

Based on such assumptions, it is clear that there are case studies approached qualitatively, such
as observational ones and those called “Life History”, as well as those approached qualitatively and/or
quantitatively, such as historical-organizational ones. One of the greatest advantages of this type of
research is the depth achieved and, consequently, a more significant social contribution of the results
produced.
In addition to everything that has already been explained about the case study, it is worth
highlighting that it can be carried out both in loco and ex loco. Everything will depend on how it is
carried out. For example, if we are going to analyze the financial reports of a company, once we have
access to these reports on the internet, on its institutional website, and in various bibliographies, we can
and should – in order to save resources – carry out it ex loco; otherwise, if it is not possible to collect
primary data via the internet or in bibliographies, then it can and should be carried out on site, such as
in the Urban Household Surrounding Survey, also called pre-collection, carried out in the Census
Brazilian demographic.

3.4.3.1.2.1.3 Survey researchOn -site interview

Mineiro (2020) states that the word Survey does not have a corresponding term in Portuguese,
but is commonly transliterated merely as “survey”, which, in the author's opinion, does not cover the
entire semantics of the expression, which is why they are still lied to in the literature criticizes the use
of the English expression.
According to Mineiro (2020, p. 286), Survey research has the main objective of “providing
statistical descriptions of people through questions, normally applied to a sample”. For this reason, they
are more aligned with the quantitative research approach, and with positivist and post-positivist
paradigmatic approaches, “due to questions of historical origins, forms of data collection and analysis”
(MINEIRO, 2020, p. 286). However, the author (2020, p. 286) emphasizes:

However, knowing it in depth can advance science, as with the appropriate epistemological and
form adjustments, it can serve a qualitative approach based on the paradigmatic perspectives of
Critical, Constructivist and/or Participatory Theory (LINCOLN; GUBA, 2010).

Regarding the origin of this type of scientific technique, Mineiro (2020) says that it appeared in
North American demographic censuses, and in politics too, during the 19th century. Regarding these
aspects, the author (2020, p. 288) lends us her words:

The history of Surveys has its initial records in the United States of America (USA) for the
purposes of population counts (Census), as well as being confused with the history of sampling.
The US Bureau of Census is responsible for the decennial census of the North American
population (equivalent to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics – IBGE) and its
collected data constituted a valuable resource for the development of sample designs in specific
Surveys . [...]
One of the first political uses of Surveys occurred in 1880 when the German political
sociologist, Karl Marx, mailed 25,000 questionnaires to French workers in order to find out to
what degree they were exploited by their employers. Another use of the Survey was Max Weber
in his study on The Protestant Ethic. Most contemporary survey research has been carried out
by American researchers. According to the Constitution of the United States, every 10 years a
census must be carried out, with the
information from which it is possible to identify the appropriate representation in the House of
Representatives (part of the North American Congress equivalent to the Chamber of Deputies)
as well as collect data about age, education, housing, etc. As it occurs every decade, it ends up
being limited in time, so sample surveys, in this interstice, have become part of North American
life since the 1930s.

It is clear from the author's aforementioned words (2020) that Survey and sampling are not
synonymous, although their origins date back to the same time, and their uses are significantly
interconnected in the practice of scientific investigation.
Regarding the types of Surveys , Mineiro (2020) presents a table, which I compile below:

Table 7 – Types of Surveys

Types of Surveys
There are two types of Surveys that intertwine and form a third:
In them, data are collected at a given moment, from a sample selected to
describe a larger population, on the same occasion. It can be used not only
1) Intersectional to
surveys describe, but also to determine relationships between variables at the time
of collection.
In them, data are collected at different times and report changes in
descriptions and explanations, allowing data analysis over time. The main
 2) Longitudinal longitudinal designs are trend studies, cohort and panel studies.
surveys
These are those carried out on a population that can be sampled and studied
on different occasions, even though different people are studied, they end
up representing the same population. It should be noted that trend studies
2.1) Trend studies often involve long periods of data collection to identify trends in the
relationships between variables.
These are those that are based on descriptions of a general population over
time, such studies focus on the same specific population each time data is
collected,
although the samples studied may be different, that is, the time reference is
2.2) Cut studies the same, variable is the same, but in different samples.
These are those that involve collecting data over time from the same sample
of respondents, which is called a panel. You could interview all panel
members at
monthly intervals during the investigation, looking at other characteristics
of the changer and perhaps providing explanations of reasons for change.
They tend to be expensive and time consuming,
a weakness is that respondents may be unwilling or unable to participate
later, a strength is the ability to examine the same respondents on
2.3) Panel studies different occasions. Its main analytical mechanism is the change table that
cross-tabulates some characteristics on more than one occasion. This is the
most sophisticated
Survey design that comes closest to laboratory experiments.
3) Intersectional It seeks relationships between variables to make comparisons. Respondents
surveys must provide relevant data so that the study or change can be approached.
as an
approximation
of longitudinal
surveys

Source: Mineiro (2020, pp. 290-291). Self elaboration.

There are many specific techniques that can be used in Surveys ( MINEIRO, 2020). Among
them, the author (2020) highlights the following: the interview, the questionnaire – which is self-
administered –, the form – which is administered by the researcher –, documentation, tabulation,
coding, Content Analysis, statistical techniques, among many others.
Regarding the advantages and disadvantages of the collection instruments used in Surveys
research , Monteiro (2020) presents a table, which I compile below:

TYPE BENEFITS DISADVANTAGES

An effective means of They take a lot of time, they tend to cost more
obtaining cooperation, it is for team training, there are sample groups that
 possible to clarify respondents' do not make interviews accessible (for example,
doubts, it can include other gated communities, high crime areas, etc.).
collection methods (for Legal permission to record, photograph, film
Personal example, observation) and may not be granted.
interviews other resources (visual,
auditory, experiences, etc.), it
allows the establishment of
bonds of trust.
Relatively lower costs; unknown
random dialing of numbers numbers , the lack of response is greater, it
can be used for sampling; limits the number of
provides better access questions/alternatives/visual resources, it does
Telephone to certain groups; relatively not
interviews shorter collection period, you allow observational collection, it is not suitable
don't need as large a team, for sensitive issues.
making it a little cheaper
in this sense.
It is possible to present visual It requires carefully prepared structuring and
resources, makes long or layout
complex answers viable, , open/broad questions are difficult to tabulate,
allows similar questions it does not include
Questionnaires (which serve as illiterates or people with limited reading and
(so-called self- conference/security devices writing skills. (If it is not in Braille
administered) ), gives more freedom and also does not include blind people).
offers less embarrassment to
interviewees, consequently
greater reliability of the
answers.
Relatively low costs, does not It makes it difficult to raise awareness to obtain
require a large team, provides the respondent's cooperation, the addresses
access to may be unreliable, further reducing the return
Questionnaires diverse samples, provides rate, and it does not offer a way to
by more clarify doubts.
correspondence time for response, allowing
consultations to be carried out.
Low cost, immediate response Those who do not have access to the internet are
retrieval and automatic excluded, and depending on the platform used
tabulation offers , it excludes its “non-users”, there is the
Online more time for respondents challenge of obtaining the cooperation of
questionnaires who can respond anywhere respondents, there is no way to clarify doubts
and with multiple immediately, a
devices. list of reliable emails is required.
Source: Mineiro (2020, pp. 291-292). Self elaboration.

Mineiro (2020, p. 299) highlights that “a limitation of Surveys is the response rate to data
collection instruments”. The author (2020) states that when response rates are high, there is a small
potential for errors due to the lack of responses; however, when response rates are low, there is a great
potential for error, providing the basis for criticism about the verisimilitude of the data.
Regarding the intrinsic ethical issues of Survey research , Mineiro (2020) highlights that in
many cases it is necessary to obtain approval from a Research Ethics Committee to apply it to
respondents, and that, to give more credibility to scientific research, the investigator may seek
voluntary cooperation signatures from research participants, when, of course, this is possible (in
Telephone Surveys , signatures are not possible). It must also be made clear to respondents about the
confidentiality of the information provided, which is ensured, in most countries, by legal provisions
(this is what happens with the Demographic Census).
Surveys can be carried out in loco or ex loco . In Demographic Censuses, for example, in which
data is always sought directly from respondents in their homes, on-site surveys are carried out .
However, in voter surveys, for example, or when data cannot be collected directly from respondents
(such as during the coronavirus pandemic, for example), Surveys are carried out ex loco . However,
both in loco Surveys and ex loco Surveys follow the same scientific procedures explained in this topic.
The interview is a technique widely used in participant observational research, and is also useful
in clinical research. Regarding its nature, some authors lend us their ideas:

An interview is a meeting between two people, in order for one of them to obtain information
about a certain subject, through a conversation, of a professional nature. It is a procedure used
in social research, to collect data or to help diagnose or treat a social problem. (MARCONI;
LAKATOS, 2008, p. 80)
It is a research technique for data collection whose basic objective is to understand and
understand the meaning that interviewees attribute to questions and situations, in contexts that
have not been previously structured, based on the researcher's assumptions and conjectures.
(MARTINS, 2008, p. 27)

Putting other aspects of this technique on the agenda, Dencker and Viá (2012, p. 158) highlight:

The interview takes place in a social situation , in which the interviewer and interviewee
interact with each other, influencing each other not only through the words they say, but also
through other signs, such as voice inflection, gestures, facial expression and other traits.
personal characteristics, in addition to the behavioral manifestations that accompany verbal
communication.

There are several types of interviews, the main ones being: the focus group , the structured
interview, the semi-structured interview and the unstructured interview. Regarding this aspect, Marconi
and Lakatos (2008, p. 82) present three types:
 The. Standardized or structured. It is one in which the interviewer follows a previously
established script; the questions asked of the individual are predetermined. It is carried out
according to a prepared form and is carried out preferably with people selected according to a
plan. [...]
B. Destandardized or unstructured. The interviewee is free to develop each situation in any
direction he or she deems appropriate. It’s a way of being able to explore an issue more broadly.
In general, questions are open-ended and can be answered within an informal conversation. [...]
This type of interview [...] has three modalities: focused interview [...], clinical interview [...]
[and] non-directed interview .
w. Panel. It consists of repeating questions, from time to time, to the same people, in order to
study the evolution of opinions over short periods. The questions must be formulated
differently, so that the interviewee does not distort the answers with these repetitions.

Still regarding the types of interviews, Vergara (2012) considers two criteria for their
classification: the number of people involved and their structure. Regarding the number of people,
Vergara (2012, p. 6-7) presents the individual interview and the collective interview, which,
summarizing his words, are:

An individual interview is one that is established between an interviewer and an interviewee.

Regarding the number of people who can be individually interviewed, there are authors who
consider 15 a minimum number for interviews and 25 an appropriate maximum number. These
limits cannot, however, be taken literally. A researcher, for example, may wish (and be able to)
interview state ministers. Five already seems like a good number, right? Ultimately, it all
depends on the research problem, the chosen methodology and the representativeness of the
interviewees. It also depends on common sense and the researcher's mastery of certain scientific
rules. [...]
A collective interview is an interview that has one or more interviewers and some interviewees.
It is also known as a focus group. Focus group, also called focus group, focused group
interview, group meetings and other names, is one in which interviews are conducted by an
interviewer, designated as moderator, who is the catalyst for communication between
interviewees, i.e. between participants. [...]
When it comes to group interviews, authors consider that a minimum of six and a maximum of
ten people can be an appropriate limit. However, these numbers are arbitrary, so it is up to the
researcher to define the limits. [...]
(my emphasis)

As for the structure, in turn, Vergara (2012, p. 7-17) presents the closed interview, the semi-
open interview and the open interview, which, summarizing his words, are:

A script whose structure is closed presents ordered questions or topics and, basically, does not
allow changes, whether for inclusion, exclusion or changing the order of questions or topics.
[...]
A script whose structure is semi-open , such as a script with a closed structure, is focused.
However, unlike the closed structure, it allows inclusions, exclusions, changes in general to the
questions, explanations to the interviewee regarding a question or a word, which gives it an
open character. [...]
A script whose structure is open aims to seek to explore a situation more broadly, either by
asking direct questions or by inserting them into the middle of a conversation that includes
other points. For example, to find out what managers of a certain company think about the
 inclusion of people with physical disabilities in the company's staff, it is possible to talk to them
about organizational matters and, in the conversation, include questions about the specific case
of people with physical disabilities. [...]

Based on the assumptions presented, it is deduced that this technique implies the participation of
both the interviewee and the interviewer, for this reason, integrating participant observation .
When there is a need to collect, through interviews, primary data, that is, those that have not yet
been manipulated, it is recommended to carry it out in loco , that is, directly in contact with the
research object. For example, when collecting the Brazilian Demographic Census, carried out by the
Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), researchers – called Census Agents in the
Census – collect the data, applying a Basic Questionnaire or a Sample Questionnaire, directly in
contact with residents, that is, on site .

3.4.3.1.2.2 Non-Participant Observation (ONP)

3.4.3.1.2.2.1 Bibliographic survey15

The bibliographic survey, also called bibliographic research, bibliographic review or literary
review, aims to collect secondary data, that is, those that have already been subjected to some type of
manipulation, called critical literature. It is used for literature review and is therefore necessary for all
types of research. It is configured in the technique of collecting data from books and academic works in
general, such as TCCs, monographs, dissertations, theses, scientific articles, scientific reviews, etc. Its
fundamental tools are bibliographies.
In the Scientific Methodology literature, there are many types of literature reviews. However,
their classifications/categorizations are confusing, as they mix general procedures with specific data
collection and processing procedures. For example, meta-analysis is typified by Souza et al. (2018) as
being a review, whereas, in fact, it is a specific technique (statistical, quantitative) for data analysis;
Meanwhile, the state of the art is typified by the same authors as being a review, considering that it is,
in reality, the results of the studies investigated, and not a data collection and/or processing technique;
The state of the art of a topic can be achieved through any of the types of bibliographic and/or
documentary survey presented and explained in this topic.

15 For more information, check Appendix 2 , entitled Bibliographic and documentary surveys .
 Currently, the four main types of bibliographic survey are: a) the Integrative Bibliographic
Review (RBI); b) the Narrative Bibliographic Review (RBN); c) the Systematic Bibliographic Review
(RBS); and d) Systematic Bibliographic Mapping (MBS). These four types are explained below.

3.4.3.1.2.2.1.1 RBI

The Integrative Bibliographic Review (RBI) is not synonymous with Systematic Bibliographic
Review (RBS), although their similarities are many (ERCOLE; MELO; ALCOFORADO, 2014). While
RBI seeks to answer broad questions about a topic, RBS seeks to answer specific questions about it.
Regarding the main characteristics of the RBI, Ercole, Melo and Alcoforado (2014, p. 9) say:

The integrative literature review is a method that aims to synthesize results obtained in research
on a topic or issue, in a systematic, orderly and comprehensive manner. It is called integrative
because it provides broader information on a subject/problem, thus constituting a body of
knowledge. In this way, the reviewer/researcher can prepare an integrative review with different
purposes, which can be directed to the definition of concepts, review of theories or
methodological analysis of the studies included on a particular topic.
This method allows the simultaneous inclusion of quasi-experimental and experimental
research, combining data from theoretical and empirical literature, providing a more complete
understanding of the topic of interest. The variety in the composition of the integrative review
sample in conjunction with the multiplicity of purposes of this method provides as a result a
complete picture of complex concepts, theories or problems related to health care, relevant to
nursing.

According to the authors (2014), both RBI and RBS have the same method and rigor. Both are
considered original research, as they manage to reach the state of the art on a topic.
The authors (2014) state that the RBI must be developed in six main stages, namely: a)
identification of the theme and selection of the hypothesis or research question; b) the establishment of
criteria for the inclusion and exclusion of studies/sampling or literature search; c) defining the
information to be extracted from the selected studies, or categorizing the studies; d) evaluation of
included studies; e) interpretation of results; and f) the presentation of the review/synthesis of
knowledge.
Finally, the authors (2014) emphasize that both types of reviews (RBI and RBS) are the “pillars
of evidence-based practice (EBP)”. They also state that from them, nursing can produce scientific
knowledge to “support decision-making about the best assistance provided to the client and strengthen
their profession” (ERCOLE; MELO; ALCOFORADO, 2014, p. 10).
 RBI resembles RBS and MBS because it follows exactly the same research protocol. The RBI is
similar to the MBS in one more aspect: its problem issue is also broad/comprehensive, but broader than
in the MBS. However, the RBI differs from the MBS because an assessment of the quality of the study
is carried out there, while in the MBS this assessment is not carried out (SOUZA et al. , 2018).
A research problem question for an RBI could be: “Among the research on synergies, how
many and which of them are applicable to Mergers and Acquisitions (M&A)?”. Searching the title, or
abstract, or keywords, for the descriptors [(“synerg*”) and (“merger” or “acquisition” or “M&A”)]
in the Web of Sciense Core Collection , only articles published in the last five years (2018 to 2022) in
English, Portuguese or Spanish, on 07/17/22, there is a research corpus made up of 824 results; and
searching for the same descriptors, in the title, or in the abstract, or in the keywords, only articles
published in the last five years (2018 to 2022) in English, Portuguese or Spanish, in Scopus , on the
date of 17.07.22, there is a research corpus made up of 1,150 results. Adding the number of results
from these two largest databases in the world, there is a total of 1,974 articles, which, if carried out,
would make an excellent RBI. However, due to the limited time needed to carry out research,
depending on the level of the course (undergraduate, specialization, master's degree, doctorate or post-
doctorate), these articles can be filtered even further, for example by area of knowledge, to make the
corpus of research operational within the course time.

3.4.3.1.2.2.1.2 RBN

The Narrative Bibliographical Review (RBN), also known in the literature as Simple
Bibliographical Review, or Conventional Bibliographical Review, or just Bibliographical Research,
offers means that help in the definition and resolution of already known problems, but also allows
exploring new areas where there is not yet have crystallized sufficiently. It also allows a topic to be
analyzed under a new focus or approach, producing new conclusions. Furthermore, it allows the
coverage of a much wider range of phenomena, especially when it comes to research whose problem
requires the collection of data that is widely dispersed in space.
Regarding this research technique for data collection, Rodrigues (2007, p. 43) points out:

Bibliographic is research limited to searching for information in books and other publications.
It is the opposite of field research, and is also distinguished from in vitro research . Generally,
bibliographical research is part of the scope of ex-post-facto research , for the simple fact that
books and articles in any magazine or periodical deal, as a rule, with accomplished facts, and
bibliographical research based on reading the futurology type.
 The RBN presupposes previous work that serves as a source or theoretical lens to support more
comprehensive and/or in-depth studies. Regarding this aspect, Severino (2007, p. 122) highlights:

Bibliographical research is one that is carried out based on the available record, resulting
from previous research, in printed documents, such as books, articles, theses, etc. It uses data
or theoretical categories already worked on by other researchers and duly registered. The
texts become sources of the topics to be researched. The researcher works based on the
contributions of the authors of the analytical studies contained in the texts.

In fact, all academic research requires at some point carrying out work that can be considered a
bibliographical survey. Proof of this is that in most current dissertations and theses, there is a special
chapter dedicated to bibliographic review whose main purpose is to support academic work
theoretically and consistently, identifying, not infrequently, the current stage of knowledge regarding
the topic. Gil (2010, p. 29) explains this type of research with the following words:

The bibliographical research is based on already published material. Traditionally, this type
of research includes printed material, such as books, magazines, newspapers, theses,
dissertations and annals of scientific events. However, due to the dissemination of new
information formats, these searches began to include other types of sources, such as records,
magnetic tapes, CDs, as well as material available on the internet.

Highlighting the relevance of this type of research, Gil (2010) highlights that it allows the
researcher to cover a much wider range of phenomena than that which could be researched directly,
especially when the research problem requires data that is widely dispersed throughout space. .
However, do not forget to point out that, as secondary sources, bibliographies can present data
collected or processed in the wrong way, making it possible to reproduce and/or expand these errors in
works based on them. For this reason, Gil (2010, p. 30) provides useful suggestions to reduce this
possibility, saying:

To reduce this possibility, researchers should ensure the conditions under which the data
were obtained, analyze each piece of information in depth to discover possible
inconsistencies or contradictions and use different sources, carefully comparing them.

According to Gil (2010), there are no fixed rules for carrying out bibliographic research, but
there are some tasks that experience shows to be important. Therefore, the following work script was
followed:
 a) Exploration of bibliographic sources: books, scientific journals, theses, research reports,
among others, which contain not only information on certain topics, but indications of other
research sources;
b) Reading of the material: conducted selectively, retaining the essential parts for the
development of the study, and analytically, evaluating the quality of the information collected;
c) Preparation of sheets: citation, summary and bibliographic sheets were prepared, containing
the most relevant parts of the materials consulted;
d) Ordering and analysis of the forms: organized and ordered according to their content,
checking their reliability;
e) Conclusions: obtained from the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the data.

Based on the assumptions presented, it can be deduced that the RBN is a type of bibliographical
survey that is extremely useful for understanding a topic unknown a priori to the researcher, from
which it will be possible to delve deeper into it through the use of more advanced research techniques.
robust, such as, for example, case study or action research.

3.4.3.1.2.2.1.3 RBS

Created at the end of the 1970s, by a researcher in the field of Psychology called Gene Glass,
the Systematic Bibliographic Review (RBS) aims to reduce the biases of the Conventional
Bibliographic Review, or Narrative, in which we have a tendency, as researchers. imperfect, “ of
overvaluing studies that are in line with our initial hypotheses and ignoring studies that point to other
perspectives” (COSTA; ZOLTOWSKI, 2014, p. 53).
Systematic Bibliographic Review and Meta-Analysis are not synonymous, as Costa and
Zoltowski (2014, p. 53) corroborate:

Although the term meta-analysis is often used as a synonym for systematic review, when the
review includes a meta-analysis, the two terms currently have different meanings (Sousa &
Ribeiro, 2009). Meta-analysis refers to the statistical procedure for processing data from several
studies with the aim of grouping them, while systematic review refers to the process of
gathering, critical and synthetic evaluation of results from multiple studies, which may or may
not include a meta-analysis (Cordeiro , Oliveira, Rentería, Guimarães, & Rio de Janeiro
Systematic Review Study Group, 2007).

In order to help the academic community produce a systematic review article of excellent
quality, Costa and Zoltowski (2014) present eight steps, namely: a) delimitation of the question to be
researched; b) choice of data sources; c) selection of keywords for the search; d) search and storage of
results; e) selection of articles by abstract, according to inclusion and exclusion criteria; f) extraction of
data from selected articles; g) evaluation of articles; and h) synthesis and interpretation of data.
 Regarding the delimitation of the question to be researched, Costa and Zoltowski (2014) make it
clear that it is necessary to make cuts on the topic so that the research is relevant and viable. It is
necessary, in general, to establish a temporal and spatial lapse, so that it is possible to find the right
bibliographies and documents for the research, making it viable. Regarding these aspects, Costa and
Zoltowski (2014, p. 55) explain:

The review research problem can be decomposed into some parts that aim to facilitate the
search and organization of the results found. Petticrew and Roberts (2006) suggested facilitating
strategies for this process of breaking down the study question, especially in the case of studies
on efficacy assessment: defining the population of interest (e.g., children, adolescents, young
adults, etc.); what intervention is intended to be evaluated (e.g., individual psychotherapy,
couples psychotherapy, courses, etc.); what the intervention is being compared to (e.g., another
type of intervention, course, etc.); what outcomes are to be investigated, both positive and
negative; what is the context in which the intervention was developed (e.g. laboratories, natural
environments, etc.).

The authors (2014) also highlight that the existence of a review of the subject of interest does
not eliminate the need to carry out new review work, as reviews already carried out may be out of date
or present intrinsic methodological problems.
Regarding the choice of data sources, Costa and Zoltowski (2014) emphasize that you can
search for bibliographies in specialized databases ( DARE, Research Evidence in Education Library ,
The Campbell Collaboration , etc.) or even in conventional databases (Bank of Theses from CAPES,
Scopus , Web of Sciense , etc.). Or you can also search for data sources in the references of articles
already selected for review.
Regarding the choice of keywords for the search, Costa and Zoltowski (2014) highlight that:

[...] the keywords need to be sensitive enough to

adequately access the phenomenon, indicating a representative number of works. However,
they cannot be too sensitive, returning too many results, making the review project unfeasible.

The authors (2014, p. 58) also point out that it is possible to find appropriate keywords in a
terminology bank or so-called thesaurus, whose main objective is “to carry out a quick and successful
search for academic publications”.
Regarding the search and storage of results, Costa and Zoltowski (2014) explain that it is
necessary to properly use strings , that is, sets of descriptors with some Boolean operators (AND, OR,
NOT) and punctuation symbols (quotes, parentheses , square brackets, braces, asterisk). Strings serve
to make the search more specific and sensitive, restricting or expanding it, and also to unify search
procedures in different databases. Specific software can also be used to select and extract data in
systematic reviews, such as EndNote , Refworks , or Start . Expanding our understanding of the use of
strings , Costa and Zoltowski (2014, p. 59) lend us their words:

Firstly, the string used must be documented, as well as the number of articles included and
excluded. The use of figures facilitates the illustration of the process [...]. Secondly, it is
important that the search is carried out by at least two judges in the same time interval, in order
to minimize bias in the search process. [...]

Regarding the selection of articles by summary, according to inclusion and exclusion criteria,
Costa and Zoltowski (2014) highlight that once the research execution corpus has been formed , it must
be filtered by carefully reading the article summaries. to select only those who adhere to the previously
determined inclusion or exclusion criteria. Some inclusion criteria may be the language (e.g., articles
published in English or Portuguese), the time period (e.g., articles published from year XX to year
YY), the areas of knowledge (e.g. e.g., articles published in the areas of Administration, Accounting
Sciences and Economics), methodological criteria (e.g., case study, literature review, etc.), among
many others. The authors (2014) state that this step should, if possible, be carried out by two judges to
minimize research bias.
Regarding the extraction of data from selected articles, Costa and Zoltowski (2014) emphasize
that, to maintain a high level of research quality, it is necessary to have access to the complete selected
articles. Regarding these aspects, the authors (2014, p. 61) corroborate:

If there is difficulty in accessing the full text of an article, this information must be clearly
included in the method section and this article must be left out of the final results. The data
extraction work must also be carried out by two judges, seeking consensus, in order to reduce
bias.

Still on this topic of data extraction, the authors (2014, p. 61) state that it is precisely at this
stage that the selected articles must be categorized, extracting from each of them information such as:
“name of the study, theoretical framework,
objectives , temporal location of the intervention, context, instruments, description
of participants, main findings, among others”. From this categorization, it is possible to find the high
points (e.g., relevant findings) and low points (e.g., methodological limitations) of the articles.
Regarding the evaluation of the articles, Costa and Zoltowski (2014) provide the following
words:
 Assessment of studies aims to determine whether or not they are relevant to answering the
research question. At this point, you ask yourself more clearly: Do the participants in the
reviewed studies represent the population I want to study? Do the studies have any limitations
that could compromise the interpretation of their final results?
One possibility is to evaluate studies based on the design used, for example, placing greater
emphasis on results that present
experimental and quasi-experimental designs. For qualitative designs, you
can use the meta-synthesis strategy, which involves analyzing the theory,
methods and results of qualitative studies, leading to a synthesis of the phenomenon studied.
Another possibility is to use the theoretical framework as an evaluation criterion, classifying
studies according to the quality of use of the adopted constructs. Other criteria may be evoked
in the case of an instrument review. [...]

The authors (2014, p. 62) state that, depending on the research objectives, problematic articles
may be kept in the final database. For example, if the objective of scientific investigation is to evaluate
the methodological quality of research in a specific field of study, “ studies that do not satisfactorily
meet the evaluation criteria must be maintained, as they exactly reflect the quality of the field”.
Regarding the synthesis and interpretation of data, Costa and Zoltwski (2014) summarize the
following:

The systematic review process can be compared to putting together a puzzle (Petticrew &
Roberts, 2006). The located articles represent the parts, and the evaluation processes serve to
critically determine whether or not these parts are part of the figure to be assembled. However,
a puzzle is not just made up of individual pieces. The pieces must be organized in a coherent
way to respond to the initial research problem. This stage constitutes the work of synthesizing
the results.

The authors (2014) end their article by saying that these eight steps are commonly performed
before starting to write the systematic review article. They highlight that the writing needs to be clear
and precise, detailing all the steps taken. Figures can and should be used to better illustrate the entire
process. To facilitate the process of writing the article, the authors (2014, p. 65) leave a checklist
summarizing the main points to be covered.
A research problem question for an RBS could be: “Among the research on financial and
operational synergies, applicable to Mergers and Acquisitions (M&A), how many and which of them
use the Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) technique with discount rates appropriate?” Searching the title, or
abstract, or keywords for the descriptors [(“financial synerg*” or “operational synerg*”) and
(“merger” or “acquisition” or “M&A”)] in the Main Collection from the Web of Sciense , only
articles published in English, Portuguese or Spanish, on 07/17/22, there is a research corpus composed
of 26 results; and searching for the same descriptors, in the title, or in the abstract, or in the keywords,
only articles published in English, Portuguese or Spanish, in Scopus , on the date of 17.07.22, there is a
research corpus composed of 56 results. Adding the number of results from these two largest databases
in the world, a total of 82 articles is made, and by filtering from this amount only the articles that
answer the specific problem-question of the research, it would be possible to carry out an excellent
RBS.

3.4.3.1.2.2.1.4 MBS

Systematic Bibliographic Mapping (MBS), or simply Systematic Mapping (MS), is a type of

literature review, quite similar to RBS and RBI, but with distinctions in some aspects (SOUZA et al. ,
2018). Regarding these and other aspects of MBS, Souza et al. (2018, p. 50) point out:

[The MBS] Enables the contextualization of in-depth systematic literature reviews within the
broader literature and the identification of gaps in the evidence base. They are a valuable tool
for offering policymakers, practitioners and researchers an explicit and transparent means of
identifying narrower questions about relevant policy and practice.
Systematic maps can characterize studies in other ways, such as the theoretical perspective, the
population group or the context in which the studies were carried out.
[MBSs] Are necessarily restricted in time and do not have the synthesis and analysis of more
systematic approaches. Studies may be characterized at a broad descriptive level and thus
oversimplify the picture or mask considerable variation (heterogeneity) between studies and
their findings. These do not include a quality assessment process; characterizing studies solely
based on study design.
(my emphasis)

Like RBS, MBS follows a very rigorous research protocol, but the problem question that guides
it is not specific as in RBS and not as broad/comprehensive as in RBI. The analysis and synthesis of
data in MBS are general, and not detailed as in RBS. Furthermore, MBS does not carry out an
assessment of the quality of the study, while this assessment is present in RBI, and may or may not be
present in RBS (SOUZA et al. , 2018).
A research problem question for an MBS could be: “Among the research on financial and
operational synergies, how many and which of them are applicable to Mergers and Acquisitions
(M&A)?” Searching the title, or abstract, or keywords for the descriptors [(“financial synerg*” or
“operational synerg*”) and (“merger” or “acquisition” or “M&A”)] in the Main Collection from the
Web of Sciense , only articles published in English, Portuguese or Spanish, on 07/17/22, there is a
research corpus composed of 26 results; and searching for the same descriptors, in the title, or in the
abstract, or in the keywords, only articles published in English, Portuguese or Spanish, in Scopus , on
the date of 17.07.22, there is a research corpus composed of 56 results. Adding the number of results
from these two largest databases in the world, there is a total of 82 articles, which, if carried out, would
make an excellent MBS.
RBI, RBS and MBS can be combined with a Bibliometric Analysis (AB) of the data, as AB
presupposes the carrying out of a systematic search of the data, that is, carried out through a rigorous
research protocol. These types of literature review can also be combined with many other data analysis
or interpretation techniques, such as Meta-Analysis (quantitative data analysis), Metasynthesis
(qualitative data analysis), Content Analysis (quantitative data analysis ), Discourse Analysis
(qualitative data analysis), among many others. RBN, in turn, can be combined with Content Analysis
or Discourse Analysis.
The bibliographical survey offers means that help in defining and resolving already known
problems, as well as allowing the exploration of new areas where they have not yet sufficiently
crystallized. It also allows a topic to be analyzed under a new focus or approach, producing new
conclusions. Furthermore, it allows the coverage of a much wider range of phenomena, especially
when it comes to research whose problem requires the collection of data that is widely dispersed in
space.
Regarding this research technique for data collection, Rodrigues (2007, p. 43) points out:

Bibliographic is research limited to searching for information in books and other publications.
It is the opposite of field research, and is also distinguished from in vitro research . Generally,
bibliographical research is part of the scope of ex-post-facto research , for the simple fact that
books and articles in any magazine or periodical deal, as a rule, with accomplished facts, and
bibliographical research based on reading the futurology type.

The bibliographic survey presupposes previous works that serve as a source or theoretical lens
to support more comprehensive and/or in-depth studies. Regarding this aspect, Severino (2007, p. 122)
highlights:

Bibliographical research is one that is carried out based on the available record, resulting
from previous research, in printed documents, such as books, articles, theses, etc. It uses data
or theoretical categories already worked on by other researchers and duly registered. The
texts become sources of the topics to be researched. The researcher works based on the
contributions of the authors of the analytical studies contained in the texts.

In fact, all academic research requires at some point carrying out work that can be considered a
bibliographical survey. Proof of this is that in most current dissertations and theses, there is a special
chapter dedicated to bibliographic review whose main purpose is to support academic work
theoretically and consistently, identifying, not infrequently, the current stage of knowledge regarding
the topic. Gil (2010, p. 29) explains this type of research with the following words:

The bibliographical research is based on already published material. Traditionally, this type
of research includes printed material, such as books, magazines, newspapers, theses,
dissertations and annals of scientific events. However, due to the dissemination of new
information formats, these searches began to include other types of sources, such as records,
magnetic tapes, CDs, as well as material available on the internet.

Highlighting the relevance of this type of research, Gil (2010) highlights that it allows the
researcher to cover a much wider range of phenomena than that which could be researched directly,
especially when the research problem requires data that is widely dispersed throughout space. .
However, do not forget to point out that, as secondary sources, bibliographies can present data
collected or processed in the wrong way, making it possible to reproduce and/or expand these errors in
works based on them. For this reason, Gil (2010, p. 30) provides useful suggestions to reduce this
possibility, saying:

To reduce this possibility, researchers should ensure the conditions under which the data
were obtained, analyze each piece of information in depth to discover possible
inconsistencies or contradictions and use different sources, carefully comparing them.

According to Gil (2010), there are no fixed rules for carrying out bibliographic research, but
there are some tasks that experience shows to be important. Therefore, the following work script was
followed:

a) Exploration of bibliographic sources: books, scientific journals, theses, research reports,

among others, which contain not only information on certain topics, but indications of other
research sources;
b) Reading of the material: conducted selectively, retaining the essential parts for the
development of the study, and analytically, evaluating the quality of the information collected;
c) Preparation of sheets: citation, summary and bibliographic sheets were prepared, containing
the most relevant parts of the materials consulted;
d) Ordering and analysis of the forms: organized and ordered according to their content,
checking their reliability;
e) Conclusions: obtained from the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the data.

Based on the assumptions presented, it is deduced that the bibliographic survey is the proper
and master technique for the theoretical basis based on secondary sources.
In addition to what has already been mentioned about this general data collection technique, it
should be noted that there are currently two main types of bibliographic surveys: the Narrative
Bibliographic Review (RBN) – or Simple Bibliographic Review (which was used to carry out this
work) – and the Systematic Bibliographic Review (RBS). While through the first we obtain a good
knowledge of an area that we still know little or nothing about, through the second we are able to more
easily reach the state of the art of the topic investigated, categorizing all the main authors of it over
time. In the next edition of this book, these two forms of bibliographical survey will be better
explained.

3.4.3.1.2.2.2 Documentary survey16

The documentary survey, a technique also called Document Review, or simply documentation,
aims to collect data, a priori , primary, that is, those that have not yet been subjected to some type of
manipulation, and, a posteriori , secondary. Despite this, it is considered a type of Non-Participant
Observation (ONP) because it establishes an indirect relationship between the investigating subject and
the investigated object.
The documentary survey is the technique of collecting data from personal documents,
institutional records, statistical records and mass communication in general, that is, TV, radio,
newspapers, magazines, internet, etc. Regarding this research technique, Gil (1999, p. 160) highlights:

“Paper” sources are often capable of providing the researcher with data rich enough to avoid
wasting time on field surveys, not to mention that in many cases social investigation is only
possible based on documents.

Typifying the documents used in this type of technique, Gil (1999, p. 160-165, my emphasis)
presents four, namely:

1) Statistical records
[...] Government entities such as the IBGE Foundation have data relating to the socioeconomic
characteristics of the Brazilian population, such as: age, sex, family size, education level,
occupation, income level, etc. Health bodies provide data on the incidence of diseases, causes of
death, etc. An entity such as the Inter-Union Department of Statistics and Socioeconomic
Studies has data on unemployment, wages, strikes, labor negotiations, etc. Voluntary
organizations have data regarding their members and also the populations they serve. Research
institutes linked to the most diverse fields of knowledge. Furthermore, an increasing number of
entities are concerned with maintaining databases. This occurs in hospitals, schools, social
service agencies, professional associations, public offices, etc. [...]
2) Written institutional records
In addition to statistical records, written records provided by government institutions can also be
useful for social research. These data include: bills, reports from government bodies, minutes of
meetings of legislative houses, court rulings, documents registered at notary offices, etc. [...]

16 For more information, check Appendix 2 , entitled Bibliographic and documentary surveys .
 3) Personal documents
There are a series of writings dictated on the initiative of its author that provide relevant
information about his personal experience. Letters, diaries, memoirs and autobiographies are
some of these documents that can be of great value in social research. [...]
4) Mass communication
Mass communication documents, such as newspapers, magazines, film tapes, radio and
television programs, constitute an important source of data for social research. They enable the
researcher to learn about the most varied aspects of current society and also deal with the
historical past. In the latter case, with efficiency probably greater than that obtained using any
other data source. [...]

Based on the assumptions presented, it is deduced that documentary surveys are the proper and
master technique for the theoretical basis based on sources, a priori , primary and, a posteriori ,
secondary.

3.4.3.1.2.2.3 Ex loco case study

The case study stands out as a type of research that always has a strong descriptive nature and is
one of the types of qualitative research that has been gaining increasing acceptance in the area of
education (RODRIGO, 2008). Severino (2007, p. 121) conceptualizes the case study as:

Research that focuses on the study of a particular case, considered representative of a set of
analogous cases, which are therefore significantly representative. Data collection and analysis
take place in the same way as in field research, in general.

Regarding the role of the researcher in this context, Rodrigo (2008, p. 3) highlights:

The researcher does not intend to intervene in the situation, but to make it known as it arises.
You can use various instruments and strategies. However, a case study does not need to be
merely descriptive. It can have a deep analytical reach, it can interrogate the situation. You can
compare the situation with others already known and with existing theories. It can help
generate new theories and new questions for future research. The characteristics or principles
associated with the case study overlap with the general characteristics of qualitative research.

It is worth noting that the case selected for research needs to be significant and well
representative, in order to be able to support a generalization to similar situations, authorizing
inferences. Field research procedures must be followed in the data collection and recording stage,
which must be worked on through rigorous analysis and presented in qualified reports (SEVERINO,
2007).
Still on the nature and appropriate use of this type of research, the following authors lend us
their knowledge with the following words:
 What is the Case Study? It is a research category whose object is a unit that is analyzed in
depth. This definition determines its characteristics that are given by two circumstances,
mainly. On the one hand, the nature and scope of the unit. This could be a subject. For example,
examining living conditions (socio-economic level, parents' education, their profession, time
that parents dedicate daily to their child, guiding them in their studies, type of student's diet,
sports practice, sleep, perspectives of the student and parents in relation to the child's future, the
opinion of teachers, classmates, etc.) surrounding a student who has repeated the first grade of
high school, at a public school. In the study of an 8th grade class from a private school, a
fishing community, a school in a popular village, etc. It is easy to understand that analyzing the
environment, negative or positive, that surrounds a person, is much simpler than interpreting the
problems presented by an agricultural community that intends to organize a production and
consumption cooperative.
Secondly, the complexity of the Case Study is also determined by the theoretical supports that
serve as guidance for the researcher in his work. An ahistorical approach, reduced to the
cultural characteristics of a specific environment in which the unit under examination is
inserted, of a qualitative phenomenological nature, is undoubtedly less complex than a vision in
which the phenomenon is observed in its evolution and its relationships fundamental structures.
(TRIVIÑOS, 1987, p. 133-134).

[...] This is an empirical investigation that researches phenomena within their real context
(naturalistic research), where the researcher has no control over events and variables, seeking to
grasp the entirety of a situation and, creatively, describe, understand and interpret the
complexity of a specific case. Through a deep and exhaustive dive into a delimited object -
research problem -, the Case Study allows penetration into social reality, not fully achieved by
quantitative assessment. [...]. (MARTINS, 2008, p. xi).

Among several types of case studies, Triviños (1987, p. 134-136. My emphasis) presents three,
namely:

1st) Historical-organizational Case Studies

The researcher's interest lies in the life of an institution. The unit can be a school, a university, a
club, etc. The researcher must start from the knowledge that exists about the organization he
wants to examine. What material can be handled, what is available, even if it presents
difficulties for its study. This means that there are files that record documents relating to the life
of the institution, publications, personal studies with which it is possible to carry out interviews,
etc. This necessary prior information is basic to preliminarily outline the data collection.
2nd) Observational Case Study
This is a typical category, we could say, of qualitative research. The most important information
collection technique is participant observation , which, remember, sometimes appears as a
synonym for a qualitative approach. The focus of the examination may be a school, a club, a
Neighbors' Association, a Production and Consumption Cooperative, etc. Now it is not the
organization as a whole that is of interest, but rather a part of it. [...]
It is very interesting to highlight that the researcher can go to organizations with very defined
purposes. And maybe everything will work out. [...] This means that the researcher must get in
touch with the organizations and, perhaps, resolve with them what they mutually consider
important to work [...]
3rd) The Case Study called Life Story
Generally, the technique used to investigate in “History of Life” is the semi-structured interview
carried out with a person of social importance (famous writer, famous scientist, enlightened
philanthropist, renowned politician, etc.), or with a person from a popular village (such as the
former teacher, president of the Mothers' Association, distinguished workers, any family, etc.).
The interview goes deeper and deeper into the subject’s “Life Story”. [...]

Characterizing and typifying case studies, Yin (2010, p. 38-41) explains explanatory or causal
case studies, descriptive case studies and exploratory case studies, as he says:

A case study is an empirical investigation that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in

depth and in its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between the phenomenon and
the context are not clearly evident. [...]
Case study investigation faces the technically nuanced situation in which there will be many
more variables of interest than data points, and as a result it relies on multiple sources of
evidence, with the data needing to converge in a triangular manner, and as a further result ,
benefits from the previous development of theoretical propositions to guide data collection and
analysis. [...]
And, yes, case studies have a distinct place in evaluation research [...]. There are at least four
different applications. The most important thing is to explain the presumed causal links in real-
life interventions that are too many.

Based on such assumptions, it is clear that there are case studies approached qualitatively, such
as observational ones and those called “Life History”, as well as those approached qualitatively and/or
quantitatively, such as historical-organizational ones. One of the greatest advantages of this type of
research is the depth achieved and, consequently, a more significant social contribution of the results
produced.
In addition to everything that has already been explained about the case study, it is worth
mentioning that it can be carried out both in loco and ex loco . Everything will depend on how it is
carried out. For example, if we are going to analyze the financial reports of a company, once we have
access to these reports on the internet, on its institutional website, and in various bibliographies, we can
and should – in order to save resources – carry out it ex loco ; otherwise, if it is not possible to collect
primary data via the internet or in bibliographies, then it can and should be carried out on site , such as
in the Urban Household Surrounding Survey, also called pre-collection, carried out in the Census
Brazilian demographic.

3.4.3.1.2.2.4 Survey researchEx loco interview

Mineiro (2020) states that the word Survey does not have a corresponding term in Portuguese,
but is commonly transliterated merely as “survey”, which, in the author's opinion, does not cover the
entire semantics of the expression, which is why they are still lied to in the literature criticizes the use
of the English expression.
According to Mineiro (2020, p. 286), Survey research has the main objective of “providing
statistical descriptions of people through questions, normally applied to a sample”. For this reason, they
are more aligned with the quantitative research approach, and with positivist and post-positivist
paradigmatic approaches, “due to questions of historical origins, forms of data collection and analysis”
(MINEIRO, 2020, p. 286). However, the author (2020, p. 286) emphasizes:

However, knowing it in depth can advance science, as with the appropriate epistemological and
form adjustments, it can serve a qualitative approach based on the paradigmatic perspectives of
Critical, Constructivist and/or Participatory Theory (LINCOLN; GUBA, 2010).

Regarding the origin of this type of scientific technique, Mineiro (2020) says that it appeared in
North American demographic censuses, and in politics too, during the 19th century. Regarding these
aspects, the author (2020, p. 288) lends us her words:

The history of Surveys has its initial records in the United States of America (USA) for the
purposes of population counts (Census), as well as being confused with the history of sampling.
The US Bureau of Census is responsible for the decennial census of the North American
population (equivalent to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics – IBGE) and its
collected data constituted a valuable resource for the development of sample designs in specific
Surveys . [...]
One of the first political uses of Surveys occurred in 1880 when the German political
sociologist, Karl Marx, mailed 25,000 questionnaires to French workers in order to find out to
what degree they were exploited by their employers. Another use of the Survey was Max Weber
in his study on The Protestant Ethic. Most contemporary survey research has been carried out
by American researchers. According to the Constitution of the United States, every 10 years a
census must be carried out, with the
information from which it is possible to identify the appropriate representation in the House of
Representatives (part of the North American Congress equivalent to the Chamber of Deputies)
as well as collect data about age, education, housing, etc. As it occurs every decade, it ends up
being limited in time, so sample surveys, in this interstice, have become part of North American
life since the 1930s.

It is clear from the author's aforementioned words (2020) that Survey and sampling are not
synonymous, although their origins date back to the same time, and their uses are significantly
interconnected in the practice of scientific investigation.
Regarding the types of Surveys , Mineiro (2020) presents a table, which I compile below:

Table 8 – Types of Surveys

Types of Surveys
There are two types of Surveys that intertwine and form a third:
In them, data are collected at a given moment, from a sample selected to
describe a larger population, on the same occasion. It can be used not only
1) Intersectional to
surveys describe, but also to determine relationships between variables at the time
of collection.
In them, data are collected at different times and report changes in
descriptions and explanations, allowing data analysis over time. The main
 2) Longitudinal longitudinal designs are trend studies, cohort and panel studies.
surveys
These are those carried out on a population that can be sampled and studied
on different occasions, even though different people are studied, they end
up representing the same population. It should be noted that trend studies
2.1) Trend studies often involve long periods of data collection to identify trends in the
relationships between variables.
These are those that are based on descriptions of a general population over
time, such studies focus on the same specific population each time data is
collected,
although the samples studied may be different, that is, the time reference is
2.2) Cut studies the same, variable is the same, but in different samples.
These are those that involve collecting data over time from the same sample
of respondents, which is called a panel. You could interview all panel
members at
monthly intervals during the investigation, looking at other characteristics
of the changer and perhaps providing explanations of the reasons for
change. They tend to be expensive and time consuming,
a weakness is that respondents may be unwilling or unable to participate
later, a strength is the ability to examine the same respondents on
2.3) Panel studies different occasions. Its main analytical mechanism is the change table that
cross-tabulates some characteristics on more than one occasion. This is the
most sophisticated
Survey design that comes closest to laboratory experiments.
3) Intersectional It seeks relationships between variables to make comparisons. Respondents
surveys must provide relevant data so that the study or change can be approached.
as an
approximation
of longitudinal
surveys

Source: Mineiro (2020, pp. 290-291). Self elaboration.

There are many specific techniques that can be used in Surveys ( MINEIRO, 2020). Among
them, the author (2020) highlights the following: the interview, the questionnaire – which is self-
administered –, the form – which is administered by the researcher –, documentation, tabulation,
coding, Content Analysis, statistical techniques, among many others.
Regarding the advantages and disadvantages of the collection instruments used in Surveys
research , Monteiro (2020) presents a table, which I compile below:

Table 9 – Types, advantages and disadvantages of Surveys

TYPE BENEFITS DISADVANTAGES
An effective means of They take a lot of time, they tend to cost more
obtaining cooperation, it is for team training, there are sample groups that
 possible to clarify respondents' do not make interviews accessible (for example,
doubts, it can include other gated communities, high crime areas, etc.).
collection methods (for Legal permission to record, photograph, film
Personal example, observation) and may not be granted.
interviews other resources (visual,
auditory, experiences, etc.), it
allows the establishment of
bonds of trust.
Relatively lower costs; unknown
random dialing of numbers numbers , the lack of response is greater, it
can be used for sampling; limits the number of
provides better access questions/alternatives/visual resources, it does
Telephone to certain groups; relatively not
interviews shorter collection period, you allow observational collection, it is not suitable
don't need as large a team, for sensitive issues.
making it a little cheaper
in this sense.
It is possible to present visual It requires carefully prepared structuring and
resources, makes long or layout
complex answers viable, , open/broad questions are difficult to tabulate,
allows similar questions it does not include
Questionnaires (which serve as illiterates or people with limited reading and
(so-called self- conference/security devices writing skills. (If it is not in Braille
administered) ), gives more freedom and also does not include blind people).
offers less embarrassment to
interviewees, consequently
greater reliability of the
answers.
Relatively low costs, does not It makes it difficult to raise awareness to obtain
require a large team, provides the respondent's cooperation, the addresses
access to may be unreliable, further reducing the return
Questionnaires diverse samples, provides rate, and it does not offer a way to
by more clarify doubts.
correspondence time for response, allowing
consultations to be carried out.
Low cost, immediate response Those who do not have access to the internet are
retrieval and automatic excluded, and depending on the platform used
tabulation offers , it excludes its “non-users”, there is the
Online more time for respondents challenge of obtaining the cooperation of
questionnaires who can respond anywhere respondents, there is no way to clarify doubts
and with multiple immediately, a
devices. list of reliable emails is required.
Source: Mineiro (2020, pp. 291-292). Self elaboration.

Mineiro (2020, p. 299) highlights that “a limitation of Surveys is the response rate to data
collection instruments”. The author (2020) states that when response rates are high, there is a small
potential for errors due to the lack of responses; however, when response rates are low, there is a great
potential for error, providing the basis for criticism about the verisimilitude of the data.
Regarding the intrinsic ethical issues of Survey research , Mineiro (2020) highlights that in
many cases it is necessary to obtain approval from a Research Ethics Committee to apply it to
respondents, and that, to give more credibility to scientific research, the investigator may seek
voluntary cooperation signatures from research participants, when, of course, this is possible (in
Telephone Surveys , signatures are not possible). It must also be made clear to respondents about the
confidentiality of the information provided, which is ensured, in most countries, by legal provisions
(this is what happens with the Demographic Census).
Surveys can be carried out in loco or ex loco . In Demographic Censuses, for example, in which
data is always sought directly from respondents in their homes, on-site surveys are carried out .
However, in voter surveys, for example, or when data cannot be collected directly from respondents
(such as during the coronavirus pandemic, for example), Surveys are carried out ex loco . However,
both in loco Surveys and ex loco Surveys follow the same scientific procedures explained in this topic.
The interview is a technique widely used in participant observational research, and is also useful
in clinical research. Regarding its nature, some authors lend us their ideas:

An interview is a meeting between two people, in order for one of them to obtain information
about a certain subject, through a conversation, of a professional nature. It is a procedure used
in social research, to collect data or to help diagnose or treat a social problem. (MARCONI;
LAKATOS, 2008, p. 80).

It is a research technique for data collection whose basic objective is to understand and
understand the meaning that interviewees attribute to questions and situations, in contexts that
have not been previously structured, based on the researcher's assumptions and conjectures.
(MARTINS, 2008, p. 27).

Bringing other aspects to the table about this technique, Dencker and Viá (2012, p. 158)
highlight:

The interview takes place in a social situation , in which the interviewer and interviewee
interact with each other, influencing each other not only through the words they say, but also
through other signs, such as voice inflection, gestures, facial expression and other traits.
personal characteristics, in addition to the behavioral manifestations that accompany verbal
communication.

There are several types of interviews, the main ones being: the focus group , the structured
interview, the semi-structured interview and the unstructured interview. Regarding this aspect, Marconi
and Lakatos (2008, p. 82) present three types:
 The. Standardized or structured. It is one in which the interviewer follows a previously
established script; the questions asked of the individual are predetermined. It is carried out
according to a prepared form and is carried out preferably with people selected according to a
plan. [...]
B. Destandardized or unstructured. The interviewee is free to develop each situation in any
direction he or she deems appropriate. It’s a way of being able to explore an issue more broadly.
In general, questions are open-ended and can be answered within an informal conversation. [...]
This type of interview [...] has three modalities: focused interview [...], clinical interview [...]
[and] non-directed interview .
w. Panel. It consists of repeating questions, from time to time, to the same people, in order to
study the evolution of opinions over short periods. The questions must be formulated
differently, so that the interviewee does not distort the answers with these repetitions.

Still regarding the types of interviews, Vergara (2012) considers two criteria for their
classification: the number of people involved and their structure. Regarding the number of people,
Vergara (2012, p. 6-7) presents the individual interview and the collective interview, which,
summarizing his words, are:

An individual interview is one that is established between an interviewer and an interviewee.

Regarding the number of people who can be individually interviewed, there are authors who
consider 15 a minimum number for interviews and 25 an appropriate maximum number. These
limits cannot, however, be taken literally. A researcher, for example, may wish (and be able to)
interview state ministers. Five already seems like a good number, right? Ultimately, it all
depends on the research problem, the chosen methodology and the representativeness of the
interviewees. It also depends on common sense and the researcher's mastery of certain scientific
rules. [...]
A collective interview is an interview that has one or more interviewers and some interviewees.
It is also known as a focus group. Focus group, also called focus group, focused group
interview, group meetings and other names, is one in which interviews are conducted by an
interviewer, designated as moderator, who is the catalyst for communication between
interviewees, i.e. between participants. [...]
When it comes to group interviews, authors consider that a minimum of six and a maximum of
ten people can be an appropriate limit. However, these numbers are arbitrary, so it is up to the
researcher to define the limits. [...]
(my emphasis)

As for the structure, in turn, Vergara (2012, p. 7-17) presents the closed interview, the semi-
open interview and the open interview, which, summarizing his words, are:

A script whose structure is closed presents ordered questions or topics and, basically, does not
allow changes, whether for inclusion, exclusion or changing the order of questions or topics.
[...]
A script whose structure is semi-open , such as a script with a closed structure, is focused.
However, unlike the closed structure, it allows inclusions, exclusions, changes in general to the
questions, explanations to the interviewee regarding a question or a word, which gives it an
open character. [...]
A script whose structure is open aims to seek to explore a situation more broadly, either by
asking direct questions or by inserting them into the middle of a conversation that includes
other points. For example, to find out what managers of a certain company think about the
inclusion of people with physical disabilities in the company's staff, it is possible to talk to them
about organizational matters and, in the conversation, include questions about the specific case
 of people with physical disabilities. [...]

Based on the assumptions presented, it is deduced that this technique implies the participation of
both the interviewee and the interviewer, for this reason, integrating participant observation .
When there is no need to collect, through interviews, primary data, that is, those that have not
yet been manipulated, it is recommended to carry it out ex loco , that is, without having to establish
direct contact with the research object. For example, during the coronavirus pandemic in Brazil and
around the world, Datafolha (2020) carried out several surveys interviewing individuals in all Brazilian
Federative Units, via telephone, that is, ex loco . The ex loco interview can also be carried out using an
electronic questionnaire, without the need for direct contact with the object being investigated. In many
cases, it proves to be the best option as it is less expensive and easier to apply, less laborious than an
on-site interview .

3.4.3.1.3 Sampling

Sampling, or sample survey, is understood as the data collection technique in which the
researcher strategically selects the components of his research object. For example, if your research
object is citizens of a certain profile from the city of São Paulo, a predefined number of São Paulo
citizens of that profile are selected, randomly or not, and , through the instrumental means inherent to
this technique, normally questionnaires or forms, data is collected for further analysis and
interpretation. It is the most used statistical technique in scientific research, due to the effectiveness of
its results, the quality of the information produced and the low degree of complexity in both its
understanding and use.

3.4.3.1.3.1 Probabilistic sampling

When the components of the research object are selected randomly, that is, probabilistically, the
technique is called probabilistic sampling (NETQUEST, 2019; MINEIRO).
There are already several types of probabilistic sampling, such as Simple Random Sampling,
Systematic Sampling, Stratified Sampling, and Conglomerate or Cluster Sampling . There are also
several statistical distributions developed for its use (NETQUEST, 2019; MINEIRO, 2020).
Mineiro (2020, p. 297-298) presents a table that summarizes the main probabilistic sampling
techniques, which I compile below:
 Table 10 – Probabilistic Sampling
PROBABILISTIC SAMPLING
These are samplings in which the selection is random in such a way that each element on the list has
the same possibility of being chosen. The basic rule of random sampling is to provide estimates for
the population parameter (e.g. Mean, Median, Mode, Variance). Each element must appear only
once. The reader should be informed of the deficiencies of any sampling frame chosen.

It is based on the principle that all members of a population have the same probability of
Simple Random Sampling (AAS)

being included in the sample. It is indicated for homogeneous populations. The elements of
the population are labeled and the individuals who will be part of the sample are drawn; Once
a sampling frame has been established, each element on the list must be numbered with
different numbers, without skipping any. It is the prototype of population sampling, members
are selected one at a time, independent of each other, with or without replacement. Ex.: Apply
a satisfaction questionnaire on the services provided by a company, list of registered
customers. A number of customers are drawn and 125respond.

Applies when the population is homogeneous. To execute it, the population must be ordered
in such a way that the elements are identified by the position they occupy in the list and their
Systematic Sampling

draw is carried out periodically. The element from the list is chosen for inclusion in the
sample. To guarantee against bias, the first element is selected randomly. Empirically, the
results are virtually identical. In its preparation, a list can be used, for which the number of
entries and elements that will be selected is determined, then the latter is divided by the first
and a fraction is obtained. One thing to be careful about is knowing whether the list is ordered
by some characteristics, or has a recurring pattern, which will affect the sample differently
depending on the beginning. Ex.: Apply a satisfaction questionnaire about the services
provided by a company, in its database of registered customers. It is fixed that every ten (or
any other count), the respondent is selected.
It consists of dividing the population Stratification can be subdivided into:
into more homogeneous subgroups An equal number of elements from
Stratified Sampling

(strata), in such a way that there is Uniform each stratum are drawn.
homogeneity within and between
strata. Its definition can be according In it, the number of elements in each
to gender, age, income, stratum is proportional to the
level of education, etc. Generally, Proportional number of elements existing in the
sampling in the strata is carried out in stratum.
a
simple random manner. It is a method
 to obtain a greater degree of In it, a number of elements is taken
representativeness, reducing the in each stratum proportional to the
probable sampling error. The effect of number of elements in the stratum
stratification is to guarantee and also proportionally to the
adequate representation of the variation of the variable of
variables, making it possible to be interest in the stratum, measured by
more representative than a simple Excellent its standard deviation.
random sample. Ex.: Apply a
satisfaction questionnaire about the
services provided to ten readers in a
library, with 100 registered readers. It
appears
that of the 100 people, 60% are
women and 40% are men. It is
determined that of the 10 readers to be
questioned, 6 must be women and 4
men. In this case, it is said that sex is
the stratification variable, or that the
population was stratified by sex.
A population is divided into small groups and a sufficient number of these small groups
(conglomerates or clusters ) are drawn, the elements of which will constitute the sample. This
Sampling by Conglomerates or Clusters

sampling scheme is used when there is a subdivision of the population into groups that are
quite similar to each other, but with strong discrepancies within the groups, so that each one
can be a small representation of the population of specific interest. Sampling is carried out
based on conglomerates, and no longer on individuals in the population (it may happen that a
drawn group
has more individuals than another, but the group is being compared and not the number of
people). It is a method widely used for practical and economic reasons, as it helps when it is
impossible or impractical to create a sampling frame for a target population, because it is
geographically spread out and the cost of data collection is relatively high. The conglomerate
or cluster is a natural grouping of units. This sampling is recommended for its efficiency
(ability to minimize the listing of population elements) although at the cost of imprecision (
sampling error). Babbie (1999) explains that cluster sampling is a difficult but important
method, suitable when it is impossible to compile a list of all elements of the population
under study. Ex:. Know the characteristics of students at UFBA, which is multicampi . The
courses will be groups (conglomerates), the groups are numbered and the number of groups
for the sample is drawn. Then the students belonging to the drawn groups are questioned.
Source: Mineiro (2020, p. 297-298). Self elaboration.

3.4.3.1.3.2 Non-probability sampling

When, however, the components of the research object are not selected randomly, that is, when
the researcher defines which components he wants to choose, this technique is called non-probability
sampling (NETQUEST, 2019; MINEIRO, 2020).
Today, there are already several types of non-probabilistic sampling, such as Sampling by
Accessibility or Convenience, Intentional Sampling or by “Juris”, Judgment, Sampling by Typical
critical cases, Sampling by typical cases, and Sampling by Quotas or Multistage Sampling, and
Sampling by Snowball. There are also several statistical distributions developed for its use
(NETQUEST, 2019; MINEIRO, 2020).
Mineiro (2020, p. 296) presents a table that summarizes the main non-probability sampling
techniques, which I compile below:

Table 11 – Non-probability sampling

NON-PROBABILISTIC SAMPLING
These are samplings in which there is a deliberate choice of sample elements. It depends on the
researcher's criteria and judgment. The population has a known probability of being part of the
sample. It is one in which the probability of selection cannot be calculated. Produce cost savings for
personal interview surveys.
Sampling for Intentional or Quota sampling or
accessibility or judgmental sampling multistage (or multi-stage or stage) sampling
convenience
The least rigorous Select a subgroup of the It presents greater rigor among non-probabilistic
of all types of population, based on sampling and occurs in stages: classifying the
sampling. The available information, that population, determining the proportion of the
sample selection is can be considered population for each class, setting quotas in
the responsibility representative of the entire compliance with the
of the population. It requires proportion of the classes considered. It is used
researcher and is knowledge of the when there is no population registry that makes it
limited to the population and the possible to carry out the draw necessary for
individuals who are selected subgroup. It random sampling, but, at the same time, there is
available, without a applies when you want to sufficient information about the
minimally study a small subset of a population profile. It begins with a matrix
justifiable larger population whose describing the characteristics of the target
selection criterion full enumeration would be population.
. Ex.: almost impossible. Ex.: This Matrix is the set of characteristics that the
Interview the Interview with student dimension must have. The ease and low cost of
teachers from the representatives from this
Alpha and Beta a specific course at an method explains its popularity, but this Survey
Schools, as they institution. rarely produces data with generic value. Ex.:
were the ones It is generally used in electoral research and
who authorized the market research.
interview.

Sampling for Snowball Sampling Sampling by typical cases

critical cases
In it, participants The researcher chooses the In this sampling, a survey is first carried out to
are initial participants for the identify the fashion (which can also be obtained
selected because sample and they nominate using a database, as long as it contains
they represent other people to be identifiable subjects), so that it is possible to
outliers – outside participants. The name infer which respondents fit the majority profile,
of derives from the metaphor thus the sample represents the predominant
normality – that the snowball (the situation. , having a lot of representation, but
(extreme) sample) starts small and disregarding different profiles, as it excludes the
cases , very gets bigger as extremes. Example: In a survey that
far from the it spins (the collection aims to find out customer satisfaction for a given
median. Example: takes place). Example: company, you can search the
Research with Sample of a company's customer registry for those with a typical profile
gifted students customers asked about to compose the
whose overall services that sample.
grade average is could be offered and who,
much at the end of a
higher than the questionnaire, indicate
average of the other customers.
majority of
students.

Source: Mineiro (2020, p. 296). Self elaboration.

3.4.3.1.4 Testing

Testing is a technique used to collect data especially in clinical studies. It is common to use tests
and social scales in research into health sciences in general, such as Medicine, Nursing, Occupational
Therapy, Psychology, Dentistry, Pharmacy, Veterinary Medicine, Nutrition, Physical Education,
Physiotherapy, Speech Therapy, Biomedical Engineering, etc. In this vein, Gil (1999, p. 150) explains
fundamental characteristics of the tests and social scales below:

Tests are applied in the most diverse fields of human activity, as there is always a need to put
something to the test. In the sciences, particularly, testing is widely required. However, in this
domain the meaning of test is much more precise, as it involves the meaning of measurement.
Thus, applying a test means measuring, that is, comparing a given criterion.

There are many criteria for classifying tests, the main ones being, according to Gil (1999, p.
152-153, my emphasis):

a) According to use or employment: individual; collectives; self-administered;

b) Depending on the presentation method: pencil and paper; verbal; non-verbal; mixed; of
accomplishment or execution; using projections or television.
c) According to the approach: analytical; synthetics; syncretic.
d) According to the object: efficiency (intelligence, artistic, motor, mechanical, sensory,
professional skills, etc.); personality (interests, attitudes, values, etc.); of schooling.
e) Depending on the nature of the function: capacity; of involution; of deterioration.
f) According to the type of construction: f1) with reference to internal construction: tests
consisting of a single type of test; organized tests with varied tasks, items or tests; f2) with
 reference to external construction: isolated tests; batteries or scales.

In turn, social scales can and are commonly used in tests and, more than that, they are normally
used during the test, often as the main testing instrument. About them, Gil (1999, p. 139) explains:

Social scales are instruments built with the aim of measuring the intensity of opinions and
attitudes in the most objective way possible. Although they are presented in the most diverse
forms, they basically consist of asking the individual being researched to select, within a
graduated series of items, those that best correspond to their perception of the researched fact.

Gil (1999) lists six basic problems of social scales, namely: a) definition of a continuum; b)
reliability; c) validity; d) weighting of items; e) nature of the items; and f) equality of units. Next, the
author (GIL, 1999, p. 143-148. G, my emphasis) presents six types of social scales which, in summary,
are:

1. Ordering scales
These scales are made up of a series of words or statements that subjects must order according
to their acceptance or rejection. For example, people can be asked to rank a series of
nationalities according to their relationship preference. [...]
2. Graduation scales
Grading scales present a continuum of possible attitudes towards a given issue. Attitude
statements correspond to degrees, which indicate greater or lesser favorability. [...]
3. Social distance scales
These scales are used to establish distance relationships between attitudes towards certain social
groups. [...]
4. Thurstone Scale
The Thurstone scale [...] constitutes the first experience of measuring attitudes based on an
interval scale. Despite the criticisms that have been made against it and the fact that it has fallen
into disuse, this scale is often taken as the methodological basis for procedures for measuring
attitudes [...]
5. Likert Scale
The Likert scale is based on Thurstone's. It is, however, simpler to elaborate and of an ordinal
nature, therefore not measuring how much an attitude is more or less favorable. [...]
6. Semantic differential
The semantic differential is a technique created by Osgood, Suci and Tannembaum [...], whose
objective is to measure the meaning that a certain object has for people. In this sense it can be
considered as an attitude scale. Any concept can be evaluated: an ethnicity, a person, a political
institution, a work of art, etc.

Given these explanations about testing, it can be deduced from the assumptions presented that it
constitutes one of the most important general data collection techniques, as much as observation,
experimentation and sampling – or sample survey (GIL, 1999).
However, below are the main specific techniques for data collection, which greatly clarify the
scientific investigation process.
 3.4.3.2 Specific techniques for data collection

3.4.3.2.1 Scientific reading17

Regarding this research technique, Diniz and Da Silva (2008, p. 3) go on to say that:

Despite technological advances in audiovisual resources, everyone needs to read, because

knowledge is acquired through reading, and to obtain it it is necessary to read a lot and read
well. Reading makes it possible to expand knowledge and reflect on the world. For reading to
be beneficial and effective, you must pay attention to what is being read, avoiding
deconcentration and distraction. The reader must feel attracted to reading and develop an
adequate reading speed, and must not read slowly, so as not to forget what was read at the end
of the paragraph, or too quickly, resulting in incomprehension of what was read.

Regarding the types of reading, Diniz and Da Silva (2008, p. 5-6) present four, namely:

a) pre-reading or recognition reading, preliminary phase of informative reading, which allows

the reader the document or work that can be used in their work and also obtain an overview of
the topic covered.
b) selective reading, which consists of reading a book in its entirety, trying to select the
essential information, that is, choosing the material that is really interesting for the research.
c) critical or reflective reading, which is one in which the reader focuses on the most relevant
aspects of the text, being able to separate secondary ideas from the central idea.
d) interpretative reading, which is a more complex reading, aiming to identify the author's
intentions and what he states about the topic, his hypotheses, methodology, results, discussions
and conclusions, as well as relating the author's statements to the problems for which we are
trying to equate.

Then, the authors (DINIZ; DA SILVA, 2008, p. 7) explain the procedures necessary for an
adequate reading of a text as follows:

When the text is selected, read it in full to get an overview of the whole. Then you must
reread the text and highlight unknown words or expressions, which must be consulted in a
dictionary. Once any doubts have been clarified, read again to understand the whole.
Read again, looking for the central idea, which may be implicit or explicit in the text. Locate
events or ideas, comparing them with each other and looking for existing similarities and
differences. Group them at least by important similarity and organize them in hierarchical
order of importance. Interpret the author's ideas and discover his conclusions.

Scientific reading is a multifunctional technique used for the collection (pre-reading, or

recognition reading), organization (selective reading), analysis (critical or reflective reading) and

17 Scientific reading is a multifunctional technique used for the collection (pre-reading, or recognition reading),
organization (selective reading), analysis (critical or reflective reading) and interpretation (interpretive reading) of data. For
this reason, it is, par excellence, the master observational technique of scientific research.
interpretation (interpretive reading) of data. For this reason, it is, par excellence, the master
observational technique of scientific research.

3.4.3.2.2 Observational protocol

The observational protocol is the instrument specific to observational research. It is a means of

recording the information produced during observation. It could be a notebook, a notepad, or even a
scratch page. The objective is to plan everything that was observed about the research object, its
characteristics, its variations, the possible causes and possible effects of the variations, what was done
during the observation, what was not done during it and the ) their respective why(s). Commonly, the
recording of information in the observational protocol is separated into descriptive notes (what is
actually observed) and reflective notes (the interpretations or reflections of what is observed).
Regarding these aspects, Creswell (2010, p. 2015. My emphasis) ratifies:

[...] Researchers often engage in multiple observations over the course of a qualitative study and
use an observational protocol to record information. It can be a single page, with a line
dividing it in half lengthwise to separate the descriptive notes (portraits of participants,
reconstruction of dialogue, description of the physical location, reports of certain events or
activities) from the reflective notes (the personal thoughts of the observer, such as “speculation,
feelings, problems, ideas, hunches, impressions and prejudices” [...]). Demographic information
about the time, place, and date of the field site where the observation occurred can also be
written this way. [...]

Based on the assumptions presented, it can be deduced that observational protocol is the master
specific technique for collecting data in observational research and that, in order not to hinder or even
prevent its adequate execution, the observational protocol can only be rendered useless when replaced
by another equivalent instrument, such as the field diary.

3.4.3.2.3 Interview

The interview is a technique widely used in participant observational research, and is also useful
in clinical research. Regarding its nature, some authors lend us their ideas:

An interview is a meeting between two people, in order for one of them to obtain information
about a certain subject, through a conversation, of a professional nature. It is a procedure used
in social research, to collect data or to help diagnose or treat a social problem. (MARCONI;
 LAKATOS, 2008, p. 80)
It is a research technique for data collection whose basic objective is to understand and
understand the meaning that interviewees attribute to questions and situations, in contexts that
have not been previously structured, based on the researcher's assumptions and conjectures.
(MARTINS, 2008, p. 27)

Putting other aspects of this technique on the agenda, Dencker and Viá (2012, p. 158) highlight:

The interview takes place in a social situation , in which the interviewer and interviewee
interact with each other, influencing each other not only through the words they say, but also
through other signs, such as voice inflection, gestures, facial expression and other traits.
personal characteristics, in addition to the behavioral manifestations that accompany verbal
communication.

There are several types of interviews, the main ones being: the focus group , the structured
interview, the semi-structured interview and the unstructured interview. Regarding this aspect, Marconi
and Lakatos (2008, p. 82) present three types:

The. Standardized or structured. It is one in which the interviewer follows a previously

established script; the questions asked of the individual are predetermined. It is carried out
according to a prepared form and is carried out preferably with people selected according to a
plan. [...]
B. Destandardized or unstructured. The interviewee is free to develop each situation in any
direction he or she deems appropriate. It’s a way of being able to explore an issue more broadly.
In general, questions are open-ended and can be answered within an informal conversation. [...]
This type of interview [...] has three modalities: focused interview [...], clinical interview [...]
[and] non-directed interview .
w. Panel. It consists of repeating questions, from time to time, to the same people, in order to
study the evolution of opinions over short periods. The questions must be formulated
differently, so that the interviewee does not distort the answers with these repetitions.

Still regarding the types of interviews, Vergara (2012) considers two criteria for their
classification: the number of people involved and their structure. Regarding the number of people,
Vergara (2012, p. 6-7) presents the individual interview and the collective interview, which,
summarizing his words, are:

An individual interview is one that is established between an interviewer and an interviewee.

Regarding the number of people who can be individually interviewed, there are authors who
consider 15 a minimum number for interviews and 25 an appropriate maximum number. These
limits cannot, however, be taken literally. A researcher, for example, may wish (and be able to)
interview state ministers. Five already seems like a good number, right? Ultimately, it all
depends on the research problem, the chosen methodology and the representativeness of the
interviewees. It also depends on common sense and the researcher's mastery of certain scientific
rules. [...]
A collective interview is an interview that has one or more interviewers and some interviewees.
It is also known as a focus group. Focus group, also called focus group, focused group
interview, group meetings and other names, is one in which interviews are conducted by an
 interviewer, designated as moderator, who is the catalyst for communication between
interviewees, i.e. between participants. [...]
When it comes to group interviews, authors consider that a minimum of six and a maximum of
ten people can be an appropriate limit. However, these numbers are arbitrary, so it is up to the
researcher to define the limits. [...]
(my emphasis)

As for the structure, in turn, Vergara (2012, p. 7-17) presents the closed interview, the semi-
open interview and the open interview, which, summarizing his words, are:

A script whose structure is closed presents ordered questions or topics and, basically, does not
allow changes, whether for inclusion, exclusion or changing the order of questions or topics.
[...]
A script whose structure is semi-open , such as a script with a closed structure, is focused.
However, unlike the closed structure, it allows inclusions, exclusions, changes in general to the
questions, explanations to the interviewee regarding a question or a word, which gives it an
open character. [...]
A script whose structure is open aims to seek to explore a situation more broadly, either by
asking direct questions or by inserting them into the middle of a conversation that includes
other points. For example, to find out what managers of a certain company think about the
inclusion of people with physical disabilities in the company's staff, it is possible to talk to them
about organizational matters and, in the conversation, include questions about the specific case
of people with physical disabilities. [...]

Based on the assumptions presented, it is deduced that this technique implies the participation of
both the interviewee and the interviewer, for this reason, integrating participant observation .
When there is a need to collect, through interviews, primary data, that is, those that have not yet
been manipulated, it is recommended to carry it out in loco , that is, directly in contact with the
research object. For example, when collecting the Brazilian Demographic Census, carried out by the
Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), researchers – called Census Agents in the
Census – collect the data, applying a Basic Questionnaire or a Sample Questionnaire, directly in
contact with residents, that is, on site .
When there is no need to collect, through interviews, primary data, that is, those that have not
yet been manipulated, it is recommended to carry it out ex loco , that is, without having to establish
direct contact with the research object. For example, during the coronavirus pandemic in Brazil and
around the world, Datafolha (2020) carried out several surveys interviewing individuals in all Brazilian
Federative Units, via telephone, that is, ex loco . The ex loco interview can also be carried out using an
electronic questionnaire, without the need for direct contact with the object being investigated. In many
cases, it proves to be the best option as it is less expensive and easier to apply, less laborious than an
on-site interview .
 3.4.3.3 Specific techniques for recording data

3.4.3.3.1 Manual planning

In manual planning, the recording of research data is carried out through manual compilation, in
which the researcher writes down in ink or graphite, for example, on paper (GIFTED, 2015; GIL, 1999,
2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003 , 2007, 2008; LUNA, 2011; 2012).
To improve time management during this stage, it is recommended to bring all the content that
will be used in academic work in front of your computer and desk (or other suitable environment for
compilation), which includes bibliographies, documents and the annotations (GIFTED, 2015; GIL,
1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; LUNA, 2011; 2012).
It is, therefore, a very laborious step to carry out and demands time inversely proportional to the
researcher's skills in using such methodologies, that is, the more skilled he is, the less time he needs to
spend to carry out scientific research for using these methodologies, but it is not difficult because it is
enough to know how to read well and write well (GIFTED, 2015; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI;
LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; LUNA, 2011; 2012).

3.4.3.3.2 Electronic planning

In electronic planning, the researcher types all the notes into a text file, such as Microsoft Word
(application from the standard Office package of the Windows operating system) or Open Writer
(applied from the standard Open Office package of the Linux operating system) ( GIFTED, 2015; GIL,
1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; LUNA, 2011; 2012).
To improve time management during this stage, it is recommended to bring all the content that
will be used in academic work in front of your computer and desk (or other suitable environment for
scanning), which includes bibliographies, documents and the annotations (GIFTED, 2015; GIL, 1999,
2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; LUNA, 2011; 2012).
It is, therefore, a very laborious step to carry out and demands time inversely proportional to the
researcher's skills in using such methodologies, that is, the more skilled he is, the less time he needs to
spend to carry out scientific research for using these methodologies, but it is not difficult because you
just need to know how to type well, scan, print, read well and write well (GIFTED, 2015; GIL, 1999,
2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; LUNA, 2011; 2012) .
 3.4.3.4 Specific techniques for data systematization

3.4.3.4.1 Simple string search

The literal translation of the word string comes from English and means rope, or anchor. In
practice, strings are descriptors, that is, keywords, used to filter academic works in the most diverse
databases (UFSCar, 2020).
A simple string search means searching for academic works on a specific topic in databases, in
order to systematize the research. For example, you can search Google Scholar – or any other database
– for scientific works on Mergers and Acquisitions using the following descriptors: “Mergers and
Acquisitions” , “M&A” , “Mergers and Acquisitions” , “M&A” , etc. . It is observed that these strings
are quite generic, which will result in a huge number of works indexed by them in the databases.
However, if in all the databases used in research we search for scientific works using these same
strings, we will be systematizing our investigation, even if in a simple way. For this reason, it is
recommended to use this technique in every Simple Bibliographic Review, also known in the literature
as Narrative Bibliographic Review, or Conventional Bibliographic Review (UFSCar, 2020).

3.4.3.4.2 Advanced string search

An advanced search for strings (descriptors, or keywords) involves the use of very specific
terms from a topic, accompanied by Boolean operators – which are, in English, AND, OR and NOT,
or, in Portuguese, AND, OR and NO –, and by punctuation symbols such as quotation marks,
parentheses, brackets and asterisk (UFSCar, 2020).
For example, when searching for Mergers and Acquisitions, you can perform an advanced
search using the following strings , Boolean operators and punctuation symbols: (“Mergers and
Acquisitions” OR “M&A” OR “Mergers and Acquisitions” OR “ M&A”) AND (“Discounted Cash
Flow” OR “FCD” OR “Discounted Cash Flow” OR “DCF”). In fact, this advanced search will return a
much smaller number of academic works than the simple search carried out in the subtopic
immediately preceding this one. In other words, the advanced search for strings systematizes much
more than their simple search (UFSCar, 2020).
We can also add the Boolean operator NOT to select works that DO NOT contain a word that
we do not want to find in them, or we can add the asterisk after a radical to find all words starting with
it. For example: (“Valuation” OR “Company Valuation”) AND (“Discounted Cash Flow” OR
“Discounted Cash Flow”) NOT (“Clim*”). Note that, this time, we do not want to find words starting
with the radical “Clim”, such as Clima, Climático, Climática, Climatizador, etc. Certainly, the number
of works returned through this search will be much smaller than in the simple search carried out in the
subtopic immediately preceding this one (UFSCar, 2020).
However, for data systematization to be carried out properly, it is necessary to use the same
terms, Boolean operators, and punctuation symbols in all databases used in the research. This technique
is commonly used in the Systematic Bibliographic Review (UFSCar, 2020).

3.4.3.4.3 Inclusion/exclusion factors

string search , inclusion/exclusion factors are commonly used in Systematic Bibliographic

Reviews (RBS). The more inclusion/exclusion factors used, the more systematized the data, the more
specific the research. The objective of this technique is to filter academic works on a given topic as
much as possible (UFSCar, 2020).
The most used inclusion/exclusion factors are: research concentration area; language; type of
academic work (article, abstract, thesis, book, dissertation); country; research institution; researcher;
time lapse (period in time in which the research was carried out); among many others (UFSCar, 2020).
For example, when searching for works on Discounted Cash Flow, in Spell – the largest
Brazilian database in the area of Administration and Business –, you can filter them by selecting only
works in the areas of Administration, Economics and Accounting Sciences , published in English,
Portuguese and Spanish, only articles (to find the main results of research on the topic in question),
which have the term “Discounted Cash Flow” in the title, abstract and/or keywords, and published in
any year, by any institution or researcher. When carrying out this search, Spell returns 63 academic
works, a very feasible number to be used in the investigation (UFSCar, 2020).

3.4.3.5 Specific techniques for organizing data

3.4.3.5.1 Scientific reading18

Regarding this research technique, Diniz and Da Silva (2008, p. 3) go on to say that:

18 Scientific reading is a multifunctional technique used for the collection (pre-reading, or recognition reading),
organization (selective reading), analysis (critical or reflective reading) and interpretation (interpretive reading) of data. For
this reason, it is, par excellence, the master observational technique of scientific research.
 Despite technological advances in audiovisual resources, everyone needs to read, because
knowledge is acquired through reading, and to obtain it it is necessary to read a lot and read
well. Reading makes it possible to expand knowledge and reflect on the world. For reading to
be beneficial and effective, you must pay attention to what is being read, avoiding
deconcentration and distraction. The reader must feel attracted to reading and develop an
adequate reading speed, and must not read slowly, so as not to forget what was read at the end
of the paragraph, or too quickly, resulting in incomprehension of what was read.

Regarding the types of reading, Diniz and Da Silva (2008, p. 5-6) present four, namely:

a) pre-reading or recognition reading, preliminary phase of informative reading, which allows

the reader the document or work that can be used in their work and also obtain an overview of
the topic covered.
b) selective reading, which consists of reading a book in its entirety, trying to select the
essential information, that is, choosing the material that is really interesting for the research.
c) critical or reflective reading, which is one in which the reader focuses on the most relevant
aspects of the text, being able to separate secondary ideas from the central idea.
d) interpretative reading, which is a more complex reading, aiming to identify the author's
intentions and what he states about the topic, his hypotheses, methodology, results, discussions
and conclusions, as well as relating the author's statements to the problems for which we are
trying to equate.

Next, the authors explain the procedures necessary for an adequate reading of a text as
follows:

When the text is selected, read it in full to get an overview of the whole. Then you must
reread the text and highlight unknown words or expressions, which must be consulted in a
dictionary. Once any doubts have been clarified, read again to understand the whole.
Read again, looking for the central idea, which may be implicit or explicit in the text. Locate
events or ideas, comparing them with each other and looking for existing similarities and
differences. Group them at least by important similarity and organize them in hierarchical
order of importance. Interpret the author's ideas and discover his conclusions. (DINIZ and
DA SILVA, 2008, p. 7)

Scientific reading is a multifunctional technique used for the collection (pre-reading, or

recognition reading), organization (selective reading), analysis (critical or reflective reading) and
interpretation (interpretive reading) of data. For this reason, it is, par excellence, the master
observational technique of scientific research.

3.4.3.5.2 Coding
 Coding is a technique for organizing data, in the form of blocks or segments of text, with the
aim of attributing meaning to information (CRESWELL, 2010; GIL, 1999). About this type of
technique, some authors lend us their words:

[...] Coding is the process of organizing material into blocks or segments of text before
assigning meaning to the information. This involves keeping text data, or pictures, together
during data collection, segmenting sentences (or paragraphs) or pictures into categories, and
labeling those categories with a term, often a term based on the participant's actual language
(called a term in vivo ).
[...] Another question about coding is whether the researcher should (a) develop codes based
only on emerging information collected from participants, (b) use predetermined codes and then
adjust the data to them, or (c) use some combination of predetermined and emergent codes. [...].
(CRESWELL, 2010, p. 219-221).

Coding is the process by which raw data is transformed into symbols that can be tabulated.
Coding can be done before or after data collection. Pre-coding frequently occurs in surveys in
which the questionnaires consist of closed questions, the alternatives of which are associated
with codes printed on the questionnaire itself. [...]. (GIL, 1999, p. 170).

[...] The traditional approach in social sciences is to allow codes to emerge during data analysis.
In health sciences, a common approach is to use predetermined codes based on the theory being
examined. In this case, researchers can develop a qualitative codebook , a chart, or a record
that contains a list of predetermined codes that researchers use to code the data. [...]
(CRESWELL, 2010, p. 221).

Coding is widely used in scientific research, whether qualitative or quantitative in nature. They
aim to facilitate the presentation of data and information, and also facilitate the entire tabulation
process.

3.4.3.5.3 Categorization

Categorization is a data organization technique commonly used in conjunction with coding.

Once the data has been coded, it is now organized into categories, or groupings, of data according to
criteria defined by the researcher (GIL, 1999; CRESWELL, 2010). Regarding this technique, Gil
(1999, p. 169) explains:

The answers provided by the surveyed elements tend to be the most varied. In order for these
responses to be adequately analyzed, it is therefore necessary to organize them, which is done
by grouping them into a certain number of categories. For these categories to be useful in data
analysis, they must meet some basic rules [...]:
a) the set of categories must be derived from a single classification principle;
b) the set of categories must be exhaustive; It is
c) the categories in the set must be mutually exclusive.
 In order to group a large number of responses to a given item into a small number of categories,
it is necessary to establish a classification principle. [...]

For example, when classifying corporate Mergers and Acquisitions (M&A), all types of M&A
must be included as categories (exhaustion rule); all of them must be, at the end of the categorization,
in a single category, so as not to be confused with any of the others (mutual exclusion rule); the
categories need to be derived from a single classification principle (for example, economic function, or
purpose of the commercial transaction, or relationship between companies; but only one of these
criteria only, so that each of the M&A is placed in just one category ).

3.4.3.5.4 Tabulation

Tabulation, a technique widely used in both qualitative and quantitative research, is nothing
more than the process of grouping data and information into tables (GIL, 1999). This type of technique
is explained by Gil (1999, p. 169) as follows:

Tabulation is the process of grouping and counting the cases that fall into the various categories
of analysis. There can be simple and cross tabulation. The first type of tabulation, which is also
called marginal, consists of simply counting the frequencies of the categories in each set. Cross-
tabulation, in turn, consists of counting the frequencies that occur together in two or more sets
of categories, for example: tabulating cases referring to income and education categories.

Tabulation can be done manually, consisting of the use of pencil and paper, or electronically,
consisting of the use of electronic devices, such as a computer, tablet or cell phone (GIL, 1999).

3.4.3.6 Specific techniques for analyzing or interpreting data19

3.4.3.6.1 Scientific reading20

Regarding this research technique, Diniz and Da Silva (2008, p. 3) go on to say that:

Despite technological advances in audiovisual resources, everyone needs to read, because

knowledge is acquired through reading, and to obtain it it is necessary to read a lot and read

19 In addition to the specific techniques for analyzing or interpreting data presented in this section, there are many
others, among which we can mention: a) Factor Analysis; b) Linear Regression Analysis; c) Multiple Regression Analysis;
d) Biblical Exegesis; e) Legal Hermeneutics; f) Vertical Analysis; g) Horizontal Analysis; h) Common Size Analysis; i)
Analysis by Indices and Quotients; j) SWOT analysis; k) BCG analysis; among many others.
20 Scientific reading is a multifunctional technique used for the collection (pre-reading, or recognition reading),
organization (selective reading), analysis (critical or reflective reading) and interpretation (interpretive reading) of data. For
this reason, it is, par excellence, the master observational technique of scientific research.
 well. Reading makes it possible to expand knowledge and reflect on the world. For reading to
be beneficial and effective, you must pay attention to what is being read, avoiding
deconcentration and distraction. The reader must feel attracted to reading and develop an
adequate reading speed, and must not read slowly, so as not to forget what was read at the end
of the paragraph, or too quickly, resulting in incomprehension of what was read.

Regarding the types of reading, Diniz and Da Silva (2008, p. 5-6) present four, namely:

a) pre-reading or recognition reading, preliminary phase of informative reading, which allows

the reader the document or work that can be used in their work and also obtain an overview of
the topic covered.
b) selective reading, which consists of reading a book in its entirety, trying to select the
essential information, that is, choosing the material that is really interesting for the research.
c) critical or reflective reading, which is one in which the reader focuses on the most relevant
aspects of the text, being able to separate secondary ideas from the central idea.
d) interpretative reading, which is a more complex reading, aiming to identify the author's
intentions and what he states about the topic, his hypotheses, methodology, results, discussions
and conclusions, as well as relating the author's statements to the problems for which we are
trying to equate.

Next, the authors explain the procedures necessary for an adequate reading of a text as
follows:

When the text is selected, read it in full to get an overview of the whole. Then you must
reread the text and highlight unknown words or expressions, which must be consulted in a
dictionary. Once any doubts have been clarified, read again to understand the whole.
Read again, looking for the central idea, which may be implicit or explicit in the text. Locate
events or ideas, comparing them with each other and looking for existing similarities and
differences. Group them at least by important similarity and organize them in hierarchical
order of importance. Interpret the author's ideas and discover his conclusions. (DINIZ; DA
SILVA, 2008, p. 7).

Scientific reading is a multifunctional technique used for the collection (pre-reading, or

recognition reading), organization (selective reading), analysis (critical or reflective reading) and
interpretation (interpretive reading) of data. For this reason, it is, par excellence, the master
observational technique of scientific research.

3.4.3.6.2 Bibliometric Analysis (AB)

Bibliometric Analysis refers to a type of mapping of bibliographies and documents in which

several quantifiable criteria about them, previously selected, are quantified, seeking a comprehensive
and precise understanding of them. Such criteria need to be organized into categories to facilitate the
analysis or interpretation process (MATTOS, 2004; MUGNAINI; JANNUZZI; QUONIAM, 2004).
However, there are many precautions that must be taken when operationalizing this analysis or
interpretation technique in order not to invalidate it, as Mattos (2004, p. 4) highlights with the
following words:

The ambiguity of the meaning of certain basic bibliometric analyzes appears in:
the quote. Is it taken as support or opposition? In the case of those who contest, an author does
something so that he does not end up being cited too much in the tradition, unlike those who
rely on him. How can such contrary things come together? And what does being cited less
mean? That your production is less relevant, or that you are a dissident from the work paradigm
of a group, or that there is an exclusionary prejudice? And be cited more? Does it indicate that it
is preferred over others or that it came first, as a manual for the area, mainly in Portuguese?
Any of these causes, or another? It is difficulties like this that one incurs by putting facts ahead
of hypotheses or not starting with what is essential in knowledge, which is interpretation, and
not choosing a focus for the problem that such interpretation raises. As a result, facts are sought
that corroborate, deny or clarify.
b) Non-citation. That means? That an author is unknown, rejected, or, on the contrary, that,
taking into account the content of what is written, whoever writes identifies himself entirely
with what is not formally cited – but, in fact, followed – and that then it would be your mentor?
c) “Age” of the cited work. The newer the better, and the older the worse? It's unsustainable. In
some areas it is necessary to work with recent studies, in others, the more “liked” – for
surviving intersubjective criticism from peers – the better the “leather”… In still others, both
criteria are valid, or it is not appropriate as a criterion, so that discrimination in counting is
certainly misleading. On this point, the authors seem somewhat cautious when they say: “It is
worth noting that, as predicted by some critics of the method, most of the best-ranked authors in
the sample have, in fact, a longer history in the field than the others. . This reinforces the need
for the field to discuss whether or not the criteria for this type of classification include an
adjustment or weighting in relation to the age of the author's academic production, aiming to
more accurately measure the effective impact of their average scientific production”. But they
do not seem to me to be convinced of the indefinitely recurring nature of the problem, as it is
congenital to this methodological practice.
d) Self-citation. Narcissism? Or just resistance to the foolish modesty of appearing narcissistic,
when there are, in fact, studies already carefully prepared - and recognized, as they are
published - on the subject? What should the author prefer, then: to simply refer to what he has
already said on another occasion, in more detail, or to re-expose ideas on the subject, as if they
appeared there for the first time, when they may already be known to the reader ? Now, it seems
that the question of self-citation is the propriety or impropriety, opportunity or inopportunity of
the reference. The fact is only characterized qualitatively. Quoting for the sake of quoting is as
strange and disrespectful to the reader as quoting for the sake of quoting, that is, in a
superfluous way, as fulfilling some formalistic practice in which saying through the mouth of
another – whoever that other person may be – would be worth more than say it yourself.
By the way, it is worth distinguishing, fundamentally, the reference to argumentative essays or
conclusive empirical studies – which are used to support statements – from merely illustrative
quotations, when another author is not being used as support and whose deletion would not
change anything in the strength of the text. . The quote there is a bit too much. There are also
references that are only a brief identification of the most recognized authorial source of
meaning for a concept. But, unfortunately, statistics do not distinguish these and other
qualitative differences. And, suddenly, they give us spectacular conclusions, or, at the very
least, intriguing insinuations.

The most used criteria in this type of analysis are: a) the quantity of a specific type of scientific
work (article, thesis, review, dissertation) per: a) year of publication, within the time frame of the
research topic; advisor; graduate program; Research line; research institution; author; country, state,
region, city; area and subarea of knowledge; means of scientific publication (magazine, periodical,
conference proceedings, newspaper, etc.); epistemological approach; logical approach; technical
procedures; descriptors; b) the productivity of each author consulted, as well as that of their respective
advisors and research institutions; c) the number of citations of each specific type of scientific work in
the various databases ( Scopus, Scielo, etc.); d) the number of references consulted per author and per
work, classifying them as fundamental (basic), methodological and specific (additional); finally, e) FI
and/or JCR impact factors; f) H Index (MATTOS, 2004; MUGNAINI; JANNUZZI; QUONIAM,
2004).
Based on these assumptions, it is inferred that the AB presupposes the carrying out of a
systematic review of the literature, such as an RBI, an RBS or an MBS. However, it is incorrect to say
that these types of reviews and AB are synonymous, as they are not; while RBI, RBS and MBS are
types of general techniques for collecting and processing data, AB is just a specific technique for
analyzing or interpreting data (REIS, 2022). Regarding these aspects, Reis (2022, single page)
presents:

Table 12 – Steps and sub-steps of a Systematic Review with Bibliometric Analysis

Stage Sub-step Description
1) Choose the Choose here:
relevant databases http://www.periodicos.capes.gov.br/index.php?
option=com_pbases&controller=pbases&Itemid=320
Test the algorithm components one by one on Google
Scholar (http://scholar.google.com.br/) beforehand, to
check if they are relevant to the search.
2) Determine an
Example of Search Algorithm: (“tangible interaction”
algorithm [search
OR “tangible interface”) AND autis*
strings]
Systematic More about how to create an algorithm with
review logical operators:
http://www.infowester.com/dicasgoogle.php
3) Perform the
In all databases chosen in step 1.
search,
using the algorithm
 Apply filters to the searches carried out in Step 3.
Examples
4) Filter the search
of filters:
by
a) only articles in peer-reviewed journals;
pre-selected criteria
b) only publications between 2004 and 2014;
.
c) only publications available free of charge on the
internet
, etc.
5) Use EndNOTE.
Take all the articles that remain after step 4,
and download their .RIS (in the database where
NOTE: Zotero is a
you found it). Take this .RIS file containing data from
Free
all articles and open it in EndNOTE. Now select the
Software alternative
articles by: a) title; b) keywords; c) summary.
to EndNOTE.
Make a spreadsheet showing the articles that remained
after step 5. In this spreadsheet, explain the author,
year
6) Systematize the of publication, title, source, etc., of each article.
bibliography NOTE:
Highlight spreadsheet items such as “Most
frequent topics”, “Most used keywords”, “Areas”,
etc.
In the database where you found it. Examples of
7) Display the
indicators: number of citations (you can find this in the
bibliometric
Database
indicators for each
used), impact of the article ( http://www.plos.org/plos-
article in the
one-measuring-article-impact/ ), weight of the journal
spreadsheet from
(http:/ /www.journalmetrics.com/ and
step 6.
http://scimagojr.com/), etc.
Bibliometric
Create tables and graphs (histograms, pie charts,
Analysis
diagrams, etc.) to express the bibliometric data
of the articles. Ex: main authors, connections between
8) Create graphs to
authors via citations, ranking of publications, regions
present the
of the
results
world or most important research centers,
publication timeline, etc. NOTE: be creative at this
stage!
Write a text integrating data from the spreadsheet
(Step
9) Write a 6) with the bibliometric graphs (Step 8), with their
Final result report analysis and interpretations. It is this text, with
all these elements, that will support your research

Source: Reis (2022, single page). Prepared and adapted by the author.

3.4.3.6.3 Content analysis (CA)

 Content analysis is the data interpretation technique specific to the quantitative approach. It is
closely linked to the methodology of statistical research, being widely used in the field of Exact
Sciences, aiming at greater precision, inferential, when interpreting data (SILVA et al ., 2004;
MARTINS, 2008). Regarding this technique, Martins (2008, p. 33) explains:

Content Analysis is a technique for studying and analyzing communication in an objective,

systematic and quantitative way. Reliable inferences are sought from data and information
regarding a given context, based on the written or oral speeches of their authors. Content
Analysis can be applied to virtually any form of communication: television programs, radio,
press articles, books, poems, conversations, speeches, letters, regulations, etc. For example, it
can be used to analyze personality traits, evaluating writings; or the intentions of an
advertising campaign by analyzing the content of the messages conveyed. [...]

Content analysis has been present since humanity's first attempts to interpret ancient writings,
such as attempts to interpret sacred books, being systematized only in the 1920s, due to Leavell's
(1920) studies on propaganda used in First World War, thus acquiring the character of an investigation
method (SILVA et al., 2004; MARTINS, 2008). After many attempts to improve and deepen content
analysis as a research technique, Bardin (1960 apud SILVA et al ., 2004, p. 4), starts to define it as:

[...] a set of communications analysis techniques, which uses systematic and objective
procedures for describing the content of messages, indicators (quantitative or not) that allow
the inference of knowledge regarding the production/reception conditions (inferred variables)
of these messages.

In this way, content analysis allows the researcher to understand the representations that the
individual presents in relation to their reality and the interpretation they make of the meanings around
them (SILVA et al., 2004). The authors (2004, p. 6. My emphasis) present the three basic stages of
content analysis, highlighted in Bardin's works, namely:

Pre-analysis: the organization of the material, that is, all the materials that will be used to
collect the data, as well as other materials that can help to better understand the phenomenon
and establish what the author defines as the corpus of the investigation , which would be the
specification of the field that the researcher should focus his attention on.
The analytical description: at this stage the material gathered that constitutes the research
corpus is further in-depth, being guided in principle by the hypotheses and the theoretical
framework, with frameworks of references emerging from this analysis, seeking coinciding
and divergent syntheses of ideas.
Referential interpretation: this is the analysis phase itself. Reflection, intuition, based on
empirical materials, establish relationships with reality, deepening the connections of ideas,
reaching, if possible, the basic proposal for transformations within the limits of specific and
general structures.

Based on such assumptions, it can be deduced that Content Analysis is suitable for quantitative
research, using statistical inferential interpretations of data (SILVA et al ., 2004; MARTINS, 2008).

3.4.3.6.4 Discourse analysis (DA)

Discourse analysis is the data interpretation technique specific to the qualitative approach. It is
linked to the methodology of observational research, and is widely used in the field of Social
Sciences, aiming to discover facts and causes of human behavior, as well as understanding human
interactions. Regarding this technique, Martins (2008, p. 55 and 58) explains:

[...] When pursuing the challenge of constructing interpretations, Discourse Analysis (DA)
starts from the assumption that in every discourse there is a hidden meaning that can be
captured, which, without an appropriate technique, remains inaccessible. [...] AD allows us to
know the meaning of both what is explicit in the message and what is implicit – not only what
is said, but also how it is said. [...]
Discourse Analysis can demonstrate that what is read is not reality, but just a report of reality
purposely constructed in a certain way, by a certain subject.

Throughout the history of science, as research methods and techniques evolved, AD was divided
into two main lines, the Anglo-Saxon and the European. Regarding this aspect, Martins (2008, p. 56-
57, my emphasis) points out:

AD can be divided into two broad lines that, although they present methodological and
theoretical differences, both arise from the need imposed by Linguistics to define a new unit of
analysis that goes beyond the limits of the sentence: the text. In the Anglo-Saxon line, contrary
to what occurs in the European current, AD is not affected by the Saussurian dichotomy [of]
language and [of] speech and thus constitutes a mere extrapolation of grammar. [...]
The European line of AD follows the tradition, more specifically French, of linking a historical
perspective to the reflective study of texts. [...]

The fundamental difference between AD and AC is that the first is used to analyze and interpret
qualitative data, while the second, quantitative data (MARTINS, 2008).

3.4.3.6.5 Biblical exegesis

Modern Biblical Exegesis emerged during the 17th century, but was modified at the turn of the
19th century to the 20th century (ALMEIDA; FUNARI, 2016). Regarding these aspects, the authors
(2016, p. 49-50) lend us their words:
 The beginning of modern exegesis began in the 17th century. But it was at the turn of the 19th
century to the 20th century with the hermeneutical philosophy of Wilhelm Dilthey, Martin
Heidegger and Hans-Georg Gadamer that provoked changes in exegesis, in particular, through
the new way of understanding the relationship between the author, the text and the reader. Next
came the exegetical works of Karl Barth and Rudolf Karl Bultmann. Both raised the
hermeneutical question, but each in their own way. Barth wondered about the meaning of the
biblical text for modern man. Bultmann already said that the language of the biblical authors
had ceased to be understandable. It was a mythical language and modern man had acquired a
scientific view of the world. It was therefore necessary to retranslate that language into another
so that the biblical text would make sense again. In the same way, but in the opposite direction,
were the works of Paul Ricoeur2, for whom the symbolic language of Sacred Scripture needed
to be reinterpreted, but not replaced (GRECH, 2005, p. 48-9).

Etymologically, the word Exegesis comes from the Greek and means “ to lead, guide, direct,
govern, explain in detail, interpret, order, prescribe, advise, pull out of the text” (ALMEIDA; FUNARI,
2016, p. 47). Regarding these aspects, the authors (2016, p. 47-48) state:

Eisegesis consists of introducing something into a text that someone wants to be there, but that
is not actually part of it. Important is the distinction between exegesis (leading outward) and
eisegesis (leading inward), which means, therefore, guiding out of one's thoughts what the
writer had when he wrote a given document, that is, literally “taking it from the inside out.” ”
(ex-ago), extract the meaning, interpret (FREEDMAN, 1992, p. 682-3).

Biblical Exegesis is, therefore, a scientific technique for the analysis (or interpretation) of the
Hebrew-Aramaic Scriptures (Old Testament) and the Greek Scriptures (New Testament), Christian
(ALMEIDA; FUNARI, 2016). Corroborating this statement, the authors (2016) emphasize:

Exegesis is a set of procedures designed to establish the meaning of a text from various angles
(textual, literary, motives/themes, composition process and others) in order to extract its
messages from it. It is needed every time a text arouses lasting interest, or is always considered
important (LACOSTE, 2004, p. 698). [...]
It demands the use of scientific method, in addition to needing to count on the help of various
human sciences (history, geography, archeology, paleography, history of comparative religions,
among others), since there is an enormous temporal distance (in some cases, also spatial ) and,
above all, cultural between the texts and us, people from another time and culture.

Although the terms Exegesis and Hermeneutics are used synonymously, in fact they are
complementary in the search for a better-founded biblical interpretation. Furthermore, both can be
applied to any text, not just the Bible (ALMEIDA; FUNARI, 2016). Regarding these aspects, the
authors (2016) highlight:

Hermeneutics is often used as a synonym for exegesis. Etymologically, hermeneutics comes

from the Greek hermeneuein and means to translate, to interpret. Currently, it is customary to
call exegesis the search for the meaning that the author wants to express to his contemporaries
and hermeneutics the meaning that a text can acquire today. The term hermeneutics comes from
the name of the god Hermes from Greek mythology (HEIDEGGER, 2003, p. 73). In
themselves, neither hermeneutics nor exegesis are proper to the Bible. They apply to any type
of text and, in a special way, to older texts. Texts by ancient philosophers are also the subject of
exegetical and hermeneutical studies, in addition to literary and other texts. Ultimately, any type
of text can be the object of exegetical study.

Gorman (2017) divides Biblical Exegesis into seven fundamental steps, namely: research;
contextual analysis: the historical, literary and canonical context; formal analysis: form, structure and
movement of the text; detailed analysis of the text; the synthesis; reflection: theological interpretation,
today's text; the improvement and expansion of exegesis. For more details on each of these steps,
please read Gorman (2017) as listed in the references in this book.

3.4.3.6.6 Meta-analysis

There are those in academia who argue that Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review are
synonymous; but they are not. While Meta-Analysis refers to a specific technique for analyzing (or
interpreting) data, Systematic Review is much broader, referring to a general technique for data
collection (COSTA; ZOLTOWSKI, 2014). Regarding these aspects, the authors (2014, p. 53) explain:

Although the term meta-analysis is often used as a synonym for systematic review, when the
review includes a meta-analysis, the two terms currently have different meanings (Sousa &
Ribeiro, 2009). Meta-analysis refers to the statistical procedure for processing data from several
studies with the aim of grouping them, while systematic review refers to the process of
gathering, critical and synthetic evaluation of results from multiple studies, which may or may
not include a meta-analysis (Cordeiro , Oliveira, Rentería, Guimarães, & Rio de Janeiro
Systematic Review Study Group, 2007).
 Still on the concept of Meta-Analysis, the Ministry of Health (2012) states that it is a statistical
data analysis technique and that it may or may not be combined with a Systematic Bibliographic
Review. In the words of the Ministry of Health (2012, p. 14):

Meta-analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of two or more

independent studies, generating a single effect estimate. Meta-analysis estimates with more
power and precision the “true” effect size of the intervention, often not demonstrated in single
studies, with inadequate methodology and insufficient sample size. An SR [Systematic Review]
does not necessarily need to present a meta-analysis. On the contrary, in some cases it is not
appropriate for it to be carried out and may even generate erroneous conclusions.

Meta-Analysis can increase or decrease the reliability of a Systematic Bibliographic Review

(MS, 2012). Regarding these aspects, the Ministry of Health (2012, p. 14) warns:

An example of this situation is when only two studies reported data on

an outcome with opposite effect estimates, that is, one study indicates a benefit from the
intervention and the other indicates a benefit from the control. In this case, these findings
should not be combined. When several studies report outcome data that differ to some degree of
magnitude, the degree of similarity of effects across studies must be assessed, using statistical
tools, such as testing for inconsistency and heterogeneity, discussed later.

Based on these assumptions, Meta-Analysis is an excellent tool for analyzing (or interpreting)
research data; however, for this purpose, it is necessary that the researcher uses it in the appropriate
way and at the appropriate time, so that it does not produce effects contrary to those pre-objective (MS,
2012; COSTA; ZOLTOWSKI, 2014).

3.4.3.7 Specific techniques for formalizing data

After collecting, organizing and analyzing, or interpreting, the data, the results obtained are
formalized, which can be: scientific summary; scientific review; banner or poster; model; work of art;
machine; electronic device; TCC, dissertation, thesis or book; Business plan; Pedagogical Political
Project; software ; edification; scientific article; cultural exhibition, or museum.

3.4.3.7.1 Scientific summary

The scientific summary constitutes material that may or may not be publishable. It is commonly
published in the annals of academic events, such as conferences, symposiums, etc. But it can also be
used simply as a work presented to the teacher(s) to acquire grades in a specific curricular component
that is being studied.
There are two types of summary: simple and expanded. But the difference goes far beyond the
difference in size. For example: while the simple summary has around 500 words, the expanded one
has a maximum of 2000 words (4 pages); in the simple version, the application of references is not
required; in the expanded version, the use of conceptual references is required; as the simple summary
is small, it is necessary to be very clear and objective, without fuss, in the presentation of the data,
while in the expanded one it is possible to give more details about the general idea of the research and
the way in which it was carried out; the simple summary asks for objectives, results, methodology used
and results obtained, the expanded one asks, in addition to everything that the simple one already asks,
also title, author, keywords, introduction, conclusions, acknowledgments and references; both must
follow ABNT standards (NBR 14724, 2002; NBR 6023, 2002; NBR 10520, 2002; NBR 6024, 2003;
NBR 6022, 2003).

3.4.3.7.2 Scientific review

The scientific review represents a synthesis of a work normally unread or unknown by the
reading public. In it, the reviewer, usually a doctor in the area of the topic investigated, presents well-
argued opinions with the aim of publicizing new works.
Regarding the types of scientific reviews that exist, the website EVEN3 (2020, sp, my
emphasis) explains:

The review can be descriptive (also called technical review or scientific review), or critical (
also known as opinionated review). The review Descriptive focuses on evaluating content as
knowledge, science or truth, that is, it makes a judgment of truths . Now the review Critic
evaluates the work considering value, style, aesthetics, beauty, etc. ( value judgment ). Thus,
the critical review requires a greater degree of detail to substantiate the criticism (whether
positive or negative), as it deals with less tangible and more subjective issues.
There are also so-called reviews themes . In this type of review, several texts by different
authors who deal with the same main theme . In the thematic review, each of these texts is
identified and assessed in terms of its real contribution (and the degree of quality of that
contribution) to the topic in question.
If a review does not provide any evaluation about the content, we have the case of a summary
review . This type of review is limited to the first two steps described above, that is, just
identifying the work and summarizing its content. Therefore, this modality fulfills a
merely informative , and does not seek to convince the reader about the importance or value of
reading a given work or not.
 Scientific reviews are widely used in scientific journals, as they represent an update on which
publications are appearing in the journal's area of interest. They keep the journals updated regarding
new research carried out on topics that make up their scope. For these reasons, they are commonly
recent.

3.4.3.7.3 Banner or poster

According to the website Exatamente Publicidade (2020, sp), banner or poster is “an
advertising piece in the shape of a flag, made of plastic, fabric or paper, printed on one or both sides,
generally to be hung on poles, facades or walls, publicly displayed, in exhibition pavilions, points of
sale, etc.”.
The banner or poster is widely used in presentations of academic work at scientific events, or
even in classroom presentations at the main universities in Brazil and around the world.

3.4.3.7.4 Mockup

According to Wikipedia (2020, sp), model , model or model is:

[...] a representation (complete or partial) on a reduced scale of an object, system or engineering
or architectural structure, or even a sketch. A model can be static, if it aims to analyze the
physical aspect of what is being modeled, or dynamic, if it aims to analyze the functional
behavior of what is being modeled.

Therefore, the model is a type of academic work used to formalize research data.

3.4.3.7.5 Work of art

According to Wikipedia (2020, sp), a work of art has the following characteristics:

Work of art , artistic work or just work , is a work created or evaluated for its artistic rather than
practical function. By artistic function, we understand the representation of a symbol, of beauty.
Despite not having this as its main objective, a work of art can have practical use.
It can consist of an object, a musical composition, architecture, painting, a text, a presentation, a
film, a computer program, among others. However, what is considered a work of art depends on
the historical and cultural context, and on the meaning of art itself.
A work of art, therefore, is a product that conveys an idea or a sensitive expression. It is the
creation that projects or reflects the intention of an artist.
 Therefore, a work of art is a type of academic work used to formalize research data.

3.4.3.7.6 Machine

According to Wikipedia (2020, sp , my emphasis), a machine has the following characteristics:

A machine is a device that uses energy and work to achieve a predetermined objective. In
Physics, it is any device that changes the direction or intensity of a force through the use of
work.
Non-automatic machines : These machines are also called "periodic relief" machines. These
are all machines that require permanent action from the operator to perform the work.
Automatic machines : these are those whose energy comes from an external source, such as
electrical, thermal energy, among others. An electric drill in which the operator only has to
press a button to perform the work is an automatic machine. With this, it can also be said that
automatic machines do not need permanent energy from the operator, but they may need
permanent control from the operator, which in the case of the drill press is pressing a button.
Automatic machines can further be divided into programmable automatic machines and non-
programmable automatic machines: The non-programmable automatic machine always
performs the same work when receiving energy. The programmable automatic machine is
characterized by the fact that its work depends on instructions given by the operator. An
example of a programmable automatic machine can be cited as a machine that performs its
work according to the position of the keys. Instructions can also be introduced into a
programmable automatic machine using a computer or another type of electronic processor,
such as a microcontroller connected to a matrix keyboard. An automatic machine with time
control through a timer cannot be considered a programmable automatic machine, as it does not
change its work according to the timer setting, it only changes the period in which it performs
the work. An automatic machine that has an intensity control that the user can adjust cannot be
considered a programmable automatic machine either, as it also continues to perform the same
work only with a different intensity and its work does not depend on any program.

Therefore, a machine is a type of academic work used to formalize research data.

3.4.3.7.7 Electronic device

According to Wikipedia (2020, sp), an electronic device (or component) has the following
characteristics:

An electronic device is a collection of small units and actuators. The equipment that
manufactures these units is also a set of small actuators.
Electronic components are the structure of an electronic circuit, that is, they are the components
that are part of any electrical or electronic circuit (from the simplest to the most complex) and
 that are interconnected with each other. An electronic component can also be defined as any
electrical device that transmits electrical current through a conductor or semiconductor.
A thermionic valve is a device formed by a glass ampoule where, internally, a vacuum is
created. A transistor is an entirely solid device with a semiconductor inside. Thus, by definition,
both are electronic components .
Any device that uses means other than vacuum or semiconductors to transmit electrical current
is called an electrical component.
Components can be: a) passive: in the electrical industry they are called electrical components;
and b) active: include semiconductors and thermionic valves.
Components can be used that act in different ways, such as rectification using diodes and
converting electrical energy to thermal energy using power resistors. Silicon is widely used to
manufacture these components.

Therefore, an electronic device is a type of academic work used to formalize research data.

3.4.3.7.8 TCC – Dissertation – Thesis – Book

The course conclusion work, better known as TCC, the dissertation, the thesis and the book are
publishable materials, that is, produced in conditions to be published. For this reason, they need to
follow ABNT standards ( NBR 14724, 2002; NBR 6023, 2002; NBR 10520, 2002; NBR 6024, 2003;
NBR 6022, 2003 ), and also the guidelines of the university requesting it ( UB, 2015; UBC, 2012;
UNIMES, 2015).
Commonly, the TCC is a mandatory partial requirement for completing an undergraduate
course, in the degree or bachelor's degree. In higher education Technology courses, the TCC is not
mandatory, nor in specialization courses – lato sensu postgraduate courses (as of 2018). In master's
courses, the presentation and approval of a dissertation is mandatory, and in doctoral courses, a thesis.
Both the dissertation and thesis are rigorously evaluated by peers (by academics and professionals
qualified in the topic investigated), they must follow ABNT standards ( NBR 14724, 2002; NBR 6023,
2002; NBR 10520, 2002; NBR 6024, 2003; NBR 6022, 2003 ) and those of the university requesting it
(UB, 2015; UBC, 2012; UNIMES, 2015).
In the specific case of preparing a book, it is not required in any course, but rather prepared and
published on the researcher's free initiative. Even so, to be considered scientific, or critical literature on
a scientific topic, it must follow ABNT standards ( NBR 14724, 2002; NBR 6023, 2002; NBR 10520,
2002; NBR 6024, 2003; NBR 6022, 2003 ) and also the rigor of the scientific research methodology. In
this sense, it is recommended that it be evaluated and approved by peers, for example, through a good
publisher, so that it can be published (UB, 2015; UBC, 2012; UNIMES, 2015).

3.4.3.7.9 Business Plan

 According to Wikipedia (2020, sp, my emphasis), the Business Plan has the following
characteristics:

The Business Plan , also called a business plan , is a document that specifies, in written
language, a business that you want to start or that has already been started.
It is generally written by entrepreneurs, when there is an intention to start a business, but it can
also be used as an internal marketing and management tool. It can be a representation of the
business model to be followed. Gathers tabular and written information about how the business
is or should be.
According to modern thinking, the use of strategic or business plans is a dynamic, systemic,
participatory and continuous process for determining the organization's objectives, strategies
and actions; It is considered a relevant instrument to deal with changes in the internal and
external environment and contribute to the success of organizations. It is a tool that reconciles
strategy with business reality. The business plan is a living document, in the sense that it must
be constantly updated so that it is useful in achieving the objectives of entrepreneurs and their
partners.
The business plan is also used to communicate the content to risk investors, who may decide to
invest resources in the venture.
Business plan "is a work of dynamic planning that describes an enterprise, designs operational
and market insertion strategies and predicts financial results". According to the same author, the
market insertion strategy is perhaps the most important and crucial task in new business
planning.

Therefore, a Business Plan is a type of academic work used to formalize research data.

3.4.3.7.10 Pedagogical Political Project

According to the SomosPar website (2020, sp), a Pedagogical Political Project (PPP) has the
following characteristics:

The Pedagogical Political Project (PPP), also known simply as the pedagogical project, is a
document that must be produced by all schools, according to the National Education Guidelines
and Bases Law (LDBEN).
Although it is widely known in specialized circles, many pedagogical directors and educational
managers have doubts about what the document should contain, how it was created and how it
should be implemented in schools.
In practice, the document stipulates what the institution's objectives are and what the school, in
all its dimensions, will do to achieve them. In it, all areas that make up the educational
environment will be considered, such as:
– The curriculum proposal: it must be clear what will be taught and what methodology will be
adopted . The pedagogical proposal must also include the guidelines adopted by the institution
to evaluate learning, as well as the teaching method itself ;
– Guidelines on teacher training: the document must be clear about how the teaching team will
organize itself to fulfill the curricular proposal. Additionally, there must be a plan for ongoing
team development and training;
 – Guidelines for administrative management: for the curricular proposal and guidelines on
teaching staff to be fulfilled, there must be well-organized administrative support . The
document will point the way for school management to make the other points viable.
In short, the document works as a map for the institution to reach its maximum potential,
adapting to the context in which it operates and contributing to the growth and development of
its students.
The PPP can be presented as a course completion work (TCC) in courses in the educational
area, especially in Pedagogy, with the aim of granting the student the title of Licentiate, or
Bachelor, in their respective area.

Therefore, a PPP is a type of academic work used to formalize research data.

3.4.3.7.11 Software

According to Siteware (2020, sp), software is actually a “set of logical components of a

computer or data processing system; program, routine or set of instructions that control the operation of
a computer; logical support”.
This type of data formalization technique can be appropriately presented as a course completion
work (TCC) in computational science courses, such as Computer Science, Computer Engineering and
Information Systems.

3.4.3.7.12 Building

According to the website Significados (2020, sp), in its broadest sense , the concept of building
“is related to civil construction , meaning the techniques used to construct buildings, whether intended
for housing or commerce. Building techniques change depending on the type of building being
constructed.”
The expression civil construction indicates the construction of infrastructure for the use of some
elements of society.
In its stricto sensu sense , the concept of building represents a building, a civil construction in
itself. In Engineering or Architecture courses, the final work to conclude the course can be presented in
the form of a building, a house, a bridge, a tunnel, a palace, or any other suitable civil construction.

3.4.3.7.13 Scientific article

According to the website Monographs (2020, sp, my emphasis), the main characteristics of a
scientific article are:
 According to ABNT (NBR 6022, 2003, p.2), a scientific article can be defined as a
“publication with declared authorship, which presents and discusses ideas, methods, techniques,
processes and results in different areas of knowledge”. Its purpose is to publicly present the
original results of a given research.
Santos (2007, p. 43) states that “they are generally used as publications in specialized
magazines, in order to disseminate knowledge, communicate results or news regarding a
subject, or even contest, refute or present other solutions to a situation converted.”
As previously mentioned, there is the hypothesis that conciseness is the characteristic that
demarcates the difference between the monograph and the article. Therefore, we need to
understand some assumptions, so that we can confirm or not whether such a hypothesis is true.
The first step is to understand that while in a monograph there is the possibility of detailing a
certain subject, extending it into several chapters, in a scientific article this aspect does not
prevail.
As this is a text that strives for the conciseness of the data presented, it needs to pass a rigorous
correction criterion, in order to verify the structuring of paragraphs and sentences, guarantee the
clarity and objectivity portrayed by the language, among others. Not forgetting to mention that,
in an article, the reviewer needs to be free to position himself in relation to the object of
analysis, taking into account some aspects aimed at analyzing the arguments presented,
checking the scientific value attributed to the text in question, verifying the possibility of
becoming public (being available to other people), confirmation of the possibility of being open
to possible reevaluations based on new discoveries and, consequently, presenting better results,
etc.

Therefore, a scientific article is a type of academic work used to formalize research data.

3.4.3.7.14 Cultural exhibition or – Museum

Depending on the NovoIdeal website (2020, sp, my emphasis), a cultural exhibition, cultural
show, or a museum, is:

[...] the culmination of the Annual Project, carefully chosen by the teaching team, assigning a
subtheme to each university class, with different challenges. A unique event, when students
have the opportunity to share their knowledge and productions, collectively and individually,
with their families and the academic community as a whole, with spaces organized especially
by students in order to give meaning to what was worked on.

The productions carried out by students can be organized in the form of a traveling museum ,
which is a way of temporarily exhibiting the work of students so that the academic community and the
community in general can become aware of them.

3.4.3.8 Specific techniques for presenting data

3.4.3.8.1 Oral presentation

 Oral exposition is carried out, of course, through speech. The researcher presents his research
speaking to the audience. It explains everything from the criteria used to choose the topic, to which
methodologies were chosen, how they were appropriately applied, explains who the research
participants were, what challenges existed during the course of the investigation, what were the pre-
objective results and the actually achieved. Ultimately, the researcher needs to report a little bit of
everything in their oral presentation, which is very common in scientific events, such as congresses,
symposiums, workshops, short courses, etc. (GIFTED, 2015; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI;
LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; LUNA, 2011; 2012).

3.4.3.8.2 Visual exposure

Visual exposure is carried out through some visual resource, such as a banner, a poster, a
banner, a model, a printed or electronic report, etc. Through it, the researcher basically explains the
same things as in the oral presentation: the criteria used to choose the topic, even which methodologies
were chosen, how they were appropriately applied; explains who the research participants were, what
challenges existed during the investigation, what were the pre-objective results and those actually
achieved. The difference is that the researcher here does not speak to the audience, but leaves his work
exposed, in a suitable place at a scientific event, so that they can look, see, read, and draw their own
conclusions (GIFTED, 2015; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; LUNA,
2011; 2012).

3.4.3.8.3 Mixed exposure

Mixed exposition, as the name suggests, is a mix between oral and visual exposition, a little of
each. The researcher presents his work, usually at a scientific event, both talking to the audience and
letting them read it, see it, touch it (when appropriate, for example, a model), and draw his own
conclusions ( GIFTED, 2015; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; LUNA,
2011; 2012).

3.4.4 The types of scientific research

Here, in this section, various types of scientific research are presented, according to some
different classification criteria – such as, for example, by objective –, with the aim of acculturating the
researcher as much as possible, so that he gains confidence in his investigation and in the classification
of the methodologies used in it 21. Furthermore, these classifications are additional, that is, they serve to
complement the classification presented in item 3.4.3 of this book, but never to replace it .

3.4.4.1 Field research

Field research is always carried out on-site and always aims to collect primary data, that is, data
that has not yet been subject to manipulation (RODRIGUES, 2007). Regarding these and other aspects
of field research, Rodrigues (2007, p. 42) emphasizes:

Field research is research that seeks primary sources, in the world of events not provoked or
controlled by the researcher, which is characterized by taking place in a natural environment. It
is a procedure based on direct observation of the object studied in its own environment,
generally without the researcher's interference, or without this interference substantially
modifying the events. It is distinguished from experimental research and in vitro research . [...]
(RODRIGUES, 2007, p. 42)

Therefore, field research takes place in an environment in which the researcher does not
interfere in the functioning of the investigated object.

3.4.4.2 Theoretical or basic research

Theoretical research is the most basic of all types of research, it consists of a review of critical
literature and/or documents that provide data on the investigated topic. It has no practical character
and, for this reason, is essentially qualitative. Regarding these aspects, Rodrigues (2007, p. 41)
explains:

Theoretical or basic is the study that seeks to establish a coherent system of propositions about a
zone of reality [...] it is a set of statements about reality [...] an explanation of the facts [...]
theory seeks to establish functional relationships between variables. Theoretical research does
not seek the solution of practical problems, but the understanding of reality, or its explanation,
or simply describing it [...]

However, based on these assumptions, it can be deduced that theoretical, or basic, research

21 The exorbitant amount of nomenclatures of scientific research methods and techniques contained in the vast
literature on the subject should not, in any way, frighten the researcher, but rather acculturate him to the maximum extent
possible so that he is able to cement his investigation, classifying it and using it appropriately.
actually consists of non-participant observational research, and is even an integral part of all research,
with a greater or lesser degree of complexity.

3.4.4.3 Practical or applied research

Practical, or applied, research has a greater degree of complexity than theoretical, or basic,
research, contrasting with it in terms of the locus of elaboration, research techniques, and purposes.
This is on-site research, that is, carried out in the same location as the object being investigated. It may
consist of research with a qualitative, quantitative or mixed approach. Regarding these aspects,
Rodrigues (2007, p. 42) explains:

Practice, also called applied, is research that seeks solutions to concrete problems. Don't worry
about the abstract. It must be based on theoretical or basic research, but it has its own existence.
The life itself that practical research enjoys is related to the time, often long, in the course of the
history of science, that elapsed from theoretical formulation to its application [...]

However, based on these assumptions, it can be deduced that practical, or applied, research
actually consists of field research, and can make use of participant observational, experimental,
statistical and clinical procedural bases.

3.4.4.4 Original research

Original research is research that results in some scientific discovery. Normally, these studies
are carried out by researchers with extensive studies on and experience with the topic under
investigation. It is common in research theses or dissertations in stricto sensu postgraduate courses –
master’s and doctorate degrees. This does not mean that it is not possible to carry out original research
in a lato sensu undergraduate or postgraduate course completion work, but, as it requires great
academic and professional expertise on the part of the researcher, it is more common in master's
degrees and doctorates.

3.4.4.5 Exploratory research

This type of research, as the name suggests, aims to explore a certain topic. Regarding
exploratory research, some authors on the topic lend us their ideas:
 Exploratory studies allow the researcher to increase their experience around a certain topic. The
researcher starts from a hypothesis and deepens his study within the limits of a specific reality,
seeking background and greater knowledge to then plan descriptive or experimental research.
Other times, you wish to delimit or manage with greater certainty a theory whose statement is
too broad for the objectives of the research you intend to carry out. [...]. (TRIVIÑOS, 1987, p.
109).

Exploratory research aims to clarify what it is about, to recognize the nature of the
phenomenon, to place it in time and space, to inventory its varied manifestations, its constituent
elements or the contiguities present in its manifestation. [...]. (RODRIGUES, 2007, p. 28).

Through exploratory research, the investigator gets to know the object under investigation
closely, before evaluating the possibility and/or need for an experimental procedure.

3.4.4.6 Analytical research

This type of research, as the name suggests, aims to analyze a certain topic. Regarding analytical
research, Rodrigues (2007, p. 28) explains: “ Analytical is the detailed study, focused on details, to
search for interrelationships of the object of study with other objects related to it; or of the internal
parts or factors of said object. [...].”.
Analytical research separates the object (when possible) into smaller parts, and studies them in
detail to understand the whole in greater depth. For this reason, it is widely used in all areas of
knowledge.

3.4.4.7 Synthetic search

This type of research, as the name suggests, aims to synthesize a certain topic. Regarding
synthetic research, Rodrigues (2007, p. 29) lends us his ideas:

Synthetic is the research report that, unlike the analytical one, does not seek details, does not
disassemble the object according to its constituent or intervening elements. The synthetic study,
as the name suggests, seeks to elaborate a synthesis, which can be descriptive, explanatory or
comprehensive, as well as theoretical or practical [...]

Synthetic research is used in essay writing, or preliminary research projects, when you actually
want a synthesis (without details) about the phenomenon or object investigated.

3.4.4.8 Descriptive research

 This type of research, as the name suggests, aims to describe a certain topic. Regarding
descriptive research, some authors on the topic lend us their ideas:

[...] The essential focus of these studies lies in the desire to know the community, its
characteristic features, its people, its problems, its schools, its teachers, its education, its
preparation for work, its values, the problems of illiteracy , malnutrition, curricular reforms,
teaching methods, the occupational market, adolescent problems, etc.
[...] Descriptive studies require the researcher, so that the research has a certain degree of
scientific validity, a precise delimitation of techniques, methods, models and theories that will
guide the collection and interpretation of data. The population and sample must be clearly
delimited, in the same way, the objectives of the study, the terms and variables, the hypotheses,
the research questions, etc.. [...]. (TRIVIÑOS, 1987, p. 109).

Descriptive is the study that presents information, data, inventories of elements, constitutive or
contiguous to the object, saying what it is, what it is composed of, where it is located in time
and space, revealing periodicities, indicating possible regularities or irregularities , measuring,
classifying according to similarities and differences, situating it according to the circumstances
[...]. (RODRIGUES, 2007, p. 29).

Describing without analyzing deeply is the focus of this type of research. Even so, if it is done
well, it can enjoy good scientific status.

3.4.4.9 Explanatory research

This type of research, as the name suggests, aims to explain a certain topic. Regarding
explanatory research, Rodrigues (2007, p. 30) lends us his ideas:

Explanatory is research that seeks cause and effect relationships. It is not enough to look for
relationships of any kind. It is necessary to target those relationships relevant to the causal link.
Therefore, it is not enough to focus, in an anthropological study, on the presence of kinship
relationships between engaged couples in the hinterland of the Northeast, with a certain
frequency, until the middle of the 20th century. The research will only be explanatory if it
points out causes for the aforementioned endogamy. [...]

Therefore, through explanatory research, the causes of the phenomenon investigated, their
consequences and their relationships are sought.

3.4.4.10 Comprehensive search

This type of research, as the name suggests, aims to understand a certain topic. Regarding
comprehensive research, Rodrigues (2007, p. 31) emphasizes:

Comprehensive is the research that seeks the meaning of the observed social action, constituting
 an exercise in hermeneutics, as expressed. The field of application of comprehensive research,
which is to say, of interpretative knowledge, is the subject of much discussion. [...]

Comprehensive research is in its infancy, just as synthetic research is. It seeks, without further
elaboration, to understand the object investigated, at an initial stage, such as when writing an essay or a
preliminary research project.

3.4.4.11 In vitro research

This type of research has a greater degree of complexity, because it requires controlled
conditioning, and is normally used in experimental and clinical studies. Regarding in vitro research,
Rodrigues (2007, p. 43) highlights: “ In vitro research , whose object studied is confined in an artificial
environment, such as a test tube. It has no application in the field of social sciences [...].”
Based on these assumptions, it is deduced that it refers to field research, laboratory research, and
other research.

3.4.4.12 Ex-post-facto research

Regarding ex-post-facto research , Rodrigues (2007, p. 44) says:

Ex-post-facto is the investigation belonging to the category of field research, but which has the
particularity of focusing its observations on an already accomplished fact. That is: it consists of
an attempt to understand, explain, or at least describe a phenomenon that has already occurred,
that is no longer in progress nor has been provoked. [...]

Ex-post-facto research concerns more about the moment than about the way in which the fact,
phenomenon, or object is investigated.

3.4.4.13 Market research

Regarding market research, Rodrigues (2007, p. 44) highlights: “ Market research aims at
consumer behavior in relation to products or services and payment methods, aspects or others of the
world of consumption. [...]”.
Market research is widely used in the business world, by entrepreneurs interested in getting to
know their clientele, their consumption habits, their preferences regarding products and payment
methods, with the aim of building loyalty.

3.4.4.14 Research and development

Regarding research and development, Rodrigues (2007, p. 44) points out:

Research and development aims to create products or services, as well as their improvement. It
is not just investigative, it is characterized by creative effort, aimed at producing hitherto non-
existent solutions to practical problems. It is the field par excellence of technological
development. [...]

Widely used by large companies in the technology sector, this type of research aims to create
new products and services that will solve their customers' everyday problems, thus making a mark on
the market.

3.4.4.15 Oral survey

Regarding oral research, Rodrigues (2007, p. 45) explains:

Oral research, as the name suggests, is that which uses orality as the main source, or as an
instrument for collecting information. It is a form of research that has seen great momentum in
recent years. Widely practiced by anthropologists, always used in forensic investigation, orality
gained the eager support of historians after the orphanhood to which the most theoretical
versions of History were reduced, with the advent of the paradigm crisis. Other branches of
social sciences are turning to orality. [...]

Oral research is quite peculiar to the sciences that use it, whether in Law, in witness hearings, in
Anthropology, or in case studies classified as Life Stories.

3.4.5 The instruments of scientific research

As explained in the previous topic, there are several types of research, varying mainly according
to the purposes and/or the techniques and instruments used. For this reason, it is important to
understand each of them well, as well as their respective techniques and instruments. There are several
instruments that can be used during scientific investigation, with critical literature presenting some in
one bibliography, others in another. Gathering, however, through a comprehensive bibliographic and
documentary review, the most cited, most important or most used, the following eight are presented:

3.4.5.1 Observational protocol

The observational protocol is the instrument specific to observational research. It is a means of

recording the information produced during observation. It could be a notebook, a notepad, or even a
scratch page. The objective is to plan everything that was observed about the research object, its
characteristics, its variations, the possible causes and possible effects of the variations, what was done
during the observation, what was not done during it and what (s) ) their respective why(s). Commonly,
the recording of information in the observational protocol is separated into descriptive notes (what is
actually observed) and reflective notes (the interpretations or reflections of what is observed).
Regarding these aspects, Creswell (2010, p. 2015, emphasis added) confirms:

[...] Researchers often engage in multiple observations over the course of a qualitative study and
use an observational protocol to record information. It can be a single page, with a line
dividing it in half lengthwise to separate the descriptive notes (portraits of participants,
reconstruction of dialogue, description of the physical location, reports of certain events or
activities) from the reflective notes (the personal thoughts of the observer, such as “speculation,
feelings, problems, ideas, hunches, impressions and prejudices” [...]). Demographic information
about the time, place, and date of the field site where the observation occurred can also be
written this way. [...]

Based on the assumptions presented, it can be deduced that the observational protocol is a
fundamental instrument in observational research and that, in order not to hinder or even prevent its
adequate execution, it can only be rendered useless when replaced by another equivalent instrument,
such as the diary. field.

3.4.5.1 Interview protocol

The interview protocol is the research instrument specific to interviews, used in participant
observational research, statistical research and clinical research. This is a means of recording the
information produced during the interviews. It could be a notebook, a diary, a notepad, or even a
scratch page. But it differs from the observational protocol in that it includes the following
components: header, general instructions for the interviewer, questions formulated for the interviewee
to answer, probes for the correct understanding of the answers given, space between the questions to
record the answers and a final thank you. The objective is to plan everything that was answered in the
interviews, whether or not the answers were satisfactory, whether or not the questions were well
formulated, fulfilling the pre-established objectives, whether there is a need to elaborate and apply
other questions so that the pre-established objectives are achieved. duly achieved, etc. Regarding these
aspects, Creswell (2010, p. 216) corroborates:

Use an interview protocol to formulate questions and record responses during a qualitative
interview. This protocol includes the following components:
● A header (with date, location, interviewer's name and interviewee's name).
● Instructions for the interviewer to follow so that standard procedures are used by multiple
interviewers.
● The questions (usually an icebreaker question at the beginning), followed by four to five
questions that are often the subquestions in a qualitative research plan, followed by some
concluding statement or a question such as “Who should I see to learn more about my
questions?"
● Probes for the four to five questions, for follow-up and to ask individuals to explain their
ideas in more detail or to elaborate on what they said.
● Space between questions to record answers.
● A final thank you to recognize the time the interviewee spent during the interview. [...]

Based on the assumptions presented, it can be deduced that the interview protocol is a
fundamental instrument in interviews and that, in order not to hinder or even prevent its proper
execution, it can never be rendered useless.

3.4.5.2 Questionnaire

The questionnaire is the instrument used in interviews, inherent to field research, both
observational and clinical. It is called this because it refers to a means of obtaining answers to
questions, or questions, previously prepared in order to resolve the researcher's doubts so that he can
achieve the pre-established objectives of his investigation. Regarding this research instrument, some
authors lend us their ideas:

Questionnaire is a method of collecting data in the field, of interacting with the field composed
of an ordered series of questions regarding variables and situations that the researcher wishes to
investigate. Such questions are presented to a respondent, in writing, so that he or she can also
respond in that way, regardless of whether the presentation and response is on paper or on a
computer. The choice of medium is always up to the researcher. (VERGARA, 2012, p. 39)

The questionnaire is the most used way to collect data, as it makes it possible to measure what
is desired with greater accuracy. In general, the word questionnaire refers to a means of
obtaining answers to questions through a formula that the informant fills in himself. Thus,
anyone who filled out a job application had the experience of answering a questionnaire. It
contains a set of questions, all logically related to a central problem.
[...]
The questionnaire can be sent by mail, delivered to the respondent or administered by prepared
 and selected elements. [...]
Every questionnaire must be impersonal in nature to ensure uniformity in the assessment from
one situation to another. It has the advantage of respondents feeling more confident, given their
anonymity, which makes it possible to collect more real information and answers (which may
not happen in the interview). [...] (CERVO; BERVIAN, 2002, p. 48).

Regarding the ways in which the questionnaire is used, Vergara (2012, p. 39-40) highlights:

If you choose to use mail, the researcher must include a stamped envelope with the name and
address of the researcher written (recipient), in order to facilitate the return of the questionnaire
and not cause financial burden to the respondent. To ensure anonymity, it is prudent not to
include the sender's name.
But the researcher can also choose to use a carrier. In this case, the questionnaire must also be
returned.
Along with the questionnaire, a note or letter should be sent explaining the nature of the
research, its importance and the need to obtain responses, in an attempt to arouse the interest of
the recipient, so that he or she completes and returns the questionnaire within a reasonable
period of time. .
If choosing electronic means, the researcher can send the questionnaire by e-mail, or make it
available on their own web pages, using hypertext markup language (HTML), the language of
the Web, and host it on one of several specialized websites such as <www.vista-survey.com>.
[...].

There are great advantages of using electronic media to obtain data via questionnaire
(VERGARA, 2012). Among the most important, we can mention the ease of communicating with
interviewees and organizing the data obtained, coding, categorizing or tabulating them. In addition to
being possible to increase the number of respondents, through virtual invitations to other users of the
same website, it is also possible to build protective boxes, preventing the respondent from marking
more than one answer, when the researcher only wants one. Electronically, responses can be processed
instantly and organized using appropriate statistical software , such as SAS, SPSS and Minitab, or even
in an electronic spreadsheet such as Excel or Calc.
Questionnaires can be classified according to the type of questions contained in them. For
example, if the questions are open-ended, then the questionnaire is called open-ended or non-
standardized. If the questions are closed, then the questionnaire is called closed or standardized. And if
there is a combination of open and closed questions, then the questionnaire is called mixed
(DENCKER; VIÁ, 2012; RICHARDSON, 2007).
Regarding the classification of questionnaires, Vergara (2012) highlights that there are open
ones, closed ones – also called surveys and mixed ones. In this sense, summarizing the author’s words
(VERGARA, 2012, p. 40, my emphasis), we have:

In the first, that is, the open ones, the respondent is asked open questions , without presenting
possible answers. [...]
In closed questionnaires, closed questions are presented in which the respondent marks with a
symbol, for example an X, or with numbers. They are suitable for a larger number of
 respondents and for research whose approach is quantitative. [...]
Mixed questionnaires , as the name suggests, present open and closed questions. [...]

It is also noteworthy that questionnaires can be used in conjunction with social scales, through
scaled closed questions (VERGARA, 2012). Based on the assumptions presented, it can also be
deduced that the questionnaire is a fundamental instrument in interviews and that, in order not to hinder
or even prevent its proper execution, it can only be rendered useless when replaced by another
equivalent instrument, such as the form.

3.4.5.3 Form

A form is a pre-printed document where data and information are filled in, which allows the
formalization of communications, registration and control of the activities of organizations, such as
companies or state institutions.
organization and methods activity is what provides the support for the preparation and control
of forms. According to Wikipedia (FORMULÁRIO, 2020, my emphasis), there are the following types
of forms:

The) Plans: these are forms whose fields are designed and pre-printed on standardized paper ;
b) Continuous : they are also drawn up on paper, and intended to be completed by computer
printers , on a large scale. The design of these forms is carried out using spacing templates that
allow printing according to the characteristics and needs of the computer and the respective
printer;
c) Electronic : they are created by application software , allowing processing in your
organization through computer networks and computing centers, eliminating the use of paper.
This type of form is widespread among organizations that use Internet resources , making forms
available on their websites to be filled out by their customers in order to make their purchases
through their respective computers duly connected to the worldwide web; It is
d) PDF forms: these are fillable PDF forms. They can be generated by professional software
(Adobe.com). There are websites that convert a regular PDF into an electronic form.

Based on the assumptions presented, it can be deduced that the form is a fundamental
instrument in interviews and that, in order not to hinder or even prevent its proper execution, it can only
be rendered useless when replaced by another equivalent instrument, such as the questionnaire.

3.4.5.4 Field diary

The field diary is the instrument used in field research, whether participant observational,
experimental, statistical or clinical. It is a means of recording the information produced during the
researcher's work in the field. Although it is called a diary, it can be, in addition to a diary, a notebook,
a notebook, or even a draft page. But it differs from the observational protocol for two reasons: first,
because it is not used in non-participant observational research; and secondly, because, in the field
diary, the information does not necessarily need to be recorded manually, and can be recorded on CDs,
DVDs, tapes, pendrives, chips, photographs or digital footage, etc. However, the objective is the same:
to plan everything that was observed about the research object, its characteristics, its variations, the
possible causes and possible effects of the variations, what was done during the field work, what was
not done during it and the respective reason(s). Regarding these aspects, Barros and Lehfeld (2007, p.
105) explain:

During the development of the research, when the researcher goes to the field to collect data, it
is very important to use a field diary. It is the record of facts verified through notes and/or
observations.
Currently, there are several procedures for carrying out these records. They can be made by
hand, recorded on cassette tapes, video tapes or recorded through digital or non-digital
photographs and on CD-ROMs. When he does not have many technical and financial resources
to carry out the research, the researcher ends up using a hardcover notebook, which will serve
as a data collection procedure, as it records general information that will assist in the subsequent
analysis of the recorded data. , for example.
Necessarily, the researcher must always write down in his field diary the daily activities and
those not carried out, as their justifications. [...]

Based on the assumptions presented, it can be deduced that the field diary is a fundamental
instrument in field research and that, in order not to hinder or even prevent its proper execution, it can
only be rendered useless when replaced by another equivalent instrument, such as the observational
protocol.

3.4.5.5 Tests

Tests are research instruments specific to clinical research, almost always following social
scales in the testing process. They are commonly used in research in the area of health sciences, such as
Medicine, Psychology, Nursing, Occupational Therapy, Dentistry, Physiotherapy, Speech Therapy,
Nutrition, Physical Education, Biomedical Engineering, etc. About this research instrument, Gil (1999,
p. 150) says:

Tests are applied in the most diverse fields of human activity, as there is always a need to put
something to the test. In the sciences, particularly, testing is widely required. However, in this
domain the meaning of test is much more precise, as it involves the meaning of measurement.
Thus, applying a test means measuring, that is, comparing a given criterion.
 There are many criteria for classifying tests. Regarding this aspect, Gil (1999, p. 152-153) lists
the main ones:

a) According to use or employment: individual; collectives; self-administered;

b) Depending on the presentation method: pencil and paper; verbal; non-verbal; mixed; of
accomplishment or execution; using projections or television.
c) According to the approach: analytical; synthetics; syncretic.
d) According to the object: efficiency (intelligence, artistic, motor, mechanical, sensory,
professional skills, etc.); personality (interests, attitudes, values, etc.); of schooling.
e) Depending on the nature of the function: capacity; of involution; of deterioration.
f) According to the type of construction: f1) with reference to internal construction: tests
consisting of a single type of test; organized tests with varied tasks, items or tests; f2) with
reference to external construction: isolated tests; batteries or scales.

Based on these assumptions, it can be deduced that tests are essential instruments for clinical
studies, especially during the testing process.

3.4.5.6 Social scales

Social scales are research instruments specific to clinical research, almost always
accompanying tests in the testing process. More than that, they are normally used during the test, often
as the main testing instrument. They are commonly used in research in the area of health sciences, such
as Medicine, Psychology, Nursing, Occupational Therapy, Dentistry, Physiotherapy, Speech Therapy,
Nutrition, Physical Education, Biomedical Engineering, etc. Regarding this research instrument, Gil
(1999, p. 139) explains:

Social scales are instruments built with the aim of measuring the intensity of opinions and
attitudes in the most objective way possible. Although they are presented in the most diverse
forms, they basically consist of asking the individual being researched to select, within a
graduated series of items, those that best correspond to their perception of the researched fact.

The main social scales, according to Vergara (2012), are: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.
The author points out that the ratio scale can be classified into seven types, namely: the simple
category, the multiple choice, the multiple response, the Likert scales, the semantic differential, the
numerical scales, the constant sum scales and the scales of ranking. In this tone, summarizing the
author's words (VERGARA, 2012, p. 49-60, . My notes), the scales mentioned below are presented:

Nominal scale is one in which numbers identify objects, such as respondents or households in a
sample. In this case, the numbers are just labels and have no quantitative value. But the possible
arithmetic operation is the count of the members of each group, that is, the frequency
 distribution. Marital status, sex, age group and others can be classified. [...]
Ordinal scale is one in which numbers indicate the relative position of objects. They include
opinions and preference, but not the magnitude of difference between objects, that is, they do
not indicate how much one object is preferable to another.
Interval scale is the one that incorporates the concept of interval equity and allows comparing
differences between objects, without a fixed zero point. [...] The zero point on one scale is not
the same as on the other. [...]
A ratio scale is one that has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales and an
absolute zero point, which allows the researcher to identify or classify objects. Ratio scales are,
for example, money values, distances, productivity index and others. [...]

Regarding the disadvantages of social scales, Gil (1999) lists six basic problems, namely: a)
definition of a continuum; b) reliability; c) validity; d) weighting of items; e) nature of the items; and,
f) equality of units. Next, the author (GIL, 1999, p. 143-148. G, my emphasis) presents six types of
social scales which, in summary, are:

1. Ordering scales
These scales are made up of a series of words or statements that subjects must order according
to their acceptance or rejection. For example, people can be asked to rank a series of
nationalities according to their relationship preference. [...]
2. Graduation scales
Grading scales present a continuum of possible attitudes towards a given issue. Attitude
statements correspond to degrees, which indicate greater or lesser favorability. [...]
3. Social distance scales
These scales are used to establish distance relationships between attitudes towards certain social
groups. [...]
4. Thurstone Scale
The Thurstone scale [...] constitutes the first experience of measuring attitudes based on an
interval scale. Despite the criticisms that have been made against it and the fact that it has fallen
into disuse, this scale is often taken as the methodological basis for procedures for measuring
attitudes [...]
5. Likert Scale
The Likert scale is based on Thurstone's. It is, however, simpler to elaborate and of an ordinal
nature, therefore not measuring how much an attitude is more or less favorable. [...]
6. Semantic differential
The semantic differential is a technique created by Osgood, Suci and Tannembaum [...], whose
objective is to measure the meaning that a certain object has for people. In this sense it can be
considered as an attitude scale. Any concept can be evaluated: an ethnicity, a person, a political
institution, a work of art, etc.

Based on the assumptions presented, it can be deduced that social scales are essential
instruments for clinical studies, especially during the testing process.

3.4.5.7 Bibliographies

Bibliographies are sources of secondary data, that is, those that have already been manipulated,
consisting of interpretations of original data on a given topic, which is called critical literature . These
are the instruments specific to bibliographic surveys. They mainly accompany non-participant
observational research, but they are useful and necessary with theoretical lenses from all types of
research to survey their theoretical framework. They basically consist of books and academic works in
general, such as TCCs, monographs, dissertations, theses, scientific articles, scientific reviews, research
projects, etc. (GIL, 1999; SEVERINO, 2007; RODRIGUES, 2007).
Based on the assumptions presented, it can be deduced that bibliographies are essential
instruments for bibliographic surveys, necessary for all types of research.

3.4.5.8 Documents

Documents are sources of primary data, that is, those that have not yet been subjected to some
type of manipulation . These are the instruments specific to documentary surveys. They are classified
into personal documents, institutional records, statistical records and mass communication in general,
that is, TV, radio, newspapers, magazines, internet, etc. Regarding this research instrument, Gil (1999,
p. 160) highlights: “ 'Paper' sources are often capable of providing the researcher with sufficiently rich
data to avoid wasting time with field surveys, not to mention that in many In these cases, social
investigation is only possible based on documents.”
Typifying the documents used in this type of technique, Gil (1999, p. 160-165. My emphasis)
presents four, namely:

1) Statistical records
[...] Government entities such as the IBGE Foundation have data relating to the socioeconomic
characteristics of the Brazilian population, such as: age, sex, family size, education level,
occupation, income level, etc. Health bodies provide data on the incidence of diseases, causes of
death, etc. An entity such as the Inter-Union Department of Statistics and Socioeconomic
Studies has data on unemployment, wages, strikes, labor negotiations, etc. Voluntary
organizations have data regarding their members and also the populations they serve. Research
institutes linked to the most diverse fields of knowledge. Furthermore, an increasing number of
entities are concerned with maintaining databases. This occurs in hospitals, schools, social
service agencies, professional associations, public offices, etc.
[...]
2) Written institutional records
In addition to statistical records, written records provided by government institutions can also be
useful for social research. These data include: bills, reports from government bodies, minutes of
meetings of legislative houses, court rulings, documents registered at notary offices, etc. [...]
3) Personal documents
There are a series of writings dictated on the initiative of its author that provide relevant
information about his personal experience. Letters, diaries, memoirs and autobiographies are
some of these documents that can be of great value in social research.
[...]
4) Mass communication
 Mass communication documents, such as newspapers, magazines, film tapes, radio and
television programs, constitute an important source of data for social research. They enable the
researcher to learn about the most varied aspects of current society and also deal with the
historical past. In the latter case, with efficiency probably greater than that obtained using any
other data source. [...]

Based on the assumptions presented, it can be deduced that documents are specific instruments
and, therefore, essential for documentary surveys, necessary for all types of research.
More than that, a well-conducted documentary survey can – just as much as a bibliographical
survey conducted in the same way – produce pertinent, relevant, significant results for the advancement
of Science, as this work demonstrates from its beginning to its end.

3.5 Conclusions22

Scientific research has great social importance due to its power to transform society, solving
problems and restructuring economic, political, technological, cultural, social and even scientific
processes. For example, the great social and industrial revolutions that have occurred in recent
centuries were based on scientific discoveries (KÖCKE, 1997).
The method is a very important element for the development of science because it, when
appropriate to the research objective, the object of study and the problem, directs the research in the
correct way towards knowledge of the truth, maximizing the results obtained and minimizing time
spent on obtaining it. In this vein, the following words by Soares (2003, p. 13) can be taken into
account:

As an example of the importance of the method for the development of science, it can be
remembered that, in the 19th century, aiming to study neurons, the Italian doctor Camilo Golgi
developed a silver staining method that, under a microscope, revealed the entire structure of a
neuron. neuron, including the cell body and its two main types of projection or extension:
dendrites and axons. Using the Golgi silver staining method, Spanish histologist Santiago
Ramón y Cajal was able to mark individual cells, thus showing that neural tissue was not a
continuous mass, but a network of distinct cells.
Today, there are countless advanced methods for studying the nervous system, which are used
in accordance with the objective of the research, the object of study and the problem. For
example, one of the methods used to study the nervous system is the method of producing
selective lesions through the multiple and typical application of drugs (neurotoxins) or even
through the application of radiation, with the purpose of studying the effects of a given injury
on an animal's behavior.

22 For more information about the synthesis of the three pillars of scientific research methodology, please check the
scientific article entitled “The three pillars of scientific research methodology: a literature review”, published in Ágora
magazine , nº 1, December 2015, and available on the website:
https://periodicos.unimesvirtual.com.br/index.php/formacao/article/view/531. Accessed on: May 3, 2020.
 For these reasons, properly carrying out scientific research has become a very serious and
respected task, inside and outside the academic context. Higher education and research institutions
began to adopt more rigorous methods of evaluating their researchers as well as their respective
scientific productions. Studies on the topic gained greater dissemination and prominence (SOARES,
2003; TEIXEIRA, 2012).
However, despite the great advances in science, especially in recent centuries, its hypothetical
nature makes it provisional, unfinished and fallible, as Soares (2003, p. 13-14) points out:

Thus, it can be stated that scientific knowledge is a true and justified belief, a fact that leads us
to believe that knowledge is essentially correlated with the truth.
Despite this statement, one cannot forget that science is not considered as something ready,
finished or definitive. It is not the possession of absolute and immutable truths, but a constant
search for explanations and solutions, for reviewing results.
Within these limits, the justification of scientific theories is an element of the search for truth
(even if it is known that the absolute truth of things in their ontological or even empirical sense
will never be achieved). This justification is only built based on a path specific to each science,
or, in other words, on the scientific method, which presents itself as a means, a path to the
search for truth.

The way in which the three pillars of scientific research were approached in this work forms a
more complete, comprehensive, clear and reliable theoretical-methodological framework on the topic,
in order to facilitate its understanding and use, as originally planned.

4. CONCLUSIONS AND FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

4.1 Conclusions

The pillars of scientific research methodology, presented in this work, have already been
explained, in part, by the vast existing critical literature on this topic. But there is no other work that, in
itself, brings them all together in such a coherent, consistent and clear way as this one does. This is
why, after detailed explanations of each of them throughout this work, below are some tables that
summarize their final conclusions:

Table 713 – Summary of the levels of scientific research and their respective study focuses

LEVELS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND THEIR RESPECTIVE FOCUS OF STUDY

 THE EPISTEMOLOGICAL LEVEL

Considers the criteria or mechanisms of scientificity, or truth.

Studies the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic truths of science.

THE GNOSIOLOGICAL LEVEL

Considers the research subjects and their relationships with the investigated object.

It studies the research subjects, examiners, assistants and target audience.

THE ONTOLOGICAL LEVEL

Considers the research objects, their delimitation and their characterization.

Study the types of research objects.

THE THEORETICAL LEVEL

Considers the sources of the research and the contributions of the data collected.

Studies the reliability of research sources and the contribution of their data.

THE METHODOLOGICAL LEVEL

It considers the three fundamental methodological axes of scientific research, namely:

epistemological, logical and technical.

Studies the epistemological, logical and technical bases of scientific research.

THE TECHNICAL LEVEL

It considers the seven fundamental stages of scientific research, namely: collection, recording,
systematization, organization, analysis or interpretation, formalization and presentation of data.

Studies the general and specific techniques of scientific research.

THE ETHICAL LEVEL

Considers the principles and values of the subjects of scientific research.

 Studies the standards inherent to good conduct and practices throughout the scientific research
process.

Source: prepared by the author

Furthermore, the clarity presented here facilitates the understanding and use of all approaches,
methods, techniques and instruments used during scientific research, always taking into account its
elements and assumptions. In this sense, the ways of characterizing scientific research can be
summarized as shown in the following table:

Table 812 – Summary of ways of characterizing scientific research

THE THREE PILLARS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

THE EPISTEMOLOGICAL PILLAR

The main epistemological bases of scientific investigation are three, namely: the
phenomenological-hermeneutic method or approach, the empirical-analytical method or
approach and the critical-dialectic (or historical-structural) method or approach . However, each
area of knowledge has its own paradigms, or its own epistemological bases.

THE LOGICAL PILLAR

Scientific research approaches are: qualitative , quantitative and mixed .

inductive method , which, in turn, is subdivided into syllogistic-inductive, semantic-inductive and

pragmatic-inductive; and the deductive method , which, in turn, is subdivided into axiomatic-
deductive, hypothetical-deductive and syllogistic-deductive; and the abductive method .

The sequential strategies of the research phases are:

In qualitative research: there is no classification yet.

In quantitative research: there is no classification yet.
In mixed research: the sequential explanatory strategy , the sequential exploratory strategy , the
sequential transformative strategy , the concurrent triangulation strategy , the concurrent
embedded strategy , and the concurrent transformative strategy .

THE TECHNICAL PILLAR

The procedural bases of the research are observational, experimental, statistical and clinical,
as specified below:

Observational: participant (action research, participant ethnography, participant biography,

 on-site case studies, on-site interview, etc.) or non-participant (bibliographic survey, documentary
survey, non-participant ethnography, non-participant biography, ex loco case studies , ex loco
interview etc.).
Experimental: case studies (field research), in vitro research , etc.
Statistics: market research, ethnography, case studies (field research) etc.
Clinical: in vitro research , case studies (field research) etc.

Scientific research techniques, classified according to the purpose of their use, can be general
or specific, namely:

General collection techniques: observation: direct, or participant (action research,

participant ethnography, participant biography, on-site case studies, on-site interviews , etc.);
indirect, non-participant (bibliographical survey, documentary survey, non-participant ethnography,
non-participant biography, ex loco case studies , ex loco interview , etc.); experimentation ; sampling
(or sample survey); testing etc.
Specific collection techniques: observational protocol, scientific reading, etc.
Specific recording techniques: manual planning, electronic planning;
Specific systematization techniques: simple string search , advanced string search ,
inclusion/exclusion factors, etc.;
Specific organization techniques: scientific reading, coding, categorization, tabulation, etc.
Specific analysis or interpretation techniques: discourse analysis (AD), content analysis
(AC), scientific reading, Bibliometric Analysis (AB), etc.
Specific formalization techniques: TCC, dissertation, thesis, book, scientific article,
scientific review, scientific summary, building, museum, model, Business Plan, Pedagogical
Political Project, etc.
Specific presentation techniques: oral exposition, visual exposition, mixed exposition.

The instruments of scientific research are: the observational protocol , the interview
protocol , the questionnaire , the form , the field diary , the bibliographies , the documents , the
tests , the social scales , etc.

TECHNICAL NOTES

1) All research can be explanatory, descriptive, comparative or exploratory.

2) Not all research is basic, or applied, or synthetic, or analytical, or original.

3) All scientific investigations are based on bibliographic and/or documentary surveys.

Bibliographic and documentary surveys are observational research. Therefore, all scientific
investigations are observational research, a priori .
Source: prepared by the author

The two hypotheses originating from this research were: 1. through a good bibliographic and
documentary survey, it is possible to eliminate much of the terminological, conceptual, taxonomic and
content imprecision found in the vast literature on scientific research methodology, as well as
promoting its complementarities ; and, 2. through the detailed study of the main bibliographies and
documents on a given topic, it is possible to reach its state of the art, that is, its current state. Both were
confirmed true through the results achieved by this work.
The research modalities presented in this work – also called in the critical literature logical
means of investigation, procedural methods, or simply research methods – are the main ones cited by
the greatest past and present authorities on the topic of scientific research methodology. Above all, it is
up to the research subject and, by extension, whoever else participates in the research, to choose the
appropriate research modality, always taking into account the nature and characteristics of the object of
investigation, the time and content to be carried out. be covered, as well as ethics at all stages of this
process.
Regarding ethics in scientific research, it is the driving element of authentic scientificity. Work
not guided by ethics does not deserve, cannot and should not be considered scientific. Only ethical
researchers deserve respect for the quality of the research produced. Scientific integrity must be the
main pillar evaluated by higher education institutions (HEIs) and research when providing guidance to
their student or teaching researchers. Practices to combat scientific misconduct must be disseminated
and defended by HEIs and researchers in their research. Codes of Ethics, both national and
international, need to be respected.
Science is progressing. However, there are barriers that impede greater scientific progress, the
main ones being imperfect human interpretations and poor adaptations and/or applications of research
methods by researchers. Mastery of the vernacular language and the appropriate use of the three pillars
of scientific research, presented in this present work, fulfill the role of facilitating its achievement and
mitigating the distorting effects of human imperfection, maximizing the quality of what is called
science, aiming at the production of reasonably secure, valid, true knowledge.

4.2 Final considerations

It is worth noting that, when referring to the pillars of scientific research methodology, the
author of the present work draws attention to two key aspects: first, the constituent bases of science,
such as the well-tooled and well-cemented columns that support a building, without which its structure
weakens, that is, the scientificity of the research is attenuated to the point of becoming vulnerable to
any test of falsifiability; and second, that the content presented here does not exhaust the topic
investigated, consisting of what the author considers to be the most important and necessary in the
process of scientific investigation, thus leaving room for further deepening.
 Finally, it is undoubted that, by reviewing in such a comprehensive way the critical literature on
the subject and by presenting it with maximum clarity and objectivity, the author fulfills his purpose of
demystifying the process of scientific research, showing that, despite its development being quite
laborious and rigorous in terms of technical standards for preparation and presentation, it is a relatively
simple and completely achievable task for every researcher, even if incipient, and which becomes
increasingly more enjoyable as that he/she gains mileage in this fantastic experience.

5 REFERENCES

5.1 Test execution corpus23

BARROS, Aidil Jesus da Silveira; LEHFELD, Neide Aparecida de Souza. Fundamentals of

scientific methodology . 3rd ed. São Paulo: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. 158 p.

BARROS, Aidil Jesus da Silveira; LEHFELD, Neide Aparecida de Souza. Fundamentals of

scientific methodology : a guide for scientific initiation. 2nd ed. amp. São Paulo: Mackron Books,
2000. 122 p.

BÊRNI, Duilio de Avila; FERNANDEZ, Brena Paula Magro. Research methods and
techniques : modeling business sciences. São Paulo: Saraiva, 2012. 440 p.

CHAUI, Marilena. Invitation to philosophy . 13. ed. 7. print São Paulo: Affiliated, 2008. 424
p.

CRESWELL, John W. Research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods.

Translated by Magda Lopes. 3rd ed. Porto Alegre: Artmed, 2010. 296 p.

ECO, Umberto. How to make a thesis . Translated by Gilson César Cardoso de Souza. 24. ed.
São Paulo: Perspectiva, 2012. 174 p.

EL-GUINDY, Moustafa M. Methodology and ethics in scientific research . São Paulo:

Editora Santos, 2004. 175 p.

23 These were the references that I used when preparing an article, with the same name as this book, but only as a
rehearsal for later elaboration of this work.
 GIL, Antônio Carlos. How to design research projects . 5. ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 2010. 184 p.

GIL, Antônio Carlos. Methods and techniques of social research . 5. ed. São Paulo: Atlas,
1999. 206 p.

GILES, Thomas Ransom. Introduction to philosophy . São Paulo: EPU/USP, 1979. 324 p.

KÖCHE, José Carlos. Fundamentals of scientific methodology : theory of science and

initiation to research. Petrópolis: Vozes, 1997. 182 p.

MARTINS, Gilberto de Andrade. Case study : a research strategy. 2nd ed. São Paulo: Atlas,
2008. 101 p.

MARCONI, Marina de Andrade; LAKATOS, Eva Maria. Fundamentals of scientific

methodology . 5. ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 2003. 311 p.

MARCONI, Marina de Andrade; LAKATOS, Eva Maria. Research Techniques . 6. ed. São
Paulo: Atlas, 2007. 289 p.

MARCONI, Marina de Andrade; LAKATOS, Eva Maria.. Research techniques : planning and
executing research, sampling and research techniques, preparation, analysis and interpretation of data.
São Paulo: Atlas, 2008. 277 p.

MENEZES, Djacir. Preparation for the scientific method : brief introduction to modern
philosophy, epistemological problems, science as a historical-cultural process of adaptation. Preface by
Arthur Ramos. Rio de Janeiro: Brazilian civilization, 1938. 342 p.

PIAGET, Jean. Psychology and epistemology : towards a theory of knowledge. 1st ed. Rio de
Janeiro: Forense Rio, 1973. 158 p

RODRIGUES, Auro de Jesus. Scientific methodology : complete and essential for university
life. São Paulo: Avercamp, 2006. 217 p.

SEVERINO, Antônio Joaquim. Methodology of scientific work . 23. ed. São Paulo: Cortez,
2007. 304 p.

SOARES, Edvaldo. Scientific methodology : logic, epistemology and norms. São Paulo: Atlas,
2003. 138 p.

TEIXEIRA, Elizabeth. The three methodologies : academic, science and research. 9. ed.
Petrópolis: Vozes, 2012. 203 p.

THIOLLENT, Michael. Action research methodology . 12. ed. São Paulo: Cortez, 2003.
(Collection of basic action research themes).

THIOLLENT, Michael. Action research methodology . 18. ed. São Paulo: Cortez, 2011. 136
p.
 TRIVIÑOS, Augusto N. S. Introduction to social science research: qualitative research in
education. 1st ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 1987. 175 p.

VANCONCELLOS, Maria Esteves de. Systems Thinking : the new paradigm of science. 9. ed.
Campinas: Papirus, 2010. 267 p.

VERGARA, Sylvia Constant. Field data collection methods . 2nd ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 2012.
98 p.

YIN, Robert K. Case Study : planning and methods. Translated by Ana Thorell. Technical
review by Claudio Damacena. 4th ed. Porto Alegre: Bookman, 2010. 248 p.

5.2 Definitive execution corpus24

ABDUCTION (philosophical logic). In: Wikipedia. São Paulo: Wikipedia, 2020. Available at
<https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_(l%C3%B3gica_ filos%C3%B3fica)>.
Accessed on: 25 September. 2020.

ALMEIDA, Maria Aparecida de Andrade; FUNARI, Pedro Paulo A.. Biblical exegesis:
advantages, disadvantages, limits and contributions in the modern interpretation of the Bible.
Caminhos , Goiânia, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 45-57, Jan./Jun. 2016. Available at <http://seer.
pucgoias.edu.br/index.php/caminhos/article/view/4823/2690>. Accessed on August 15, 2021.

ALMEIDA, Mário de Souza. Project preparation, TCC, dissertation and thesis : a simple,
practical and objective approach. São Paulo: Atlas, 2011. 80 p.

ANGROSINO, Michael. Ethnography and participant observation . Translated by José

Fonseca. Porto Alegre: Artmed, 2009. 138 p.

ABNT. BRAZILIAN ASSOCIATION OF TECHNICAL STANDARDS. NBR 14724 :

information and documentation – academic works – presentation. Rio de Janeiro, 2002.

ABNT. BRAZILIAN ASSOCIATION OF TECHNICAL STANDARDS. NBR 6023 :

information and documentation – references – preparation. Rio de Janeiro, 2002.

ABNT. BRAZILIAN ASSOCIATION OF TECHNICAL STANDARDS. NBR 10520 :

information and documentation – citations in documents – presentation. Rio de Janeiro, 2002.

ABNT. BRAZILIAN ASSOCIATION OF TECHNICAL STANDARDS. NBR 6024 :

information and documentation – progressive numbering of sections of a written document –
presentation. Rio de Janeiro, 2003.

ABNT. BRAZILIAN ASSOCIATION OF TECHNICAL STANDARDS. NBR 6022 :

information and documentation – article in printed scientific periodical publication – presentation. Rio
de Janeiro, 2003.

24 These were the references that I used in the execution of this book, in addition to those used in the execution of the
article referred to in the previous footnote.
 BACHA, Maria de Lourdes. Peirce critical of Mill : on the realist and nominalist contexts of
induction. 1999. Thesis (Doctorate in Communication and Semiotics) – Pontifical Catholic University,
São Paulo, 1999. 419 p. Available at:
https://tede2.pucsp.br/bitstream/handle/5280/1/MARIA%20DE%20LOURDES%20BACHA.pdf.
Accessed on: 15 April. 2020.

BARROS, Aidil Jesus da Silveira; LEHFELD, Neide Aparecida de Souza. Fundamentals of

scientific methodology : a guide for scientific initiation. 2nd ed. amp. São Paulo: Mackron Books,
2000. 122 p.

BARROS, Aidil Jesus da Silveira; LEHFELD, Neide Aparecida de Souza . Fundamentals of

scientific methodology . 3rd ed. São Paulo: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. 158 p.

BÊRNI, Duilio de Avila; FERNANDEZ, Brena Paula Magro. Research methods and
techniques : modeling business sciences. São Paulo: Saraiva, 2012. 440 p.

BIMESTRE SON, Gino. Towards learning : scientific methodology. Taubaté: Cabral Editora e
Livraria Universidade, 2003. 123 p.

BOOTH, Wayne C.; COLOMB, Gregory G.; WILLIAMS, Joseph M. The art of research .
Translated by Henrique A. Rego Monteiro. 2nd ed. São Paulo: Martins Fontes, 2005. 351 p.

CERVO, Amado L.; BERVIAN, Pedro A.. Scientific methodology . 5. ed. São Paulo: Pearson
Prentice Hall, 2002. 242 p.

CERVO, Amado L.; BERVIAN, Pedro A.; DA SILVA, Roberto. Scientific methodology . 6.
ed. São Paulo: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. 162 p.

CHAUI, Marilena. Invitation to philosophy . 13. ed. São Paulo: Affiliated, 2005. 424 p.

CHIAVENATO, Idalberto. Introduction to General Management Theory : a comprehensive

view of modern organizational management. 7. ed. rev. and current. Rio de Janeiro: Elsevier, 2003.

CNPQ. National Council for Scientific and Technological Development. Normative

Resolution nº 006/12 . Brasília: CNPQ, 2012. Available at: http://cnpq.br/diretrizes. Accessed on: 25
April. 2020.

Electronic component. In: Wikipedia. São Paulo: Wikipedia, 2020. Available at

<https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Componente_eletr%C3%B4nico#:~:text=Portal%20da%20
Eletr%C3%B4nica,que%20est%C3% A3o%20interligados%20entre%20si.>. Accessed on: 25
September. 2020.

COSTA, Angelo Brandelli; ZOLTOWSKI, Ana Paula Couto. How to write a systematic
review article. [sl]: ResearchGate, 2014. 16 p. Available at
<https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323255862_Como_epilar_um_artigo_de_revisao_sistematic
a>. Accessed on May 21, 2021.

CRESWELL, John W. Research design : qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods.

Translated by Magda Lopes. 3rd ed. Porto Alegre: Artmed, 2010. 296 p.

DAVID ALPA. Abductive, inductive and deductive reasoning. São Paulo: David Alpa, 2017.
Available at < https://www.davidalpa.com/blog/raciocinio-abdutivo-indutivo-e-deduti
vo/?fbclid=IwAR3zj2xIXh38sE7lc80AfgTwHTw44_2U19UwDgs47olmKZ8dOp57ZoE0fno >.
Accessed on: May 8, 2020.

DÉBORA, Regina Soares de Oliveira et al . The hypothetical deductive method in elementary

school: a practical proposal for teaching Natural Sciences on the topic of plant transpiration.
REAMEC Magazine , Cuiabá, v. 6, no. Special, ten. 2018. ISSN: 2318-6674.

DEMO, Pedro. Introduction to Sociology : complexity, interdisciplinarity and social

inequality. São Paulo: Atlas, 2002.

DEMO, Pedro. Social research. Revista Social e Realidade , Franca, v. 17, no. 1, p. 11-36,
2008.

DEMO, Pedro. Introduction to Science Methodology . 2nd ed. 21. reprint. São Paulo: Atlas,
2013. 118 p.

DENCKER, Ada de Freitas Maneti; VIÁ, Sarah Chucid. Scientific methodology : empirical
research in human sciences. 2nd ed. São Paulo: Saraiva, 2012. 190 p.

DINIZ, Célia Regina; DA SILVA, Iolanda Barbosa. Reading : analysis and interpretation.
Natal: UEPB/UFRN, 2008. 20 p. Available at: www.ead.uepb.edu.br/ava/.../Met_Cie_ A06_
M_WEB_310708.pdf. Accessed on: 13 Aug. 2014.

ECO, Umberto. How to make a thesis . Translated by Gilson César Cardoso de Souza. São
Paulo: Perspectiva, 2012. 24. ed. 174 p.

EL-GUINDY, Moustafa M. Methodology and ethics in scientific research . São Paulo:

Editora Santos, 2004. 175 p.

ERCOLE, Flávia Falsi; MELO, Laís Samara de; ALCOFORADO, Carla Lúcia Goulart
Constant. Integrative Review versus Systematic Review. REME: Revista Mineira de Enfermagem ,
Belo Horizonte, vol. 18, no. 1, Jan./Mar. 2014, pp. 9-11. Available at
<https://cdn.publisher.gn1.link/reme.org.br/pdf/v18n1a01.pdf>. Accessed on June 21, 2021.

EVEN3. 1st EAUD-UFMG academic work colloquium. Belo Horizonte: EAUD-UFMG,

2020. Available at <https://www.even3.com.br/academico/#:~:text=A%20review%20
pode%20ser%20do,faz%20um%20julgamento% 20%20truths>. Accessed on: 25 September. 2020.

EXACTLY advertising. Banner. São Paulo: Exactamente Publicidade, 2020. Available at

<https://exatamentepublicidade.com.br/produto/banner-80x120cm/>. Accessed on: 25 September.
2020.

FAPESP. São Paulo State Research Support Foundation. Code of Good Scientific Practice .
São Paulo: Fapesp, 2012. 42 p. Available at: http://www.fapesp.br/boaspraticas/FAPESP-
Codigo_de_Boas_Praticas_Cientificas_jun 2012.pdf. Accessed on: 12 Oct. 2016.
 FNDE. National Education Development Fund. Logical reasoning. Brasília: FNDE, 2017.
Available at < http://www.fnde.gov.br/component/k2/item/4080-racioc%C3%ADnio-l%C3%B3gico >.
Accessed on: May 9, 2020.

FORM. In: Wikipedia. São Paulo: Wikipedia, 2020. Available at <

https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formul%C3%A1rio>. Accessed on: 25 September. 2020.

GARCIA, Eduardo Alfonso Cadavid. Manual for the systematization and standardization of
technical documents . São Paulo: Atlas, 1998. 317 p.

GIFTED, Á. G. The three pillars of scientific research methodology: a literature review. Agora
, v. 1, no. 1, p. 1-15, 2015. Available at: https://periodicos.unimesvirtual.
com.br/index.php/formacao/article/view/531. Accessed on: May 3, 2020.

GIL, Antônio Carlos. How to design research projects. 5. ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 2010. 184 p.

GIL, Antônio Carlos. Methods and techniques of social research . 5. ed. São Paulo: Atlas,
1999. 206 p.

GILES, Thomas Ransom. Introduction to philosophy . São Paulo: EPU/USP, 1979. 324 p.

GORMAN, Michael J.. Introduction to biblical exegesis. Translated by Wilson Ferraz de

Almeida. 1st ed. Rio de Janeiro: Thomas Nelson Brasil, 2017. 320 p.

KANT, Immanuel. Critique of Pure Reason . Translated by Manuela Pinto dos Santos and
Alexandre Fradique Morujão. Lisbon: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, 2001. 694 p. Available at:
https://philarchive.org/archive/AVEDDS. Accessed on: 25 April. 2020.

KÖCHE, José Carlos. Fundamentals of scientific methodology : theory of science and

initiation to research. Petrópolis: Vozes, 1997. 182 p.

MODEL. In: Wikipedia. São Paulo: Wikipedia, 2020. Available at <

https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maquete#:~:text=Maquete%2C%20maqueta%20ou%20modelo%20%C3
%A9,ou%20ainda%2C %20o%20esbo%C3%A7o..>. Accessed on: September 25th. 2020.

MACHINE. In: Wikipedia. São Paulo: Wikipedia, 2020. Available at <

https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1quina#:~:text=M%C3%A1quina%20%C3%A9%20um%20di
ssistema%20que ,com%20a%20utiliza%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20do%20trabalho.>. Accessed on: 25
September. 2020.

MARCONI, Marina de Andrade; LAKATOS, Eva Maria. Fundamentals of scientific

methodology . 5. ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 2003. 311 p.

MARCONI, Marina de Andrade; LAKATOS, Eva Maria.. Research Techniques . 6. ed. São
Paulo: Atlas, 2007. 289 p.

MARCONI, Marina de Andrade; LAKATOS, Eva Maria.. Research techniques : planning and
executing research, sampling and research techniques, preparation, analysis and interpretation of data.
São Paulo: Atlas, 2008. 277 p.

MARTINS, Gilberto de Andrade. Case study : a research strategy. 2nd ed. São Paulo: Atlas,
2008. 101 p.

MATTOS, Pedro Lincoln CL de. “Bibliometrics”: the conventional academic methodology in

question. Journal of Administration and Economics (RAE-FGV), São Paulo, v. 3, no. 2, art. 26, p. 1-
6, Jul./Dec. 2004. Available at: http://www.scielo. br/pdf/raeel/v3n2/v3n2a16. Accessed on: 10 Mar.
2016.

MENEGHETTI, Francis Kanashiro. Pragmatism and pragmatists in organizational studies.

Rio de Janeiro: Cadernos EBAPE.BR, 2007. Available at < https://doi. org/10.1590/S1679-
39512007000100005 >. Accessed on: May 8, 2020.

MENEZES, Djacir. Preparation for the scientific method : brief introduction to modern
philosophy, epistemological problems, science as a historical-cultural process of adaptation. Preface by
Arthur Ramos. Rio de Janeiro: Brazilian civilization, 1938. 342 p.

MINEIRO, Márcia. Survey and Sampling Research: elementary theoretical contributions.

Journal of Studies in Education and Diversity , Vitória da Conquista-BA, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 284-306,
Oct./Dez., 2020. Available at <http://periodicos2.uesb.br/index.php/reed>. ISSN: 2675-6889. Accessed
on: Aug 8th. 2021.

MS. MINISTRY OF HEALTH. Methodological guidelines: preparation of a systematic review

and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Brasília-DF: MS, 2012. 96 p.

MONOGRAPHS. Scientific article. São Paulo: Monografias, 2020. Available at

<https://monografias.brasilescola.uol.com.br/regras-abnt/artigo-cientifico.htm#:~:text=Segun do%20a
%20ABNT%20(NBR%
206022,nas%20divers%20%C3%A1areas%20do%20conhecimento%E2%80%9D.>. Accessed on:
September 25, 2020.

MUGNAINI, Rogério; JANNUZZI, Paulo; QUONIAM, Luc. Bibliometric indicators of

Brazilian scientific production: an analysis based on the Pascal base. Information Science Magazine ,
Brasília, v. 33, no. 2, p. 123-134, May/Aug. 2004. Available at:
http://www.scielo.br/pdf/%0D/ci/v33n2/a13v33n2.pdf. Accessed on: 10 Mar. 2016.

NAGAFUSHI, Thiago; BATISTA, Irinéa de Lourdes. The search for mathematical truth and
the axiomatic method. In : NATIONAL MEETING ON RESEARCH IN SCIENCE EDUCATION, 6.,
2002, Londrina. Annals [...]. Londrina: UEL, 2002. 8 p. Available at:
http://www.nutes.ufrj.br/abrapec/vienpec/CR2/p422.pdf. Accessed on: 18 April. 2020.

NETQUEST. Probability and non-probability sampling . São Paulo: Netquest, 2019.

Available at: https://www.netquest.com/blog/br/blog/br/amostragem-probabilistica-nao-probabilistica.
Accessed on: 24 June. 2019.

NEWIDEAL. Cultural show. São Paulo: NovoIdeal, 2020. Available at

<https://novoideal.com.br/mostra-cultural/>. Accessed on: 25 September. 2020.
 WORK OF ART. In: Wikipedia. São Paulo: Wikipedia, 2020. Available at <
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obra_de_arte#:~:text=Obra%20de%20arte%2C%20trabalho%20art%C3
%ADstico,de%20um%20s
%C3%ADmbolo%2C%20do%20belo.&text=Uma%20obra%20de%20arte%2C%20por,ideia%20ou%2
0uma%20express%C3%A3o%20sens%C3%ADvel.>. Accessed on: 25 September. 2020.

OLIVEIRA, Silvio Luiz de. Treatise on Scientific Methodology . São Paulo: Pioneira, 1997.

PEREIRA, Renato Machado. Semantic Conception of Truth according to Alfred Tarski .

2009. Dissertation (Masters in Philosophy) – Federal University of São Carlos., São Carlos: UFSCar,
2009. 103 p.

PIAGET, Jean. Psychology and epistemology : towards a theory of knowledge. 1st ed. Rio de
Janeiro: Forense Rio, 1973. 158 p.

Business plan. In: Wikipedia. São Paulo: Wikipedia, 2020. Available at

<https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plano_de_neg%C3%B3cios>. Accessed on: 25 September. 2020.

POPPER, Karl. The cientific search logic . Translated by Leonidas Hegenberg and Octanny
Silveira da Mota. São Paulo: Cultrix, 1972. 282 p.

PRAGMATISM. In: Wikipedia. São Paulo: Wikipedia, 2020. Available at <

https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatismo >. Accessed on: 25 September. 2020.

Logical reasoning. In: Wikipedia. São Paulo: Wikipedia, 2020. Available at <
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racioc%C3%ADnio_l%C3%B3gico >. Accessed on: 25 September.
2020.

REIS, Alessandro Vieira dos. How to do a Systematic Review and Bibliometric Analysis.
Florianópolis-SC: UFSC, 2022. 1p. Available at <https://moodle.ufsc.br/
pluginfile.php/1118455/mod_resource/content/1/Como%20fazer%20revisao%20sistem%C3%A1tica%
20e%20analise%20bibliometrica.pdf?fbclid=IwAR3muUkOUEu2xDNdkcdhFRLvP0stNwUuv8hfdp6
D7GyDR3 6WAex32DMS5lc>. Accessed on: July 17th. 2022.

RICHARDSON, Roberto Jarry. Social research : methods and techniques. 3rd revised and
expanded edition. 7. reprint. São Paulo: Atlas, 2007. 334 p.

RODRIGO, Jonas. Theoretical foundation : case study of TRT 18th region. Brasília: Vestcon,
2008. 8p. Available at: http://www.vestcon.com.br/ft/3116.pdf. Accessed on: 7 September. 2013.

RODRIGUES, Auro de Jesus. Scientific methodology : complete and essential for university
life. São Paulo: Avercamp, 2006. 217 p.

RODRIGUES, Rui Martinho. Academic research : how to facilitate the preparation process of
its stages. São Paulo: Atlas, 2007. 177 p.

SERRA, Paulo. Peirce and the sign as abduction. Covilhã-Portugal: UBI, 1995. 21 p.
Available at < http://www.bocc.ubi.pt/pag/jpserra_peirce.pdf >. Accessed on: May 8, 2020.
 SEVERINO, Antônio Joaquim. Methodology of scientific work . 23. ed. São Paulo: Cortez,
2007. 304 p.

MEANINGS. Meaning of Building. São Paulo: Significados, 2020. Available at

<https://www.significados.com.br/edificacao/>. Accessed on: 25 September. 2020.

Statistical SYLOGISM. In: Wikipedia. São Paulo: Wikipedia, 2020. Available at:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silogismo_estat%C3%ADstico. Accessed on: 11 April. 2020.

SILVA, Cristiane Rocha; GOBBI, Beatriz Christo; SIMÃO, Ana Adalgisa. Using content
analysis as a tool for qualitative research : description and application of the method. Lavras:
UFLA, 2004. 12 p. Available at: www.spell.org.br/documents/download/27745. Accessed on: 13 Aug.
2014.

axiomatic SYSTEM. In : Wikipedia. São Paulo: Wikipedia, 2020. Available at:

https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_axiom%C3%A1tico. Accessed on: 11 April. 2020.

WEBSITEWARE. 8 things that business management software needs to have. São Paulo:
Siteware, 2020. Available at <https://www.siteware.com.br/gestao-estrategica/software-de-gestao-
empresarial/#:~:text=De%20acordo%20com%20o%20dicion%
C3%A1rio,a%20computer%3B%20support%20l%C3%B3gical.%E2%80%9D>. Accessed on: 25
September. 2020.

SOARES, Edvaldo. Scientific methodology : logic, epistemology and norms. São Paulo: Atlas,
2003. 138 p.

SOMOSPAR. Find out what the Pedagogical Political Project (PPP) is. São Paulo:
SomosPar, 2020. Available at <https://www.somospar.com.br/saiba-o-que-eo-projeto-politico-
pedagogico/>. Accessed on: 25 September. 2020.

SOUZA, Luís Manoel Mota de, et al. . Reviews of scientific literature: types, methods and
applications in Nursing. Portuguese Journal of Rehabilitation Nursing (RPER) , Portugal, vol. 1,
no. 1, pp. 45-54. Available at <http://rper.aper.pt/index.php/rper/article/view/20>. Accessed on July 17,
2022. DOI: < https://doi.org/10.33194/rper. 2018.v1.n1.07.4391 >.

SPINK, Peter Kevin. Ethics in Scientific Research . v. 12, no. 1. São Paulo: FGV-Eaesp, 2012.
4 p. Available at: http://rae.fgv.br/sites/rae.fgv.br/files/artigos/38-41_0.pdf. Accessed on: 12 Oct. 2013.

TEIXEIRA, Elizabeth. The three methodologies : academic, science and research. 9. ed.
Petrópolis: Vozes, 2012. 203 p.

Semantic THEORY of Truth. In : WIKIPEDIA. São Paulo: Wikipedia, 2020. Available at:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_sem%C3%A2ntica_da_verdade. Accessed on: 11 April. 2020.

THIOLLENT, Michael. Action research methodology . 12. ed. São Paulo: Cortez, 2003.
(Collection of basic action research themes).
 THIOLLENT, Michael. Action research methodology . 18. ed. São Paulo: Cortez, 2011. 136
p.

TRIVIÑOS, Augusto NS Introduction to research in social sciences : qualitative research in

education: 1. ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 1987. 175 p.

UB. University of the Bible. Supporting teaching material . Indaiatuba: UB, 2015.

UBC. Bráz Cubas University. Supporting teaching material . Mogi das Cruzes: UBC, 2012.

UFSCar. Federal University of São Carlos. Systematic Bibliographic Review. São Carlos:
PoCA, UFSCar, 2020. Available at <https://cursos.poca.ufscar.br/course/view. php?id=50>. Accessed
on: September 24th. 2020.

UNIMES. Metropolitan University of Santos. Supporting teaching material . Santos:

UNIMES, 2015.

VERGARA, Sylvia Constant. Field data collection methods . 2nd ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 2012.
98 p.

YIN, Robert K. Case Study : planning and methods. Translated by Ana Thorell. Technical
review by Claudio Damacena. 4th ed. Porto Alegre: Bookman, 2010. 248 p.

Table 149 – Scientific Glossary

SCIENTIFIC GLOSSARY

Approach: refers to the predominant type of language and data used in the research: if alphabetical,
the approach is called qualitative; if numerical, the approach is called quantitative; and if
alphanumeric, the approach is called mixed.

Antithesis: is the opposite of synthesis; it is the splitting of the whole into parts.

Concept: expresses an abstraction (idea), formed through making particular observations, construct
(DEMO, 2002).

Knowledge: is the object added by the subject; is the relationship that is established between the
subject who knows or wants to know and the object to be known or that makes itself known.

Definition: clear and concise explanation of something, its meaning; exact delimitation,
establishment of limits.

Dissertation: is the final work to complete a master's degree; examined with greater rigor than lato
sensu undergraduate and postgraduate coursework.

Doctrine: it is a chain of currents, of thoughts that are not limited to verifying and explaining
phenomena, but evaluate them in terms of certain ethical conceptions and, in the light of these
judgments , recommend certain measures and prohibit others (DEMO, 2002 ).

Fact: is any event that occurs in reality, regardless of whether it is known or not, regardless of
whether it has ever been observed or not.

Phenomenon: it is a fact that is perceived by an observer. The same fact can be observed in different
ways, by different observers, generating different phenomena, according to each point of view.

Ideology: it is “a theoretical-practical system of political justification of social positions” (DEMO,

2013, p. 67).

Instrument: is the tool used to carry out scientific research.

Scientific law: it is the constant and necessary relationship that derives from the nature of things
(DEMO, 2002).

Locus: is the place(s) where scientific research is carried out.

Method: comes from the Greek méthodos which means a path to reach an end.

Methodology: means study of the methods or form, or instruments necessary for the construction of
scientific research; It is a discipline at the service of Science.

Monograph: is an academic work that addresses a single topic.

Object: is the entity that is researched.

Objectification: is “the endless and necessary effort and process of achieving reality, more than
reliable portraits” (DEMO, 2013, p. 71).

Paradigm: is the point of view from which a phenomenon is seen or analyzed.

Research: is an investigation process; is a systematic activity aimed at solving theoretical or

practical problems using scientific processes (DEMO, 2002).

Proposition: is a term used in logic to describe the content of assertions, that is, content
(affirmations or denials) that can be taken as true or false.

Procedure: step; stage.

Synthesis: is the summary of ideas; the joining of all parts of a whole in a succinct way.

Subject: is the entity that carries out or participates in scientific research.

Technique: set of procedures linked to an art or science; way of dealing with technical details (as a
writer does) or using body movements (as a dancer does).

Scientific theory: it is a result towards which the sciences tend; is a set of interrelated constructs
(concepts), definitions and propositions, which presents a systematic conception of phenomena by
specifying relationships between variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting them
(DEMO, 2002).
 Thesis: is the final work to conclude the doctorate course; examined with greater rigor than
undergraduate, lato sensu postgraduate and master's course completion works.
Source: prepared by the author based on Demo (2002, 2013) and Eco (2012)

Table 105 – Structure of scientific work

STRUCTURE OF SCIENTIFIC WORK

1st PART: pre-textual or antetext/pre-text elements

1. Cover (optional item for small works – up to 20 pages; mandatory item for other works).

2. Fake page/title page – spine (optional item).

3. Cover sheet/page (mandatory item for all types of work).

4. Errata (optional item – preferably not included)

5. Approval sheet/page (item necessary only for highly expressive works, such as dissertations and
master's or doctoral theses).

6. Dedication sheet/page (optional item).

7. Acknowledgments (optional item).

8. Epigraph (optional item).

9. Preface (optional item).

10. Presentation (optional item).

11. Summary in the vernacular language, plus keywords, also in the vernacular language (item
necessary mainly when publishing the work).

12. Summary in a foreign language, plus keywords, also in a foreign language (recommended item
for perfect dissemination of the work).

13. List of illustrations (optional item).

14. List of tables or charts (optional item).

15. List of figures (optional item).

16. List of abbreviations and acronyms (optional item).

17. List of symbols (optional item).

18. Summary (mandatory item for Course Conclusion Works, such as monographs, dissertations and
theses – also used to publicize the work)

Note: the mandatory items in this 1st part are called identification pages , while the optional items
are called complementary pages .

2nd PART: textual or development elements (text)

1. Introduction (indispensable item in all types of scientific work – it is the presentation of the
subject).

2. Development (indispensable item – considered as the work itself).

3. Conclusion (also an indispensable item – it is the conclusion of the work, including

recommendations on the subject covered).

Note: textual elements are considered to be the body of the text and complementary elements , such
as notes, tables, tables and figures presented separately from the body of the text to facilitate the
editing work.

3rd PART: post-textual elements (post-text)

1. References (mandatory item for all types of scientific work).

2. Glossary (optional item – only created when justified by the number of words to be defined).

3. Appendices – addenda (optional item).

4. Attachments (optional item).

5. Afterword (optional item).

 6. Indexes (optional item).

7. Fourth cover (optional item).

Source: prepared by the author based on Gil (1999; 2010), Severino (2007), Marconi and Lakatos (2003; 2007; 2008),
Bimestre Filho (2003), Barros and Lehfeld (2007), ABNT (NBR 14724, 2002 )

APPENDIX 1 – FOUNDATIONAL BASIS OF THE MAIN PARADIGMATIC APPROACHES

IN OE

SUMMARY

This article focuses on paradigms in Organizational Studies (OE). It aims to get to know
its founding bases and its evolution up close. To this end, the following methodologies are used:
the neoperspectivist approach, as the epistemological axis of investigation; the hypothetical-
deductive method, as a logical axis of investigation; as a technical axis of investigation, a
bibliographical review is implemented, developed for a master's degree research, mixing classic
and contemporary bibliographies in the OE, some national and foreign, such as Morgan (1980),
Willmott (2003), Chia (1998 ), Donaldson (2003), Cortese (2016), among others. It is concluded
that the founding bases of the functionalist paradigm are empiricist, positivist, objectivist; those
of the interpretivist paradigm are idealistic, subjectivist; those of the radical humanist paradigm
are materialist, dialectical, idealist, subjectivist, intersubjectivist; those of the radical
structuralist paradigm are materialist, dialectical, objectivist, intersubjectivist; the perspectivist
and neoperspectivist paradigms are simultaneously objectivist, subjectivist, intersubjectivist,
consisting of the paradigmatic balance point desired in EO.

BASES OF THE MAIN PARADIGMATIC APPROACHES IN ORGANIZATION

STUDIES

ABSTRACT
 This article focuses on the paradigms in Organizational Studies (EO). Aims to get to
know their founding bases and their evolution. Therefore, the methodology is used: the
neoperspectivist approach as an epistemological axis of research; the hypothetical-deductive
method, as a logical axis of research; as technical axis of research, operationalized a literature
review designed for a master's research, mingling classic and contemporary bibliographies in
EO, some national other foreign such as Morgan (1980), Willmott (2003), Chia (2003),
Donaldson (2003), Cortese (2016), among others. It follows that the founding bases of the
functionalist paradigm are empiricists, positivists, objectivists; the the interpretative paradigm
are idealists, subjective; the radical humanist paradigm is materialist, dialectical, idealist,
subjectivist, intersubjectivist; the radical structuralist paradigm is materialist, dialectical,
objectivist, intersubjectivist; the perspective paradigms and neoperspectivist are simultaneously
objectivist, subjectivist, intersubjectivist, consisting of the paradigmatic point of equilibrium in
the desired EO.

1. INTRODUCTION

This article focuses on paradigms in Organizational Studies (OE). Theoretical and

paradigmatic approaches make up the so-called metatheoretical, or epistemological, discussions
of EO. However, the variety of concepts for theories and paradigms has the power to condition
them one to another, rigidifying their use, as Morgan (1980) does, or to differentiate them,
although considering them inseparable, making them more flexible. mode, its use, as Gifted
(2015, 2016) does.
This article consists of the result of a bibliographic review developed for a master's
degree research. In order to choose the most appropriate paradigmatic approach for the study of
banking M&A, which is my dissertation topic, it was necessary to delve deeper into each of the
main ones covered in the literature, seeking to get to know their founding bases and their
evolution up close. Hence the decision to investigate this topic with the aim of discovering the
founding bases of the main paradigmatic approaches in EO.
To this end, the following methodologies were used: the neoperspectivist approach, as
the epistemological axis of investigation; the hypothetical-deductive method, as the logical axis
of investigation, based on the hypothesis that the founding bases of the main paradigms in
Organizational Studies (OE) are those that have their ideas as their constitutive elements; as a
technical axis of investigation, a corpus of bibliographical research was selected for
convenience and judgment that mixes classic and contemporary literature, some national and
foreign, in the OE, such as Morgan (1980), Willmott (2003), Chia (2003), Donaldson (1998),
Hatch and Yanow (1998), in addition to scientific research methodology manuals, such as
Marconi and Lakatos (2003, 2008), Gil (1999; 2010), Luna (2011), Eco (2012), Gifted (2015).
 There are several concepts for the term paradigm in organizational studies, which causes
a wide and confusing variety of interpretations (MORGAN, 1980). For example, as Kuhn
(1962) points out, paradigm can refer to: (1) a complete vision of reality, or way of seeing; (2)
the social organization of science in terms of schools of thought linked to particular types of
scientific achievement; (3) the concrete use of specific types of tools and texts for the process of
solving scientific puzzles; (4) alternative realities.
A paradigm, in its stricto sensu sense , as it is used in the critical literature on scientific
research methodology and epistemology, consists of a set of conceptions of the researcher,
guided by their perceptions, sensations and values, about the truth, the world, the human life,
knowledge and ethics (WILLMOTT, 2003; KÖCHE, 1997; CLEGG et al. , 2003).
Discussions about paradigmatic approaches are frequent in EO; They often try to find
intermediate paths, less extreme, or that dialogue with the main theories used in this field,
mitigating differences between scientists in the field and facilitating dialogue and the use of
paradigms and theories. However, this objective has culminated either in excessive theoretical
and paradigmatic multiplicity, or in more dissent among scientists in the field, hampering the
necessary advances (BARBOSA et al ., 2013; WILLMOTT, 2003; CLEGG et al ., 2003).
Terminological, conceptual, taxonomic and content differences are the main barriers in these
advances (BARBOSA et al ., 2013; MORGAN, 1980; HATCH; YANOW, 1998; CHIA, 2003).
This article was structured into five parts. In this first part, the theme, objectives,
justifications, a synthesis of the methods and techniques used, a brief introduction of the
theoretical framework, and the structure of the work content are presented. In chapter two, the
four main paradigms in EO presented by Morgan (1980) are presented: functionalist,
interpretivist, radical humanist and radical structuralist. Section three is dedicated to the
presentation and explanation of the methodologies used in this work, separating them into three
levels: the epistemological (metatheoretical; directive; strategic), the logical (managerial;
tactical) and the technical (functional; operational). In section four, the results and discussions
of this work are presented, taking into account the limitations of the paradigmatic framework
proposed by Burrel and Morgan (1980), presenting the perspectivist and neoperspectivist
paradigms, and proposing a more updated and mature paradigmatic framework , capable of
making dialogue and the use of paradigms and theories in OE more flexible. The fifth chapter is
dedicated to presenting the conclusions and final considerations. Last but not least, references
are presented.
 2 THE MAIN PARADIGMS IN EO

2.1 The functionalist

In the Functionalist Paradigm, society has a concrete and real existence; order and
regulation are exhausted; the scientist distanced from the analyzed scenario, in an objective and
value-free way, rigorously using scientific techniques and methods (MORGAN, 1980; CHIA,
2003).
The ideas that underlie this paradigmatic approach are: the existence of a concrete, real,
absolute reality (truth), independent of human consciousness; scientific neutrality; the
possibility of producing knowledge without the biases caused by human perceptions and values;
knowledge is a finished, complete product. Its roots are linked to ancient empiricism, later
refined and transformed by August Comte into positivism as we know it. For these reasons,
functionalism can be conceptualized as a kind of refined positivism (MORGAN, 1980;
CZARNIAWSKA, 2003; REED, 2003; HATCH and YANOW, 2003; DONALDSON, 2003).
Positivism preaches that truth is objective, independent of the human being (external
objective world independent of human perceptions, independent of our idealized world inside
our minds); an external objective truth is preached. Regarding its origin and evolution,
Medeiros (2010, p. 9) explains that its roots can be found in ancient empiricism, but that “its
concrete and systematized bases are certainly in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, with Bacon,
Descartes, Hobbes and Hume” (STARBUCK, 2003, sp).
Later, however, in the 19th century, empiricist ideologies, those that extol, above all,
facts, were refined by August Comte, who transformed them into positivism as we know it
(MEDEIROS, 2010). Reorganizing the information about the origin and evolution of the
functionalist paradigmatic approach, based on Medeiros (2010, p. 12), it is concluded that its
main characteristics are:

[...] considers reality to be made up of isolated parts; does not accept any reality other
than facts, facts that can be observed; They were not interested in the causes of
phenomena, but in the relationships between things; there is no interest in knowing the
consequences of the findings, which strengthened the idea of "neutrality of sciences";
rejection of metaphysical knowledge, metaphysics; considers true what is empirically
true (formulated the principle of verification); idea of methodological unity for
 investigation of natural and social data; use of the "variable" in the process of
quantifying social facts (sampling techniques, statistical treatments and strictly
controlled experimental studies were instruments used to achieve these purposes);
search for a single language, common to all sciences (physicalism); If what we
recognize as knowledge is that which can be tested empirically, there is no possibility
of knowledge elaborated "a priori" (criticism of the Kantian thesis); distinction between
value and fact, the first being understood as objects of science, and the second as
cultural expressions, were left out of the positivist analysis; they recognized only two
types of scientific knowledge: empirical and logical.

Therefore, it is correct to say that positivism began in the mid-19th century, with August
Comte, with the conception that knowing only means measuring and quantifying. For them, the
only way to know an object of investigation is experience.
However, it “advanced into the 21st century with new faces, but maintaining its core. It
brings, in its epistemological base, conceptual elements from two main philosophical lines of
the 20th century, namely, empiricist logic and logical positivism” (BARBOSA et al. , 2013, p.
6).
Regarding the evolution of positivist ideologies, Triviños (1987, p. 33) divides it into
three distinct moments, namely:

A first phase, which is called classical positivism, in which, in addition to the founder
Comte, the names of Litté, Spencer and Mill stand out. Then, at the end of the 19th
century and beginning of the 20th century, the empiriocriticism of Avenarius (1843 -
1896) and Mach (1838-1916). The third stage is generally called neopositivism and
comprises a series of nuances, including logical positivism, logical empiricism,
closely linked to the Vienna Circle (Carnap, Schlick, Frank, Neurath, etc.) ; logical
atomism (Russel, 1872-1970, and Wittgenstein 1889-1951); analytical philosophy
(Wittgenstein and Ayer, 1910) which believes that philosophy should have the task of
elucidating the forms of language in search of the essence of problems; behaviorism
(Watson, 1878-1958) and neobehaviorism (Hull, 1884-1952), and Skinner, (1904).

For having inherited the elements of positivism, that is, its conception of truth, life,
world, knowledge and ethics, for the functionalist paradigm, reality, objective, absolute, for
being conceived as being independent of human interpretations , can be completely grasped and
understood from the study of the relationships between variables using statistical methods
(BARBOSA et al. , 2013; TRIVIÑOS, 1987; MORGAN, 1980; CZARNIAWSKA, 2003;
REED, 2003; HATCH; YANOW, 2003; DONALDSON, 2003).
 2.2 The interpretivist

In the Interpretative Paradigm, there is no concrete reality, but rather subjective and
intersubjective experiences between individuals; the researcher influences and is influenced by
his object of investigation; scientific knowledge is as problematic as common sense
(MORGAN, 1980; CZARNIAWSKA, 2003; REED, 2003; HATCH; YANOW, 2003;
DONALDSON, 2003).
The ideas that underlie this paradigmatic approach are: the non-existence of an objective
reality, whether external or internal; the existence of a subjective reality; the intersubjectivity of
individuals; the inseparability between the investigating subject and the investigated problem
object; the partiality of scientific knowledge (MORGAN, 1980; WILLMOTT, 2003).
So, its roots are linked, on the one hand, to Socratic, Platonic and Aristotelian idealism,
later refined by Kant and Hegel, and, on the other hand, it adds the intersubjectivity of Marxist
dialectical materialism. For these reasons, interpretivism can be conceptualized as a kind of
refined idealism (MORGAN, 1980; CZARNIAWSKA, 2003; REED, 2003; HATCH;
YANOW, 2003; DONALDSON, 2003; WILLMOTT, 2003).
Idealism denies objective truth, an external world independent of human perceptions;
truth is the union of the essence and appearance of things; thought is independent of matter;
when we die, our spirit prevails alive; we are our essence, our carnal existence is fleeting,
mortal, finite, but our spiritual existence is eternal, immortal, infinite (MORGAN, 1980; REED,
2003; HATCH; YANOW, 2003; DONALDSON, 2003).

2.3 The radical humanist

In the Radical Humanist Paradigm, there is the alienating characteristic of a reality that
is socially constructed and sustained in relation to the potential (power) of the human being. In
this sense, the dominant ideologies are those of the capitalist elite (MORGAN, 1980;
CZARNIAWSKA, 2003; REED, 2003; HATCH; YANOW, 2003; DONALDSON, 2003).
The ideas that underlie this paradigmatic approach are: it emphasizes how reality is
socially created and socially sustained; reality is subjective, created by human interpretations
within certain restrictions created and sustained by human beings, and which imprisons them;
society is a potentially dominating force; the process of creating reality can be influenced by
psychic and social processes that channel, restrict and control the minds of human beings in a
way that alienates them in relation to the potential of human nature; the building blocks of
social order and human freedom are, for the radical humanist, modes of ideological domination;
the radical humanist is interested in discovering how people can think and act (praxis) as a
means to transcend their alienation (MORGAN, 1980; CZARNIAWSKA, 2003; REED, 2003;
HATCH; YANOW, 2003; DDONALDSON, 2003).
Its roots are linked to Marxist dialectical materialism and encompass the element of
subjectivity also present in idealist ideologies. For these reasons, radical humanism can be
conceptualized as a kind of idealistic dialectical materialism (MORGAN, 1980;
CZARNIAWSKA, 2003; REED, 2003; HATCH; YANOW, 2003; DDONALDSON, 2003).
In essence, Marxist dialectical materialism , investigated in depth by the Frankfurt
School: does not deny objective truth; truth is the unity of diversity; an internal objective truth is
preached, dependent on human interpretations, consisting of the result of the synthesis of
multiple determinations, and is as partial as human subjective truths; concomitantly, an external
objective truth is not denied; thought is the result of matter; consciousness is a consequence of
experiences, and not the other way around; when we die our life ends; we are our existence
(external objective world resulting from the internal world, created by our mind) (MORGAN,
1980; CZARNIAWSKA, 2003; REED, 2003; HATCH; YANOW, 2003; DONALDSON,
2003).
The radical humanist paradigm inherits all the elements of the conception of subjective
and intersubjective truth from Marxist dialectical materialism, as Novelli (2013, p. 9) explains:

The difference between absolute and relative truth lies in the degree of precision with
which each reflects the objective world. However, both are always moments of
objective truth that happen as a process, as movement. The sum of relative truths
contributes to the formation of absolute truth, but this does not happen mechanically. It
is not about the construction of finished truths, but about truth as a thought process
nourished by the movement towards the objective and the absolute.

It is necessary to emphasize here that the objective truth defended in this paradigm is
internal, the result of the encounter of human subjective truths. The synthesis is alluded to,
which, according to Marx, is the product of the meeting of the thesis and its respective
antithesis; synthesis, in this way, is more mature, refined, trustworthy and trustworthy
knowledge. The radical humanist paradigm is, therefore, a kind of idealist, subjectivist, relativist
dialectical materialism.

2.4 The radical structuralist

In the Radical Structuralist Paradigm, reality is concrete and real, its existence is
independent of the way it is perceived and reaffirmed by people in their daily activities
(MORGAN, 1980; CZARNIAWSKA, 2003; REED, 2003; HATCH; YANOW, 2003;
DONALDSON, 2003).
The ideas that underlie this paradigmatic approach are: the existence of a concrete, real,
objective, absolute reality, independent of human consciousness; society is a potentially
dominating force; defends the existence of a concrete, objective reality: materialist conception
of the social world, defined by solid, concrete and ontologically real structures; argues that
reality is characterized by intrinsic tensions and contradictions between antagonistic elements,
which inevitably leads to a radical change in the system as a whole; the radical structuralist is
interested in understanding these intrinsic tensions and the way in which those with power in
society seek to control them through various modes of domination; emphasis is placed on the
importance of praxis as a means of transcending this domination (MORGAN, 1980;
CZARNIAWSKA, 2003; REED, 2003; HATCH; YANOW, 2003; DONALDSON, 2003).
Therefore, its roots are linked to Marxist dialectical materialism and encompass the element of
objectivity also present in positivist ideologies.
In essence, Marxist dialectical materialism , investigated in depth by the Frankfurt
School: does not deny objective truth; truth is the unity of diversity; an internal objective truth is
preached, dependent on human interpretations, consisting of the result of the synthesis of
multiple determinations, and is as partial as human subjective truths; concomitantly, an external
objective truth is not denied; thought is the result of matter; consciousness is a consequence of
experiences, and not the other way around; when we die our life ends; we are our existence
(external objective world resulting from the internal world, created by our mind) (MORGAN,
1980; CZARNIAWSKA, 2003; REED, 2003; HATCH; YANOW, 2003; DONALDSON,
2003).
The radical structuralist paradigm inherits some elements of the conception of subjective
and intersubjective truth from Marxist dialectical materialism, as Novelli (2013, p. 9) explains:
 The difference between absolute and relative truth lies in the degree of precision with
which each reflects the objective world. However, both are always moments of
objective truth that happen as a process, as movement. The sum of relative truths
contributes to the formation of absolute truth, but this does not happen mechanically.
It is not about the construction of finished truths, but about truth as a thought process
nourished by the movement towards the objective and the absolute.

It is necessary to emphasize here that the radical structuralist paradigm defends two
truths: an external objective, independent of human interpretations; and an internal objective
truth, the result of the encounter of human subjective truths – the synthesis, as defended by
Marx. The radical structuralist paradigm is, therefore, a kind of objectivist, determinist,
positivist dialectical materialism (MORGAN, 1980; CZARNIAWSKA, 2003; REED, 2003;
HATCH; YANOW, 2003; DONALDSON, 2003; TSOUKAS; KNUDSEN, 2003).

3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Epistemological pillar

The epistemological pillar refers to the set of ontological, morphological, gnosiological,

theoretical and ethical assumptions, guiding scientific research at a strategic level. It is,
therefore, the strategic, or directive, pillar of scientific research. It sensitively considers the
conception of man, life, world, science and ethics that the researcher has as well as his
relationships with the object of his investigation (GILES, 1979; PIAGET, 1973; KÖCHE, 1997;
TEIXEIRA, 2012; EL-GUINDY, 2004; VERGARA, 2012; KUNH, 1967). For these reasons,
its approaches (methods) can be appropriately called strategic bases of research or constitutional
directive bases of research (GIFTED, 2015).
As a neoperspectivist epistemologist, and student of the curricular component Advanced
Topics in Organizational Theory, of the Postgraduate Program in Production Engineering
(PPGEP) at the Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), I use, in this research, the
neoperspectivist paradigmatic approach, with the following assumptions: the investigator
subjectively interprets an object (the monad; the organization) that is objective, concrete, real,
absolute, but subjective and partially knowable according to the point of view of the person
investigating it; scientific truths, after syntactically, semantically and pragmatically validated,
can be considered “objective” truths, as they are safer, more mature, reliable, the result of
subjective truths, just as Marx points out the synthesis as being the result of the encounter of the
thesis and its respective antithesis (BONNEAU, 2010; CORTESE, 2016).

3.2 Logical pillar

The logical pillar refers to the set of structural assumptions of thought, guiding scientific
research at a tactical level. It is, therefore, the tactical, or managerial, pillar of scientific
research. It considers the exact starting point of the reasoning used as well as the nuances of its
advances. For this reason, its approaches (methods) can be appropriately called tactical bases of
research or structural bases of research thinking (CRESWELL, 2010; TRIVIÑOS, 1987;
GIFTED, 2015; KUNH, 1967).
The structural basis of hypothetical-deductive thinking, used in this research, starting
from the generic hypotheses that the use of statistical sampling techniques in teaching research
is scarce, but which culminates in great benefits, thus leading to particular conclusions about the
topic investigated. (CRESWELL, 2010; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2008;
POPPER, 1972; KANT, 2001, 2004).

3.3 Technical pillar

The technical pillar refers to the set of approach assumptions, sequential modality
(mixed research), procedural base and sub-base (observational research), techniques and
techniques, instruments, resources (including time) and locus, guiding scientific research at an
operational level. It is, therefore, the operational, or functional, pillar of scientific research.
Considers the pre-implementation (work or essay writing), implementation (work or
essay writing) and post-implementation (publication of final results) phases of scientific
research (MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003; 2008; GIL, 1999 , 2010; ECO, 2012; THIOLLENT,
2003; 2011; YIN, 2010; MARTINS, 2008; SOARES, 2003). For this reason, its approaches
(methods) can be appropriately called operational bases of research or functional bases of the
research operation (GIFTED, 2015). Research approaches can be: quantitative, when everything
that is quantifiable is translated into numbers; qualitative, when it translates into text everything
that is qualifiable; and mixed (a little quali, a little quanti) (CRESWELL, 2010; RODRIGUES,
2006; TRIVIÑOS, 1987; TSOUKAS; KNUDSEN, 2003).
The sequential modalities, inherent to mixed research methods, they can be: sequential
explanatory strategy; sequential exploratory strategy; sequential transformative strategy;
concomitant triangulation strategy; concomitant embodied strategy and concomitant
transformative strategy (CRESWELL, 2010; GIFTED, 2015).
In this research, the following were used: qualitative approach since only non-
quantifiable variables were investigated; the observational procedural basis, since all research is
observational; a bibliographical survey of a research planning corpus was carried out, and only
a bibliographical, census survey was carried out to analyze the research execution corpus ;

3.3.1 Bibliographic survey

The bibliographic survey seeks to map a set of bibliographies previously selected for
analysis. The bibliographic methodology offers means that help in the definition and resolution
of already known problems, allowing both to explore new areas where they have not yet
sufficiently crystallized and also to analyze a topic under a new focus or approach, producing
new conclusions (SEVERINO, 2007).
According to Gil (1999; 2010), there are no fixed rules for carrying out bibliographical
research, but there are some tasks that experience shows to be important. Therefore, this work
follows the following script:

– Exploration of bibliographic sources: bibliographies recommended by the professor

of Advanced Topics in Organizational Theories (master's degree) were examined, in addition to
others that I had to consult to prepare my dissertation proposal.

– Reading of the material : conducted in an informative, selective, reflective and

interpretative way, aimed at recognizing, retaining, constructively criticizing and approving the
essential parts for the development of the study.

– Preparation of cards : as usual, I created citation, summary and bibliographic cards,

on the classic bibliographies, containing the most relevant parts of the materials consulted.

– Ordering and analysis of the files : once organized and ordered according to their
content, I reviewed each of the bibliographies consulted, writing down my observations on the
files.
 - Conclusions : were obtained, after analyzing the bibliographies, and summaries of
constructive debates held in classes with researchers and professionals on the subject.

A bibliographic review was carried out, developed for a master's degree research, mixing
classic and contemporary bibliographies in the OE, some national and foreign, such as Morgan
(1980), Willmott (2003), Chia (1998), Astley and Van de Ven (2005), among others.

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Comparative paradigmatic framework in EO proposed by Burrell and Morgan

(1980)

The paradigmatic framework proposed by Burrel and Morgan (1980) restricts the ways
of interpreting the world, making them mutually exclusive, as the authors do not distinguish
paradigms from theories, linking them to them. Therefore, as highlighted by Barbosa et al.
(2013, p. 5) “by highlighting elementary differences, the authors' work promoted the
segregation of perspectives, hindering dialogue and interparadigmatic growth”. Therefore, the
lack of conceptual distinction between paradigm and theory was able to stiffen their dialogue
and their use in EO ( TSOUKAS; KNUDSEN, 2003).

Table 1 – Paradigmatic framework proposed by Burrell and Morgan (1980)

Regulação

FUNCTIONALISM:
It is a kind of refined positivism (objective,
systemic and deterministic reality).
Main thinkers: Comte, Durkheim,
Malinowski, Radchiffe Brown, Simmel, GH
Mead, Weber etc.
Objetivismo
INTERPRETATIVISM:
It is a kind of refined idealism (subjective, systemic and
non-deterministic reality).
Main thinkers: Dilthey, Husserl, Weber,
Gadamer, Schutz, Scheller, Heidegger, Sartre
etc.
Subjetivismo

RADICAL STRUCTURALISM: RADICAL HUMANISM:

It is a kind of positivist dialectical It is a kind of idealistic dialectical materialism
materialism (objective, alienated and (subjective, alienated and alienating reality).
alienating reality). Main thinkers: Sartre, Luckas, Horkheimer,
Main thinkers: Marx, Engels, Plekhanov, Adorno, Fromm, Marcuse, Habermas, etc.
Lenin, Bukharin, Althusser, Poulantzas,
Rex, Dahrendorf etc.
Mudança Radical
 Source: prepared and adapted by the author

In the authors' view, one cannot use a theory from one paradigm in another, that is, each
theory is linked to only one paradigm, and cannot and should not be used in another
(MORGAN, 1980; BARBOSA et al. , 2013; TSOUKAS; KNUDSEN, 2003). Morgan's position
reveals that the paradigm debate is more than disputes about epistemology, logic or linguistic
theory, but rather “a struggle for academic space between individuals and groups with
axiological, ontological and epistemological options, hypotheses and agendas of distinct
research” (BARBOSA et al. , 2013, p. 5).

4.2 The perspectivist paradigm

The perspectivist paradigm was born with Gerard Desargues, French mathematician,
architect and military engineer, precursor of Projective Geometry, which in his time was not yet
known for this, and Blaise Pascal, French physicist, mathematician, moral philosopher and
theologian, in his studies of conic sections and the possibility of them “exceeding the cone”
(BONNEAU, 2010; CORTESE, 2016, p. 11) .
They were the first mathematicians to conceive a linear perspective in which two
parallel lines meet at an infinite point, thus modifying the form of geometric representation: “in
it parallel lines are represented as meeting at a point that, apparently on the screen, it would be
at an infinite distance in the represented scene – what would later be called the 'vanishing
point'” (CORTESE, 2016, p. 11).
In Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, German philosopher, scientist, mathematician, diplomat
and librarian, perspective means point of view and monad means an atom, a simple substance,
representative of the integrality of all things, which we conceive as the Universe.
The monad, from the Greek word monas, which means unity, and perspective, are its
founding concepts. Leibnz conceives a system of monads because he believes there are several
Universes created by a Creator God (BONNEAU, 2010; CORTESE, 2016).
Cortese (2016, p. 18) states that he found “in the Scientia Perspectiva manuscript
evidence that Leibniz developed a more general perspective method than that of Desargues and
Pascal”. Regarding these aspects, Cortese (2016, p. 11 -12) points out:

Desargues' geometry will be the first to postulate the possibility that any two straight lines in a
 plane meet. Either they are concurrent with an intersection at a finite distance, or they are parallel,
in which case their meeting point is at an infinite distance (in both cases, Desargues says that the
straight lines are of the same “ordonnance”).

Each monad is, however, distinguishable from the others, possessing qualities that
vary solely by internal principle, since, as a pure substance, no external cause can influence its
interior, that is, as a concrete, absolute, real, objective reality, the its substance is independent of
human perceptions.
However, as it is interpreted from a point of view, it is endowed with perception.
Since there are no parts in a monad, it has a multiple detail, that is, it involves a multiplicity in
unity (BONNEAU, 2010; CORTESE, 2016).
One monad cannot exert any effect on the other because an accommodation occurs
between them, through God, who, when making each one, took into account all the others. In
Leibniz, given that each monad has within itself the representation of the entire Universe and
the relationship between all monads, an absolute spirit – God – can, according to Leibniz, from
what happens in each one, infer by mere calculation the what is happening, what has happened
or will happen throughout the Universe (BONNEAU, 2010; CORTESE, 2016).
For these reasons, it is stated that the perspectivist paradigm differs from the
functionalist and interpretivist paradigms, despite specific similarities with one and the other.
Like the functionalist paradigm, the perspectivist argues that there is a single reality, but adds to
this metaphysical thesis (as it is a thesis about reality) the epistemological thesis about each
person's perspective on reality.
Like the interpretivist paradigm, the perspectivist argues that different individuals
perceive reality differently, but unlike him, the perspectivist does not argue that there are as
many realities as perceptions (BONNEAU, 2010; CORTESE, 2016).
Another path that leads Leibniz to conclude that reality is objective, that there is
indeed a whole independent of the human being, is to reflect on divine omniscience. He reasons
that God knows everything, the whole, all points of view about everything, all things, all truth,
absolutely and integrally (BONNEAU, 2010; CORTESE, 2016).
Therefore, he concludes, the whole exists, even if we human beings do not know it
(BONNEAU, 2010; CORTESE, 2016). Regarding these aspects, Cortese (2016, p. 24)
corroborates:
 [...] in 1712 Leibniz attributes to the divine vision two ways in which it is, so to speak,
complete: it occurs both through the good type of ichnographic representation, not
suffering from the partiality of scenography, and through the divine science of the set
of biases related to each site. Let us say that God thus has the vision of the whole, at
the same time as the vision of all points of view. Leibniz thinks about overcoming the
partiality of the point of view by associating divine vision with both the (partial) point
of view and ubiquity.

Reorganizing ideas, in short, perspectivism preaches the existence of an objective,

concrete, real, absolute truth, independent of human interpretations, complete; It is our
interpretations of it that are subjective; the world is external, but interpreted internally, that is,
based on human perceptions, sensations and values (BONNEAU, 2010; CORTESE, 2016).

4.3 The neoperspectivist paradigm

When studying in depth the four EO paradigms presented in 1980 by Morgan, Gifted
(2016) realizes that they are unable to achieve the attempted paradigmatic integration, providing
a paradigm that dialogues with and synthesizes the others, favoring a more mature view of
organizations.
The neoperspectivist conception of truth came, then, from the need to overcome the
difficulties presented in assembling an updated and more mature paradigmatic framework,
which can better meet the current demands presented in the EO. It consists of specific
refinements made by Gifted (2016) in the Leibnizian perspectivist paradigm, making major
contributions to advances in EO. In this vein, Álaze Gabriel do Breviário, also known in the
literature as Gited (2016), proposes the following paradigmatic framework:
 Table 2 – Paradigmatic framework proposed by Gifted (2016)

Regulação

FUNCTIONALISM: INTERPRETATIVISM:
It is a kind of refined positivism It is a kind of refined idealism (subjective,
(objective, systemic and deterministic intersubjective, systemic and non-
reality). deterministic reality).
Main thinkers: Comte, Durkheim, Main thinkers: Dilthey, Husserl, Weber,
Malinowski, Radchiffe Brown, Simmel, Gadamer, Schutz, Scheller, Heidegger,
GH Mead, Weber etc. Sartre etc.
NEOPERSPECTIVISMO:
Baseia-se no conceito da mônada e da perspectiva
Concebe a coexistência de duas realidades completamente
distintas e, concomitantemente, indissociáveis: uma
realidade objetiva, concreta, real, absoluta, independente
das interpretações humanas (a mônada), que representa a
Objetivismo integralidade de todos os pontos de vistas sobre todas as SubjetivismoSubjetivismo
coisas; e uma realidade subjetiva, parcial, construída por
meio das imperfeitas interpretações humanas sobre a
realidade objetiva que o cerca (a perspectiva).

Principais pensadores: Giordano Bruno, Gottfried

Wilhelm Leibniz, Gerard Desargues, Friedrich Nietzche,
Álaze Gabriel do Breviário.

RADICAL STRUCTURALISM: RADICAL HUMANISM:

It is a kind of positivist dialectical
materialism (external, alienated and
alienating objective reality; internal
objective reality, the result of the
encounter of subjective truths).
It is a kind of idealistic dialectical
materialism (external, alienated and
alienating subjective reality; internal
objective reality, the result of the encounter
of subjective truths).

Main thinkers: Marx, Engels, Plekhanov, Main thinkers: Sartre, Luckas,

Lenin, Bukharin, Althusser, Poulantzas, Horkheimer, Adorno, Fromm, Marcuse,
Rex, Dahrendorf etc. Habermas, etc.
Mudança Radical
 Source: prepared by the author, based on Gifted (2016)

In Gifted's (2016) conception, there is flexibility in using EO theories in any of the

paradigms presented in the table, the choice of which is at the discretion of the researcher.
In other words, Gifted (2016) conceives paradigms as being distinct from theories,
although they are inseparable: the first means the set of individual conceptions of the researcher,
based on their values, of the world, life, truth, knowledge and ethics ; the second means the
framework of prepositions, particular and/or generic, built on fundamental constructs, which
provide answers to certain aspects of certain dimensions of certain types of organizations.
Thus, in the Gitdean conception, the researcher has the freedom to use all OE theories
that are suitable for investigating his problem object, whatever their paradigms. Therefore, the
possibility of combining the researcher's paradigms with any theory that is appropriate to the
problem object of his investigation is admitted.
In Álaze Gabriel do Breviário, Gifted (2016), the concepts of monad and perspective, as
well as their relationships, are refined. Gifted (2016) conceives the coexistence of two
completely distinct and, concomitantly, inseparable realities: an objective, concrete, real,
absolute reality, independent of human interpretations (the monad), which represents the
integrality of all points of view on all things; and a subjective, partial reality, constructed
through imperfect human interpretations of the objective reality that surrounds it (the
perspective).
The Gitdean neoperspectivist paradigmatic approach makes great contributions to all
areas of knowledge in that it considers a concrete, real end, but which is as far from the human
being as we are incapable of achieving it; For this reason, the paths taken to reach this end are
much more important in the process of building knowledge than the end itself. Gifted (2016)
also argues that managers guided by this paradigmatic approach are more mature, holistic,
empathetic, genuinely committed to scientific and social progress; Educators guided by this
paradigmatic approach focus on the student's effective learning, and not merely on the
transmission of knowledge, on their work, on their remuneration, that is, they are more human,
supportive, fair, honest, understanding. Hence the great importance of the paradigmatic
approach in the management of any and all projects (GIFTED, 2015; 2016).
 5 CONCLUSIONS

It is concluded that the founding bases of the functionalist paradigm are empiricist,
positivist, objectivist; those of the interpretivist paradigm are idealistic, subjectivist; those of the
radical humanist paradigm are materialist, dialectical, idealist, subjectivist, intersubjectivist;
those of the radical structuralist paradigm are materialist, dialectical, objectivist,
intersubjectivist; the perspectivist and neoperspectivist paradigms are simultaneously
objectivist, subjectivist, intersubjectivist, consisting of the paradigmatic balance point desired in
OE, despite being still little known and, for this reason, little used.
The main metatheoretical assumptions that outline the paradigmatic approaches used in
Organizational Studies are: subjectivity-objectivity, sociology of regulation (order) – sociology
of radical change (freedom).
While the paradigmatic framework proposed by Burrel and Morgan (1980) restricts the
ways of interpreting the world, making them mutually exclusive, segregating perspectives,
making dialogue, use and interparadigmatic growth difficult, the Giftedean paradigmatic
framework, on the other On the other hand, by defending and promoting the neoperspectivist
paradigmatic approach, and by differentiating the concepts paradigm and theory, it provides the
researcher with the freedom to use all theories in EO that are suitable for the investigation of
their problem object, whatever their paradigms, admitting, then, the possibility of combining the
researcher's paradigms with any theory that is appropriate to the problem object of his
investigation.
For these reasons, the paradigmatic framework proposed by Gifted (2016) represents
major advances in paradigmatic debates in Organizational Studies. In short, it makes the
researcher's paradigmatic and theoretical choice more flexible, facilitating their studies and
research on organizations; and proposes to the scientific community the inclusion in its
literature as well as the use in the OE of the neoperspectivist paradigmatic approach, which
consists of specific refinements that the author makes in Leibnizian perspectivism, adding to it
the element of intersubjectivity as conceived in Marxist dialectical materialism.

REFERENCES
BARBOSA, MAC et al. . “Positivism” versus “Interpretativism”: what does the Administration have to
gain from this dispute? Organizations in context , São Bernardo do Campo, v. 9, no. 17, Jan./Jun.
2013.

BONNEAU, C.. Leibniz and the question of subjectivity. Arguments , year 2, n. 3, 2010.

CHIA, R. Organization Theory as a Postmodern Science. In: TSOUKAS, H.; KNUDSEN, C.

Handbook of organization theory . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

CORTESE, João FN Leibniz and the paradigm of perspective. Cadernos Espinosanos , v. 1, no. 34,
Jan./Jun. 2016.

CLEGG, SR et al. Organizational Studies Handbook : analysis models and new questions in
Organizational Studies. v. 1. São Paulo: Atlas, 1998.

CRESWELL, JW Research design : qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods. Translated by

Magda Lopes. 3rd ed. Porto Alegre: Artmed, 2010.

CZARNIAWSKA, B.. The styles and the stylists of organization theory. Ermesinde: TSOUKAS, H.;
KNUDSEN, C. Handbook of organization theory . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

DONALDSON, L. Organization Theory as a Positive Science. Ermesinde. In : TSOUKAS, H.;

KNUDSEN, C. Handbook of organization theory . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

ECO, U. How to write a thesis . Translated by Gilson César Cardoso de Souza. 24. ed. São Paulo:
Perspectiva, 2012.

EL-GUINDY, MM. Methodology and ethics in scientific research . São Paulo: Editora Santos, 2004.

GHERARDI, S. Feminist theory and organizational theory: a dialogue on new bases. Ermesinde. In:
TSOUKAS, H.; KNUDSEN, C. Handbook of organization theory . Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2003.

GIFTED, Á. G. The three pillars of scientific research methodology. Agora , v. 1, no. 1, p. 1-15, 2015.

GIFTED, Á. G. Comparison of the micro and macroeconomic dimensions of the Itaú-Unibanco

share merger and the Real-Santander merger . Brasília: STN, 2016.

GIL, AC Social research methods and techniques . 5. ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 1999.

GIL, AC How to develop research projects . 5. ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 2010.

GILES, TR. Introduction to philosophy . São Paulo: EPU/USP, 1979.

HATCH, M.J.; YANOW, D. Organization Theory as an Interpretative Science. Ermesinde. In :

TSOUKAS, H.; KNUDSEN, C. Handbook of organization theory . Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2003.
KNUDSEN, C. Pluralism, scientific progress, and the structure of organizational theory. Ermesinde. In
: TSOUKAS, H.; KNUDSEN, C. Handbook of organization theory . Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2003.

KÖCHE, JC. Fundamentals of scientific methodology : theory of science and initiation to research.
Petrópolis: Voices, 1997.

KUNH, T. The structure of scientific revolutions . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967.

MARCONI, MA; LAKATOS, IN Fundamentals of scientific methodology . 5. ed. São Paulo: Atlas,
2003.

MARCONI, MA; LAKATOS, IN Research techniques : planning and execution of research, sampling
and research techniques, preparation, analysis and interpretation of data. São Paulo: Atlas, 2008.

MEDEIROS, S.. Epistemological bases of positivism and dialectical materialism: notes for reflection.
Electronic Magazine of Postgraduate Studies in Education , Jataí, v. 6, no. 2, 2010.

NOVELLI, PGA The truth in Hegel and in Marx. Aurora , Marília, v. 7, no. 1, p. 27-38, 2013. (Special
Edition).

PIAGET, J. Psychology and epistemology : for a theory of knowledge. 1st ed. Rio de Janeiro: Forense
Rio, 1973.

REED, M. The Agency/Structure Dilemma in organization theory: open doors and crick walls.
Ermesinde. In : TSOUKAS, H.; KNUDSEN, C. Handbook of organization theory . Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2003.

STARBUCK, WH The origins of organization theory. In: TSOUKAS, H.; KNUDSEN, C. Handbook
of organization theory . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

TEIXEIRA, E. The three methodologies : academic, science and research. 9. ed. Petrópolis: Voices,
2012.

TRIVIÑOS, ANS Introduction to research in social sciences : qualitative research in education. 1st
ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 1987.

TSOUKAS, H.; KNUDSEN, C. Introduction : The Need for Meta-theoretical Reflection in

Organization Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

VERGARA, SC Data collection methods in the field . 2nd ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 2012.

WILLMOTT, H. Organization Theory as critical science? Forms of analysis and “new organizational
forms”. In: TSOUKAS, H.; KNUDSEN, C. Handbook of organization theory . Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2003.

YIN, RK Case study : planning and methods. Translated by Ana Thorell. Technical review by Claudio
Damacena. 4th ed. Porto Alegre: Bookman, 2010.
APPENDIX 2 – Bibliographic and documentary surveys
 TECHNICAL PROCEDURES FOR THE ADEQUATE
OPERATIONALIZATION OF BIBLIOGRAPHIC AND DOCUMENTAL
SURVEYS: THE STATE OF THE ART

SUMMARY
The work reflects on the subject of bibliographic and documentary surveys. It seeks to reach the state
of the art on technical procedures for their adequate operationalization, clarifying them enough to
facilitate their understanding and use. To this end, it carries out a very comprehensive, but not
exhaustive, bibliographic and documentary review of its critical literature, seeking to clarify its correct
understanding and appropriate use. It uses the neoperspectivist method as the logical basis of its
investigation and the hypothetical-deductive method as the basis of its thought structure. It argues that a
well-conducted bibliographic and documentary survey is an excellent entry point into a research area,
consisting of a complete map of its territory, pointing out and explaining its current state, its theories,
its founding concepts and its gaps. . It concludes that: the scientific research flowchart is systematic and
flexible, admitting steps that can be operationalized separately or concomitantly, according to the
researcher's habits; This type of research is fundamental to the beginning of any and all scientific
investigations; and, its quality is directly proportional to the level of specificity of the research object-
problem, the researcher's level of knowledge about the investigated object and his experience in
operationalizing such methodologies.

TECHNICAL PROCEDURES FOR THE PROPER OPERATION SURVEYS

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL AND DOCUMENTARY: THE STATE OF THE ART

ABSTRACT
The work reflects on the theme bibliographic and documentary surveys. Seeks to achieve the state of
the art technical procedures for its proper implementation, clarifying them enough to facilitate their
understanding and use. The study presents quite comprehensive, but not exhaustive literature review
and document its critical literature, seeking to lighten their correct understanding and proper use. Uses
neoperspectivist method as the rationale of its research and the hypothetical-deductive method as the
basis of the structure of thought. It argues that a bibliographic and documentary survey done well is an
excellent gateway into a research area, consisting of a complete map of its territory, pointing and
explaining its current state, its theories, its fundamental concepts and their shortcomings. Concludes
that: the flowchart of scientific research is systematic and flexible, admitting steps that can be
operationalized watertight or concomitant, according to the researcher's habits; this type of research is
critical to the beginning of any scientific research; and its quality is directly proportional to the level of
specificity of the problem object of research, the researcher's level of knowledge about the investigated
object and its operational experience in such methodologies.

TECHNICAL PROCEDURES FOR ADEQUACY OPERATION OF

BIBLIOGRAPHIC AND DOCUMENTAL ENCUESTS: THE STATE OF THE
ART
ABSTRACT

The work reflects on the bibliographic theme and documentary surveys. It seeks to reach the state of
the latest generation technical procedures for their correct application, clarifying them enough to
facilitate their understanding and use. The study presents a very broad, although not exhaustive, review
of literature and documents critical literature, trying to strengthen its understanding and correct use. It
uses the neoperspectivist method as the fundamental reason for its investigation and the hypotético-
deductive method as the basis of the structure of thought. It is argued that a bibliographic and
documentary survey is an excellent gateway to an area of investigation, which consists of a complete
map of its territory, highlighting and explaining its current state, its theories, its fundamental concepts
and its deficiencies. Conclude that: the flow diagram of scientific research is systematic and flexible
steps, admitting that it can be in operation at stagnations or concomitants, according to the researcher's
habits; This type of investigation is fundamental for the beginning of any scientific investigation; its
quality is directly proportional to the level of specificity of the research problem object, the level of
knowledge about the investigated object and its operational experience in these investigator
methodologies.

1. INTRODUCTION

This work reflects on the topic of bibliographic and documentary surveys. It seeks to achieve the
state of the art in terms of technical procedures for its adequate operationalization. These scientific
techniques, typical of the literature review process, are an excellent entry point into a research area,
consisting of a complete map of its territory, pointing out and explaining its current state, its theories,
its founding concepts and its gaps (KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS,
2003, 2007, 2008; LUNA, 2011; SAMPIERI; COLLADO; LUCRO, 2006; ACEVEDO; NOHARA,
2010; MOURA; FERREIRA, 2005; CASTRO, 1978; PIAGET, 1973; MENEZES, 1938; GILES, 1979;
CHAUI, 2008 ).
This theme is justified by the need for clarification on the appropriate steps for operationalizing
bibliographic and documentary surveys, taking into account their structural and ethical aspects. There
are researchers who treat the literature review as a matter of mere reprography of what has already been
produced on a topic, hesitating to position themselves against or in favor of a certain ideological,
philosophical or scientific line, a fundamental action in the process of doing science. You cannot favor
everything that has been studied and produced on a topic, because it is unethical, since science,
although reasonably safe and reliable, is unfinished, hypothetical, fallible, and as imperfect as its
producers. For this reason, the scientist needs to develop his critical sense to evaluate and judge
sentences according to their level of reliability, justifying each of his opinions, as he becomes
responsible, both to the scientific community and to civil society in general, for each particle of each
letter of each word that I his works are inserted. It is immediately deduced that the researcher needs to
be careful with every detail of everything he says, writes or exposes about an author or work (KÖCHE,
1997, 2011; ECO, 2012; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS , 2003, 2007, 2008; LUNA, 2011;
SAMPIERI; COLLADO; Profit, 2006; Acevedo; NOHARA, 2010; MOURA; FERREIRA, 2005;
CASTRO, 1978; PIAGET, 1973; Menezes, 1938; Giles, 1979; Chaui, 2008 ).
The question that drives this research is to thoroughly clarify the steps necessary for the
adequate operationalization of bibliographic and documentary surveys, exposing their systematism,
without, however, making them appear inflexible. It also addresses the issue of ethics throughout the
process of scientific investigation which, even in basic research, brings great responsibilities to the
research subject, both in the face of the scientific community and civil society in general (KÖCHE,
1997, 2011; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; LUNA, 2011; SAMPIERI;
COLLADO; LUCRO, 2006; ACEVEDO; NOHARA, 2010; MOURA; FERREIRA, 2005; CASTRO,
1978; PIAGET, 1973; MENEZES, 1938; GILES, 1979; CHAUI, 2008 ).
To this end, forty specific academic works on the methodology of scientific research were
selected, seeking the most enlightening contents on the technical procedures for the operationalization
of bibliographic and documentary surveys ( GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2007;
RODRIGUES, 2007 ; BÊRNI; FERNANDEZ, 2012; SAMPIERI; COLLADO; LUCRO, 2006;
ACEVEDO; NOHARA, 2010; MOURA; FERREIRA, 2005; CASTRO, 1978; PIAGET, 1973;
MENEZES, 1938; GILES, 1979; CHAUI, 2008).
To choose the selected sources, the following were considered criteria: a) specific content on
the methodology of scientific research; b) feasibility of access and analysis of selected materials. All
the sources were observed; data were collected, organized, systematized, analyzed, and presented in
accordance with technical research procedures for bibliographic and documentary survey presented by
Gil (1999, 2010), Marconi and Lakatos (2007), Rodrigues (2007), Luna (2011) and Köche (2011). The
aim was to reach the state of the art in the subject of bibliographic and documentary surveys.
My interest in researching this topic arose from my perception of the immense difficulty that
beginning researchers have in operationalizing bibliographic and documentary surveys, essential basic
research for carrying out any and all scientific investigations, and, therefore, essential entry into a
scientific career. This perception on my part occurred during my studies and university experiences.
Furthermore, my interest in becoming an excellent teacher and researcher, combined with my
perceptions about the obstacles that exist for the progress of science and university teaching, worried
me enough for me to contribute significantly to their achievement. I also highlight that I studied a
specific curricular component on scientific research methodology in two undergraduate courses and in
two lato sensu postgraduate courses that I completed in the distance learning modality. My academic
career spans more than 10 years of studies and experiences in Virtual Learning Environments, doing
research in virtual libraries, participating in virtual scientific events held through live video
conferences, among other online activities. My experiences allowed me to understand different
distance education methodologies, as well as flaws in each of them, which with specific research, and
with the articulation and/or development of new distance communication technologies, can be
eliminated, culminating in higher quality for this type of teaching.
The literature review of a topic is the beginning of all scientific investigation. Only by knowing
what has already been studied and produced about it can one review its results. This is how there are
several topics that have been researched for centuries, others, less old, for decades, and still others,
incipient, for a few years. However, when investigating an object whose literature is vast, the
researcher is faced with the need to make a spatial and temporal cut of reality so that his work is viable
and, therefore, makes some sense. Hence the conclusion that well-planned and systematic technical
procedures are necessary, even though they may allow certain flexibility, for the adequate
operationalization of scientific research (KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI;
LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; LUNA, 2011; SAMPIERI; COLLADO; LUCRO, 2006; ACEVEDO;
NOHARA, 2010; MOURA; FERREIRA, 2005; CASTRO, 1978; PIAGET, 1973; MENEZES, 1938;
GILES, 1979; CHAUI, 2008) . Regarding these aspects, Luna (2011, p. 19) corroborates :

[…] I don’t see how research can do without procedures, and the reason for this is simple. If the
problem that generates the research cannot be answered directly (otherwise we would not have
a problem!), this means that reality cannot be grasped directly, but depends on a section of it
that makes sense. This selection is guaranteed by the procedure that selects the information
necessary for the researcher to read. Different trends will make different cuts, but they cannot
do without information collection procedures.

Bibliographic and documentary surveys offer means that help in defining and resolving already
known problems, as well as allowing new areas to be explored where they have not yet sufficiently
crystallized. They also allow a topic to be analyzed under a new focus or approach, producing new
conclusions. Furthermore, they allow the coverage of a much wider range of phenomena, especially
when it comes to research whose problem requires the collection of data that are very dispersed in
space (KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; LUNA,
2011; RODRIGUES, 2007; PIAGET, 1973; MENEZES, 1938; GILES, 1979; CHAUI, 2008).
Although bibliographical and documentary research have common aspects, for example both are
based on prepared and already published materials, they are distinct. Documentary research consists of
the analysis of a priori primary sources, that is, prepared by the author himself, while bibliographic
research consists of the analysis of secondary sources, that is, transcribed from contemporary or
retrospective primary sources. In the critical literature on the methodology of scientific research, there
are many definitions for what constitutes a bibliographic and documentary survey (KÖCHE, 1997,
2011; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; LUNA, 2011; RODRIGUES,
2007). In order not to be exhaustive, I transcribe some, as follows:

Bibliographic is research limited to searching for information in books and other publications. It
is the opposite of field research, and is also distinguished from in vitro research . Generally,
bibliographical research is part of the scope of ex-post-facto research , for the simple fact that
books and works in any magazine or periodical deal, as a rule, with accomplished facts, and
bibliographical research based on reading the futurology type. (RODRIGUES, 2007, p. 43).

Bibliographical research is one that is carried out based on the available record, resulting from
previous research, in printed documents, such as books, works, theses, etc. It uses data or
theoretical categories already worked on by other researchers and duly registered. The texts
become sources of the topics to be researched. The researcher works based on the contributions
of the authors of the analytical studies contained in the texts. (SEVERINO, 2007, p. 122).

The bibliographical research is based on already published material. Traditionally, this type of
research includes printed material, such as books, magazines, newspapers, theses, dissertations
and annals of scientific events. However, due to the dissemination of new information formats,
these searches began to include other types of sources, such as records, magnetic tapes, CDs, as
well as material available on the internet. (GIL, 2010, p. 29).

Bibliographical research is carried out trying to explain a problem, using the knowledge
available from theories published in books or similar works. In bibliographical research, the
researcher will survey the knowledge available in the area, identifying the theories produced,
analyzing them and evaluating their contribution to helping to understand or explain the
problem that is the subject of the investigation. The objective of bibliographical research,
therefore, is to understand and analyze the main theoretical contributions that exist on a given
topic or problem, making it an indispensable instrument for any type of research.
Bibliographic research can be used for different purposes: a) to increase the level of knowledge
in a given area, enabling the researcher to better understand or define a research problem; b) to
master the available knowledge and use it as a basis or foundation in the construction of a
theoretical model explaining a problem, that is, as an auxiliary instrument for the construction
and substantiation of hypotheses; c) to describe or systematize the state of the art, at that
moment, relevant to a certain theme or problem. (KÔCHE, 2011, p. 122).

The characteristic of documentary research is that the source of data collection is restricted to
documents, written or not, constituting what are called primary sources. These can be collected
at the moment the fact or phenomenon occurs, or afterwards. (MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2007,
p. 62).

Documentary research is that which uses, if not exclusively, at least basically or predominantly,
documents as sources of information. Documents are not just official, authenticated or similar
papers. A text such as a private letter can be a historical document. A photograph is a document
that anthropologists and forensic researchers rely on. A recorded tape is a document. Therefore,
a document is a material source of information. The materiality of the document is not restricted
to paper. (RODRIGUES, 2007, p. 45).
 Specifically highlighting the relevance of bibliographic and documentary surveys, Gil (2010)
highlights that it allows the researcher to cover a much wider range of phenomena than that which
could be researched directly, especially when the research problem requires very dispersed data.
through space. However, do not forget to point out that, as they are sources of secondary data 25, both
bibliographies and documents can present data collected or processed in the wrong way, making it
possible to reproduce and/or expand these errors in works based on them. For this reason, Gil (2010,
p. 30) provides useful suggestions to reduce this possibility, saying:

To reduce this possibility, researchers should ensure the conditions under which the data were
obtained, analyze each piece of information in depth to discover possible inconsistencies or
contradictions and use different sources, carefully comparing them.

The critical literature on the methodology of scientific research is unanimous in clarifying that
there is no normative code that establishes how many, which and in what sequence the steps for the
operationalization of bibliographic and documentary surveys should be carried out, but rather criteria,
guidelines, principles that guide it systematically. In this way, the steps for its operationalization occur
according to the researcher's level of knowledge and degree of methodological experience. However,
scientific research requires prior and systematic planning and, for this reason, there are several
suggestions in its flowchart in order to help beginning researchers (KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; GIL, 1999,
2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007 , 2008; LUNA, 2011; RODRIGUES, 2007; SAMPIERI;
COLLADO; LUCRO, 2006; ACEVEDO; NOHARA, 2010; MOURA; FERREIRA, 2005; CASTRO,
1978).
This work was organized into seven parts. The first refers to the introduction, in which the
theme, justification, problem, objectives, contribution, methodology, student path, theoretical
framework and organization of work are presented. From the second to the sixth part, the theme is
developed, presenting in the second the formulation of the problem-object of the research, in the third
the formulation of the hypotheses and research objectives, in the fourth the explanation of the sources
of information, in the fifth the collection of research data, and in the sixth the treatment of research
data. In the seventh section, conclusions and final considerations are presented. Hence, last but not
least, in order to complete a complete conclusion, the work presents the references consulted.

25 Bibliographies are sources of secondary data. Documents are sources of data that can be primary or secondary
(LUNA, 2011; GIL, 1999, 2010).
 2 FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM-OBJECT OF THE RESEARCH

The stage of formulating the problem-object of the research needs to precede the stages of
explaining the sources of information, collecting and processing the data, because it is this stage that
cuts out spatially and temporally what or what is intended to be researched, guiding, then, from this
way, the entire process of scientific investigation. It is precisely for this reason that the critical literature
on the methodology of scientific research is unanimous in defending that this step should always be the
first (KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; LUNA,
2011; RODRIGUES, 2007; SAMPIERI; COLLADO; LUCRO, 2006; ACEVEDO; NOHARA, 2010;
MOURA; FERREIRA, 2005; CASTRO, 1978). Regarding these aspects, some authors lend us their
ideas as follows:

A delimited research problem expresses the possible relationship that may exist between at
least two known variables. It must be an intelligent question, that is, one that indicates the
possible paths that should be followed by the researcher. To do this, however, it is necessary for
the researcher to eliminate the unknown by introducing another variable in its place to replace
it. This task requires the use of two skills by the researcher: creative imagination and available
knowledge. The researcher must, in the light of available knowledge, conjecture about the
possible factors that may be related to the variable under study. The question he formulates will
always question, on a hypothetical level, the possible relationship proposed by the investigator,
as an intelligent question, replacing the ignorant one, which will address nature, facts, things, so
that it can be answered during the research. […] The initial question that Rosenberg formulated
regarding the fact that intrigued him was: Was the spontaneous disappearance of his patient's
cancer caused by his innate immune system? The knowledge available in the field of
immunology led him to believe in this assumption and use it to define the main problem of his
research. Adding to this knowledge that already produced in the area of genetic engineering,
Rosenberg was then able to elaborate a question that until then no researcher had dared to ask,
regarding the possibility of manipulating the innate immune potential, existing in the organism,
to combat cancer. Thus, the complete question (b), of a conjectural nature, which guided all his
subsequent investigation, was: Is it possible to develop an immunotherapy for cancer, that is, a
treatment that allows the increase (in the human organism) of the innate (latent) potential of the
immune system to eliminate cancer cells? (KÖCHE, 2011, p. 106-107).

The starting point of a research may be an intention that is still imprecise. The researcher may
have decided to work with mentally disabled people or study elementary school. It is possible
that you have joined a group that has been studying the psychology of organizations or, more
specifically, social relations within companies. None of these specifications define a research
problem, although the researcher is one or more steps ahead of someone who does not yet have
an idea of what they intend to study.
In fact, “mentally disabled” delimits a type of subject (although mental disability is better
characterized as a theme). The primary school (or any other) defines an institution within which
one intends to work. Social or organizational psychology constitutes an area of research and the
specification that it intends to deal with social relations within companies already implies the
selection of a topic from an area, but not yet a research problem.
Likewise, no matter how informative the title of a work is (and it should be), it rarely
constitutes a good formulation of a research problem (especially because titles should not be
long). “State, Society and Marginality” may be a great title for a paper, but it certainly does not
 constitute a good formulation of a problem. In any of the above situations, the researcher will
only be in a preliminary phase of the research process, which may be an inevitable stage of
research, especially if the researcher is entering an area new to him (in fact, a common
condition among beginning researchers). . The risk lies in the fact that such an initial
formulation is taken as the research problem, triggering other decisions (choice of procedures,
characteristics of research participants, etc.). It has already been said here that the more clearly
a problem is formulated, the easier and more appropriate the subsequent decision-making
process will be, but it must be clear that this clarity does not mean that the researcher does not
decide/prefer/need to reformulate the problem later. The research process is essentially
dynamic. (LUNA, 2011, p. 29-31).

However, several precautions need to be taken when formulating the problem-object of the
research. At the current stage of science, since much has already been researched and published on
many topics, it is quite common when investigating a given object to discover that “almost everything”
or “practically everything” about it has already been researched (ECO, 2012; VERGARA, 2012;
TEIXEIRA, 2012; GIFTED, 2015; BÊRNI; FERNANDEZ, 2012). In these cases, knowing what has
already been studied on a subject, it is advisable that its delimitation be as focused as possible
(SAMPIERI; COLLADO; LUCRO, 2006; ACEVEDO; NOHARA, 2010; MOURA; FERREIRA,
2005; CASTRO, 1978; GIL, 1999, 2010; SEVERINO, 2007; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007,
2008; ECO, 2012). Regarding these aspects, Moura and Ferreira (2005, p. 24) point out:

To prepare, a researcher needs to monitor the development of knowledge. […] To do so, […],
one must be used to reading scientific journals, in the same way that one reads newspapers
every day. The author points out that the 1952 edition of the World List of Scientific Periodicals
listed more than 50 thousand periodicals. By his calculations, this involved the equivalent of
more than 2 million articles per year, or 40 thousand per week! Although these calculations
include all areas of knowledge, one can imagine that, forty years later, even considering only
psychology, it is only possible to follow a small fraction of what is published in the languages
in which one can read. Adair and Vohra (2003) confirm this assumption by presenting
impressive numbers. According to the authors, the number of abstracts published by some
psychology entities, such as the American Psychological Association (APA), increased from
555 thousand in 1957 to 3.7 million in 1997. The authors also cite Thorngate (1990), who
estimated that almost fifteen years that “psychologists were publishing articles at a rate of one
hundred per day, more or less one every fifteen minutes”.

The more focused, specific, and funnel-shaped the problem-object of research is, the greater the
ease of discovering its variables, its hypothetical solutions, establishing its objectives and, therefore,
investigating it. For example, when carrying out a bibliographic and documentary survey on university
management, the researcher will naturally find several surveys already carried out on this topic,
perhaps some explaining about North American university management in the 1980s, or about
Brazilian university management. post Magna Cargo, of October 5, 1988, which provides for the
Constitution of the Brazilian Federative Republic (BRASIL, 1988), or post Law 9,394, of December
20, 1996, which establishes the guidelines and bases of National Education ( BRAZIL, 1996).
Therefore, much better than researching generically about university management, is to focus
on this topic, specifying a geographic space, for example, the state of São Paulo, and a period of time,
for example the last decade. To make the topic even more specific, you can select only public
university management, or only private university management, or choose exactly the higher education
institution(s) in which you intend to investigate its management. The more complex a research object
problem is or appears to be, the more parts it must be subdivided to reach the depth necessary for its
solution. Remembering that, the more focused the object problem is, the easier it is to investigate it and
the higher the quality of its results. Therefore, it is the level of specificity of an object problem that
determines the degree of simplicity or complexity of its investigation as well as the level of quality of
its final results (KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS , 2003, 2007, 2008;
LUNA, 2011; RODRIGUES, 2007; ECO, 2012; VERGARA, 2012; TEIXEIRA, 2012;
VASCONCELLOS, 2010; BÊRNI; FERNANDEZ, 2012).

3 THE FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESES AND RESEARCH

OBJECTIVES

The formulation of hypotheses and research objectives is generally carried out in scientific
investigative practice, prior to the formulation of the research object-problem (LUNA, 2011), but they
can be carried out concomitantly, at the discretion of the researcher, according to your knowledge of
the topic and your experience in carrying out bibliographic and documentary surveys. These two
preliminary stages are completely theoretical, that is, abstract, the result of mental work aimed at
structuring the loose pieces of the puzzle. So, it is in these stages that all – or at least the main –
variables of the research object are raised, all – or at least the main – hypothetical solutions correlate
the variables and hypotheses with each other and with the whole, seeking to create a picture complete
theoretical capable of guiding the entire investigation and, based on these steps, the research objectives
are defined (KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008;
LUNA, 2011; RODRIGUES , 2007; ECO, 2012). Regarding these aspects, Köche (2011, p. 108) points
out:

The delimitation of the problem then defines the limits of the doubt, explaining which variables
are involved in the investigation and how they relate to each other. The bounded problem is an
 intelligent question that contains the possible relationships of a possible answer. Planning the
research sequence is done to test whether or not the proposed relationships are relevant, making
it therefore impossible to plan observations or tests without the problem and its variables being
delimited. The problem is, therefore, an interrogative statement that asks about the possible
relationship that may exist between (at least) two variables, pertinent to the investigated object
of study and capable of testing or empirical observation. [...]
When starting a research, together with the delimitation of the problem, the investigator
proposes a possible explanation that will guide the entire investigation process, suggesting the
possible relationship between the aspects of the phenomena he is studying. Hypotheses, as
conjectural statements, are the researcher's working instruments.

Every investigation starts – or at least must start – from a set of hypotheses, that is, from
assumptions about the solution to the proposed problem-object. Only from this step onwards is it
possible to determine its level of scientific and social relevance as well as the appropriate ways to
collect and process the data necessary for its solution. Unlike what inductivists and empiricists believed
in the early phase of science, “that scientific explanations came from the pure observation of facts or
phenomena”, any and all investigations need preconceived ideas – which, of course, come from our
theoretical parameters and references, which, in turn, are constructed historically, culturally and
subjectively – to be triggered (KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003,
2007, 2008; LUNA, 2011; RODRIGUES, 2007; ECO, 2012; VERGARA, 2012; TEIXEIRA, 2012;
VASCONCELLOS, 2010). Corroborating these ideas, Luna (2011, p. 34 to 36) explains some aspects
of this stage with the following words:

In the most layman's sense of the term, hypothesis means an assumption, a conjecture and,
when applied to research, implies conjecture regarding the possible results to be obtained. From
this point of view, hypotheses are almost inevitable, especially for those who are scholars in the
area they are researching and, based on analyzes of available knowledge, end up “betting” on
what may emerge as the final product of the study.
But hypothesis has always had a much more precise meaning and function, especially with
regard to quantitative research conducted according to statistical designs. In fact, inferential
statistics answers specific questions about relationships between data sets. For many years, the
almost absolute primacy of quantitative research made it unthinkable to do without the use of
statistical tests to convey research results. In this context, hypotheses were derived from the
formulated problem and were an indispensable part of the research project and report.
Particularly in the human sciences, when new research models began to be introduced,
inferential statistics had its use drastically reduced and, as a result, the existence of an
established confusion between problem and hypothesis became evident. On the one hand,
talking about a research problem seems to evoke, for many people, statistical echoes; in other
words, a research problem is confused with a statistical hypothesis. As another side of this same
coin, the idea seems to persist that, if one does not intend to use inferential statistics, it is
unnecessary to worry about the precision of the formulation of the research problem.
Hypothesis, in this sense, cannot and should not be confused with a research problem. Firstly,
because the formulation of research hypotheses necessarily derives from the problem. Secondly,
because, contrary to what happens with other problem formulations taken as examples, the
hypothesis represents a formalization of the problem and, as such, is much more specific than
this. In fact, a well-structured hypothesis depends on a clear and unambiguous problem.
 It is noteworthy that Luna (2011) states that the formulation of hypotheses and research
objectives depends on the prior formulation of the problem-object of the research because this is his
procedural habit of carrying out bibliographic and documentary surveys. However, there are no such
rigid steps for methodologies, since the order of such steps does not harm the scientific investigation
process. For this reason, the researcher has the freedom to choose to do one step first, and then the
other, or both simultaneously, according to the level of their knowledge on the topic and the level of
their experience in carrying out bibliographical surveys. and documentary (Köche, 1997, 2011; Gil,
1999, 2010; Marconi; Lakatos, 2003, 2007, 2008; Luna, 2011; Rodrigues, 2007; Eco, 2012; Gifted,
2015; Sampieri; Colladi; Profit, 2006; Acevedo ; NOHARA, 2010; MOURA; FERREIRA, 2005;
CASTRO, 1978).
In this sense, it is important to highlight that hypotheses have fundamental characteristics,
without which the empirical confrontation necessary for the information produced through scientific
26
investigation to satisfy not only the syntactic truth , but also the semantic truth is not possible.27
and pragmatic truth 28and can then be considered scientific. However, the variables are typified for
this same purpose (KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007,
2008; LUNA, 2011; RODRIGUES, 2007; ECO, 2012; VERGARA, 2012; TEIXEIRA , 2012;
VASCONCELLOS, 2010). Köche (2011, p. 109, 113-114) presents them in full as follows:

The first is to be a clearly worded statement , without ambiguities and in the form of a
declarative sentence .
The second is to establish relationships between two or more variables . In the hypothesis, the
ability to distinguish grammatical categories increases with chronological age and educational
level ; the first two variables, chronological age and educational level , are related to the third,
ability to distinguish grammatical categories . Increasing one or the first two increases the other
and vice versa.
When writing the hypothesis, relationship terms appear that unite the variables. There are
several ways to state this relationship. Depending on the hypothesis and type of relationships,
the following expressions can be used: it is directly proportional, it is inversely related, it
produces, if… then…, it results, there is a significant relationship between and others.
The third characteristic is that the hypothesis must be testable , that is, capable of being
translated into empirical consequences that can be subjected to tests, contrastable with reality.
From the previous hypothesis, we can extract as a logical consequence that a 17-year-old
student studying the third year of high school can better distinguish the noun from the adjective,
the pronoun, the adverb, the verb, than a 12-year-old student. years of age and who is in the
second year of primary school. These consequences can be tested in practice by giving a
sentence to students of different ages and levels of education, asking them to distinguish
between these grammatical categories. The performance of these students can be measured and

26 Syntactic truth refers to logical, coherent statements.

27 The truth semantics refers to consistency in critical literature and facts.
28 The truth pragmatic refers to the paired exam, that is, evaluation and approval by an examining board composed
of professional researchers on and in the topic.
 placed into different bands. The analysis of these differences will allow the evaluation of the
hypothesis. […]
Independent variable: is the one that is a determining factor for a certain result to occur. It is the
condition or cause for a certain effect or consequence. It is the stimulus that conditions a
response. The independent variable, in experimental research, is the one that is manipulated by
the investigator, to see what influence it has on a possible result.
Dependent variable: is that factor or property that is the effect, result, consequence or response
of something that was stimulated. The dependent variable is not manipulated, but is the effect
observed as a result of manipulating the independent variable. […]
Moderating variable: is that factor or property that is also a cause, condition, stimulus or
determinant for a certain effect to occur. However, it is located at a secondary level, of less
importance than the independent variable. It would practically be a secondary independent
variable. The value of the moderating variable is evident in research whose problems are
complex, with the interference of several interrelated factors. In these cases, it serves to analyze
the extent to which these factors are important in the relationship between the independent
variable and the dependent variable. […]
Control variable: is that factor or property that could affect the dependent variable, but which is
neutralized or nullified, through its deliberate manipulation, so as not to interfere in the
relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable.
Generally, when investigating a complex situation, an observed effect is not the result of just
one cause. It is not possible, however, in a single experiment, to analyze them all at the same
time. Some factors, then, are neutralized so that they have no effect on the phenomenon studied.
Thus, in the previous example, age and intelligence are control variables. If they were not
neutralized, it would not be possible to analyze and evaluate the relationship between the
number of practical training sessions and skill performance. […]
Intervening variable: is that factor or property that theoretically affects the observed
phenomenon. This factor, however, unlike the other variables, cannot be manipulated or
measured. It is a hypothetical, theoretical factor, not concrete. It is inferred from the
independent variable or the moderator. This variable is generally not considered much by
researchers.

Although it is possible to escape the testability of the hypotheses of an investigation, in an

attempt to facilitate its progress, in fact, what happens is the opposite, that is, the investigative focus
leaves the scientific field and starts heading towards the field of sense. common, when the researcher
refrains from formulating any assumption, or even in the metaphysical field, when his hypotheses are
very vague, the result of his personal credulities (BARROS; LEHFELD, 2000, 2007; KÖCHE, 1997,
2011; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; LUNA, 2011; RODRIGUES,
2007; ECO, 2012).

4 EXPLANATION OF INFORMATION SOURCES

Basically, sources of information can be primary (direct) or secondary (indirect). It can be said
that, initially, or a priori , the data collected in documentary surveys are primary, that is, the facts are
originally observed by the researcher, the author's original data are collected; the information is always
factual, that is, it depends on little or no interpretation (LUNA, 2011; KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; ECO,
2012; GIL, 1999, 2010). In a second moment, or a posteriori , the data collected in bibliographic and
documentary surveys are secondary, that is, they are translations or interpretations of the originals, such
as scientific reviews or literature bibliographies; or even the explanatory notes of administrative or
accounting statements; the information is always opinionated, that is, it refers to opinions,
interpretations, assumptions, beliefs, values, etc. (LUNA, 2011; KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; ECO, 2012;
GIL, 1999, 2010).
Bibliographies, research instruments typical of bibliographic surveys, are composed of
interpretative information from an author's words on a topic and, therefore, secondary. They mainly
accompany non-participant observational research, but they are useful and necessary with theoretical
lenses from all types of research to survey their theoretical framework. They basically consist of books
and academic works in general, such as TCCs, monographs, dissertations, theses, scientific works,
scientific reviews, research projects, etc. Based on these assumptions, it can be deduced that
bibliographies are essential instruments for bibliographic surveys, necessary for all types of research
(GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; LUNA , 2011;
SAMPIERI; COLLADO; LUCRO, 2006; ACEVEDO; NOHARA, 2010; MOURA; FERREIRA, 2005;
CASTRO, 1978). Regarding these and other aspects of bibliographies and surveys based on them,
Moura and Ferreira (2005, p. 25 and 26) point out:

In the literature consultation stage, dissertations and theses are useful, which often make good
reviews, as well as articles that aim to review studies on a topic or problem. One journal in
which these articles are published is the Annual Review of Psychology . The American
Psychologist magazine also presents articles that critically analyze relevant and sometimes
controversial topics in contemporary psychology. One of its sections is specifically dedicated to
analysis of this nature: “Science Watch”.
In addition to searching for topics, it is useful to consult the lists of periodicals in libraries and
find those that deal with the subject or those that were recommended by researchers consulted.
The next step is to consult your latest numbers, or the numbers from a certain period, depending
on the type of work you intend to do (for example, the last five or ten years). Finally, examining
the content of these journals can lead to the selection of works on the topic.
Once books and articles have been located, it is interesting to make a selection of what will be
borrowed, or what will be reproduced on xerox, always remembering copyright laws and the
limits for this type of copying. It is often appropriate to organize the material as presented in the
magazine, enriching it with personal comments. One suggestion is to create a database in the
Access program or similar. The work and time spent on creating your own system for
organizing consulted material will be compensated with less difficulty when writing the project.
In parallel to manual research in libraries by consulting their catalogues, an electronic search
can be carried out in computerized databases. Some libraries have subscriptions to these
systems that store a huge amount of information and allow the user to access data files,
searching by subject, one or more keywords, authors or publications. Such searches can be
limited by periods, age groups of the subjects, language in which the work was published, etc.
Previously, these banks were available on CD-ROM, in libraries that had your signature;
Today, consultation can be done online, in libraries or institutions. […]
 Documents, research instruments typical of documentary surveys, are commonly composed, a
priori , of original information from the author – and it is exactly the type of information that
differentiates documentary surveys from bibliographic surveys, and, therefore, primary, such as that
found in a medical records, legislation, financial and accounting statements of a company or institution,
etc. However, documents may contain interpretative information from the originals, such as in
explanatory notes and comments made by third parties in the same documents cited, or attached to
them (LUNA, 2011; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; KÖCHE, 1997,
2011). Regarding these aspects of the documents, Luna (2011, p. 56) lends us his ideas as follows:

The document, as a source of information, takes different forms: literature pertinent to a subject,
statistical yearbooks and censuses, medical records, legislation, etc. These are all examples of
documentary sources. As with other sources, information obtained from documents can be
direct and indirect. In the particular case of documents, this distinction usually assumes the
denomination of primary (direct) and secondary (indirect) sources. An author's original works
are considered primary, while translations and comments about that author are considered
secondary sources.
Generally speaking, the more “official” a document is, the more primary the source.

The documentary survey aims to collect a priori primary data, that is, those that have not yet
been subjected to some type of manipulation, while the bibliographic survey aims to collect secondary
data on a topic, when there is no primary data on it. or when its collection is proven to be unfeasible.
However, it is worth highlighting that the documents, or attachments, may contain secondary data; For
this reason, it is correct to say that documents are sources of primary or secondary data. Regarding this
research instrument, Gil (1999, p. 160) highlights:

“Paper” sources are often capable of providing the researcher with data rich enough to avoid
wasting time on field surveys, not to mention that in many cases social investigation is only
possible based on documents.

The documents are typified by Gil (1999, p. 160-165. My emphasis) into personal documents,
institutional records, statistical records and mass communication in general, that is, TV, radio,
newspapers, magazines, internet, etc., as follows:

1) Statistical records
[...] Government entities such as the IBGE Foundation have data relating to the socioeconomic
characteristics of the Brazilian population, such as: age, sex, family size, education level,
occupation, income level, etc. Health bodies provide data on the incidence of diseases, causes of
death, etc. An entity such as the Inter-Union Department of Statistics and Socioeconomic
 Studies has data on unemployment, wages, strikes, labor negotiations, etc. Voluntary
organizations have data regarding their members and also the populations they serve. Research
institutes linked to the most diverse fields of knowledge. Furthermore, an increasing number of
entities are concerned with maintaining databases. This occurs in hospitals, schools, social
service agencies, professional associations, public offices, etc.
[...]
2) Written institutional records
In addition to statistical records, written records provided by government institutions can also be
useful for social research. These data include: bills, reports from government bodies, minutes of
meetings of legislative houses, court rulings, documents registered at notary offices, etc. [...]
3) Personal documents
There are a series of writings dictated on the initiative of its author that provide relevant
information about his personal experience. Letters, diaries, memoirs and autobiographies are
some of these documents that can be of great value in social research.
[...]
4) Mass communication
Mass communication documents, such as newspapers, magazines, film tapes, radio and
television programs, constitute an important source of data for social research. They enable the
researcher to learn about the most varied aspects of current society and also deal with the
historical past. In the latter case, with efficiency probably greater than that obtained using any
other data source. [...]

Based on the assumptions presented, it is deduced that the bibliographic survey, as a type of
indirect observation, consists of the collection and systematic treatment of secondary data, and that the
documentary survey, as a type of observation that can be either direct (data primary) and indirect
(secondary data), consists of the systematic collection and treatment of hybrid data, that is, both
primary and secondary (KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007,
2008; LUNA, 2011; RODRIGUES, 2007; ECO, 2012).
What type of information sources to choose? This is the fundamental question of this stage of
research and needs to be answered taking into account the nature of the problem-object of the research,
the skill of the researcher and the resources available to carry out the investigation, which includes the
time spent on it. Factually, Luna (2011, p. 57, 58 and 109) helps us understand these aspects with the
following words:

Certain research problems – either due to their very nature or due to the researcher's ability to
define the research problem – do not leave much room for choice regarding the sources to be
consulted. If my research proposes to compare the level of approval in the entrance exam of
students from private schools and public schools, there is not much choice: I need to consult
documents in the university offices and record the information in a crossed format. If a research
intends to evaluate the interactions between the teacher and her students, the most direct source
possible is classroom observation. Finally, if the intention is to evaluate the suggestions and
criticisms of the user of any service (say, a health center or a library), the best resource is the
verbal report (oral or written). […]
It is true that our access to international bibliography is less than desirable. Likewise, certain
documents may only be accessible in situ , which can make them difficult to read. In conditions
such as these, an author may be permitted to draw on secondary sources. But only in conditions
like these!
 Therefore, the choice of operationalizing a bibliographic or documentary survey depends on the
type of data or information necessary to adequately answer the research question, discover its variables,
test its hypotheses, and fulfill pre-established objectives. If only primary data meets these requirements,
then a documentary survey must be carried out; If it is not possible to collect primary data, or if
secondary data are capable of meeting these requirements, then a bibliographic survey must be carried
out (LUNA, 2011; BARROS; LEHFELD, 2000, 2007; KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; GIL, 1999, 2010;
MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; RODRIGUES, 2007; ECO, 2012; SAMPIERI;
COLLADO; LUCRO, 2006; ACEVEDO; NOHARA, 2010; MOURA; FERREIRA, 2005; CASTRO,
1978).

5 COLLECTION OF RESEARCH DATA

The collection of research data begins with the initial definition of keywords, also called
descriptors, which are the terms through which access to the research sources explained is obtained, as
well as their respective locations, for example in databases, in physical or virtual libraries (LUNA,
2011; BARROS; LEHFELD, 2000, 2007; KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI;
LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; RODRIGUES, 2007; ECO, 2012). Regarding all these aspects, Luna
(2011, p. 100 and 101) highlights:

One of the by-products of a researcher's constant activity in the same area is the familiarity they
acquire with institutions, researchers and journals associated with the area. In other words, it
begins to discriminate potentially relevant material by the name of the author, his institution
and/or journal in which the work was published. Until you get there, your best starting point is
still directly consulting the works, library binders, publication summaries and banks of theses
and dissertations. However, there are two things you can do to make this task easier.
Initial keyword survey.
With this survey, you will be able to consult the sources with some selection criteria. (It is true
that this procedure assumes that authors title their work in the most descriptive way possible,
which is not always true!)
Proceed with the consultation in the following order: Title – Summary – Text Reading.
If the title, in any way, suggests interest in your work, it is worth reading the abstract. With this
reading, it will be possible to decide whether or not reading the text is worth it.

For example, in the data collection stage for this work, I selected the following keywords:
bibliographic survey, documentary survey, scientific methodology. The locations in which I used the
keywords in the search for my research sources were the CAPES Database, physical libraries of the
Mackenzie University, the Federal University of São Carlos, the Bráz Cubas University, the Federal
University of São Paulo, Parque da Juventude, Parque Villa-Lobos, Universidade Federal do ABC,
Mário de Andrade, Universidade de São Paulo, Universidade Estadual Paulista “Júlio de Mesquita
Filho”, Arsenal da Esperança, Municipal Library Network of Municipality of São Paulo, from the
Municipality of São Lourenço, and the Pearson Virtual Library 3.0, with which the Metropolitan
University of Santos has an agreement (GIFTED, 2015).
Then I found, in each location where I searched, a list with all the research sources indexed by
the descriptors I used, I made a selection of them, selecting for data processing only publications whose
summary was clear and objective enough to facilitate the understanding and use of bibliographic and
documentary surveys. Among these sources, some from the 1970s, others from the 1990s, some from
the 2000s, and others more recent, published in the last five years, through which I sought to reach the
state of the art on this topic (GIFTED, 2015) .
Next, I consulted all the research sources accessed, analyzing their title, their summary, their
descriptors, their summary, their references, and then reading the most important excerpts from the text
that I selected. of its summary, or, some works, reading them in full (GIFTED, 2015; LUNA, 2011;
SAMPIERI; COLLADO; LUCRO, 2006; ACEVEDO; NOHARA, 2010; MOURA; FERREIRA, 2005;
CASTRO, 1978; VASCONCELLOS, 2010; ECO, 2012). When a scientific book comes into my hands,
the topic of which arouses my interest, I follow a procedural itinerary of scientific reading: first I
observe the summary carefully, evaluating how the author structured his work and what aspects of the
topic he focused on, in such a way that from the beginning I can understand your mastery of the
methodology of scientific research, in which aspects it is easy or difficult; then, I usually go directly to
the references section, where I evaluate the level of consistency of your work and, therefore, whether it
deserves to be used or not; If so, that is, if the scientific book, in addition to being updated, is also
consistent, I usually go through the topics in which I am most interested, evaluating the engravings
(drawings), tables (tables), titles and subtitles , and some core textual excerpts 29, evaluating the level
of coherence and textual cohesion, and if, in fact, the book is coherent, then I consider it worthy of my
scientific investigations (NICOLA; TERRA, 2007; VASCONCELLOS, 2010; LUNA, 2011; GIFTED,
2015).
It is worth highlighting here the observational protocol, an instrument specific to observational
research. It is a means of recording the information produced during observation. It could be a
notebook, a notepad, or even a scratch page. The objective is to plan everything that was observed

29 By nuclear textual excerpts , I mean the chain of sentences and paragraphs that follow the deepest level of the
work's structure. For example, if this deepest level is the subtitle, I read the paragraphs that immediately follow it.
about the research object, its characteristics, its variations, the possible causes and possible effects of
the variations, what was done during the observation, what was not done during it and what (s) ) their
respective why(s). Commonly, the recording of information in the observational protocol is separated
into descriptive notes (what is actually observed) and reflective notes (the interpretations or reflections
of what is observed). Regarding these aspects, Creswell (2010, p. 2015) confirms:

[...] Researchers often engage in multiple observations over the course of a qualitative study and
use an observational protocol to record information. It can be a single page, with a line
dividing it in half lengthwise to separate the descriptive notes (portraits of participants,
reconstruction of dialogue, description of the physical location, reports of certain events or
activities) from the reflective notes (the personal thoughts of the observer, such as “speculation,
feelings, problems, ideas, hunches, impressions and prejudices” [...]). Demographic information
about the time, place, and date of the field site where the observation occurred can also be
written this way. [...]

It can be deduced from this experience that the observational protocol is a fundamental
instrument in observational research, especially bibliographic and documentary surveys, and that, in
order not to hinder or even prevent its adequate execution, it can only be rendered useless when
replaced by another equivalent instrument. , such as the field diary (GIFTED, 2015; LUNA, 2011;
KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; ECO, 2012; CRESWELL, 2010; ECO, 2012; SAMPIERI; COLLADO; LUCRO,
2006; ACEVEDO; NOHARA, 2010; MOURA; FERREIRA, 2005; CASTRO, 1978).

6 PROCESSING OF RESEARCH DATA

Research data, once collected, needs to be processed. The processing of research data includes:
recording it , which can be operated through manual or electronic planning ; its systematization ,
which needs to exploratory and descriptively explain the logical sequence of scientific investigation (its
starting point, each of the intermediate steps, and its outcome, considering its assumptions, hypotheses,
questions, suspicions, curiosities, or conjectures) ; it can be the simple string search, the advanced
string search , and or the inclusion/exclusion factors; its organization , which can be operationalized,
for example, through categorization , coding or tabulation ; its analysis or interpretation , which can
be carried out, for example, through Bibliometric Analysis , Discourse Analysis , Content Analysis or
Exegesis/Hermeneutics ; its formalization , which is commonly cemented as TCC, dissertation, thesis,
work, review, periodical, magazine, software, patent, work of art ; its presentation , which can be
carried out, for example, through an oral presentation , or a visual presentation , or a mixed
presentation (GIFTED, 2015; SEVERINO, 2007; GIL, 1999, 2010; LUNA, 2011; BARROS;
LEHFELD , 2000, 2007; KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007,
2008; RODRIGUES, 2007; ECO, 2012 ).
The recording of research data can be carried out through manual compilation, in which the
researcher writes down in ink or graphite, for example, on paper, or electronically, in which the
researcher types all the notes into a text file, such as that of Microsoft Word (application from the
standard Office package of the Windows operating system) or that of Open Writer (applied from the
standard Open Office package of the Linux operating system). To optimize the management of time
spent at this stage, it is recommended to take all the content that will be used in academic work in front
of the computer and desk (or other suitable environment for scanning), which includes bibliographies,
documents and the notes. It is, therefore, a very laborious step to carry out and demands time inversely
proportional to the researcher's skills in using such methodologies, that is, the more skilled he is, the
less time he needs to spend to carry out scientific research for using these methodologies, but it is not
difficult because you just need to know how to type well, scan, print, read well and write well
(GIFTED, 2015).
The systematization of research data involves the descriptive explanation of the logical
sequence of the research, that is, its starting point, each of its intermediate steps and its outcome. For
example, this work (appendix) was systematized as follows: it started from the problem of the difficulty
of beginning researchers in operationalizing bibliographic and documentary surveys, as well as the
hypothesis that the elimination of the immense terminological, conceptual, taxonomic and content
imprecision on this topic found in the vast critical literature on scientific research methodology is
capable of solving the problem, facilitating both the understanding and the use of such fundamental
scientific techniques; hence, we set out to define its main objective, which is to clarify the technical
procedures necessary for the adequate operationalization of bibliographic and documentary surveys,
facilitating the researcher's work; then, we moved on to choosing the focus for each of the three
fundamental pillars of scientific research methodology, adopting the neoperspectivist as its
epistemological axis of investigation, the hypothetical-deductive as its logical axis of investigation, and
the non-participant observational procedural basis, of bibliographic and documentary types, as its
technical axis of investigation; later, the qualitative approach was chosen, the observational protocol as
its research instrument, and the chronological investigative logistical flow was designed , that is, a table
in which the daily activities necessary to carry out this work within the space of time of 15 days, which
I chose; in the table, for example, on Monday, after having breakfast, I went to the library of the Center
for Scientific and Cultural Dissemination (CDCC) at USP, in São Carlos, SP, and accessed Popper's
book, I read it completely, then went to the Community Library (BCo), at UFSCar, accessed the books
by Marconi and Lakatos (2003; 2007; 2008), Gil (1999; 2010), Castro (1978), Moura and Ferreira
(2005) , Sampieri et al. (2010). , or those from Vancouver), to facilitate data recording when planning.
I chose simple string search as a systematization technique (GIFTED, 2015).
The organization of research data aims to facilitate the understanding of its content, especially
by its readers. Therefore, terms that are rarely used need to be explained in the body of the text or in a
footnote. It is recommended to summarize the conclusions of each chapter or topic (if it does not
violate the standards of the institution where you intend to present them) in tables, tables , figures,
pictures, or recapitulation notes. The scientific techniques most used for this purpose are tabulation
(construction of tables, charts or equivalents), coding (construction of explanatory lists of acronyms
and symbols, or equivalents) and categorization (division of aspects on the topic into topics and
subtopics, chapters and subchapters, sometimes subsubtopic or subsubchapter) (GIFTED, 2015). There
are several ways to organize and systematize data, but I highlight the words of Luna (2011, p. 101-
103), when he says:

The best way to organize a text is, undoubtedly, through prior planning of the sequence of
topics within the theme and the information to be offered within each topic. In other words, it
involves organizing an expanded synopsis of the text, before it is written (it is always possible
to reformulate it later). However, what is best from a logical point of view does not always
correspond to personal styles. For some people, it seems preferable to sit down and write. The
process is, without a doubt, more painful and more costly, as the final text comes out as a result
of trial and error, with many pages thrown away and many others “saved” for possible future
use. […]
Whatever the procedure adopted, the success of the final text, in terms of communication, will
depend on how much the reader is able to find the guiding thread of the work. For this reason, it
is extremely convenient for the text to present subtitles that indicate what will be covered in
each subdivision. If you adopt the procedure of organizing the text in advance, the sequence
will already be ready. If you prefer to write without a prior plan, this can be done after
completing the text.
Lest one think that the function of organizing the text with subtitles is just to be kind to the
reader, it is worth highlighting a common aspect in texts written without planning. It is likely
that the individual who prefers to write without a prior plan is waiting for feedback on what has
already been produced to continue producing, in such a way that certain analyzes give “tips” on
how to proceed. As a consequence, the end result is often a long sequence of analyzes that do
not come together and in which the end has little or no relationship with the beginning.
Returning the text and organizing it into topics is one way to evaluate this sequence. And, if
links in this sequence do not seem to fit into the topics raised or resist inclusion in new topics, it
is worth rethinking whether the information is really relevant.
Another important procedure to better control the adequacy of the information in the text and,
consequently, for greater reader understanding is to guarantee the existence of an “opening” and
“closing” for each topic. In other words, directly announce what you intend to do in that topic
and conclude by saying what you hope the reader has taken away from it. The ultimate
judgment of this adequacy, however, will certainly be up to the reader.
 The analysis or interpretation of research data is the stage responsible for transforming the
data into information, that is, it is at this stage that the researcher thinks and rethinks about the collected
data, finds its inconsistencies and eliminates all the ones he can, seeking with these procedures,
conclusions that better clarify the topic, solutions to the problem investigated, theoretical and
methodological gaps that can be filled by further deepening resulting from reviews of your work and/or
new investigations (GIFTED, 2015). Commonly used as scientific techniques at this stage are
Bibliometric Analysis , which seeks to quantitatively analyze/interpret scientific production on a topic
at a given time and in a given geographic space, presenting them statistically, and Discourse Analysis,
which seeks to qualitatively analyze/interpret the research data according to what its author actually
meant, Content Analysis , which seeks to quantitatively analyze/interpret the research data, applying
30
statistical inference to reach its final conclusions, and Exegesis , work in which the etymology and
lexicology of the terms used in the sources consulted are studied, as well as the original languages in
which they were written and the way they were used at the time of their elaboration, producing as a
result interpretations called Hermeneutics (GIFTED, 2015).
The formalization of the final research results must comply with the regulations of the higher
education institution (HEI), if the final course completion work (TFCC) consists of TCC, TGI,
dissertation, thesis, monographs in general. Some HEIs request that these works comply with the
country's technical standards; in the Brazilian case, it is customary to follow the standards for academic
work of the Brazilian Association of Technical Standards (ABNT), in the Canadian case Vancouver,
widely accepted throughout the world, and also, specifically in some areas of knowledge, such as
Psychology, for example, there are specific regulations for formalizing work, such as those of the
American Pysichological Association (APA). In engineering areas and subareas, it is quite common for
the TFCC to be formalized as a patent, a brand, a piece of software, a new specific product for a certain
market niche. In courses such as Arts, for example, the TFCC can be formalized as a work of art, such
as a painting, a sculpture, a film, a musical composition, a new musical instrument, a decorative
artifact, a handmade work, a theatrical play. The TFCC can also be formalized as a magazine, a
periodical, a hymn, a poem. It can be seen, then, that the form of the TFCC needs to adapt to its
content; however, there is flexibility in your choice, all of which are, in general, permitted in any and
all areas of knowledge (GIFTED, 2015).
The presentation of the final research results is the last stage of data processing and scientific
research in general. It needs to be public, because Science is not – and cannot be – private property.

30 Exegesis is widely used in the field of Religious Sciences and Legal Sciences (GIFTED, 2015).
Therefore, it is a public asset that needs to be published, that is, made available, even without
someone's request, to anyone in society who wants to know it (GIFTED, 2015; ECO, 2012;
VERGARA, 2012; GIL, 1999, 2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008). In Brazil, in
undergraduate and lato sensu postgraduate courses , the first presentation of the TFCC normally takes
place on the day of its public and solemn defense in front of an examining board composed of
professional professors from their respective area of knowledge, what we call paired assessment (ECO,
2012; SEVERINO, 2007; ACEVEDO; NOHARA, 2010; SAMPIERI; COLLADO; LUCRO, 2006). In
stricto sensu postgraduate courses , such as master's and doctorate courses, the TFCC normally takes
place in a preliminary phase called the Qualification Exam, after which, if the candidate is qualified
(approved), he can defend his work in front of an examining board made up of professors with PhDs in
their respective area of knowledge; in the master's degree, a dissertation is defended and in the
doctorate, a thesis, which can be research, when there is some discovery, or compilation, when the
objective is to carry out a comprehensive systematic review of the literature (ECO, 2012; SEVERINO,
2007; GIFTED, 2015; ACEVEDO; NOHARA, 2010; SAMPIERI; COLLADO; LUCRO, 2006).
Operationally, the TFCC presentation can basically be of three types, namely: oral presentation, in
which the academic presents his or her work orally, after which it is discussed by the examining board
regarding its theoretical, empirical and methodological aspects; the visual exhibition, in which the
academic visually exposes his work, in the form of a poster, panel, banner, banner, painting, sculpture,
etc., after which he is questioned by the examining board regarding the same aspects mentioned in the
previous case; and the mixed exhibition, in which the academic presents his work both orally and
visually, after which he is also questioned regarding the same aspects already mentioned (GIFTED,
2015; ECO, 2012; VERGARA, 2012; GIL, 1999, 2010; SEVERINO , 2007).
It is very important to consider, at this stage, as well as during collection, all available resources
and the logistics of scientific investigation, seeking to answer whether or not it is viable. Resources are
the requirements necessary for the viability of scientific research . They can be: 1. T echnological :
hardware, software, school materials, computer labs, libraries; 2. Financial : monetary values,
scholarships, allowances, awards ; 3. Humans : research groups, supervisors, co-supervisors, co-
authors, examiners, collaborators, fair standards ; and 4. Time : executable schedules, achievable goals.
Loci are physical spaces, that is, the places where the stages of scientific investigation are carried out ;
they can be from: 1. Collection : a library, a study room, a laboratory, an institution, a club, a company,
etc.; 2. Registration : a telecenter, a computer laboratory, a room in one's house, etc.; 3.
Systematization : a library, a square, a laboratory, a study room, etc.; 4. Organization : a hostel, a
telecenter, a study room, a laboratory, etc.; 5. Analysis or interpretation : a Sunday market, a square, a
hostel, a study room, a telecenter, a university, a research group, etc.; 6. Formalization : a university, a
research center, a laboratory, etc.; 7. Presentation : a university meeting, a research group, a seminar, a
conference, a congress, an assembly, a workshop , a lecture, etc. (GIFTED, 2015; SEVERINO, 2007;
GIL, 1999, 2010; LUNA, 2011; BARROS; LEHFELD, 2000, 2007; KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; GIL, 1999,
2010; MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 200 8; RODRIGUES , 2007; ECO, 2012 ).
Finally, it is worth highlighting that these six steps presented and explained do not necessarily
occur in an isolated manner, and can be operationalized concomitantly. In practice, the flow of
information in scientific research is continuous from its beginning to its end, which is why it is
sometimes difficult to operationalize each step in the order presented, or even separately from one
another. What is more common, and in my opinion easier to operationalize, is the collection of data
together with your registry; the systematization of data within your organization; I usually do the
analysis or interpretation separately from the other steps, but there are researchers who do it together
with other steps; I also do the formalization separately from the other stages, and, finally, I present the
final results, considering it the most important stage of scientific investigation, as it is the most sought
after and exactly the one aimed at since its beginning (GIFTED, 2015; SEVERINO, 2007; GIL, 1999,
2010; LUNA, 2011; BARROS; LEHFELD, 2000, 2007; KÖCHE, 1997, 2011; GIL, 1999, 2010;
MARCONI; LAKATOS, 2003, 2007, 2008; RODRI GUES, 2007; ECO, 2012 ).

7 CONCLUSIONS AND FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

Bibliographic and documentary surveys are the scientific techniques used to review the
literature on a topic, and are therefore a fundamental part of all scientific work. In master's dissertations
and doctoral theses, it is the preliminary topic of the work, aiming to reach, a priori, the state of the art
of the topic, before investigating it using any other methodologies. It should be noted that a well-done
literature review is an excellent entry point into a research area, consisting of a complete map of its
territory, pointing out and explaining its status quo, that is, its current state, its theories, their founding
concepts and constructs, their gaps. Regarding all these aspects, Luna (2011, p. 111) confirms:

The most important closure to this text is the emphasis on the importance of literature reviews.
Whether as a fundamental piece in defining/detailing a research problem, or as a solo research
work, a well-done literature review constitutes a decisive step for anyone wishing to enter an
area of research.
In addition to the contribution it can make to the production of knowledge, a literature review
constitutes respect for the work of other researchers and a commitment to continuous criticism
of their product and, therefore, to the improvement of science.
 However, it is necessary to emphasize the researcher's responsibility for the data he presents
and, above all, for the conclusions he makes about them. Everything that the researcher cites, presents,
explains or concludes gives him the responsibility to defend or disagree both with the scientific
community and with civil society in general. He must be careful not to attribute to any author any
characteristic that belittles or disrespects him. When talking about an author's work, the researcher must
be as clear and objective as possible, attributing to him their respective ideas, methodologies and
purposes, thus avoiding incurring any administrative, civil or criminal violation. Added to these issues
is the care that must be taken with plagiarism and self-plagiarism; When citing an author, even if it is
yourself, about a work already published, you must always reference it appropriately in accordance
with the institutional norms where you intend to present it.
The critical literature on the methodology of scientific research is unanimous in clarifying that
there is no normative code that establishes how many, which and in what sequence the steps must be
carried out for the operationalization of bibliographic and documentary surveys, but rather criteria,
guidelines, principles that guide it systematically. In this way, the steps for its operationalization occur
according to the researcher's level of knowledge and degree of methodological experience. However,
scientific research requires prior and systematic planning and, for this reason, there are several
scientific research flowchart suggestions in order to help beginning researchers.
The more focused, specific, and funnel-shaped the problem-object of research is, the greater the
ease of discovering its variables, its hypothetical solutions, establishing its objectives and, therefore,
investigating it. For example, when carrying out a bibliographic and documentary survey on university
management, the researcher will naturally find several surveys already carried out on this topic,
perhaps some explaining about North American university management in the 1980s, or about
Brazilian university management. post Magna Cargo, of October 5, 1988, which provides for the
Constitution of the Brazilian Federative Republic (BRASIL, 1988), or post Law 9,394, of December
20, 1996, which establishes the guidelines and bases of National Education ( BRAZIL, 1996).
Therefore, much better than researching generically about university management, is to focus
on this topic by specifying a geographic space, for example, the state of São Paulo, and a period of
time, for example, the last decade. To make the topic even more specific, you can select only public
university management, or only private university management, or choose exactly the Higher
Education Institution(s) in which you intend to investigate its management. The more complex a
research object problem is or appears to be, the more parts it must be subdivided to reach the depth
necessary for its solution. Remembering that the more focused the object problem is, the easier it is to
investigate it and the higher the quality of its results. Therefore, it is the level of specificity of an object
problem that determines the degree of simplicity or complexity of its investigation as well as the level
of quality of its final results.
The formulation of hypotheses and research objectives depends on the prior formulation of the
problem-object of the research because this is their procedural habit of carrying out bibliographic and
documentary surveys. However, there are no such rigid steps for methodologies, since the order of such
steps does not harm the scientific investigation process. For this reason, the researcher has the freedom
to choose to do one step first, and then the other, or both simultaneously, according to the level of their
knowledge on the topic and the level of their experience in carrying out bibliographical surveys. and
documents.
Every investigation starts – or at least must start – from a set of hypotheses, that is, from
assumptions about the solution to the proposed problem-object. Only from this step onwards is it
possible to determine its level of scientific and social relevance as well as the appropriate ways to
collect and process the data necessary for its solution. Unlike what inductivists and empiricists believed
in the early phase of Science, “that scientific explanations came from the pure observation of facts or
phenomena”, any and all investigations need preconceived ideas – which certainly come from our
parameters and theoretical references, which, in turn, are constructed historically, culturally and
subjectively – to be triggered.
Bibliographies, research instruments typical of bibliographic surveys, are composed of
interpretative information from an author's words on a topic and, therefore, secondary. They mainly
accompany non-participant observational research, but they are useful and necessary with theoretical
lenses from all types of research to survey their theoretical framework. They basically consist of books
and academic works in general, such as TCCs, monographs, dissertations, theses, scientific works,
scientific reviews, research projects, etc. Documents, in turn, research instruments typical of
documentary surveys, are commonly composed of original information from the author - and it is
exactly the type of information that differentiates documentary surveys from bibliographic surveys,
and, therefore, primary, such as that found in a medical records, legislation, financial and accounting
statements of a company or institution, etc. However, documents may contain interpretative
information from the originals, such as in explanatory notes and comments made by third parties in the
same documents cited, or attached to them.
The collection of research data begins with the initial definition of keywords, also called
descriptors, which are the terms through which access to explicit research sources is obtained, as well
as their respective locations, for example, in databases, in physical or virtual libraries. For example, in
the data collection stage for this work, I selected the following keywords: bibliographic survey,
documentary survey, scientific methodology.
Research data, once collected, needs to be processed. The processing of research data includes:
recording it , which can be operated through manual or electronic planning ; its systematization ,
which needs to exploratory and descriptively explain the logical sequence of scientific investigation: its
starting point, each of the intermediate steps, and its outcome, considering its assumptions, hypotheses,
questions, suspicions, curiosities, or conjectures; it can be the simple string search, the advanced string
search , and or the inclusion/exclusion factors; its organization , which can be operationalized, for
example, through categorization , coding or tabulation ; its analysis or interpretation , which can be
carried out, for example, through Bibliometric Analysis , Discourse Analysis , Content Analysis or
Exegesis/Hermeneutics ; its formalization , which is commonly cemented as TCC, dissertation, thesis,
work, review, periodical, magazine, software, patent, work of art ; its presentation , which can be
carried out, for example, through an oral presentation , or a visual presentation , or a mixed
presentation .
The recording of research data can be carried out through manual compilation, in which the
researcher writes down in ink or graphite, for example, on paper, or electronically, in which the
researcher types all the notes into a text file, such as that of Microsoft Word (application from the
standard Office package of the Windows operating system) or that of Open Writer (applied from the
standard Open Office package of the Linux operating system). To improve time management during
this stage, it is recommended to take all the content that will be used in academic work in front of the
computer and desk (or other suitable environment for scanning), which includes bibliographies,
documents and the notes. It is, therefore, a very laborious step to carry out and demands time inversely
proportional to the researcher's skills in using such methodologies, that is, the more skilled he is, the
less time he needs to spend to carry out scientific research for using these methodologies, but it is not
difficult because you just need to know how to type well, scan, print, read well and write well.
The systematization of research data involves the descriptive explanation of the logical
sequence of the research, that is, its starting point, each of its intermediate steps and its outcome. For
example, this work was systematized in the following way: it started from the problem of the difficulty
of beginning researchers in operationalizing bibliographic and documentary surveys, as well as the
hypothesis that the elimination of the immense terminological, conceptual, taxonomic and content
imprecision found on this topic in the vast critical literature on scientific research methodology is
capable of solving the problem, facilitating both the understanding and the use of such fundamental
scientific techniques; hence, we set out to define its main objective, which is to clarify the technical
procedures necessary for the adequate operationalization of bibliographic and documentary surveys,
facilitating the researcher's work; then, we moved on to choosing the focus for each of the three
fundamental pillars of scientific research methodology, adopting the critical-dialectic as its
epistemological axis of investigation, the hypothetical-deductive as its logical axis of investigation, and
the non-participant observational procedural basis, of bibliographic and documentary types, as its
technical axis of investigation; later, the qualitative approach was chosen, the observational protocol as
its research instrument, and the chronological investigative logistical flow was designed, that is, a table
in which the daily activities necessary to carry out this work within the space of time were counted. 15
days, which I chose; in the table, for example, on Monday, after having breakfast, I go to the library of
the Center for Scientific and Cultural Dissemination (CDCC) at USP, in São Carlos, SP, access
Popper's book, read -it completely, then I go to the Community Library (BCo) at UFSCar, access the
books by Marconi and Lakatos (2003, 2007, 2008), Gil (1999, 2010), Castro (1978), Moura and
Ferreira (2005), Sampieri et al. (2010). , or those from Vancouver), to facilitate data recording when
planning.
The organization of research data aims to facilitate the understanding of its content, mainly by
its readers. Therefore, terms that are rarely used need to be explained in the body of the text or in a
footnote. It is recommended to summarize the conclusions of each chapter or topic (if it does not
violate the standards of the institution where you intend to present them) in tables, tables , figures,
pictures, or recapitulation notes. The scientific techniques most used for this purpose are tabulation
(construction of tables, charts, or equivalents), coding (construction of explanatory lists of acronyms
and symbols, or equivalents) and categorization (division of aspects on the topic into topics and
subtopics, chapters and subchapters, sometimes subsubtopic or subsubchapter).
The analysis or interpretation of research data is the stage responsible for transforming the
data into information, that is, it is at this stage that the researcher thinks and rethinks about the collected
data, finds its inconsistencies and eliminates all the ones he can, seeking with these procedures,
conclusions that better clarify the topic, solutions to the problem investigated, theoretical and
methodological gaps that can be filled by further deepening resulting from reviews of your work and/or
new investigations (GIFTED). Commonly used as scientific techniques at this stage are Bibliometric
Analysis , which seeks to quantitatively analyze/interpret the scientific production on a topic at a given
time and in a given geographic space, presenting them statistically, Discourse Analysis, which seeks to
qualitatively analyze/interpret the research data according to what its author actually meant, Content
Analysis , which seeks to quantitatively analyze/interpret research data, applying statistical inference to
 31
reach its final conclusions, and Exegesis , work in which studies, in particular, the etymology and
lexicology of the terms used in the sources consulted, as well as the original languages in which they
were written and the way they were used at the time of their elaboration, producing as a result
interpretations called Hermeneutics ( GIFTED, 2015).
The formalization of the final research results must comply with the regulations of the higher
education institution (HEI), if the final course completion work (TFCC) consists of TCC, TGI,
dissertation, thesis, monographs in general. Some HEIs request that these works comply with the
country's technical standards; in the Brazilian case, it is customary to follow the standards for academic
work of the Brazilian Association of Technical Standards (ABNT), in the Canadian case Vancouver,
widely accepted throughout the world, and also, specifically in some areas of knowledge, such as
Psychology, for example, there are specific regulations for formalizing work, such as those of the
American Pysichological Association (APA). In engineering areas and subareas, it is quite common for
the TFCC to be formalized as a patent, a brand, a piece of software, a new specific product for a certain
market niche. In courses such as Arts, for example, the TFCC can be formalized as a work of art, such
as a painting, a sculpture, a film, a musical composition, a new musical instrument, a decorative
artifact, a handmade work, a theatrical play. The TFCC can also be formalized as a magazine, a
periodical, a hymn, a poem. It can be seen, then, that the form of the TFCC needs to adapt to its
content; however, there is flexibility in your choice, with all of them, in general, being permitted in any
and all areas of knowledge.
The presentation of the final research results is the last stage of data processing and scientific
research in general. It needs to be public, because Science is not – and cannot be – private property.
Therefore, it is a public asset that needs to be published, that is, made available, even without
someone's request, to anyone and everyone in society who wants to know about it. In Brazil, in
undergraduate and lato sensu postgraduate courses , the first presentation of the TFCC normally takes
place on the day of its public and solemn defense in front of an examining board composed of
professional professors from their respective area of knowledge, what we call paired assessment. In
stricto sensu postgraduate courses , such as master's and doctorate courses, the TFCC normally takes
place in a preliminary phase called the Qualification Exam, after which, if the candidate is qualified
(approved), he can defend his work in front of an examining board made up of professors with PhDs in
their respective area of knowledge; in the master's degree, a dissertation is defended and in the
doctorate, a thesis, which can be research, when there is some discovery, or compilation, when the

31 Exegesis is widely used in the field of Religious Sciences and Legal Sciences (GIFTED, 2015).
objective is to carry out a comprehensive systematic review of the literature. Operationally, the TFCC
presentation can basically be of three types, namely: oral presentation , in which the academic presents
his or her work orally, after which it is discussed by the examining board regarding its theoretical,
empirical and methodological aspects; the visual exhibition , in which the academic visually exposes
his work, in the form of a poster, panel, banner, banner, painting, sculpture, etc., after which he is
questioned by the examining board regarding the same aspects mentioned in the previous case; and the
mixed exhibition , in which the academic presents his work both orally and visually, after which he is
also questioned regarding the same aspects already mentioned.
It is very important to consider at this stage, as well as during collection, all available resources
and the logistics of scientific investigation, seeking to answer whether or not it is viable. Resources are
the requirements necessary for the viability of scientific research . They can be: 1. T echnological :
hardware, software, school materials, computer labs, libraries; 2. F inance : monetary values,
scholarships, allowances, awards; 3. Humans : research groups, supervisors, co-supervisors, co-
authors, examiners, collaborators, fair standards ; and 4. Time : executable schedules, achievable goals.
Loci are physical spaces, that is, the places where the stages of scientific investigation are carried out ;
they can be from: 1. Collection : a library, a study room, a laboratory, an institution, a club, a company,
etc.; 2. Registration : a telecenter, a computer laboratory, a room in one’s house, etc.; 3.
Systematization: a library, a square, a laboratory, a study room, etc.; 4. Organization : a hostel, a
telecenter, a study room, a laboratory, etc.; 5. Analysis or interpretation : a Sunday market, a square, a
hostel, a study room, a telecenter, a university, a research group, etc.; 6. Formalization : a university, a
research center, a laboratory, etc.; 7. Presentation : a university meeting, a research group, a seminar, a
conference, a congress, an assembly, a workshop , a lecture, etc.
Finally, it is worth highlighting that these six steps presented and explained do not necessarily
occur in an isolated manner, and can be operationalized concomitantly. In practice, the flow of
information in scientific research is continuous from its beginning to its end, which is why it is
sometimes difficult to operationalize each step in the order presented, or even separately from one
another. What is more common, and in my opinion easier to operationalize, is the collection of data
together with your registry; the systematization of data within your organization; I usually do the
analysis or interpretation separately from the other steps, but there are researchers who do it together
with other steps; I also do the formalization separately from the other stages, and, finally, I present the
final results, considering it the most important stage of scientific investigation, as it is the most sought
after and exactly the one aimed at since its beginning. Therefore, it is worth paying attention to the
entire content presented here and explained regarding the technical procedures for the adequate
operationalization of bibliographic and documentary surveys.

REFERENCES

ACEVEDO, Claudia Rosa; NOHARA, Jouliana Jordan. Monograph in the Administration course :
complete guide to content and form: includes updated standards from ABNT, TCC, TGI, internship
work, MBA, dissertations, theses. 3rd ed. 3. reprint. São Paulo: Atlas, 2010. 192 p.

BARROS, Aidil Jesus da Silveira; LEHFELD, Neide Aparecida de Souza. Fundamentals of scientific
methodology : a guide for scientific initiation. 2nd ed. amp. São Paulo: Mackron Books, 2000. 122 p.

BARROS, Aidil Jesus da Silveira; LEHFELD, Neide Aparecida de Souza. Fundamentals of scientific
methodology . 3rd ed. São Paulo: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. 158 p.

BÊRNI, Duilio de Avila; FERNANDEZ, Brena Paula Magro. Research methods and techniques :
modeling business sciences. São Paulo: Saraiva, 2012. 440 p.

BRAZIL. Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil of 1988 . Brasília, 1988. Available at:
http: //www. planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/constituicao/ConstituicaoCompilado.htm. Accessed on: 22 Feb.
2016.

BRAZIL. Law no. 9,394 : December 20, 1996. Establishes the guidelines and foundations of national
education. Brasília, 1996. Available at: http://www.planalto.gov.br/CCIVIL_03/leis/L9394.htm.
Accessed on: 22 Feb. 2016.

CASTRO, Cláudio de Moura. The practice of research . São Paulo: McGraw-Hill do Brasil, 1978.
156 p.

CHAUI, Marilena. Invitation to philosophy . 13. ed. 7. imp. São Paulo: Affiliated, 2008. 424 p.

CRESWELL, John W. Research design : qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods. Translated by
Magda Lopes. 3rd ed. Porto Alegre: Artmed, 2010. 296 p.

ECO, Umberto. How to make a thesis . Translated by Gilson César Cardoso de Souza. 24. ed. São
Paulo: Perspectiva, 2012. 174 p.

GIL, Antônio Carlos. Methods and techniques of social research . 5. ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 1999. 206
p.

GIL, Antônio Carlos. How to design research projects . 5. ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 2010. 184 p.
GILES, Thomas Ransom. Introduction to philosophy . São Paulo: EPU/USP, 1979. 324 p.

KÖCHE, José Carlos. Fundamentals of scientific methodology : theory of science and initiation to
research. 6. ed. Petrópolis: Vozes, 1997. 182 p.

KÖCHE, José Carlos. Fundamentals of scientific methodology : theory of science and initiation to
research. 29. ed. Petrópolis: Vozes, 2011. 182 p.

MARCONI, Marina de Andrade; LAKATOS, Eva Maria. Fundamentals of scientific methodology .

5. ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 2003. 311 p.

MARCONI, Marina de Andrade; LAKATOS, Eva Maria. Research Techniques . 6. ed. São Paulo:
Atlas, 2007. 289 p.

MARCONI, Marina de Andrade; LAKATOS, Eva Maria. Research techniques : planning and
executing research, sampling and research techniques, preparation, analysis and interpretation of data.
São Paulo: Atlas, 2008. 277 p.

MARTINS, Gilberto de Andrade. Case study : a research strategy. 2nd ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 2008. 101
p.

MENEZES, Djacir. Preparation for the scientific method : brief introduction to modern philosophy,
epistemological problems, science as a historical-cultural process of adaptation. Brazilian civilization.
Rio de Janeiro: Rio de Janeiro, 1938. 342 p.

MOURA, Maria Lucia Seidl de; FERREIRA, Maria Cristina. Research projects : preparation, writing
and presentation. Rio de Janeiro: EdUERJ, 2005. 144 p.

OLIVEIRA, Silvio Luiz de. Treatise on Scientific Methodology . São Paulo: Pioneira, 1997.

PIAGET, Jean. Psychology and epistemology : towards a theory of knowledge. 1st ed. Rio de Janeiro:
Forense Rio, 1973. 158 p

RODRIGUES, Auro de Jesus. Scientific methodology : complete and essential for university life. São
Paulo: Avercamp, 2006. 217 p.

SAMPIERI, Roberto Hernández; COLLADO, Carlos Fernández; PROFIT, Pilar Baptista. Research
Methodology . Translated by Fátima Conceição Murad, Melissa Kassner, Sheila Clara Dystyler
Ladeira. Technical review and adaptation by Ana Gracinda Queluz Garcia and Paulo Heraldo Costo do
Valle. 3rd ed. São Paulo: McGraw-Hill do Brasil, 2006. 583 p.

SEVERINO, Antônio Joaquim. Methodology of scientific work . 23. ed. São Paulo: Cortez, 2007. 304
p.

SOARES, Edvaldo. Scientific methodology : logic, epistemology and norms. São Paulo: Atlas, 2003.
138 p.

TEIXEIRA, Elizabeth. The three methodologies : academic, science and research. 9. ed. Petrópolis:
Vozes, 2012. 203 p.
TERRA, Ernani; NICOLA, José de. Today's Grammar . São Paulo: Scipione, 2007. 384 p.

THIOLLENT, Michael. Action research methodology . 12. ed. São Paulo: Cortez, 2003. (Collection
of basic action research themes).

VANCONCELLOS, Maria Esteves de. Systems Thinking : the new paradigm of science. 9. ed.
Campinas: Papirus, 2010. 267 p.

VERGARA, Sylvia Constant. Field data collection methods . 2nd ed. São Paulo: Atlas, 2012. 98 p.

YIN, Robert K. Case study : planning and methods. Translated by Ana Thorell. Technical review by
Claudio Damacena. 4th ed. Porto Alegre: Bookman, 2010. 248 p.
INDEX:

A
Abduction
Accidents
Sampling
Bibliometric Analysis
Content analysis
Discourse Analysis
Preliminary research project
Scientific article
Axiomatic-deductive
B
Banner or poster
Deductive structural basis
Inductive structural base
Clinical procedural basis
Statistical procedural basis
Experimental procedural basis
Observational procedural basis
Bibliographies
W
Categorization
Scientificity
Codification
Test execution corpus
Definitive execution corpus
D
Deduction
Field journal
Electronic device
Documents
AND
Edification
Ex loco interview
On-site interview
Scientific epistemology
Social scales
Concurrent triangulation strategy
Sequential explanatory strategy
Sequential exploratory strategy
Concurrent embedded strategy
Concurrent transformative strategy
Sequential transformative strategy
Ex loco case study
On-site case study
Scientific ethics
Biblical exegesis
Experimentation
Cultural exhibition or museum
Mixed exposure
Oral exposition
Visual exposure
F
Inclusion/exclusion factors
Registration
Film, theater, dance or concert
Investigative Chronological Logistics Flow
Form
G
Scientific gnosiology
H
Hypothetical-deductive
I
Incidents
Induction
J
K
L
Scientific reading
Bibliographic survey
Documentary survey
M
Model
Machine
MBS
Meta-analysis
N
O
Work of art
Observation
Scientific ontology
P
Critical-dialectical paradigm
Empirical-analytical paradigm
Phenomenological-hermeneutic paradigm
Neoperspectivist paradigm
Analytical research
Comprehensive search
Field research
Market research
Ex loco survey research
On-site survey research
Descriptive research
Research and Development
Explanatory research
Exploratory research
Ex-post-facto research
In vitro research
Oral survey
Original research
Practical or applied research
Synthetic search
Theoretical or basic research
Action research
Epistemological pillar
Logical pillar
Technical pillar
Electronic planning
Manual planning
Business plan
Inductive-pragmatics
Research project
Pedagogical Political Project
Observational protocol
Interview protocol
Observational protocol
Q
Quiz
R
RBI
RBN
RBS
Essay writing
Theoretical Reference
Scientific review
Scientific summary
s
Inductive-semantics
Inductive-syllogistic
Deductive-syllogistic
Software
T
Tab
TCC, dissertation, thesis or book
Science theory
Testing
Tests
U
V
W
X
Y
Z