MICROSTRUCTURE AND FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH

IN A g-Fe-Ni-Al ALLOY

ERHARD HORNBOGEN and KARL-HEINZ ZLYU GAHR

Ruhr-Universitiit Bochum Institut fir Werkstotle. D-163 Bochum. Germany

(Rewired 18 Decen~hrr 1975)

Abstract-Fatigue crack propagation was investigated m an underaged. aged. and oleraged microstruc-
ture of an austenitic Fe-36 at.‘?; Ni-12 at.“,, Al alloy. Inhomogeneous transcrystalline slip strongly
retards crack growth at small stress intensities as compared to an overaged microstructure that deforms
homogeneously. Grain boundaries are an important microstructural parameter because they Impede
crack growth in the case of inhomogeneous transcrystalline deformation.
R&m&-On a ttudiC la propagation des fissures dans la microstructure sous-vieillie. kieillie et sur-vied-
lie d’un alhage austenitique Fe-36 at.?; Ni-ll at.“i, Al. Le glissement transcrlstallin hSrog&ne retarde
fortement le croissance des fissures pour de faibles intens& de la contrainte, par comparaison avec
une microstructure sur-vieillie qui se diforme de maniere homogene. Les joints de grains sont un
paramttre microstructural important, car ils s’opposent & la crolssance des fissures dans le cas d’une
d&formation transcristalhne hit&og&ne.

Zusammenfassung-Das ErmiidungsrtDwachstum wurde in einer austenitlschen Fe-36 At.% Ni-I2 At.‘,

Al-Legierung mit unteralterter, gealterter und_iiberalterter Mikrostruktur untersucht. Bei kleinen Span-
nungsintensititen wird das RiDwachstum sehr stark durch transkristallme Gleitung terzdgert, im Ver-
gleich zu einer iiberalterten Mikrostruktur, die homogen verformt wird. Korngrenzen sind ein Lclchtiger
Parameter der Mikrostruktur, da sie dasRiI3wachstum im Falle inhomogener transkristalliner Verfor-
mung behindern

1. INTRODL’CIION of fatigue crack growth was given. Hhich is based

One aspect of recent progress in the field of fatigue
came from the introduction of the amplitude of stress
intensity AK to the description of the crack growth
velocity (da/dN). The original equation [I]
da
- = A.AK” (la)
dRi
contained two empirical constants and described only
part of the curve that is found experimentally (Fig. 1).
Modified versions[2] consider the existence of an
upper threshold value K,, the fracture toughness, some-
times a lower limit which is referred to as K,, and
the R-value which characterizes the portion of the
static tensile stress.
da A-AK”
(lb)
dN = (I - R)*K, - AK’
These equations were derived semi-empirically from
microscopic measurements of crack growth. There is
no way how to derive the numerical values for the
constants from microstructure and microdeformation
at the crack tip. There is rather a frequent belief that
fatigue crack growth is independent of microstructure
and mainly a function of the elastic modulus of the
material [S].
Parallel to this approach a quantitative description
on the plastic shear that occurs at the crack tip under
the conditions that deformation is limited to crystal-
lographic slip in a single crystal [4-61. In this case
a full correlation between fatigue crack growth and
the microscopic slip steps was achieved. If. however,
real metallic materials are considered which always
contain grain boundaries and particles the situation
becomes very complex [7,8]. Not even a qualitative
correlation with microstructural parameters seems to
exist. Therefore design of fatigue resistant alloys is
still done on an empirical basis.
In this paper some micromechanical parameters
will be considered that may be effective at the crack
tip. The following mechanisms are likely to have an
effect on the propagation of fatigue cracks:
1. The heterogeneity of slip steps inside the crystal-
lites [9-l 11.
2. Localized slip in grain boundaries or grain bound-
ary zones [ 121.
3. Decohesion of cleavage planes in crystallites or
particles.
4. Decohesion of slip planes in crystallites.
5. Decohesion of incoherent particle-matrix inter-
faces.
6. Decohesion of cmbrittled grain boundaries.
The ductile mechanisms are expected to prevail at
low AK-values while at higher stress intensities,
R-values. and specimen thickness an increasing
amount of quasi-static cleavage may contribute to
crack propagation.
581 HORNBOGEN AND ZUM GAHR: MICROSTRUCTURE AND FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH

dlmenslon of mxrostructurai parameters

I gram size
0
I particle spacmg

pahcte diameter
I
tnm 1 1OOnm tOOjim I

no

K see KC log AK-

amplttude of stress tntensity

sbze of plastic zone

Fig. 1. Schematical representation of fatigue crack growth correlating the amplitude of stress intensity,
plastic zone size and microstructural parameter.

It was ‘the primary purpose of the present work
to investigate the effect of heterogeneity of transcrys-
Mine strain on fatigue crack growth. It is well known
that a low stacking fault energy and much more so
the presence of particles that are cut by dislocations
will favour inhomogeneous plastic deformation, i.e.
high, widely spaced slip steps. The tendency of a crys-
tal to deform heterogeneously can be characterized
by the following parameters [ 11,133 :
S microstructure of the alloy was modified in such a
(2b)
1 - (d Ar/dn) / is the amount of decrease in critical
shear stress due to reduction in cross section for the
particles caused by cutting. The value (dAr/dn) is
positive for by-passing mechanisms in which case
homogenization of strain is caused. (A7e - AT,) is
the difference between the critical shear stress of the
precipitation hardened crystal Are and that of the
matrix At,. If n = d&b dislocations have passed one
shp plane, the particle of a diameter dp has been
sheared off into two parts, and no further reduction
of shear stress occurs in this plane. There are very
few quantitative measurements of inhomogeneity of
strain as a function of precipitation condi-
tion [ 10. 11,143. For this work an alloy was used for
which data on distribution of slip e.xist [14]. The
way that the macroscopic tensile properties agreed
completely while microscopic deformation was hetero-
geneous or homogeneous. A third microstructure was
added with heterogeneous plastic strain but much
smaller yield and tensile stresses as compared to the
two first mentioned microstructures. The change in
microstructure did not only affect the inhomogeneity
of strain but also coherency of particles and microme-
chanical conditions at grain boundaries. Nevertheless
 HORNBOGEN ASD ZUM GAHR: MICROSTRUCTURE .4ND FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH 583

Table 1 Microstructures and some mechanical properties

Average particle E *Y Qm.,

Symbol Heat treatment Precipitation phase size (nm) (lO“Nmm-?) (Nmm-‘) (Nmm-‘) (?l)

C ; underaged (a) :;;l>nCat Spherical, coherent 2.4 17.3 360 871 40.0
ordered
(b) 80 hr at 5OO’C ;“(Ni,AI)
water quenched
A ; aged (a) 10 min at Sphertcal, coherent 13 17.2 422 998 27.6
13oo;c ordered
(b) 7.5 hr at 72OYZ y’(Ni,Al)
water quenched
0 k overaged (a) 10 min at Spherical, coherent 7’ z 30 16.5 415 1090 20.0
1300°C ordered ;’ and non-
coherent rhombical
(b) 75 hr at 720 ‘C or rod-shapid 1” or 1” or 3(’
waterquenched x’ (FeAl or Fe,Al) : 200 x 750

from a comparison of the crack growth data of the surface, and transmission electron microscopy of the
three structures important information was expected deformed zone ahead of the crack. Ln some cases the
on the question of whether the mode of slip is impor- details of crack growth were observed in the specimen
tant for fatigue. surface, especially the effect of grain boundaries on
crack velocity. The data given in Fig. 3 are da/dN-
curves in which the individual microstructural inter-
2. CHARACTERIZATION OF THE
actions of the crack tip are averaged out.
ALLOY AND EXPERIMENTAL
PROCEDURES
3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
An alloy of the composition 36 at.“{ Nb 12 4.7;
Al, 0.02 at.% C, rest Fe, was produced by vacuum In Figs. 3(a-c) the crack growth data are given for
casting. Sheets of I.5 and 2.5 mm were produced by the three microstructures and for different specimen
hot rolling of the solid solution at about 13OO’C.The thicknesses and static mean loads. All testing condi-
homogenization treatment, 10min at 13WC and tions show basically the same behaviour. Crack
water quenching. led to a grain size of 165 pm. A growth is much slower for the specimen L’ and A
wide variety of microstructures can be produced from as compared to 0 for small amplitudes of stress inten-
this solid solution by ageing. step-ageing, and thermo- sity. while for higher amplitudes the difference is de-
mechanical treatments [lS]. The heat treatments, creasing. Crack velocities in 6 and A are about equal,
microstructures and tensile test properties of the
microstructures used in this paper are summarized
in Table 1.
The microstructures U and A contain predomi-
nantly y’-particles which are sheared by dislocations.
The particles in the overaged condition are semi-
coherent or non-coherent, and not sheared by disloca-
tions (b.c.c. ordered x,-phase). The S-value (equation
2a) of the three microstructures. characterizing their
tendency to deform heterogeneously varies according
to the following proportions S,:S,:S, = 6:1:(<0).
The slip line distribution measured under static load
corresponds to these ratios [ 141.
The specimen used for the measurements is shown
in Fig. 2. Crack growth was measured optically with
an accuracy of +O.Ol mm at a constant frequency
of 8 Hz. The R-values and the specimen thickness
were varied. The particular values are given in the
crack growth diagrams (Fig. 3). All fatigue tests were
tension-tension and carried out under load control
in a closed loop, hydraulically operated, servocon-
trolled mechanical test system.
The mechanism of crack growth was investigated
by light microscopy in the polished surface of the
specimen. scanning electron microscopy of the crack Fig. 2. Type of specimen used for experiments.
 5 .-
4 ..

3 ..
o A 1

2.. cnwronment aw
temperature 21-2YC

lad,
, I
300 400 500 700 1000 1500 2000 2500 300 LOO 500 700 1000 1500 2000 2500

?iGlF
AK - N*----
Fig. 3(b).
Fig. 3(a).
10”

5 ..
4 .,

3 .’

2..

10-L..

I 54 ;
3

z% 2..
?
;
$E
10.5.

5”
4 ”
3..

2.,

I I
300 400 500 700 1000 1500 2000 2500 1o-6-
Nmfiw'
A -

Fig. 3(c).
584 Fig. 3(d).

0 A
A.Q
Z.Smm,R = 0,235
envrranment-air
temperature-?XiPC
ret humldlty 43-50%
4
1 l&5 2 235 3 3.5 4 4,5 5 6
Fig. 3. Crack growth cur%es for the three microstructures (C = underaged, r( = aged, 0 = otera&.
details see Table I). (a-c) Crack growth as a function of amplitude of stress intensity for dSer:z:
specimen thickness and R-value as indicated. (d-f) Crack growth as a functron of ampllrude of st:~
intensity over yield stress. which is proportional to square root of cyclic plastic zone size.
\vith a tendency for siower crack growth for U at
very small amplitudes. The curves for L’ and 4 show
a steep increase in crack growth vslocitv at about
hK = 500 and 700 N mm”‘. The stress amplitude at
uLhich the second discontinuity was found is shifted
to a slightly smalfer X-value uith decreasing speci-
men thickness at R = constant. This must be due to
the thickness dependence of the stress state. but is
not very pronounced and may be less than the scatter
of the results. There is a generat shift to higher du;dX-
values with increased R. especiall! because of inter-
face xpsration in the overaged microstructure. This
agrees uith the behsviour described by equation (I b).
The different behartour of the three mi~rostructures
becomes even more stident. if the stress amplitudes
are related to the Eieid stresses (Figs. 3d-f). Then
mtcrostructure U clearly she\\-s the slowest crack
growth and the difference betueen the group of the
microstructures deforming heterogeneously (U, A),
and the microstructure deforming homogeneously (0)
IS still much more evident.
In Fig. 1 obserlatlons of the fine structure crack
Id
5
4
3
10-
5
4
3
ti
5
4
3
2 environment afr
temperc!:re 21-ZS’C
rel humtc,:y 43-50%
16
growth in poiished surfaces are shown for t& micro-
structures t: and 0. The crack path is determined
by (11 Ii--slip in the first case. The crack tip is pre-
ceded by slip steps. The slip system changes only a
few times in a grain m order to provide s average
crack direction normal to the direction of rbe applied
load. At the grain boundaries crack progress is
retarded. If the crack tip approaches a grxn bound-
ary a zone of heavy plastic deformation is produced.
Crack growth continues only after a crack in a ne\\
{Ill )-plane of the next grain has been 1Stlated b>
concentrated slip.
There is no crystallographtc sliding and separation
along [ 111i-planes inside the microstructur: 0. The
grain boundaries do not impede crack greL\th. On
the contrary at higher stress amplitudes cxxk growth
is accelerated by separation along grain Lxmdaries
and the Interfaces of incoherent particles. In Fig. 5
the detailed crack growth across a grain >oundar\
is shown for the microstructures t’ and 0 The data
are representattse for the particular gratis that are
observed in the surface of the specimen. \If:rographs
HORNBOGEN ASD ZUXf GAHR: MICROSTRL’CTURE .AND FATIGUE CRACK (3ROWTH

Fig. 3(a).

Fiy. 4(b).

Fig. 4(c).
 Fig. Jieb

(~1321600 cyciss: after rmnscrytallins pr~grss further impedemtnt at grain boundary. (dl Aged condi-
tied: crack propagates in w-a i 1.t t: -slip systems which change as a grain boundary is passed. te.
f) Overaged condition. re) LOE Stress intensity showing non-crystallographic crack propagation and
occasional branching. if) High stress intensity sho\ring intercrystallinr: scparatiotr in addition to r,cn-
cr~sti~~~o~r~~phictranscrystalfine crack growth.
-17
Jb.
indicating the contributwns to crack growth b> intsr-
face separation are shown on Fig. 6ia). as compared
to slip plane decohesion on Fig. 6(b).
1. DISCUSSIOX
The important results of the experimental work
are: I. At small stress intensities fatigue cracks grow;
the more dowfy the higher the tendenq for inhomo-
yeneous transcrystallins slip is: 2. Cracks grow even
underaged
nlOre 5loiSl~ in a tiliCKIStiWitUtrt ibith a Iouer yield
stress if heterogeneity slip is more pronounced; 3.
TMO or three different functions that correlate stp:ss
intendt) and crack growth (camp. cquarion I) appear
to be valid in the ranges of high and Iw stress in-
tensities for microstructww that deform hctero-
g~lXOllSl~.
For an explanatkon of the results the schematic
drawings Figs. 1 and 7 and the crack growth curws
Figs. 3{d-f) are useiul. r\n increasing stress intensity
leads to an increasing size of both. the static and the
cychc plastic zone size ahead of the crack [ 163:

static:

5 _ _I_ AK“ 2
cyclic {fatigue): (3b)
f-ax\;, ( 1

These plastic zone sizes habe to be correlated uirh

microstructural features of the alloy. Figures 3ia-f)
a
3
3.901 GB indicate that the first discontinuity occurs in the
curves LYand .4 if 6, a D = 165 jlrn. \\here D is the
3so{ grain size of the alloy (m = 180 Nmmm3 ?.
379;
h’,,, = 630 NmmA3 ‘). The second discontinuity
3601 which is clearly recognizable m microswcture I. is
3501 / AK-707Nn~r?'~ found at 6, 2 D. i.e. Ah’ = ~OONmm-’ ‘. In Fig. 7
312 315 318 320 324 the dislocation arrangements are shoan that are
cycras, *IO expected at different &values in the inh~rno~eneoL]sl~
Fig %a). deforming microstruct~lres.

cveraged
AK=836Nm&‘2

25 29.
2,8-
2.7-
2,6-

1 2 3 r, 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 i9 20,103

Fig. 5, Correlation of crack grou;th and microstructure 8s obswed in polished surfaces (G = gram.
GB = grain boundary) (a) underaged: cracks are retarded at grain boundaries. (bt overaged: non-
measurable effect of grain boundaries.

Fig. 6(a).
Fig. 6(b).
Fig 6. SE&l inwstigsrian of fracture jurfacc. (a) Oxeraged:
large portions of int<rxystallinc‘ fracture. The microdim-
pled structure on tiz grain surfaces indicntcs scpwation
b! localized deformation at grain boundaries. (bi Under-
aged: the crack surf~t made up of seymcnts of i L111-slip
pkmsj.
Stags I 5,. < d, < R: Dislocations are r&z&d at
the crack tip and travel to the interior of the grain
until the external str<ss is less than the yield stress
of the precipitation hardened crystal :i T As,
(ri = friction stress of the matrix).
Stage II d, c D Q Sj: Dislocations pile-up at the
grain boundq under static jtrCjj and CROSS slip out
oi one slip plane becomes more Iikciy than in stage
1. The size of pile-up is limited hi the grain sizr.
Stage III D < jj. < d,: As js is larger than j,. dislo-
cations are nucleated in two or three grains ahead
of the mo\ine 0 crack. The size of the pile-ups is limited
b) the grain size. L’ndcr this condition the pilz-ups
arc wsrted into the opposite direction ai the mini-
mum stress per qcle. Consquently additional cross
slip and nucleation of slip at grain boundariss occurs
(transition jrxge II -+ III\. Therefore strain becomes
more homogeneous. The allo>- approaches the dislo-
cation distribution oi’ microstructure 0 Istage III).
Crack progress c;ln be calculated from the number
of disLxxions in the slip plxiss that pTJdUCe slip
steps at the crack tip. Neglecting the mhooogeneous
stress shish is present close to the crx:i tip the
number c71’ dislocations 1~~in state I can be &xlatcd
approxirnateiy assuming the group is csrended to 6,
where A:* is the critical shear stress of the precipita-
tion hardened crystal in which no particles have been
sheared. If all TV,dislocations would contribute to
crack propagation the growth velocity is obtained
together with equation (3a):
where C is a dimensionless parameter which considers
the orientation of the slip plane to the gross direction
of crack propagation. if it is assumed that .L.r, x Go
all dimensionless parameters are included into c’ or
c”.
Equation 15) interprets only the high increase of
crack grotvth velocity with stress intensit>-. but not
the 105~absolute values as compared to the ovetaged
condition. This can be done by applying itarlier obser-
vations that slip steps c&n disappear reversibly under
cyclic loading [17] to the slip step model of crack
propagation. In the general case it is assumed that
several slip steps in more than one slip qstem con-
tribute to the net progress of a crack during one cycle.
A decreasing stress intensity and increasing tendency
for heterogeneous strain distribution wilf Fdvour
deformation h_ less slip stzps in less slip systems (Fig.
5).
If during onz qclc onl> one slip Iini: is activated
in r\hich disolcations have a smafl chance to cross
slip. a number of dislocations tzRwill rnoxe backward
on exactly the same slip plane and therefore not con-
tribute to progress of the crack.
dtr
- (11~- ti,)b i6)
d7;;;-
The ratio nR !I\, is directly related to rhs hetero-
geneit>- of strain. l:x riO- 0 for homogeneous defor-
mation induced b> by-passing mechanisms. )lR;~1~-+ 1
will be approached if deformation occurs exclusively
as one atomicAt? sharp slip step. On this basis the
 HORNBOCES ASD ZUM GXHR kllCROSTRC:CTURE AND FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH

(b)

8,CD

Fig. 7. Schematic representation of dislocation arrangements if plastic zone sizes \ar~es as compared
to grain size (6, = stduc-. 6, = qclic plastic zone). (a) Stage I. (b) stage II, (c) transition II-III,
(d) stage III.

slow crack growth of the alloys in which cutting takes of reversible dislocations 11~will decrease due to cross
place as compared to that in uhich by-passing occurs. slip so that a larger portion of the dislocations con-
can be explained. tribute to the crack growth. If the stress intensity is
If stage II is reached the size of the @led-up dislo- increased further so that 6,. = D. strong pile-ups lvill
cation group is limited by the grain size. The number be produced in the neighbouring grains during the

F r
(a) --l-r- (b)
ooo 0
A
00 o 0
0
L
t

Fig. 8. Schematic representation of crack propagation during one cycle. (a) Microstructure with te-dency
towards homogeneous deformation: several slip planes and two slip systems operating. (b) Mxrsstruc-
ture with tendency towards inhomogeneous deformation: slip in one plane and one system allows
partial reversion of the primary crack progress.
 HORNBOGEN 0-D ZUM GAHR: MICROSTRUCTURE AND FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH 591

of A.V cycles the crack has moved only oter a dis-

tance h (compare Fig. 5):
4
h =$&V-(;- lj~,,]. (7)
..ductlle”grain boundary

with da,dNG = transcrystalline crack growth rate,

iv,, = number of cycles to pass one grain boundary
and D = grain size.
A corresponding grain boundary effect does not
occur in the homogeneously deforming overaged
alloy, because no considerable change in dislocation
distribution occurs in the environment of the grain
boundary. In this microstructure a transition of trans-
to intercrystalline crack growth takes place with in-
b) creasing stress intensity. In the overaged structure the
grain boundaries contain large incoherent particles
epleted zone at
grain boundary
surrounded by a narrow zone of very soft matrix.
O Separation is easy by deformation in this particle-
depleted zone and decohesion along the interfaces of
the grain boundary particles. The micro-dimpled
structure on the intercrystalline portions of the frac-
Fig. 9. Schematic representation of a crack interacting ture surface shown in Fig. 6(a) lend support for this
with grain boundaries. (a) Plastic relaxation of the grain mechanism. In this microstructure the trans-crystal-
boundary and nucleation of new crack in the neighboqring line crack velocity is smaller than the intercrystalline
grain (see Fig. 4~). (b) Plastic relaxation in a depleted zone
one.
and partial intercrystalline crack propagation, facilitated
by interface decohesion of incoherent gram bourrdarmre- The results show that heterogeneity of slip is a crys-
cipitates (see Fig. 6a). tal property which is of importance for fatigue crack
propagation. In polycrystalline alloys the local crack
velocity at grain boundaries is not independent of
tension period, which have a chance to cross-slip. If
heterogeneity of slip. Therefore the particle dispersion
stress is reversed the piled-up dislocations will move
inside the crystallites that determines transcrystalline
back, pile up at the oppostie grain boundaries and
slip distribution, as well as the particle distribution
induce the formation of additional slip lines. Thus
at grain boundaries which determine the local
strain becomes more homogeneous in stage III and
mechanical properties have to be taken into consider-
the crack growth curve has a tendency to approach
that of the by-passing microstructure at high stress
intensities given by the condition 6, > D.
The second effect that leads to retardation of crack i
growth in the last-mentioned microstructures is due log$.
to the grain boundaries. Crack propagation by
heterogeneous slip is accompanied by very small
crack tip opening displacements. If the crack
approaches a grain boundary, the preceding slip plane
must discontinue. In the grain boundary either crack-
ing or formation of a large plastically deformed zone
can be expected depending on the mechanical proper-
ties in the grain boundary or its environment. The
latter is the case in the heterogeneously deforming
microstructures (A, V). The plastic deformation of the
grain boundary zone leads to local crack arrest until
a new crack is formed at slip steps in the nearest
neighbour grain (Fig. 9). At a certain stress intensity
an additional number of cycles NGB is required to
overcome the grain boundary. As the frequency of
such events increases with decreasing grain size, the
crack velocity must become grain size dependent. For
AK = const and a crack extension & much larger
than the grain size D the velocity of trans-crystalline
crack growth (equations 5-7) is reduced by the grain Fig. 10. Schematic representation of the results showing
boundary encounters, so that after a total number in Fig. 3.
$92 HORXBOGEN AND ZUM GAHR: MICROSTRL-CTIJRE
ation for a complete correlation of microstructure and
fatigue crack growth in precipitation hardened alloys.
The contributions of the different effects have been
summarized schematically in Fig. 10.
5. SUiMNARY
The effect of ~crostructure on the growth of fati-
gue cracks was investigated in a PFe-Ni-Al-alloy in
different precipitation conditions. The heat treatments
were chosen in such a way that the alloy deformed
by homogeneous or heterogeneous plastic deforma-
tion in spite of identical tensile test properties. The
difference in mode of plastic deformation was caused
by particles that are by-passed or sheared by disioca-
tions.
The heterogeneously deforming microstructures
resulted in the lowest crack growth velocity at low
stress intensities. Above the stress intensities at which
the size of the static and the cyclic plastic zone reach
the grain size the crack growth vs AK-curves show
di~ontinuities because the velocity of crack growth
continues to increase less strongly with higher stress
intensities as compared to lower stress intensities. In
this range grain boundaries have an impeding effect
on crack growth. Crack growth velocTties 3 the
homogeneously deforming (overaged) microstructure
are larger, the grain sundries have no effect or slow
down crack growth. Grain boundary zones and inco-
herent particles can accelerate crack growth at high
stress intensities by interface decohesion.
AND FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH
The crack growth rates have been discussed based
on the dislocation arrangements which originate at
the crack tip and in interaction with the particular
microstructures.
de~nowlr~fgcmunr-Our thanks are due to August Thyssen-
Hdtte Duisburg-Hamborn and Thyssen Eddstahlwerke
Witten who prosided the alloys.
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