MODULE 2

CHROMOSOME
◦ A majority of genetic materials in the eukaryotic cell is present in the nucleus in the form of multiple linear DNA molecules organized into structure called
Chromosomes.
◦ Chromosomes are bundle of tightly coiled DNA located within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
◦ Chromosomes originated from a Greek word “chroma” means colour and “soma” means body.
◦ In human beings there are 23 pairs of chromosomes present (22 pair autosome and 1 pair of sex chromosomes)

Structure and Morphology of chromosomes

◦ Chromosomes are composed of chromatin fibre.
◦ A chromatin is composed of DNA and a Protein ( HISTONES)
◦ The protein Histones is also known as Histones octamers ( 8 sub units ).
◦ Nucleosome is a section of DNA that is wrapped around a core proteins.
◦ Chromatin is like beads on a string like structure .
◦ Chromatin is not purely condensed state. We can’t visualize chromatin through microscope so easily
◦ During cell division chromatin condenses into thick rode like structure called chromosomes. Which become

visible with the help of microscope

◦ In the time of prophase (in the beginning of cell division ) chromatin slowly started to condense and form chromosomes.
◦ Chromosomes are easy to stain and easy to seen through microscope that’s why chromosomes are called colored body.

Structure of chromosomes
◦ Centromere: A centromere is a constructed reign of a chromosomes

that separates it into a short arm ( p arm) and a long arm (q arm).
◦ During cell division the chromosomes first replicate so that each daughter

cell receives a complete set of chromosomes . Following DNA replication

the chromosomes consist of two identical sister chromatids which are
joined at the centromere.
◦ The short arm of chromosome is called ‘p’ arm and the long arm of

chromosome is called ‘q’ arm.

◦ Chromatid is one of two identical halves of a replicated chromosomes.
◦ Bivalent is one pair of two homologous chromosome which consist two chromosomes.
◦ A tetrad is the group of four sister chromatids found within the homologous pair
◦ On the basis of the position of centromere chromosomes are classified into four

1. Metacentric
2. Sub metacentric
3. Acrocentric
4. Telocentric
Metacentric: centromere is located exactly on the center.
The centromere divides the chromosomes into two arm having
approximately equal length .
Centromere placed middle of the structure
Sub metacentric : centromere is presented slightly away from
The center as a result the two arms are unequal.
Acrocentric : the centromere present almost towards the end region.
“ Acro” it is a Greek word means “peek”
Telocentric : centromere is present at the extremely end part.. That is centromere is presented in the terminal area.
◦ Karyotype and ideogram
◦ Karyotype derived from Greek word “ kernel” which means content of nucleus.
◦ It is an organized profile of an individual chromosomes.
◦ It is the techniques used to study the chromosomes .
◦ It is the method of arrangement of pair of homologous chromosomes in a cell arranged in decreasing series in their size.
◦ Grygerii Levitsky (1931) was the first person who define karyotype.
◦ Main purpose of karyotyping is visualizing the changes in the number of chromosomes and structural abnormalities
Why will have to do karyotyping?
1. It will give us information about the species identification
2. It will help to identify numerical abnormalities of chromosomes
3. It will help to find out structural abnormalities of chromosomes
4. Help to find out if there any parental genetic defects
5. It help to identify evolutionary changes
Idiogram
It is the diagrammatical representation of karyotype showing all the morphological features of the chromosomes grouped on the basis of position
of centromere and ordered in a series of decreasing size
 DNA STRUCTURE
◦ The genetic information in a chromosome is carried by DNA ( Deoxyribonucleic acid)
◦ DNA is a molecules contain two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form double helix carrying genetic instructions for the
development, functioning growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses.
◦ DNA is a double helix structure composed of 2 polypeptide chain twisted
twisted around each other
◦ Building blocks of DNA is nucleotide
◦ A nucleotide which consist of 3 components
1. A phosphate group
2. 5 carbon sugar ( pentose sugar)
3. Nitrogenous bases
A nucleoside contain pentose sugar and nitrogenous base
DNA is antiparallel polynucleotide chain which contain 5’-3’,3’-5’ polarity
◦ The main chain made up of pentose sugar and phosphate group and the two chins are together because of nitrogenous bases.
◦ Nitrogenous bases
◦ There are 4 nitrogenous bases presented in DNA
1. Adenine
2. Thymine
3. Cytosine
4. Guanine
Nitrogenous bases are two type
5. Purine ( Adenine and Guanine)
6. Pyrimidines (Cytosine and Thymine)
Adenine is only bonded with Thymine . There will be double hydrogen bond between Adenine and Thymine.
Cytosine is only bonded with Guanine . There will be a triple hydrogen bond between Cytosine and Guanine.

The bond between two nitrogenous bases is hydrogen bond

Their will be a bond between pentose sugar and phosphate group its known as phosphodiester bond
There will be a bond between pentose sugar and nitrogenous base. It is known as glycosidic bond
 DNA REPLICATION
◦ It is the process of producing two identical copies of DNA from the original DNA molecules. That is DNA replication or DNA
duplication
◦ DNA replication is a semiconservative in nature. which means after completing DNA replication each DNA molecules consist
of one parental DNA strand and one newly synthesized DNA strand.
◦ THE KEY PLAYERS IN DNA REPLICATION
◦ There are 4 major enzymes involve in the process of DNA replication.
1. Helicase enzyme ( unzipping enzyme)
2. DNA polymerase( builder enzyme)
3. RNA primase (primer)
4. Ligase (gluing enzyme)
◦ DNA is a antiparallel polynucleotide chain having 5’-3’, 3’-5’ polarity.
◦ The hydrogen bond in between nitrogenous base which help to connect two strand of DNA
The replication of DNA is begins at a sequence ( sequences which have double hydrogen bond) of nucleotides called the origin
of replication(ORI)
Helicase enzyme( unwinding enzyme) unwinds the double stranded DNA helix and result in the formation of ‘Y’ like structure
called replication fork
◦ The separated strand each provide a template for creating new strand of DNA.
◦ An enzymes called RNA primases start the process.
◦ This enzymes makes a small piece of RNA called primer. This marks the starting point for the construction of new stand of
DNA
◦ An enzyme called DNA polymerase( builder enzyme) bind to the primer and will make strand of DNA.
◦ DNA polymerase only work on a single stand
◦ DNA polymerase can only add DNA bases in one direction from the 5’ end to 3’ end .
◦ One of the new stand DNA ,called leading stand is made continuously , the DNA polymerase adding bases one by one in the
5’to 3’ direction
◦ The other strand can’t be made in this continuous way because it runs in the opposite direction
◦ So the DNA polymerases can only make this strand in a series of DNA fragments. This DNA fragments are called Okazaki
Fragments .
◦ The newly synthesized fragmented DNA strand is called lagging strand
◦ Each fragments are started with an RNA primer
◦ The DNA polymerase then adds a shorts of row of DNA bases in the 5’ to 3’ direction. The next primer is added further down the
lagging stand. Another Okazaki fragments is then made and the process is repeated again.
◦ Once the new DNA is made the enzyme exonuclease remove all the RNA primers from both strand of DNA.
◦ Another DNA polymerase enzyme then fills in the gaps that are left behind with DNA.
◦ Finally the enzyme DNA ligase (gluing enzyme) seal up the fragments of DNA in both strands to form a continuous double stand.
◦ DNA replication is described as semiconservative because each DNA molecules one old conserved stand of DNA and one new one