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Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000
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Procedia Manufacturing 38 (2019) 133–141

29th
29th International
International Conference
Conference on Flexible Automation
on Flexible Automation and
and Intelligent
Intelligent Manufacturing
Manufacturing
(FAIM2019),
(FAIM2019), June 24-28, 2019, Limerick, Ireland.
June 24-28, 2019, Limerick, Ireland.

Digitalized
Digitalized automated
automated welding
welding systems
systems for
for weld
weld quality
quality predictions
predictions
and reliability
and reliability
a a a a a
Emmanuel
Emmanuel Afrane
Afrane Gyasi
Gyasia*,*, Paul
Paul Kah
Kaha,, Sakari
Sakari Penttilä
Penttilä a, Juho Ratavaa, Heikki Handroosa,
, Juho Ratava , Heikki Handroos ,
b
Lin
Lin Sanbao
Sanbaob
a
LUT University, Scool of Energy Systems, Yliopistonkatu 34, 53850 Lappeenranta, Finland
a
LUT University, Scool of Energy Systems, Yliopistonkatu 34, 53850 Lappeenranta, Finland
b
StateKey Laboratory of Advanced Welding and Joining, Harbin Institute of Technology, No.2 West Wenhua Road, 264209, Weihai, China
b
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Welding and Joining, Harbin Institute of Technology, No.2 West Wenhua Road, 264209, Weihai, China

Abstract
Abstract
The prevailing industrial and societal environment is driving welding manufacturing industries to employ green welding
The prevailing industrial and societal environment is driving welding manufacturing industries to employ green welding
technologies for efficient, effective and reliable manufacturing and production. This paper presents current research work, whose
technologies for efficient, effective and reliable manufacturing and production. This paper presents current research work, whose
aim is to develop a prototype of a commercial adaptive intelligent welding system with integrated weld quality attribute prediction
aim is to develop a prototype of a commercial adaptive intelligent welding system with integrated weld quality attribute prediction
and control. Supported by the study of scientific literature, initial results of experimental work which employed infrared
and control. Supported by the study of scientific literature, initial results of experimental work which employed infrared
thermography (IRT) based device and artificial intelligence (AI) system are discussed as a case study. Based on tested and validated
thermography (IRT) based device and artificial intelligence (AI) system are discussed as a case study. Based on tested and validated
welding samples, it is shown that the adaptive intelligent welding system being developed has self-monitoring capabilities for
welding samples, it is shown that the adaptive intelligent welding system being developed has self-monitoring capabilities for
prediction of weld attributes, especially the depth of weld penetration, and has self-adjusting functionalities for weld control in off-
prediction of weld attributes, especially the depth of weld penetration, and has self-adjusting functionalities for weld control in off-
line supervised conditions, and also can produce weldments of quality which conforms to EN ISO 5817. The findings imply that
line supervised conditions, and also can produce weldments of quality which conforms to EN ISO 5817. The findings imply that
evolving welding technologies have practical industrial significance for monitoring and assurance, particularly as regards weld
evolving welding technologies have practical industrial significance for monitoring and assurance, particularly as regards weld
quality prediction and control, and, furthermore, as a tool to support decision-making when developing welding procedure
quality prediction and control, and, furthermore, as a tool to support decision-making when developing welding procedure
specifications (WPS).
specifications (WPS).
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
© 2019
This The
is an Authors,
open accessPublished by Elsevier
article under B.V.
the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
© 2019 The Authors, Published by Elsevier B.V.
Peer-review
Peer reviewunder
underresponsibility of the of
the responsibility scientific committee
the scientific of the Flexible
committee Automation
of the Flexible and Intelligent
Automation Manufacturing
and Intelligent 2019 (FAIM2019
Manufacturing 2019)
Peer review under the responsibility of the scientific committee of the Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing 2019
Keywords: Digitized welding; infrared thermography; neural network; quality; reliability; weld monitoring; weld penetration
Keywords: Digitized welding; infrared thermography; neural network; quality; reliability; weld monitoring; weld penetration

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +358442775103

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +358442775103
E-mail address: emmanuel.gyasi@lut.fi; emmanuelgyasi.giw@gmail.com
E-mail address: emmanuel.gyasi@lut.fi; emmanuelgyasi.giw@gmail.com

2351-9789 © 2019 The Authors, Published by Elsevier B.V.

2351-9789 © 2019 The Authors, Published by Elsevier B.V.
Peer review under the responsibility of the scientific committee of the Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing 2019
Peer review under the responsibility of the scientific committee of the Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing 2019

2351-9789 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing 2019 (FAIM 2019)
10.1016/j.promfg.2020.01.018
134 Emmanuel Afrane Gyasi et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 38 (2019) 133–141
2 Emmanuel Afrane Gyasi et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000

1. Introduction

Requirements of future industry (industry 4.0 – internet of things) are driving welding manufacturing industries to
employ green welding technologies for productivity, quality, environmental and economic gain geared towards
improved reliability in manufacturing and production. This paradigm shift is a result of factors including
manufacturing cost, material heterogeneity, structural integrity, and environmental issues. Considerable efforts are
being made to develop advanced automated systems with integrated sensing, monitoring and control to predict and
control weld quality as a move towards improved reliability in welding manufacturing.
Recent developments in monitoring have included the adoption of techniques like infrared thermography (IRT),
and some monitoring systems utilize infrared thermal field devices for real-time weld quality monitoring [1].
Developments in research on AI systems for robotic welding have indicated that adaptive features such as sophisticated
sensing and monitoring systems could be incorporated into artificial intelligence schemes to help welding robots adjust
to the operating environment [2 - 4]. For a welding robot to be fully capable of self-adjustment of its functions and
operations, the AI processing used, for example, artificial neural network (ANN), fuzzy logic system, neural-fuzzy
network, adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), genetic algorithm, or particle swarm optimization (PSO),
needs to be employed across the entire adaptive welding system. These AI systems not only aid in the prediction of
outcome, enable adaptation to operational conditions and operate in real-time; they are capable of learning new input
and output relationships and previously unknown situations and environments [4 - 6]. Therefore, a combination of
advanced sensing and monitoring systems especially IRT and AI systems could enable control of an entire adaptive
robotic welding system and the achievement of flawless welds. Research work has, however, tended to focus on bench
studies of experimental work using IRT and AI systems rather than aiming to produce or develop a complete adaptive
intelligent welding system for industrial use. At the time of writing this paper, the authors are not aware of commercial
adaptive intelligent welding system available in the welding industry.
This paper presents current experimental work which aims to develop a prototype of a commercial adaptive
intelligent welding system. Evolving technologies such as IRT and AI systems are employed for prediction of weld
quality attributes mostly weld penetration and weld bead thickness, and also for weld control. Initial testing of the
equipment and experimental welding work provided the basis for the systems setup and methods and formed the
foundation for the case study discussed in the paper. The use of IRT to predict full weld penetration in a butt- joint
configuration is examined. Secondly, the use of artificial neural network (ANN) in the development of intelligent
welding systems for industrial use is discussed. Calibrations and equipment settings used vary slightly in the initial
experiment and the case experiment. Likewise, welding parameters, variables, material type, material preparation and
configuration, and welding conditions also vary in each case. Although the adaptive intelligent welding system being
developed demonstrates self-monitoring capabilities for weld attribute prediction and control in off-line supervised
conditions, challenges and limitations are observed in its self-adjusting functionality. The findings of the research
provide useful information for future work aiming at flawless adaptive intelligent weld control.

2. Systems setup and methods

The setup of the system comprises equipment itemized in Table 1 and shown in Fig. 1. Initial testing and adjustment
to ascertain optimal measuring distance, including experimental welding of test samples, was carried out to evaluate
the usability and accuracy of the IRT device and for the construction of a neural network system for monitoring and
control of full weld penetration in robotic gas metal active gas (MAG) welding. The objectives were to identify a
relationship between weld penetration and thermal profiles and to determine how weld penetration predictions and
estimations could be ascertained and controlled [7]. From 55 welded samples (butt welded S355 steel having V-
grooves without backing), it was found that welding speed between 6 -7 mm/s and wire feed rate between 9 -10 m/min
gave optimal conditions for welding steel plates of 5 mm thickness. The thermos-profile scanner (TPS) for temperature
readings of the solidified but still glowing weld bead was positioned at a distance of 34 mm from the tip of the welding
electrode and behind the welding torch, ensuring measurements between the allowable thermal profile measurement
range of 600 – 1350 oC. During the welding process, weld data was captured in using the WeldQAS monitoring system
(HKSProzesstechnik) and exported to an MS Excel database, prior to being imported into MATLAB for use in the
 Emmanuel Afrane Gyasi et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 38 (2019) 133–141 135
Author name / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000 3

neural network modeling. The monitored parameters included time, current, voltage, gas flow, wire feed speed,
infrared (IR) difference, IR position, IR temperature, IR width, IR symmetry, and temperature.
Fig. 2 shows a sample of the butt-welded test welds. With the weld profile shown in Fig. 2, butt joints with 0 mm
air gap with three tack welds were welded with heat energy between 0.7 – 0.72 kJ/mm. From the thermal profile, it
can be seen that unmolten tack welds (labelled 2 and 3 in Fig. 2) show lower temperatures and narrower weld
penetration width. At positions of unmolten tack welds, the maximum temperatures fall in the range of 1000 - 1015
°C, while in untacked positions the maximum temperatures are significantly higher, around 1050 °C.

Fig 1. Digitalized robotic GMAW process station.

Table 1. System equipment and items

EQUIPMENT ITEMS
• Robot manipulator (ABB IRB-A1600)
• Robot controller (ABB IRC5 M2004)
ABB Robot System • Positioner (NewFiro 800 HHT) with custom made table
• Torch cleaning and calibration station (ABB TSC)
• Wire feeder (Fronius)
• Welding torch (Dinse DIX METZ 542)
Fronius Welding Equipment • Power supply with network connections (Fronius Trans Puls Synergic 5000)
• HKS-Prozesstechnik ThermoProfilScanner with WeldQAS monitoring system.
• Master computer with ABB RobotStudio,
• Laser sensor (Meta SLS50)
• Neural network system (Custom made weld control system)
Sensory and Feedback Control Systems • Process sensor with current/voltage measurement (HKS-Prozesstechnik P1000)
• Gas sensor (HKS-Prozesstechnik GM30L 10B)
• Wire feed sensor (HKS-Prozesstechnik DV 25 ST)
• Collision sensor (Dinse DIX SAS 100)

The maximum IR temperature was found to have a direct relationship with weld penetration, and the width of the
thermal profile is also correlated with weld penetration. Thus, a hotter maximum temperature indicates a deeper weld
penetration and vice versa. Based on sample weld test results, a Levenberg-Marquard backpropagation neural network
was created using MATLAB software. The neural network had 3 input variables: maximum IR temperature (Tmax),
wire feed rate/travel speed ratio (W/V) and welding energy (E). In accordance with calculations in the hidden layers,
12 nodes were obtained. The output parameter was defined as the amount of wire feed correction required to obtain
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an acceptable weld. The neural network teaching, testing and validation were done with randomly chosen samples.
The distribution of samples was 60 % for teaching, 20 % for testing and 20 % for validation. During the initial runs,
the neural network performed with an average reliability of about 70 % with 39 randomly chosen samples. It was
observed that the reliability of the neural network could be improved to about 80 % by training more samples. The
mean squared error (MSE) and the root mean squared error (RMSE) of the neural network were equal to 0.114 and
0.338 respectively. Ideally, the neural network decision-making principles were considered with known relations and
causations, that is, a linked relationship between arc energy (E) and travel speed (V). The neural network model
established good outcomes where maximum IR temperature (Tmax) showed the amount of penetration when using
arc energy (E) and wire feed rate/travel speed ratio (W/V). The accuracy of the neural network model indicates that
the maximum IR temperature can serve as an efficient signal for penetration control.

Fig. 2. Unmolten tack welds vs. maximum IR temperature [7].

Case study

The objective of the study was to develop an ANN controlled intelligent GMAW system and evaluate its
performance in practice. Experiments using the system were performed with both butt and fillet welded joints, but the
emphasis was given to the butt-welded joints.
As part of the systems setup, a PC workstation was used to run both the ABB RobotStudio software to control the
robot and a custom ANN control system, which operated within the Mathworks MATLAB environment. In the
welding process for initial test samples, arc voltage and current (wire feed) were varied between too low and too high
values depending on root gap geometries, while other weld parameters remained constant. In addition, root gap varied
between 0 – 1.5 mm. Thermal distribution data and weld seam information (root gap, volume and shape) captured by
the WeldQAS monitoring system and laser sensor respectively were imported into MATLAB. Different sensors
provided variable refresh rate, resulting in 10- to 40-millisecond delays between measurements. In order to standardize
the sampling rate, a median filter with a 0.5 s long window was used. The same filter also reduced random noise in
the measurements. Fig. 3 a) and b) and 4 show simulation graphs of input parameters (root gap and weld pool / joint
temperature) over output parameters (arc correction percentage and wire feed), and graphs of data variations of test
sample without neural network control respectively.
In modeling of the ANN system, the initial test samples data set was used in training or teaching of the ANN system.
Weld data from successful welds and failed welds were fed into the ANN training program since the ANN system
needs such information to detect and correct unacceptable weld parameters and estimate boundaries for weld quality.
A supervised off-line approach was adopted for training the ANN system. In the validation process, all the gathered
data was checked for measurement errors and other abnormalities, and all unreliable data was discarded (e.g. tack
welds). The neural network computes a result for each case of the initial welded samples, and the results are compared
 Emmanuel Afrane Gyasi et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 38 (2019) 133–141 137
Author name / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000 5

to real welding data conditions. Fig. 5 shows the validation and training process of the data set. In Fig. 5a, valid sections
of the weld where expert data for training the neural network. It starts at the green line and end at the red line. The full
figure displays the entire length of the weld. In Fig. 5b, the blue line represents the training data set, while the red dots
depict the neural network’s own calculated decision from the welding data information in each experimental test. All
valid gathered data from the test with neural network prediction were compared with real values. The entire experiment
was recorded (e.g. solidified weld temperature, root gap, misalignment), but only portions of the weld data were
combined with expert data (i.e. human information of what happened in the measurement) and were used for training
the neural network.

(a) (b)
Fig. 3. Simulation graphs of input and output parameters: a) Wire feed (vertical) over the root gap and weld pool/joint temperature; b) Arc
correction (vertical) over the root gap and weld pool/joint temperature.

Fig. 4. Simulation graphs of data variations of test sample without neural network control.
138 Emmanuel Afrane Gyasi et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 38 (2019) 133–141
6 Emmanuel Afrane Gyasi et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000

(a) (b)

Fig. 5. Neural Network validation process (a) and training process (b) of the data set (input and output parameters).

Input and output parameters, the number of layers and the amount of neurons per layer were defined for closed-
loop control since it was observed that output parameters could not be directly connected to input parameters as there
was a minor tendency to generate an open-loop controller that ignored some interferences. The ANN was further
trained through average performance over five simulations to define an optimal number of layers and neurons per layer
for classification performance. The neural network system was then saved with the defined parameters, hidden layers
and neurons. A backpropagation ANN with a 2-14-14-14-2 configuration (2 input neurons, 3 hidden layers with 14
neurons each and 2 output neurons) was developed for the butt welding process. Welding performance was based on
control of the weld penetration and the ability of the system to adapt to different welding conditions while producing
weld quality that conforms to ISO 5817 (quality level B) [8]. However, before test welds were made by the ANN
system, expert verification was done to ensure the rationale of the entire neural network system. It can be seen from
Fig. 6 a) and b) that the ANN simulation graphs of input and output parameters are not smooth planes over the
parameter window, unlike the initial simulation graphs in Fig. 3. The neural network combines the training data and
interpolates the training data values with values from its own decision-making.

(a) (b)
Fig. 6. Neural network simulation of input and output parameters: a) Arc correction (vertical) over the root gap and weld pool/joint temperature;
b) Wire feed (vertical) over the root gap and weld pool/joint temperature.

A sample of the ANN test weld is shown in Fig. 7. Visual and X-ray tests were performed on both the front side
and the root side of the welds. Although few weld spatters were seen at the end of the weld, the weld bead was uniform,
even though an unstable welding sound was noticed during the welding process. The cause of the unstable sound was
 Emmanuel Afrane Gyasi et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 38 (2019) 133–141 139
Author name / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000 7

rapid changes in the weld parameters generated by the neural network. The weld attained a quality level B based on
visual and X-ray inspection. The weld joint was observed to be fully penetrated, and there was no excess weld metal,
undercut, root concavity, overlap, sagging or cracks. The quality level B was also confirmed by the welding procedure
test. The welded joint passed bend test without any cracks. 489 MPa of ultimate tensile strength and 388 MPa of tensile
strength were obtained in the tensile tests. The test sample was cracked open from the base material at an elongation
of 22%. The macrograph (Fig. 7a) shows that the weld joint has a smooth penetration without any undercut.
Additionally, the root height is under 1 mm, although misalignment by a margin of 0.49 mm occurred between the
welded plates due to heat distortion.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 7. Images of the X-ray test (1), front side (2), root side (3) macrograph of test sample (a) and simulation graphs of data variations with
complete neural network control (b).

Due to the high amount of noise in the measurement (rapid parameter variation), the neural network output interface
was modified to filter away causes of possible misreading from the sensors. The updated interface was tested on a new
sample; the images obtained are shown in Fig. 8. The filtration process provides clear justification in data variation
differences between simulation graphs shown in Fig. 8b as compared to Fig. 7b and Fig. 4. Visual inspection showed
that due to a more stable welding process, the weld bead had no spatter. The welded joint obtained weld quality level
B based on both visual and X-ray inspection. A bend test revealed no cracks until elongation reached 24.7%, and 489
MPa of ultimate tensile strength and 411 MPa of tensile strength were achieved in a tensile test performed. The
macrograph (Fig. 8a) of the test sample shows smooth weld penetration without any undercut defects. Bead height
was 0.92 mm, and plate misalignment was 0.36 mm.
Interestingly, when utilizing the neural network system in test welds with a root gap greater than 1.2 mm, the weld
samples produced could not reach quality level B. With this configuration, it became impossible to fill the root gap
without excessive penetration and burn through. Similarly, in a test case where the root gap was below 0.2 mm, full
weld penetration could not be achieved. These extreme cases indicate that the developed neural network functions
well as trained, and performs within the boundary conditions defined. Thus, the neural network can be used as a
reliable and effective tool for an adaptive intelligent control system for butt welds. An optimal application for the
system would be long butt and fillet welds in either mechanized or robotized welding production systems.
8140 Emmanuel
Emmanuel AfraneetGyasi
Afrane Gyasi et al. / Procedia
al. / Procedia Manufacturing
Manufacturing 38 000–000
00 (2019) (2019) 133–141

(a)

(b)

Fig. 8. Images of the X-ray test (1), front side (2), root side (3) macrograph of test sample (a) and simulation graphs of data variations with
complete neural network control (b).

3. Discussions and conclusion

The experiments demonstrate the potential of IRT and the capabilities of ANN when the two systems are coupled
together for industrial welding. The non-contact imaging of infrared thermography makes it ideal for sensing,
monitoring and predicting thermal data, especially in industrial applications like welding.
Combining IRT and ANN systems in the welding of steels faces some challenges and has some limitations. In the
case of the TPS based IRT system, the measurement range of the thermal data falls within the range of 600 - 1350 ºC.
This brings some limitations when installing the TPS sensor, as the melting point of steel is in the range of 1500 - 2850
ºC. The TPS sensors must be positioned at a suitable distance because if the measurement point of the TPS is too close
to the solidifying weld pool, the temperatures of the weld pool will exceed the highest recordable temperature and the
measurement will become unusable. On the other hand, if the measuring point is too far from the weld pool, the
temperature will fall below the lowest measurable temperature. In these two scenarios, some level of filtering would
be required, which is cumbersome and time-consuming. Moreover, the likelihood of inaccurate and unreliable data
measurement is increased.
As regards modeling ANN based solutions for practical welding cases, determining the input and output parameters
of the ANN is the greatest challenge. The causal effects of the input parameters should not be directly linked, in the
same way as the output parameters, but the output parameters should have some causal link with the input parameters.
For example, the relationship between current as an output parameter and temperature as an input parameter represents
an ideal condition. In addition, determining ANN input and output parameters requires significant testing time as each
case experiment needs to be configured separately into the system. ANN configuration becomes more onerous when
material thicknesses, weld positions, a mismatch in geometric dimensions (root gap misalignment, root height
 Emmanuel Afrane Gyasi et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 38 (2019) 133–141 141
Author name / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2019) 000–000 9

misalignment, and dimensional distortion) need to be considered as parameters to enable the ANN system to perform
reliably and produce consistent results without instabilities.
The ANN developed model appears promising in view of its performance and the results obtained from the welding
experiments. Most interestingly, the ANN system was able to produce welds that meet quality level B in the EN ISO
5817 standard. This suggests that the ANN system can potentially be a reliable tool in weld quality control and
assurance in steel manufacturing. In conclusion, the IRT based ANN model developed showed promising weld
monitoring and control performance, especially in the aspect of predicting and observing the behavior of welding
parameters and controlling welding parameters to:
a) Produce weld quality that conforms to EN ISO 5817 (quality level B)
b) Reduce over welding
c) Reduce the occurrence of misalignment in weld geometry dimensions
d) Eliminate possible weld defects especially burn-through, excessive spatter, and incomplete penetration of welds.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their gratitude to Esa Hiltunen and Antti Kakkonen for their help with the
experiment setup and also to Antti Heikkinen for his assistance in conducting the optical microscopy analysis. The
work received initial financial support from an Academy of Finland grant awarded to LUT University, Laboratory of
Intelligent Machines project ‘Manufacturing 4.0 – Strategies for Technological, Economical, Educational and Social
Policy Adoption’. The research work was completed during ENI CBC project – Energy efficient systems based on
renewable energy for Arctic conditions “EFREA” financed by the European Union, the Russian Federation, and the
Republic of Finland. The work was finally completed due to financial support received by the corresponding author
from Post Docs in Companies (PoDoCo) grant funded by the Foundation for Economic Education
(Liikesivistysrahasto). The authors would like to thank Peter Jones for his comments and assistance with the English
language.

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