DNA AND INHERITANCE

 Genome: The entire genetic material of an organism.

 Gene: A short length of DNA found on a chromosome that codes for a specific
protein and characteristic.

 DNA is stored in the nucleus.

 Every cell has a copy of all the DNA.
 DNA is a polymer made from 4 different nucleotides.
 All nucleotides have the same Phosphate group and Sugar.
 The base can change and be any one of 4 options:
- Guanine: G
- Adenine: A
- Cytosine: C
- Thymine: T

 Different nucleotides can attach together to form a long chain.

 2 chains of nucleotides can then attach together.
 The 2 chains then twist to form a Double Helix.
 Complementary Base Pairs means that on the opposing chains:
- Guanine (G) will always be opposite a Cytosine (C)
- Adenine (A) will always be opposite a Thymine (T)
 Chromosome: A long, coiled molecule of DNA that carries genetic information in the
form of genes.

 Allele: A version of a gene, but with a different sequence of nucleotides.

 Diploid: A cell that contains a pair of each chromosome type.
 Haploid: A cell that contains a single copy of each chromosome.

 Homologous: Chromosomes that are the same size and have the same set of genes.
 Heterologous: Chromosomes that are different sizes with different genes.
 Homozygous: When someone has the same alleles.
 Heterozygous: When someone has two different alleles.
 Phenotype: An organism’s observable characteristics due to interactions of the
genotype and the environment.
 Genotype: An organism’s genetic composition, which describes all alleles.

 Dominant: Describes an allele that is always expressed. Represented by a capital

letter.
 Recessive: Describes an allele that is only expressed in the absence of a dominant
allele. Represented by a lowercase letter.
 Codominance: When both alleles for a gene in a heterozygous organism equally
contribute to the phenotype. Represented by superscript.
  22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes.
 1 pair of sex chromosomes:
- XX = female
- XY = male
 Sex chromosomes: A pair of chromosomes responsible for determination of gender.

 Mitosis: A form of nuclear division that produces 2 genetically identical daughter

cells from 1 parent cell. The copies of chromosomes are separated maintaining the
diploid chromosome number. Mitosis is important in growth, tissue repair and
replacement of cells, as well as asexual reproduction.

 Meiosis: A form of nuclear division that produces four genetically different daughter
cells (gametes). It involves two divisions. The chromosome number is halved,
resulting in haploid cells.

 In human cells, the diploid number of chromosomes is 46 and the haploid number is
23.

 Mutation: A rare, random change in genetic material that can be inherited.

 DNA is a double helix, RNA is a single strand

 DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose, RNA contains ribose
 RNA contains the base Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T).
 Two parts of RNA take part in protein synthesis:
- Messenger RNA (mRNA) forms a copy of the DNA code
- Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries amino acids to the ribosomes to make the
protein

 Protein synthesis occurs in two stages:

- Transcription
- Translation

 Transcription: The process of RNA polymerase binding to DNA and producing an

mRNA copy of a gene.

 Translation: Ribosomes produce proteins by translating the mRNA. The mRNA is

read in codons with each codon coding for an amino acid. tRNAs with anticodons
bind to the codons via complementary base pairs and bring the new amino acid to
the polypeptide.

 Codon: A triplet of bases on mRNA that code for a particular amino acid.

 A change in DNA can affect the phenotype by altering the sequence of amino acids in
a protein.
 Each gene acts as a code for making a specific protein and each gene codes for the
order in which the bases (A,T, C and G) link together. Each triplet of bases codes for a
specific amino acid. The series of amino acids codes for a protein. Therefore, a
mutation in the bases can change the entire protein.

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  All variants (alleles) are caused by mutation. Most of these mutations have no effect
on the phenotype, as most of DNA is non-coding and therefore does not cause a
change in any proteins. However, some do have a small influence on phenotype and
very few can have a significant effect if they are in coding regions.

 Mutations can occur more frequently due to:

- Exposure to ionising radiation (for example, gamma rays, x-rays and
ultraviolet rays)
- Exposure to chemical mutagens (e.g. chemicals in tobacco)
 These mutations can lead to uncontrollable growth, which causes a tumour.
Therefore, mutagens like chemicals in tobacco are called carcinogens (cancer-
causing).