REPRODUCTION

IN PLANTS AND
ANIMALS
By: Enaya Majid
TOPICS OF
DISCUSSION
Introduction to Reproduction

In Plants

In Humans
What is Reproduction ?
Reproduction is the process by which an organism is produced which is either the same or similar to their
parents.

There are 2 types of reproduction:

I. Sexual Reproduction: Which involves fusion of male and female gametes.

II. Asexual Reproduction: Which involves the process of Mitosis, producing clones of their parent.

Meiosis and Mitosis are two types of cell division. Mitosis is much simpler producing 2
exactly same daughter cells. Meiosis, on the other hand is much complex, producing 4
genetically unique daughter cells.
 Mitosis
Mitosis is the simplest process of cell division. It only requires one parent, hence, there is fusion of gametes nor
is there any genetic variation. Therefore, all organisms are clones, meaning they are exactly same as their
parent. Mitosis is also the way how organisms reproduce Asexually. It is the process by which most of our cells
divide.

Mitosis is involved in the following purposes:

I. Growth.
II. Cell repair.
III. Asexual Reproduction.

Before mitosis the DNA is exactly replicated and each chromosome now becomes two identical for chromatids
joined by the centromere. The spindle fibers pull the two chromosomes apart and after the division new
daughter cells are produced which have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell and identical to
one another and the parent cell.
Mitosis (IPMATC)
Interphase:
The chromosomes duplicate and become 2 identical chromatids joined at the centromere.

Prophase:
In the nucleus the chromosomes condense and in the cytoplasm spindle fibers form.

Metaphase:
The nuclear membrane breaks apart, the spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes, and the chromosomes line up at
the equator of the cell.

Anaphase:
The spindle fibers shorten and the centromere divides so that each chromosome becomes 2 separate chromatids.

Telophase The nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes. They spread back out in the new nucleus
and the spindle fibers break down in each nucleus has the normal forty-six chromosomes.
 Meiosis I
Meiosis produces 4 cells with only half the number of chromosomes all genetically different.

Interphase:
DNA replication involves making an identical copy of the original DNA molecule.

Prophase I:
The duplicated chromosomes join up with the pair of the other parents cell so the pair binds with the father's pair forming a group of 2
chromosomes called homologous chromosomes. Since the chromosome is lined up next to its partner's pair, one chromatid from each side gets
entangled with a corresponding chromatid from the other side, this process is called Crossing-over. During this brief period the 2 chromatids
swap certain sections that they trade correspond to the same location so that each chromatid retains a correct number of genes , re-combination
creates variety. Each chromatid is different and each will end up in a separate gamete.

Metaphase I:
The spindle fibers pull the chromosomes apart to opposite ends.

Telophase I and Cytokinesis I:

The cell pinches apart in the middle and the nuclear membrane reforms around the 2 new daughter cells.
 Meiosis II
Prophase II:
Chromatin clumping to form chromosomes.

Metaphase II:
Then aligned in the middle of the cell.

Anaphase II:
Chromatids are pulled apart by spindle fibers.

Telophase II & Cytokinesis:

The cell pinches together with 4 new cells being formed at the end of meiosis II, we end up with 4 different sex cells
or gametes each with only 23 chromosomes.
DNA
Most cells are Eukaryotic such as , plant, and fungi cells. Inside the cell, there is a nucleus within most nuclei there
are X-shaped chromosomes. Chromosomes occur in pairs but the number of chromosomes change depending on
the species. have 23 pairs of chromosomes. DNA is found within these chromosomes. DNA has many sequences.
Some sections of these sequences are called Genes. DNA is a polymer which is a large molecule composed of
repeated subunits. Each nucleotides contains a phosphate group, a sugar, and a base.

I
P
II

Sugar Base H Base

HO
DNA The bases are basically complementary,
meaning that whenever there’s an A on one
side, there will always be a T on the other
side. One strand on DNA goes 3’ to 5‘ and
the other one goes 5’ to 3’.
 DNA Replication
During DNA replication the DNA double-helix unwinds and is unzipped by and enzyme called DNA

Helicase. An enzyme called DNA polymerase is attached to the strand and is used to add complementary free

nucleotides to the now exposed bases on both strands. This forms 2 DNA each of which contains a brand

new strand and one which is an original strand. In both DNA replication and Transcription the DNA is used

to make RNA rather than a new strand of DNA. This whole DNA replication happens before cell division.
Types of RNA
Transfer RNA:
The transfer RNA is held responsible for choosing the correct protein or the Amino Acid required by the body in-turn
helping the ribosomes. It is located at the end points of each Amino Acids. This is also called as soluble RNA and it
forms a link between the messenger RNA and the amino acid.

Ribosomal RNA:
The rRNA is the component of the ribosome and are located within the cytoplasm of a cell, where ribosomes are
found. In all living things, the ribosomal RNA plays a fundamental role in the synthesis and translation of mRNA into
in to proteins. The rRNA is mainly composed of cellular RNA and are the most predominant RNA within the cells of
all living things.

Messenger RNA:
This type of RNA function by transferring the genetic material into the ribosomes and pass the instructions about the
type of proteins, required by the body cells. Based on the functions, these types of RNA is called the messenger RNA.
Therefore, the mRNA plays a vital role in the process of transcription or during the protein synthesis process.
Translation and Transcription
Translation is the process by which the genetic code contained within a messenger RNA (mRNA)
molecule is decoded to produce a specific sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. It occurs in the
cytoplasm following DNA transcription and, like transcription, has three stages: Initiation, elongation and
termination.

Initiation:
Differences between DNA & RNA
DNA RNA

Stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid Stands for Ribonucleic Acid

Has the base Thymine in place of Has the base Uracil in place of
Uracil Thymine

Is long Is short

Is a double-stranded helix Is single stranded

RNA directly codes for amino acids and acts as a

DNA is responsible for storing and
messenger between DNA and ribosomes to make
transferring genetic information proteins.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is the process which involves the fusion of gametes to give rise to a new
individual. In sexual reproduction there is a formation of a zygote which is formed by the fusion of
gametes, which means that the new individual has a blend of characters.

Gametes:

Gametes are sex cells that are different in males and females. In males the gamete is a sperm, and in a
female the gamete is an ovum or egg.
Asexual Reproduction
While sexual reproduction needs 2 parents. Asexual reproduction only requires one parent. All the
offspring are clones of each other they are genetically identical to one another and to the parents.
Spider plants are plants which use Asexual reproduction. Bacteria uses Binary fission for
reproducing which is also a type of Asexual reproduction and even in some animals, they produce
asexually such as the hydra and Aphids along with starfish.

In Plants;
I. Some plants such as potatoes and daffodils develop under
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Asexual Reproduction
REPRODUCTION IN
PLANTS AND SOME
ANIMALS
Sexual and Asexual
Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Asexual Reproduction in Plants
REPRODUCTION IN
HUMANS
Sexual Reproduction, Male and Female reproductive organs and Puberty
Sexual Reproduction in Humans
Male Reproductive System
Male Reproductive System
Female Reproductive System
Female Reproductive System
Puberty and Menstruation
THANK YOU FOR
WATCHING
Have a nice day!