Materials Science and Engineering A258 Ž1998.

1]14

Iron aluminides: present status and future prospects

N.S. Stoloff
Materials Science and Engineering Department, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 121280-3590, USA

Abstract

This paper constitutes a broad survey of the physical, mechanical and corrosion properties of Fe 3 Al alloys, as well as a
review of principal processing methods. This class of alloys, once thought to be inherently brittle, is shown to possess moderate
ductility, provided that mechanical testing is carried out in an inert environment. Methods to improve mechanical properties
by alloying and microstructural control are described. The influence of alloying elements on corrosion and stress corrosion
resistance and weldability also is reviewed. Q 1998 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Fracture; Impact; Iron aluminides; Corrosion welding

1. Introduction and historical review
The iron aluminides Fe 3 Al and FeAl have been
among the most widely studied intermetallics because
of their low cost, low density, good wear resistance,
ease of fabrication and resistance to oxidation and
corrosion. These advantages have led to the identifi-
cation of several potential uses, including heating
elements, furnace fixtures, heat-exchanger piping, sin-
tered porous gas-metal filters, automobile and other
industrial valve components, catalytic converter subs-
trates and components for molten salt applications
w1,2x. In addition, Fe 3 Al is one of the few structural
intermetallics that can be disordered Žwith respect to
DO 3-type order. by appropriate elevated temperature
heat treatment, as shown in Fig. 1 w3x. This pheno-
menon is both an advantage Žfor scientific studies of
the influence of ordering on mechanical behavior.
and a disadvantage, owing to the degradation of creep
and tensile strengths upon disordering. Further exac-
erbating this disadvantage is the low temperature,
approx. 5508C, at which disordering occurs. This criti-
cal temperature, Tc , becomes the limiting tempera-
ture for structural applications, although it can be
raised substantially by alloying with silicon or molyb-
denum, among other solutes. At present, some of the
major issues that continue to delay commercial viabil-
ity include low ductility and impact resistance at low
temperatures and inadequate creep resistance at ele-
vated temperatures.
The physical properties, mechanical behavior and
corrosion resistance of Fe 3 Al alloys have been exten-
sively reviewed in recent conferences w4,5x as well as
in other volumes on intermetallics w6,7x. Accordingly,
only a brief summary of the early work on these alloys
will be presented here. Most of the review will be
devoted to the current status of research and develop-
ment efforts on iron aluminides as well as a discus-
sion of prospects for commercial applications.
The excellent corrosion resistance of Fe]Al alloys
was first recognized in the 1930s w8x, but detailed
studies of mechanical behavior commenced with the
work of Cahn and his co-workers in the late 1950s
and early 1960s w9]11x. This work included reports of
the creep resistance of Fe 3 Al above and below the
critical ordering temperature, Tc w9x, as well as a
description of the effect of long-range order on yield-
ing w10x and mechanical twinning w11x. A discontinuity
in the slope of plots of creep rate vs. inverse tempera-
ture near Tc was attributed to a change in the activa-
tion energy for diffusion at this temperature w9x. Later
work by Stoloff and Davies dealt with the influence of
long-range order on yielding w12x and strain hardening
w13x of Fe 3 Al. A study of compositional effects on
yielding of Fe]Al alloys was reported by Sainfort w14x.
Other noteworthy early work by Justusson and
Zackay w15x and by Kayser w16x on fracture behavior
of Fe 3 Al should be cited. These studies showed that
as aluminum is added to iron ductility drops sharply,

0921-5093r98r$ - see front matter Q 1998 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
PII S0921-5093Ž98.00909-5
2 N.S. Stoloff r Materials Science and Engineering A258 (1998) 1]14
Fig. 1. Variation of DO 3 order determined from variations in
X-ray as a function of annealing temperature before quenching w3x.
especially as the Fe 3 Al phase becomes stable. The
early work indicated that the low ductility of ‘dis-
ordered’ Fe 3 Al was further reduced slightly by order-
ing w15x. It was established also that a peak in yield
stress at an intermediate degree of long-range order
occurs at room temperature in quenched Fe 3 Al as
well as at elevated temperature w13,15x. This work,
together with studies of the FeCo]V intermetallic,
led to the suggestion that the flow stress peak in many
intermetallics is due to a transition from motion of
single dislocations to superlattice dislocations as the
degree of long-range order increases from zero to one
w12,16x. This theory has since been supplanted by
Fig. 2. Phase diagram in vicinity of Fe]25 at.% Al w20x.
more complex arguments concerning dislocation core
structures, but still serves as a readily understandable
model of the role of superlattice dislocations in plas-
tic flow behavior of intermetallics. Furthermore, the
electron microscopic studies of Marcinkowski and
Brown w17x at approximately the same time provided
information about slip systems, dislocation configura-
tions and antiphase boundaries in these alloys.
Efforts to develop iron aluminides as structural
materials were carried out under Air Force sponsor-
ship at Pratt and Whitney Aircraft w18x and Marko
Materials w19x, among others. The superior corrosion
resistance of Fe 3 Al in aqueous solutions was well
known, but it was recognized that utilization of alloys
based on Fe 3 Al would be limited by the relatively low
temperature at which long-range order is lost Žapprox.
5508C.. Accordingly, efforts were made to improve
high-temperature strength by adding hard particles,
but these efforts ultimately were terminated without
any resulting applications w18x.
2. Phase relationships
The currently accepted Fe]Al phase diagram, in
the vicinity of 25 at.% Al, appears in Fig. 2 w20x. The
Fe 3 Al region ranges from approx. 22]30 at.% Al, but
two-phase regions exist on either side. Two-phase
alpha q B2 and alpha q DO 3 regions noted in the
diagram must be accounted for when determining
heat treatment schedules for these alloys. In the
two-phase regions, age hardening behavior which can
substantially alter mechanical properties has been
reported w1,21,22x. For example, Morris w1x has noted
 N.S. Stoloff r Materials Science and Engineering A258 (1998) 1]14
that in the temperature range of approx. 300]5508C
and for alloys containing 20]25 at.% Al, it is possible
to retain a stable two-phase alpha q DO 3 ordered
microstructure similar to the gamma]gamma prime
microstructures in nickel-base superalloys. The tem-
perature range of stability of this two-phase mixture
can be extended by adding Si in the range of 1]3%.
In the range 23]27 at.% Al, the B2 structure can only
be retained at low temperatures by quenching from
above Tc , but at higher Al contents B2 replaces DO 3
as the stable phase. The wide solubility range of B2
FeAl allows it to exist in the partially ordered condi-
tion above Tc on either side of stoichiometry.
3. Dislocations and antiphase boundaries
Plastic deformation in dilute, disordered Fe]Al al-
loys is accomplished by the motion of unit a o²111:
dislocations, as in pure iron, and wavy slip indicates
that cross slip readily occurs among planes containing
the slip vector. In hyperstoichiometric Fe 3 Al, super-
lattice dislocations are observed, of the fourfold type
in the DO 3 condition, and paired in the B2 condition,
but always of ²111: type. At the stoichiometric com-
position uncoupled dislocations often are seen. At
high temperatures deformation has been thought to
be controlled by the glide of perfect ²100: disloca-
tions w23x; however, Kad and Horton w61x report that
only ²111: dislocations are present in FeAl deformed
at 925 K and in Fe 3 Al deformed at 1075 K. Composi-
tional effects do not appear to account for the dis-
crepancy, especially for the FeAl alloy, and texture
measurements are not in agreement with the activa-
tion of ²100: slip systems. Therefore further work is
required to unambiguously identify operative disloca-
tions at high temperatures.
Thermally produced antiphase domains are found
in both the B2 and DO 3 variants of Fe 3 Al. Their
boundaries do not lie on preferred planes, resulting in
a wavy, isotropic appearance that is easily imaged by
transmission electron microscopy. There is no evi-
dence that these boundaries inhibit dislocation mo-
tion. However, unit dislocations trying to move
through the fully ordered DO 3 lattice would leave
behind a trail of antiphase boundary, the energy for
which has to be supplied by the applied forces.
4. Processing
Iron aluminides are readily prepared in small quan-
tities either by melting and casting or by powder
processing. Alloys can be melted by a variety of tech-
niques, including air induction melting ŽAIM., vac-
uum induction melting ŽVIM. and vacuum arc remelt-
ing ŽVAR.. Arc melting, vacuum induction melting
and drop casting have been utilized to prepare high-
3
purity test materials. However, for commercialization
to be practical, less expensive methods are needed.
Also, prevention of hydrogen gas uptake in the mol-
ten alloy is important to produce ingots free of voids.
Argon gas blown through the melt effectively elimi-
nates the porosity w4x. Another approach, carried out
in India, is to air induction melt, followed by electros-
lag remelting ŽESR. w24x. Clean, defect-free ingots
were obtained from remelting even of porous induc-
tion melted ingots. Improved microstructures and me-
chanical properties were obtained with cast ESR in-
gots containing 0.074]0.14 wt.% C. Cast Fe 3 Al ingots
are best reduced by hot working, typically at tempera-
tures of 1000]12008C; warm working is then carried
out between 6508C and 8008C w4x. In laboratory exper-
iments, cast material tends to have much lower ductil-
ity than wrought samples of the same composition,
due in large part to the coarse grain size and weak
grain boundaries of the castings; as a result, such
castings cannot be cold worked or used in the as-cast
condition for structural applications.
The exothermic reaction between aluminum and
iron can be utilized in both melting and powder
consolidation. Although the exotherm is not as great
as for the nickel aluminides, low ignition tempera-
tures permit melting by the Exo-Melt TM process, see
Fig. 3 w25x, or by powder processing via the reactive
sintering Žself-propagating high-temperature synthe-
sis. w26]28x approach. Utilizing the exothermic reac-
tion lowers costs and, in the case of melting, offers
greater safety, shorter melt times and improved
process control. Iron aluminide powders can be used
to form near net shape parts Žby hot isostatic press-
ing., or can be used to produce spray coatings. Powders
are typically prepared by gas atomization, utilizing
nitrogen, argon or helium. Spherical particles usually
result, with oxygen contents approximately the same
as in the melt in purged systems with pure carrier gas
w27x. Nitrogen gas atomized alloy FAS Žsee Table 1.
prepared by reactive sintering has been shown to have
slightly higher yield and tensile strengths at tempera-
tures to 8008C than cast product, but much higher
creep resistance; elongations of the material prepared
by the two methods were similar.
Hot pressing of elemental powders resulted in the
formation of single phase Fe 3 Al with 98.2% of theo-
retical density. Other successful powder techniques
included hot extrusion and a combination of mechani-
cal alloying and reactive sintering w26x. Excellent me-
chanical properties were attributed to uniformity of
microstructures and fineness of grain sizes. Other
powder techniques that have been reported include
mechanical alloying of prealloyed, atomized powders
with small amounts of Y2 O 3 w29x, injection molding of
Fe 3 Al with short Al 2 O 3 fibers w30x and thermal spray-
ing of elemental Fe and Al powders followed by
4 N.S. Stoloff r Materials Science and Engineering A258 (1998) 1]14

Table 1
Compositions of iron aluminides a chosen at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory for commercialization w2x

Element Alloy Ž%.

FASb FALc FA-129d FAPYe
Weight Atomic Weight Atomic Weight Atomic Weight Atomic

Al 15.9 28.08 15.9 28.03 15.9 28.08 8.46 16.12

Cr 2.20 2.02 5.5 5.03 5.5 5.04 5.50 5.44
B 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.04 ] ] ] ]
Zr ] ] 0.15 0.08 ] ] 0.20 0.11
Nb ] ] ] ] 1.0 0.51 ] ]
C ] ] ] ] 0.05 0.20 0.03 0.13
Mo ] ] ] ] ] ] 2.00 1.07
Y ] ] ] ] ] ] 0.10 0.06
Fe 81.89 69.86 78.44 66.81 77.55 66.17 63.71 77.07
a
FAS, FAL, and FA-129 are the Fe 3 Al-base alloys. FAPY is a disordered a alloy.
b
Sulfidation-resistant alloy.
c
High room-temperature tensile ductility.
d
High-temperature strength with good room-temperature ductility.
e
Very high room-temperature ductility.

annealing to produce the intermetallic w26x. High-en-
ergy ball milling also has been used to form nanocrys-
talline iron aluminides w31x. Control of composition in
all of these methods is very important, although Fe 3 Al
is less sensitive than FeAl in this regard due to the
absence of constitutional vacancies in the former.
5. Alloy development
As aluminum is added to iron, strength increases
and ductility decreases; ductility changes are particu-
larly pronounced as the ordering range, above 16
at.%, is reached w23x. It is now known that sensitivity
to moisture is the primary cause of low ductility in
Fe 3 Al alloys at room temperature, although contami-
nation by impurities such as carbon is a contributing
factor. Chromium is the most effective solute to com-
bat environmental embrittlement, and as a conse-
quence a series of Fe]Al]Cr alloys has been devel-
oped at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, see

Fig. 3. Furnace-loading sequence to take advantage of heat of formationof Fe 3 Al during the melting of iron-aluminide alloys w25x.
 N.S. Stoloff r Materials Science and Engineering A258 (1998) 1]14
Table 1. Optimum ductility is produced at the
28Al]5Cr level w23x. Zirconium additions also im-
prove ductility, but the effect depends upon whether
carbon is present w32,33x. The mechanism for solute
improvements is not yet known, although interference
with the moisture dissociation reaction at an Al-rich
surface is a likely candidate.
Alloys containing Si, Ta, Ce, Zr, Mo, Hf or Nb have
been shown to increase high-temperature creep and
tensile strength of Fe 3 Al, usually at the expense of
room-temperature ductility w22x. Chen et al. w34x, sug-
gest that Mo is the most effective of these solutes,
possibly because of its effects on Tc Žraised by Mo.,
the increased APB energy and reduced diffusivity.
The low solubilities of these solutes, as well as their
tendency to form intermetallic compounds or borides
or carbides, allows them to be used for precipitation
hardening and for grain refinement. Quantities of
these solutes up to 10 at.%, together with very small
additions of boron or carbon, can be used to improve
both tensile and creep strength with little adverse
effect on low-temperature ductility w23x. Carbide
strengthening is particularly effective in Fe 3 Al, but
melting and subsequent processing should insure that
carbides will precipitate from the liquid, thereby pro-
ducing refined cast structures and subsequent fine-
grained wrought product. Heat treatment schedules
are particularly important in optimizing creep proper-
ties of Fe 3 Al alloys. For example, an alloy containing
small additions of Nb, Mo, Zr, B and C showed much
longer creep lives at 5938C under a stress of 207 MPa
when heat treated at 11508C rather than at 7508C
w35x. This effect was attributed to the dissolution of
coarse carbides and subsequent precipitation of fine
particles on matrix dislocations.
6. Mechanical properties
6.1. Yielding
The yield stress of binary Fe]Al alloys increases as
Al content increases, to a peak at the stoichiometric
composition; strength then decreases until B2 FeAl
forms. The strength of Fe 3 Al is related to the pres-
ence of long-range DO 3-type order and the occur-
rence of two-phase alpha q DO 3 regions as Al con-
tent exceeds 16 at.%. Although McKamey w23x at-
tributes strengthening to the interaction of superlat-
tice dislocations with thermally produced antiphase
boundaries and boundaries produced by superpartial
glide dislocations, this seems unlikely, based on ear-
lier work of Stoloff and Davies w16x on Cu 3 Au.
Quenching of Fe 3 Al alloys to produce partial B2-type
order results in a small decrease in flow stress.
As in the case of many other intermetallics, the
flow stress of Fe 3 Al alloys displays a peak with in-
5
Fig. 4. Temperature dependence of the critical resolved shear
stress to of Fe]28 at.% Al q Cr single crystals deformed in uniaxial
compression. B: No Cr, orientation w123x; I: 6 at.% Cr, orienta-
tion w123x; 0:6 at.% Cr, orientation w001x w36x.
creasing test temperature, in the range 450]5508C,
depending upon composition; the peak occurs at
slightly lower temperatures at higher Al contents w23x.
Although most data have been obtained for polycrys-
tals, Kral et al. w36x have reported data for Fe]28
at.% Al and Fe]28Al]6Cr single crystals. As shown
in Fig. 4, the critical resolved shear stress decreases in
region A, just above room temperature, and then rises
to a peak near 8508K. Cr produces some softening at
temperatures below the peak. No evidence of a rela-
tion between the state of long-range DO 3-type order
and the peak was observed. Early theories of the flow
stress peak associated it with the loss of DO 3-type
order as the critical ordering temperature, Tc , was
approached. However, Schroer et al. w37x showed that
the peak could still be seen in DO 3-based alloys
modified to retain order at the temperature of the
peak. Morris w1x has recently analyzed the various
theories that have been advanced to explain the peak:
1. extensive cross slip between  1104 and  1124 ;
2. APB relaxation, leading to dislocation drag on
²111: dislocations;
3. transition from ²111: to ²110: and ²100: disloca-
tions with increasing temperature;
4. superdislocation climb locking; and
5. vacancy hardening.
Strain rate change tests as well as temperature
jump experiments carried out in order to deduce the
operative mechanism were inconclusive, leading to
the conclusion that several mechanisms may control
deformation over a range of temperature, strain rate
and alloy composition w1x.
Stoloff and Davies w16x showed that there is a
maximum in yield stress with the degree of quenched
in long-range order at room temperature upon
quenching from just below Tc . This peak seemed to
be related to that obtained at temperature, in that
6 N.S. Stoloff r Materials Science and Engineering A258 (1998) 1]14
both occurred at an intermediate degree of long-range
order. The recent investigations cited by Morris
w1x above do not seem to have considered the im-
plications of these observations. More recent
work has been reported by Lu et al. w38x for a
Fe]28Al]5Cr]0.3B]0.003% Mg alloy. Room-temper-
ature tensile strength rises to a maximum for speci-
mens quenched in oil from 600]6508C subsequent to
a stress relief heat treatment, see Fig. 5 w38x. Cooling
rate has a significant effect, with furnace-cooled ma-
terial displaying lower tensile strength and ductility
than oil-quenched samples, probably because of the
different ordered states existing in the two cases.
6.2. Tensile strength and ductility
Since iron aluminides are often considered to be
potential competitors to stainless steels for structural
and corrosion-resistant applications, it is interesting
to compare tensile properties of several wrought
Fe 3 Al alloys with types 310 and 422 stainless steels,
see Fig. 6a,b w2x. Note that yield and tensile strengths
of FAS, FAL and FA-129 Žsee Table 1. are intermedi-
ate between those of the stainless steels, and a shal-
low peak in yield strength is exhibited by all of the
aluminides. Similarly, Fig. 6c w2x shows that the room-
temperature ductility of the aluminides is intermedi-
ate to those of the stainless steels, but at higher
temperatures a transition to ductile behavior occurs
for the former. As a result, the total elongation of the
aluminides exceeds those of the stainless alloys at
temperatures above 5508C. A more extensive discus-
sion of low-temperature ductility appears in the sec-
tion on environmental embrittlement.
Fig. 5. Room temperature tensile properties vs. heat-treatment temperatures for oil quenched specimens w38x.
6.3. Impact properties
Limited studies of impact behavior of stress-re-
lieved Fe 3 Al alloys has revealed disappointingly low
absorbed energies and a high ductile]brittle transi-
tion temperature Ž3088C., as shown in Fig. 7 for the
FA-129 alloy w38x. Furthermore, the upper shelf en-
ergy is very low, only 37 J, while the lower shelf
energy is only 5 J w39x. Liu et al. w40x have reported
impact data for Fe]25% Al and Fe]25Al]20Mn.
They too found very low-impact energies at the lower
shelf for the binary alloy, but the ternary alloy was
much tougher. Peaks in total impact energy vs. tem-
perature were noted for both alloys near 6008C, con-
siderably higher than reported above for FA-129.
However, above the peak the impact energy dropped
sharply for the ternary alloy and hardly at all for the
binary alloy. The addition of Mn introduced an or-
dered L1 2-type phase, and decreased the DO 3 order-
ing energy of the alpha phase. These factors appear to
be responsible for both increased toughness and a
transition from cleavage to dimpled rupture with the
addition of the Mn.
6.4. Fracture toughness
Most fracture studies have been conducted with
tensile specimens. However, there are now limited
fracture toughness data Žincluding J integral data.
available for binary Fe]28 at.% Al w40x. As in the case
of tensile experiments, environmental effects are sig-
nificant, with oxygen atmospheres providing higher
fracture resistance than vacuum or air, see Fig. 8w41x.
Note that toughness in oxygen is double that in air for
 N.S. Stoloff r Materials Science and Engineering A258 (1998) 1]14
Fig. 6. Comparison of average tensile properties of wrought Fe 3 Al-based alloys with that of types 422 and 310 stainless steels: Ža. yield
strength; Žb. ultimate tensile strength; and Žc. total elongation w2x.
Fe]28% Al, with an even greater disparity noted for
Fe]35% Al ŽB2 structure .. However, there is no dif-
ference in toughness in any environment between the
DO 3 and partially ordered B2 structures, unlike the
case of tensile elongation, which is higher in the B2
condition. In general, the toughness of Fe 3 Al is higher
than that of other aluminides such as TiAl and NiAl.
6.5. Creep and stress rupture
The creep resistance of binary Fe 3 Al alloys is rela-
tively poor, largely due to the open B2 and DO 3
crystal structures. Therefore a major aim of alloy
development efforts Žsee above. has been to improve
creep resistance while not reducing low-temperature
ductility.
The stress sensitivity of creep rate and stress expo-
nent have been determined for several Fe 3 Al alloys,
as shown in Table 2 w42x. Both parameters are stress
dependent, although the average stress exponent is in
the range 3]7. Similarly, the most common value for
activation energy is 300]350 kJrmol. Note that sev-
eral different mechanisms of creep are observed.
Binary and more complex Fe 3 Al solid solution al-
loys display lower creep rupture resistance than many
7
competing structural alloys such as types 310 and 422
stainless steels, see Fig. 9 w2x. Note that in spite of
comparable tensile strengths, the creep rupture lives
of the steels are much superior. Fortunately, it is
possible to improve rupture lives of Fe]28 at.% Al by
addition of Ti, Nb, Zr, B and especially Mo, as shown
in Fig. 10 w43x. The combination of 2% Moq 0.1Zrq
0.2B Žalloy FA-114. is particularly effective, with that
alloy showing the highest creep resistance of several
alloys tested. It was suggested that fine ZrC particles
pin dislocations, thereby improving both strength and
creep resistance w43x. Another factor that can
markedly affect creep resistance is heat treatment.
Fig. 11 shows that the highest creep-rupture life for
alloy FA-180 Žsee Table 1. occurs at a heat treatment
temperature of 11508C for 1 h w43x. Fine carbides
precipitate during this treatment. The creep strength
of this alloy compares favorably with that of 316 and
403 stainless steels. Heat treatments at 11508C for
more than 4 h result in shorter lives, possibly due to
carbide coarsening. Rupture lives are increased fur-
ther by quenching from 11508C into either oil or
water.
Chromium, which is usually present for resistance
to environmental embrittlement, slightly lowers rup-
8 N.S. Stoloff r Materials Science and Engineering A258 (1998) 1]14
Fig. 7. Absorbed energy vs. temperature for full-size T-L specimens of iron]aluminide alloy FA-129 w39x.
Fig. 8. Fracture toughness of iron aluminides in different environ-
ments w41x.
ture lives of B2 Fe 3 Al at 6008C and 200 MPa, while
increasing the tendency for intergranular fracture w34x.
The same investigation revealed that Cr lowers the
APB energy, resulting in larger separations of twofold
dislocations and a greater tendency for motion of
uncoupled dislocations. The result is larger elonga-
tions and increased stress concentrations at grain
boundaries, thereby accounting for more intergranu-
lar failure.
Chen et al. w34x report that grain shape has little
effect on rupture life of Fe]28Al]2Cr, but grain size
is an important variable. Fig. 12 shows that rupture
life increases to a maximum as grain size increases
from 70 m m to 372 m m w34x. Alloys with Mo, Cr, Zr
and Nb also show increased lives, up to 2000 h, at
larger grain sizes.
6.6. Superplasticity
Superplasticity has been observed in coarse grained
FeAl and Fe 3 Al alloys by Lin and co-workers w43x.
Maximum elongations of 620% have been noted for
Fe]28 at.% Al]2Ti at 8508C under an initial strain
rate of 1.26= 10y3 rs. At this temperature strain
hardening is slight, while at 700 and 7508C distinct
strain hardening is noted, see Fig. 13 w44x. The fol-
lowing criteria for superplasticity have been identi-
fied:
1. high strain rate sensitivity Ž m ) 0.3.;
2. low, strain independent flow stresses;
3. temperature at least 0.5Tm ; and
4. high ductility.
The unusual feature of superplasticity in the iron
aluminides is the large grain size at which it occurs
Ž60]100 m m for Fe 3 Al and 500]600 m m for FeAl.;
these grain sizes may be compared to the 1]5 m m
usually necessary for superplasticity in conventional
metals and alloys.
7. Environmental resistance
7.1. En¨ ironmental embrittlement
The results of early work on the iron aluminides
had suggested that they were intrinsically brittle at
low temperatures w13]16x. However, it was shown by
Liu and co-workers w45,46x that when water vapor and
 N.S. Stoloff r Materials Science and Engineering A258 (1998) 1]14 9

Table 2
Summary of creep parameters in Fe 3 Al and its alloys w42x

Alloy T ŽK. Qe ŽkJrmol. n Mechanism Žcomments. Ref

Fe]19.4Al 773]873 305 4.6]6 for Diffusion controlled w9x

Fe]27.8Al 823]888 276 different Al
Higher temperature 418 ] Controlled by state of order

Fe]15]20Al ) 773 260 to 305 Žincreases ] Diffusion controlled w57x

with increasing Al.
- 773 s dependent ] Motion of jogged screw
dislocations

Fe]28Al 898 347 3.5 Žlow s . Viscous glide

7.7 Žhigh s . Climb
Fe]28Al]2Mo 923 335 1.4 Žlow s . Diffusional flow w58x
6.8 Žhigh s . Climb
Fe]28Al]1Nb] 923 335 1.8 Žlow s . Diffusional flow
0.013Zr 19.0 Žhigh s . Dispersion strengthening

FA-180 866 627 7.9 Precipitation strengthening w59x

Fe]28Al 873]948 ] 3.4 Viscous glide w60x

Fe]26Al]0.1C 873]948 305 3.0 Viscous glide
753]813 403 6.2 ?
Fe]28Al]2Cr 873]948 325 3.7 Viscous glide
Fe]28Al]2Cr]0.04B 873]948 304 3.7 Viscous glide
Fe]28Al]4Mn 873]948 302 2.6 Viscous glide

Fig. 10. Creep-rupture data showing the effect of additions of Zr

and heat teatment on the creep strength of Fe]28Al]2Mo w43x.

B2 structure is beneficial. Consequently, adequate

Fig. 9. Comparison of creep rupture properties of wrougt Fe 3 Al-
based alloys with types 422 and 310 stainless steels w23x.
other sources of hydrogen are excluded from the
environment, ductilities in excess of 10% were achiev-
able at room temperature. The deleterious effects of
hydrogen-containing environments are seen in other
aluminides, especially Ni 3 Al, TiAl and Ti 3 Al, as well
as in Ni 3 Si and other intermetallics w47x. Even in
moist air, the ductility of Fe 3 Al can be increased by
adding Cr or Zr andror by producing a stress-relieved
but not recrystallized microstructure w23x. Also,
quenching from above Tc to form the partially-ordered
ductility for most structural applications can be
achieved in the alloys listed in Table 1. Interestingly,
fracture occurs by transgranular cleavage, indepen-
dent of the environment, except for alloys containing
Cr, which exhibit mixed intergranular and transgranu-
lar crack segments. Also, when heat treatment of
Fe]28Al]5Cr subsequent to a stress relief anneal is
applied, Lu et al. report w38x intergranular fracture
after slow cooling from the annealing temperature.
The environmental effects on fracture in tension
described above are replicated under cyclic loading.
Fatigue crack growth rates are much lower in vacuum
or oxygen than in air or in hydrogen gas, as shown, for
10 N.S. Stoloff r Materials Science and Engineering A258 (1998) 1]14
Fig. 11. Creep-rupture life vs. heat treatment for 1-h anneals of alloy FA-180. Specimens were air cooled following heat treatment w43x.
Fig. 12. Effects of annealing temperature on the creep properties
of Fe]28 at.% Al]2 at.% Cr alloy at a stress of 200 MPa and 6008C
w34x.
example ŽFe]15]9 wt.% Al]5.5Cr]1.0Nb]0.05C. in
Fig. 14 w44x. Fractography reveals transgranular cleav-
age in air or hydrogen gas w47x, but microvoid coales-
cence is observed for tests carried out in oxygen.
Similar effects of gaseous environments on growth
rates have been observed on several other Fe 3 Al
alloys w48x.
7.2. Aqueous corrosion and stress corrosion
The aqueous corrosion behavior of Fe 3 Al alloys
containing 28 at.% Al Žheat treated to produce B2
order. in various corrosive media have been reported
by Buchanan and co-workers w49,50x, with their results
reproduced in Table 3. High corrosion rates are noted
Fig. 13. True stress]true strain for Fe]28Al]2Ti showing super-
plastic behavior at 7508C and 8508C w44x.
in acid- and sulfur-bearing environments, especially
relative to the reference material, 304L SS. In 1
molrl NaOH, on the other hand, all four materials
are passivated at the corrosion potential, Ecorr , and
remain passivated to high potentials; this is indicative
of good overall corrosion resistance. Low average
corrosion rates are seen also in chloride solutions, but
localized corrosion initiates in FA-84 and FA-129
alloys within 24 h. The addition of 1]2% Mo and
4]6% Cr is beneficial in delaying initiation, as shown
in Table 4 w50x. Tests of these alloys under crevice
corrosion conditions Žmild acid]chloride solutions for
18 h. showed inferior behavior relative to 304L SS,
indicating that crevice corrosion can occur even in
Fe 3 Al containing Cr and Mo.
Embrittlement caused by hydrogen released from
water vapor in air has been documented in many
studies of tensile stress]strain behavior. Similarly,
stress corrosion of Fe 3 Al alloys in aqueous solutions
has been linked to the evolution of hydrogen, result-
 N.S. Stoloff r Materials Science and Engineering A258 (1998) 1]14
Fig. 14. Fatigue crack growth of Fe 3 Al alloy FA]129 258C w48x: Ža. B2; Žb. DO 3 .
ing in embrittlement. Kasul and Heldt w51x have shown
that ductility of Fe]24.6% Al is decreased at cathodic
potentials in both acid and basic environments, see
Fig. 15, exactly as expected from test conditions fa-
voring release of hydrogen. Similarly, slow strain ex-
periments carried out in air in a mild acid]chloride
solution show decreasing ductility with more negative
potentials as well as at the highest anodic potential,
see Fig. 16 w50x. The latter observation seems to be
connected to the formation of corrosion pits during
exposure, leading to accelerated hydrogen production
in the presence of a stress concentrator. The maxi-
mum ductilities are observed near the free corrosion
potential and are comparable to the ductility in air.
Even the disordered Fe]16 at.% Al alloy exhibits
stress corrosion behavior Žas well as very high fatigue
crack growth rates in hydrogen and in moist air w52x.,
in sharp contrast to the high ductility and dimpled
fracture mode resulting from tensile tests. In sum-
mary, low strain rates, cathodic potentials and condi-
tions favoring pitting are detrimental to the stress
corrosion behavior of both ordered and disordered
Fe]Al alloys containing 16]28 at.% Al.
7.3. Oxidation and hot corrosion
The high-temperature corrosion behavior of Fe 3 Al
alloys has recently been reviewed by Natesan and
Table 3
Corrosion rates by the polarization-resistance method for Fe 3 Al-based iron aluminides in acidic, basic and sulfur-compound solutions w50x
Solutions Average penetration rates Ž m mrday.
Materials
FA-84
1 molrl HCI 430
0.5 molrl H2 SO4 400
1 molrl HNO3 160
1 molrl NaOH 0.042
0.1 molrl Na2 S2 O3 7.8
0.1 molrl Na2 S4 O6 21
11
Tortorelli w53x. The formation of Al 2 O 3 films provides
oxidation resistance; the minimum Al content to form
Al 2 O 3 is 16]18 at.% and these films can form even in
low pressures of oxygen. Small additions of Cr can
reduce the minimum Al content somewhat. The me-
chanical integrity of the films and their reformation
characteristics are critical to adequate behavior at
long exposures. When Fe 3 Al is exposed to sulfur-
bearing atmospheres, weight gain is adversely affected
by the presence of large quantities of Cr, as shown in
Fig. 17 w53x. Note that the binary Fe]12 wt.% Al alloy
as well as Fe 3 Al alloy FA-61 shows no weight gain at
8758C. Apart from Cr, the only other solute which has
been studied in detail is Zr, which appears to improve
oxide adherence at elevated temperatures w54x.
8. Welding
Considerable attention has been devoted to the
weldability of Fe 3 Al alloys because of concern about
the problem of hydrogen embrittlement in the pres-
ence of water vapor w55,56x. All traces of the latter
must be excluded from the weld surface in order to
avoid delayed cold cracking. Reducing grain size has
proven to be an effective means of improving weld
ductility and increasing resistance to hydrogen em-
brittlement. Another method to control cold cracking
FA-129 FAL-Mo 304L SS
52 14 9.7
72 120 0.014
3.5 1.4 0.007
0.021 0.056 0.007
9.9 2.6 0.004
6.5 6.5 0.020
12 N.S. Stoloff r Materials Science and Engineering A258 (1998) 1]14

Table 4
Localized-corrosion initiation times for Fe 3 Al-based iron
aluminides in a mild acid-chloride solution w50x

Iron aluminides Localized-corrosion

initiation times
Ždays.

Fe]28Ala 1
Fe]28Al plus:
2Cra 2
2Cr]0.05B ŽFA-84.b 1
4Cra 2
5Cr]0.2C]0.5Nb ŽFA-129. 1
6Cra 27
1Moa 2
2Cr]1Moa 41
4Cr]0.5Moa 59
4Cr]1Moa ) 122c
4Cr]2Moa ) 122c
5Cr]1Mo]0.04B]0.08Zr ŽFAL-Mo.b ) 259c
Fig. 16. Slow-strain-rate ductility vs. electrochemicals potential for
304L Stainless steel ) 259c FA-129 iron aluminide w50x.
a
DO 3 heat treatment.
b
B2 heat treatment.
c
Tests terminated. 9. Summary

is to preheat at 3508C or higher or post-heat at 7508C,
in order to relieve stresses and drive off hydrogen
w55x. These temperatures are higher than those previ-
ously suggested by McKamey w23x.
Hot cracking of iron aluminides is not as pervasive
as cold cracking, and is highly dependent on composi-
tion. Zirconium, boron and TiB 2 are detrimental to
weldability, while niobium, chromium and small
amounts of carbon are beneficial. Threshold cracking
stresses are similar to those of some austenitic stain-
less steels and Ni 3 Al w23x.
This review has dealt with the highlights of recent
research on the processing, microstructure, mechani-
cal properties and environmental resistance of Fe 3 Al
alloys. While much progress has been made in solving
the twin problems of poor low-temperature ductility
and inadequate high-temperature creep resistance,
Fe 3 Al alloys appear still to be a few years away from
widespread applications. In part this situation stems
from the contradictory effects of chromium on
strength Žlowered. and low-temperature ductility
Žraised.. As others solutes are added for improved
creep strength, ductility may be expected to decrease

Fig. 17. Weight change data for Fe]Cr, Fe]Cr]Ni, Fe]Al and
Fig. 15. Ductility of an Fe]24.6% Al alloy under conditions of Fe]Cr]Al alloys, and Fe aluminide Fe 3 Al tested in OrS environ-
control potential and pH Želectrochemical potentials are vs. SCE. ment with pO 2 4.1= 10y1 8 and pS 2 s 9.4= 10y7 atm at 8758C
w51x. w53x.
 N.S. Stoloff r Materials Science and Engineering A258 (1998) 1]14
again; in any case, ductility can be expected to ap-
proach zero when atomic hydrogen from the environ-
ment or within the alloy is mobile. Therefore care
must be taken in processing, cutting or joining to
protect alloys from moisture or other sources of hy-
drogen. While coatings may alleviate the problem,
their utilization entails extra expense, and if the coat-
ing is damaged, protection is lost. In spite of these
difficulties, Fe 3 Al alloys continue to offer advantages
over other structural materials, as outlined in the
introduction, and alloy development continues. To
date, most of such development in the United States
has been conducted at the Oak Ridge National
Laboratory. It is desirable to expand alloy develop-
ment efforts to other laboratories here and abroad in
order to continue and accelerate the momentum of
ORNL’s efforts.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to the US Department of
Energy, Fossil Energy AR&TD Materials Program
for financial support under subcontract No. 19X-SF-
521C with Lockheed Martin Energy Research Corp.
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