Lectures

2023-2024
Spring Semester
Mobile and Sensor Networks
Dr. Ahmed Abdelreheem
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Basic Course Information
Assessment method
Activity %
assignments 5
• Course code: NWE407
Quizzes 20
• Course name: Mobile and Sensor Networks Tutorial and Lab 5
• Level: Four Year / B.Sc. Attendance Performance
and Interaction
• Course Credit: 3 credits (electronic and physical)
• Instructor: Dr. Ahmed Abdelreheem Mid -Term Exam 20
Final Exam 50
Total 100
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Outlines
▪ Module 01: Introduction and history of wireless networks
▪ Module 02: Wireless Physical and Mac Layers
▪ Module 03: Mobile Network Layer
▪ Module 04: Cellular Technology Concepts and Standards
▪ Module 05: Case Studies: WLAN and Sensor Networks
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Outlines
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Introduction to Communication System
• Communications is the Process of Transmitting Information from a Source to a Destination
Source Destination
▪ Example of typical communication systems

1. Wire-line telephone
2. Cellular phone
3. TV broadcasting system
4. IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN(WLAN)
5. Satellite communications.
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mobile network
national or global ISP
Internet
local or
regional ISP
home network content

provider
network datacenter
network
enterprise
network
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Types of Wireless Networks
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Ad hoc networks : Ad hoc literally means “for this purpose” in Latin.
have no pre-existing (fixed) infrastructure and the network architecture is configurable. They are formed by wireless stations
which may be mobile and they route paths for each other. Every station in an ad hoc network can be set up as, and play the role
of, a base station where it can directly transmit and receive from other stations in the network. Packets may need to traverse
multiple links to reach a destination. Due to the mobility, the routes between stations may change dynamically. Ad hoc network
can co-exist and co-operate, i.e., exchange data packets, with an infrastructure-based network.
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Fixed network architecture
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Cellular network architecture
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WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (WLAN)
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Input signal output signal Message

Message
Transducer
Transducer
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Mobile Communication Generations
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Outlines
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Mobile Communication Generations
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2G GSM Architecture
➢ The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
▪ Encoding, encrypting, multiplexing, modulating, and
feeding the RF signals to the antenna
▪ Time and frequency synchronizing
➢ The Base Station Controller (BSC)
▪ Control of frequency hopping
▪ Reallocation of frequencies among BTSs
▪ Time and frequency synchronization
▪ Power management
▪ Time-delay measurements of received signals from
the MS
▪ Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)
▪ The MSC performs the switching of calls between the
mobile and other fixed or mobile network users
▪ the management of mobile services such as
registration, authentication, location updating,
handovers, and call routing to a roaming subscriber.
▪ It also performs such functions as toll ticketing, ➢ Visitor Location Register (VLR)
network interfacing, common channel signaling, and ▪ temporary information about subscribers that is needed by the MSC in order to service visiting
others. subscribers.
➢ Home Location Register (HLR) ▪ if the mobile station makes a call, the VLR will have the information needed for call setup without
▪ The HLR is a database used for storage and having to interrogate the HLR each time
management of subscriptions. ➢ Authentication Center (AUC)
▪ it stores a subscriber's service profile, location ▪ a protected database that stores a copy of the secret key stored in each subscriber's SIM card,
information, and activity status. When an individual which is used for authentication and ciphering of the radio channel.
buys a subscription in. ➢ Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
4 ▪ a database that contains a list of all valid mobile equipment on the network, where its
International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) identifies each MS.
Call Setup in 2G
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➢ Node B
3G Architecture
▪ performs the air interface processing (channel
coding, rate
▪ adaptation, spreading, synchronization, power
control).
➢ RNC (Radio Network Controller) (equivalent to GSM
BSC)
▪ Responsible for radio resource management and
control of the Node Bs.
▪ Handoff decisions, congestion control, power control,
encryption, admission control, protocol conversion
➢ GMSC (Gateway MSC)
▪ Switch at the point where UMTS is connected to
external CS networks. All
▪ incoming and outgoing CS connections go through
GMSC.
➢ SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node)
▪ Similar to that of MSC / VLR but is used for Packet
Switched (PS) services.
▪ The part of the network that is accessed via the SGSN
is often referred to as the PS domain.
➢ GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node) ➢ Circuit Switched Domain (CSD)
▪ Functionality is close to that of GMSC but is in the ▪ Circuit switched service including signaling
relation to PS services. ▪ Resource reservation at connection setup
▪ 3G versions of GSM components (MSC, GMSC, VLR, HLR)
➢ Packet Switched Domain (PSD)
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▪ 3G versions of GPRS components (SGSN, GGSN)
2G & 3G Architecture
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4G LTE Architecture
➢ The EPC
▪ mobility management, authentication, quality of service, routing upload and download IP packets, IP address allocation, and more.
▪ The EPC has a “flat” IP architecture that allows the network to handle a great amount of data traffic in an efficient and cost-effective
manner.
➢ The MME
▪ handles all of the signaling exchanges between the UEs and the EPC, as well as those between the eNodeBs and the EPC.
8 ▪ connects to the eNodeB and performs authentication.
▪ It connects to the HSS and requests the authentication information for the subscriber trying to connect to the network.
4G LTE Architecture
➢ The S-GW
▪ The S-GW (Serving Gateway) acts like an anchor for handover between neighboring
eNodeBs routes and routes all the user data packets.
▪ The S-GW also handles mobility between LTE and other CS networks.
➢ The P-GW (Packet Data Network Gateway)
▪ ensures the UE’s connectivity to external packet data networks, acting like the point
of exit and entry of traffic for the UE.
▪ A UE can be connected to more than one P-GW while accessing multiple PDNs.
▪ The P-GW handles policy enforcement, user by user packet filtering, charging
support, lawful interception and packet screening. It also acts like Another key role
of the P-GW is to act as the anchor for mobility between 3GPP and non-3GPP
technologies such as WiMAX
➢ The HSS
▪ a central database that contains user-related and subscription-related information.
The functions of the HSS include mobility management, call and session
establishment support, user authentication and access authorization.
▪ The HSS is based on the Home Location Register (HLR) and the Authentication
Center (AuC) of 2G and 3G networks.
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2G, 3G & 4G LTE Architecture
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Cellular Mobile Communication
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Wireless LAN(WLAN) Technology
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IEEE 802.11 Architecture
The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows:
➢ Stations (STA):Stations comprises of all devices and equipment that

are connected to the wireless LAN. A station can be of two types
▪ Wireless Access Point (WAP) WAPs or simply access points (AP) are
generally wireless routers that form the base stations or access.
▪ Client: Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers,
smartphones, etc.
➢ Each station has a wireless network interface controller.
➢ Basic Service Set (BSS): A basic service set is a group of stations

communicating at the physical layer level. BSS can be of two
categories depending upon the mode of operation:
▪ Infrastructure BSS: Here, the devices communicate with other
devices through access points.
▪ Independent BSS: Here, the devices communicate in a peer-to-peer
basis in an ad hoc manner.
➢ Extended Service Set (ESS): It is a set of all connected BSS.
➢ Distribution System (DS):It connects access points in ESS.
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IEEE 802.11 Architecture
➢ A simple 802.11 WLAN comprises a number of stations which may operate in one of the following two configurations:
▪ independent configuration (basic service set— BSS) : in this mode, stations communicate directly with one other. There
is no formal network structure and such networks are sometimes referred to as ad hoc networks. Ad hoc networks are
relatively easy to operate, but their coverage area is limited. Such a configuration is termed a basic service set (BSS).
Where the BSS is not otherwise connected to an external network it is termed an independent BSS (IBSS).
▪ infra-structure configuration (extended service set— ESS) : in this configuration, stations select a nearby access point
(AP) and associate with it. The access point (AP) provides access to an external data network, which in IEEE 802.11-
terminology is a distribution system. Typically most traffic within a given BSS will thus flow via the access point (AP). A
number of BSSs can be grouped together to create an extended service set (ESS). An ESS is intended to provide for wider
WLAN coverage area— by allowing stations to roam from one BSS or AP area to another. This is achieved by bridging the
separate BSSs across the distribution system
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IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN(WLAN) Technology
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➢ The Wireless local area network (WLAN) protocol, IEEE 802.11, and associated technologies, such as the 802.11X
protocol, allow secure high-speed wireless network access and mobile access to a network infrastructure
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Satellite System
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Types of Satellite Systems
▪ GEO (Geostationary Earth Orbit) at about 36,000km

above the earth's surface.
▪ LEO (Low Earth Orbit) at about 500-1500km above the

earth's surface.
▪ MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) or ICO (Intermediate Circular

Orbit) at about 6000-20,000 km above the earth's
surface.
▪ HEO (Highly Elliptical Orbit)
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1.GEO (Geostationary Earth Orbit):
▪ The communication satellites in this orbit operates at a distance of about
36000 km above the earth’s surface and their orbital time period is about
24 hours.
▪ To ensure constant communication, the satellite must move at the same

speed as the earth, so that it seems to remain fixed above a certain spot. So
such satellites are called geostationary.
▪ One geostationary satellite cannot cover the whole earth. One satellite in
orbit has line-of-sight contact with vast number of stations, but the
curvature of the Earth still keeps much of the planet out of sight. It takes
minimum of three satellites equidistant from each other in geostationary
Earth Orbit(GEO) to provide full global transmission.
▪ Objects in GEO moves around the earth at the same speed as the earth
rotates. This means geostationary satellites remain in the same position
relative to the surface of earth.
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1. GEO (Geostationary Earth Orbit):
Advantages of GEO satellite
▪ Three Geostationary satellites are enough for a complete coverage of almost any spot on earth.
▪ Receivers and senders can use fixed antenna positions, no adjusting is needed.
▪ GEOs are ideal for TV and radio broadcasting.
▪ Lifetime expectations for GEOs are rather high, at about 15 years.
Disadvantages of GEO satellite

▪ Shading of the signals in cities due to high buildings and the low elevation further away from the equator limits
transmission quality.
▪ The transmit power needed is relatively high (about 10 W) which causes problems for battery powered devices.
▪ These satellites can't be used for small mobile phones.
▪ The biggest problem for voice and also data communication is high latency of over 0.25s one way-retransmission
schemes which are known from fixed networks fail.
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2. LEO (Low Earth Orbit)
▪
The communication satellites in this orbit operates at a distance of about 500 to 1200 km above the earth’s surface and
their orbital time period generally ranges between 95 to 120 minutes.
▪ LEO satellites do not stay in fixed position relative to the surface, and are only visible for 15 to 20 minutes each pass.
▪ Using advanced compression schemes, transmission rates of about 2,400 bit/s can be enough for voice communication.
▪ LEOs even provide this bandwidth for mobile terminals with omni-directional antennas using low transmit power in the
range of 1 W.
▪ The biggest problem of the LEO concept is the need for many satellites if global coverage is to be reached.
▪ The short time of visibility with a high elevation requires additional mechanism for connection handover between
different satellites.
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3. MEO (Medium Earth Orbit)
▪ A MEO satellite situates in orbit somewhere between 6,000 km to 20,000 km above the earth's surface.
▪ Medium earth orbit satellites are visible for much longer periods of time than LEO satellites usually between 2 to 8
hours.
▪ MEO satellites have a larger coverage area than Low Earth Orbit satellites.
▪ Using orbits around 10,000km, the system only requires a dozen satellites which is more than a GEO system, but much
less than a LEO system.
▪ Again due to the larger distance to the earth, delay increases to about 70-80 ms.
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Principles of Wave Propagation
▪ Understanding Frequency
▪ The frequency of the wave, or the number of times the signal
makes one complete up and down cycle in 1 second
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▪ Measuring Wavelength
▪ The wavelength is a measure of the physical distance that a wave travels
over one complete cycle. Wavelength is usually designated by the Greek
symbol lambda (λ)
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▪ Understanding RF Power and dB
▪ For an RF signal to be transmitted, propagated through free space, received, and understood with any certainty, it must
be sent with enough strength or energy to make the journey. This strength can be measured as the amplitude, or the
height from the top peak to the bottom peak of the signal’s waveform
▪ The strength of an RF signal is usually measured by its power, in watts (W). For example, a typical AM radio station
broadcasts at a power of 50,000 W; an FM radio station might use 16,000 W. In comparison, a wireless LAN
transmitter usually has a signal strength between 0.1 W (100 mW) and 0.001 W (1 mW).
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▪ The decibel (dB) is a handy function that uses logarithms to compare one
absolute measurement to another. It was originally developed to compare
sound intensity levels, but it applies directly to power levels, too. After each
power value has been converted to the same logarithmic scale, the two
values can be subtracted to find the difference. The following equation is
used to calculate a dB value, where P1 and P2 are the absolute power levels
of two sources:
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Free Space Path Loss
▪ Whenever an RF signal is transmitted from an antenna, its amplitude decreases as it travels through free space. Even if there are no obstacles
in the path between the transmitter and receiver, the signal strength will weaken. This is known as free space path loss.
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▪ Whenever an RF signal is transmitted from an antenna, its amplitude decreases as it travels through free space. Even if there are no obstacles
in the path between the transmitter and receiver, the signal strength will weaken. This is known as free space path loss.
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Modulation
▪ First of all, we need to know why we need modulation ?
▪ Modulation allows us to send a signal over a specific frequency range.
▪ If every signal gets its own frequency range, then we can transmit multiple signals
simultaneously over a single channel, all using different frequency ranges.
▪ Another reason to modulate a signal is to allow the use of a smaller antenna.
▪ A baseband (low frequency) signal would need a huge antenna because in order to be
efficient, the antenna needs to be about 1/10th the length of the wavelength.
▪ Modulation shifts the baseband signal up to a much higher frequency, which has
much smaller wavelengths and allows the use of a much smaller antenna
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Modulation
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Modulation
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Modulation
▪ In all modulation types, there should be what is called a "carrier" wave, which
carries the information signal from source to destination.
▪ This carrier is usually a sinusoidal wave (single frequency signal).
▪ Modulation could be analog or digital depending on the kind of the signal to be
carried.
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AM Modulation
▪ The first and simplest type of modulation is Amplitude Modulation (AM).

It is the first method used to transfer voice information from one place to
another.
▪ The amplitude of a carrier signal is varied as the information signal required to
transmit . While the frequency and phase are constant .
▪ The total power of the transmitted wave varies in amplitude in accordance
with the power of the modulating signal.
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AM Modulation
• Mathematically, the modulated carrier signal s(t) is.
where : Acos(2πfct) : is the carrier signal with amplitude A and carrier

frequency fc,
x(t) : is the modulating signal.
A : is the direct current (dc) portion of the signal.
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AM Modulation
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AM Modulation
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AM Modulation
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AM Modulation
The total bandwidth required for AM can be determined from the bandwidth of
18 the audio signal: BWt = 2 x BWm.
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FM Modulation
• In Frequency modulation (FM) the modulating signal (information)
vary the instantaneous frequency of the carrier .
• The carrier is stretched or squeezed by the information signal, and
the frequency of the carrier is changed according to the value of the
modulating voltage.
• Thus, the signal that is transmitted is of the form .
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FM Modulation
where f : is the peak frequency deviation that is the
farthest away from the original frequency that the FM
signal can be with the condition fΔ << fc.
Figure 1 shows the FM waveforms.

We can define the BW as:
BW=2(b+1)fm
with b= fD/fm;
fm is the maximum modulating frequency used
Where fD is the peak frequency deviation from the original frequency
and fD << fc
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Frequency Modulation (FM)
Message signal
Time
x(t)
Carrier signal Time
FM signal Time
s(t)
The modulated carrier signal s(t) is:
 t 
s(t ) = A cos  (2 f c t + 2 f D  x( )d +  0 
 
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Classification of Signals
▪ Continuous and Discrete Time Signals

▪ Continuous Time Signal: A signal that is specified for every value of time 𝑡 .eg audio and video recordings
▪ Discrete Time Signal: A signal that is specified only at discrete points 𝑜𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇 .
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▪ Analogue and Digital

▪ Analogue Signal: A signal whose amplitude can have values in continuous range (values can take on infinite (uncountable) values
▪ Digital Signal: A signal whose amplitude can take only finite number of values.
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Analog to Digital Converter
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▪ Continuous and Discrete Time Signals

▪ Continuous Time Signal: A signal that is specified for every value of time 𝑡 .eg audio and video recordings
▪ Discrete Time Signal: A signal that is specified only at discrete points 𝑜𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇 .
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▪ Analogue and Digital

▪ Analogue Signal: A signal whose amplitude can have values in continuous range (values can take on infinite (uncountable) values
▪ Digital Signal: A signal whose amplitude can take only finite number of values.
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Analog to Digital Converter
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Digital modulation
• Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying
1 0 1
• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
• very simple
• low bandwidth requirements t
• very susceptible to interference

1 0 1
• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

• needs larger bandwidth t
• Phase Shift Keying (PSK): 1 0 1

• more complex
• robust against interference
t
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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• Amplitude shift keying (ASK) is the simplest form of digital
modulation techniques.
• It is the digital version of amplitude modulation (AM).
• ASK uses a finite number of amplitudes, each assigned a unique
pattern of binary digits.
• Usually, each amplitude encodes an equal number of bits.
• Frequency and phase of the carrier are kept constant .
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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
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Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
• In digital transmission, the phase of the carrier is discretely varied with
respect to a reference phase and according to the data being transmitted.
• Phase shift keying (PSK) is a method of transmitting and receiving digital
signals in which the phase of a transmitted signal is varied to convey
information.
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• For example, when encoding, the phase shift could be 0◦ for
encoding a “0” and 180◦ for encoding a “1,” thus making the
representations for “0” and “1” apart by a total of 180◦.
• This kind of PSK is also called binary phase shift keying (BPSK)
since 1 bit is transmitted in a single modulation symbol.
• Figure 1 shows the waveforms of BPSK.
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Phase Shift Keying
• Phase of the carrier is varied to

represent digital data (binary 0 or 1)
• Amplitude and frequency remains
constant.
• If phase 0 deg to represent 0, 180
deg to represent 1. (2-PSK)
• PSK is not susceptible to noise
degradation that affects ASK or
bandwidth limitations of FSK
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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
• FSK is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital information is
transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier wave.
• The simplest FSK is binary FSK (BFSK).
• BFSK uses a pair of discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s)
information.
• With this scheme, the "1" is called the mark frequency and the "0" is
called the space frequency .
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• Frequency of the carrier is varied to represent digital data (binary
0/1)
• Peak amplitude and phase remain constant.
• Avoid noise interference by looking at frequencies (change of a
signal) and ignoring amplitudes.
• f1 and f2 equally offset by equal opposite amounts to the carrier
freq.
 A cos( 2f1t ) binary1

s(t ) = 
 A cos( 2f 2 t ) binary0
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• Most early telephone-line modems used audio frequency-shift keying to
send and receive data, up to rates of about 1200 bits per second.
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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
• Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is simply a combination of

AM and PSK, in which two carriers out of phase by 90◦ are amplitude
modulated.
• The figure shows an example for 4-QAM signal in which each
transmitted symbol represents 2bits.
• Another example for 8-QAM signal in which each transmitted symbol
represents 2bits.
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4-PSK (QPSK) method
With 4 = 22 different
phases, each phase can
represent 2 bits.
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8-PSK
• We can extend, by varying the the signal by shifts of 45 deg

(instead of 90 deg in 4-PSK)
• With 8 = 23 different phases, each phase can represents 3 bits
(tribit).
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Multiple Access Technique
➢ Multiple access techniques are used to allow a large number of mobile users to share the allocated
spectrum in the most efficient manner. As the spectrum is limited, so the sharing is required to increase the
capacity of cell or over a geographical area by allowing the available bandwidth to be used at the same time
by different users.
➢ There are several different ways to allow access to the channel. These includes mainly the following:
1. Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)
2. Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
3. Code division multiple-access (CDMA)
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Frequency Division Multiple Access
▪ This was the initial multiple-access technique for cellular systems in which each individual user is assigned a pair
of frequencies while making or receiving a call as shown in Figure 8.1. One frequency is used for downlink and
one pair for uplink. This is called frequency division duplexing (FDD).
▪ That allocated frequency pair is not used in the same cell or adjacent cells during the call so as to reduce the co-
channel interference. Even though the user may not be talking, the spectrum cannot be reassigned as long as a
call is in place. Different users can use the same frequency in the same cell except that they must transmit at
different times.
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▪ Separate spectrum into non-overlapping frequency bands
▪ Assign a certain frequency to a transmission channel between a sender and a receiver
▪ Different users share use of the medium by transmitting on non-overlapping frequency bands at the same time
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Time Division Multiple Access
▪ In digital systems, continuous transmission is not required because users do not use the allotted bandwidth all
the time. In such cases, TDMA is a complimentary access technique to FDMA.
▪ Global Systems for Mobile communications (GSM) uses the TDMA technique.
▪ In TDMA, the entire bandwidth is available to the user but only for a finite period of time.
▪ In most cases the available bandwidth is divided into fewer channels compared to FDMA and the users are
allotted time slots during which they have the entire channel bandwidth at their disposal
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▪ Digitized info from several sources are multiplexed in time and transmitted over a single communication channel
▪ The communication channel is divided into frames of length 𝑇𝑓
𝑇𝑓
▪ Each frame is further segmented into N subinterval called slots, each with duration 𝑇𝑠 = , where N is the number of
𝑁
users
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Code Division Multiplexing
▪ All users can use same carrier frequency and may transmit simultaneously
▪ Each user has own unique access spreading codeword which is approximately orthogonal to other users
codewords
▪ CDMA used 3G standards
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Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
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Simplex
Duplexing Modes
▪ Information is transmitted in one and only one pre-assigned direction
Half Duplex:
▪ Transmission of information in only one direction at a time
▪ Uses simplex operation at both end
Full Duplex
▪ Simultaneous transmission and reception of info in both directions
▪ In general, duplex operation require 2 frequencies
▪ May be achieved by simplex operation of 2 or more simplex at both ends
Duplexing can be implemented in either Frequency or Time domain

▪ Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) & Time Division Duplexing (TDD)
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Duplexing Modes
▪ Simplex: one way communication (e.g., broadcast AM)

▪ Duplex: two-way communication
▪ TDD: time division duplex n, Users take turns on the channel
▪ FDD: frequency division duplex,
▪ Users get two channels one for each direction of communication n For example one channel for uplink
(mobile to base station) another channel for downlink (base station to mobile)
▪ Half-duplex in 802.11, a device cannot simultaneously be transmitting and receiving
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Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
▪ Multiplexes the Tx and Rx in one time slot in which transmission and reception is on 2 different frequencies
▪ It provides simultaneous transmission channels for mobile/base station • i.e. each channel has a Forward and a
Reverse frequency
▪ At the base station, separate transmit and receive antennas are used to accommodate the two separate channels
▪ At the mobile unit, a single antenna (with duplexer) is used to enable transmission and reception
▪ To facilitate FDD, sufficient frequency isolation of the transmit and receive frequencies is necessary
▪ FDD is used exclusively in analog mobile radio systems
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Time Division Duplexing (TDD)
▪ Multiplexes the Tx & Rx in one frequency at different time slots
▪ A portion of the time is used to transmit and a portion is used to receive
▪ TDD is used, for example, in a simple 2-way radio where a button is pressed to talk and released to listen
▪ TDD is only possible for digital transmission
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Multiple Access Technique
➢ Multiple access techniques are used to allow a large number of mobile users to share the allocated
spectrum in the most efficient manner. As the spectrum is limited, so the sharing is required to increase the
capacity of cell or over a geographical area by allowing the available bandwidth to be used at the same time
by different users.
➢ There are several different ways to allow access to the channel. These includes mainly the following:
1. Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)
2. Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
3. Code division multiple-access (CDMA)
4
Frequency Division Multiple Access
▪ This was the initial multiple-access technique for cellular systems in which each individual user is assigned a pair
of frequencies while making or receiving a call as shown in Figure 8.1. One frequency is used for downlink and
one pair for uplink. This is called frequency division duplexing (FDD).
▪ That allocated frequency pair is not used in the same cell or adjacent cells during the call so as to reduce the co-
channel interference. Even though the user may not be talking, the spectrum cannot be reassigned as long as a
call is in place. Different users can use the same frequency in the same cell except that they must transmit at
different times.
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▪ Separate spectrum into non-overlapping frequency bands
▪ Assign a certain frequency to a transmission channel between a sender and a receiver
▪ Different users share use of the medium by transmitting on non-overlapping frequency bands at the same time
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▪ In digital systems, continuous transmission is not required because users do not use the allotted bandwidth all
the time. In such cases, TDMA is a complimentary access technique to FDMA.
▪ Global Systems for Mobile communications (GSM) uses the TDMA technique.
▪ In TDMA, the entire bandwidth is available to the user but only for a finite period of time.
▪ In most cases the available bandwidth is divided into fewer channels compared to FDMA and the users are
allotted time slots during which they have the entire channel bandwidth at their disposal
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▪ Digitized info from several sources are multiplexed in time and transmitted over a single communication channel
▪ The communication channel is divided into frames of length 𝑇𝑓
𝑇𝑓
▪ Each frame is further segmented into N subinterval called slots, each with duration 𝑇𝑠 = , where N is the number of
𝑁
users
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▪ All users can use same carrier frequency and may transmit simultaneously
▪ Each user has own unique access spreading codeword which is approximately orthogonal to other users
codewords
▪ CDMA used 3G standards
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Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
▪ unique “code” assigned to each user; i.e., code set
partitioning
• all users share same frequency, but each user has own “chipping”
sequence (i.e., code) to encode data
• allows multiple users to “coexist” and transmit simultaneously with
minimal interference (if codes are “orthogonal”)
▪ encoding: inner product: (original data) X (chipping sequence)
▪ decoding: summed inner-product: (encoded data) X (chipping
sequence)
17
Wireless and Mobile
CDMA encode/decode
channel output Zi,m
Zi,m= di.cm
data d0 = 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
d1 = -1
bits -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
sender 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 slot 1 slot 0

code channel channel
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
output output
slot 1 slot 0
M
Di = S Zi,m.cm
m=1
M
receiver received
-1 -1 -1
1
-1
1 1 1 1 1 1
-1
1
-1 -1 -1
d0 = 1
input d1 = -1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 slot 1 slot 0
code channel channel
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
output output
slot 1 slot 0
… but this isn’t really useful yet!

18
Wireless and Mobile
CDMA: two-sender interference
channel sums together
transmissions by sender
Sender 1 1 and 2
Sender 2
using same code as sender

1, receiver recovers sender
1’s original data from
summed channel data!
… now that’s useful!
19
Wireless and Mobile
20
21
22
23
24
Simplex
Duplexing Modes
▪ Information is transmitted in one and only one pre-assigned direction
Half Duplex:
▪ Transmission of information in only one direction at a time
▪ Uses simplex operation at both end
Full Duplex
▪ Simultaneous transmission and reception of info in both directions
▪ In general, duplex operation require 2 frequencies
▪ May be achieved by simplex operation of 2 or more simplex at both ends
Duplexing can be implemented in either Frequency or Time domain

▪ Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) & Time Division Duplexing (TDD)
25
Duplexing Modes
▪ Simplex: one way communication (e.g., broadcast AM)

▪ Duplex: two-way communication
▪ TDD: time division duplex n, Users take turns on the channel
▪ FDD: frequency division duplex,
▪ Users get two channels one for each direction of communication n For example one channel for uplink
(mobile to base station) another channel for downlink (base station to mobile)
▪ Half-duplex in 802.11, a device cannot simultaneously be transmitting and receiving
26
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
▪ Multiplexes the Tx and Rx in one time slot in which transmission and reception is on 2 different frequencies
▪ It provides simultaneous transmission channels for mobile/base station • i.e. each channel has a Forward and a
Reverse frequency
▪ At the base station, separate transmit and receive antennas are used to accommodate the two separate channels
▪ At the mobile unit, a single antenna (with duplexer) is used to enable transmission and reception
▪ To facilitate FDD, sufficient frequency isolation of the transmit and receive frequencies is necessary
▪ FDD is used exclusively in analog mobile radio systems
27
Time Division Duplexing (TDD)
▪ Multiplexes the Tx & Rx in one frequency at different time slots
▪ A portion of the time is used to transmit and a portion is used to receive
▪ TDD is used, for example, in a simple 2-way radio where a button is pressed to talk and released to listen
▪ TDD is only possible for digital transmission
28
Channel Coding
29

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2023-2024

Mobile and Sensor Networks

Dr. Ahmed Abdelreheem

▪ Module 01: Introduction and history of wireless networks

▪ Module 02: Wireless Physical and Mac Layers

▪ Module 03: Mobile Network Layer

▪ Module 04: Cellular Technology Concepts and Standards

▪ Module 05: Case Studies: WLAN and Sensor Networks

▪ Module 01: Introduction and history of wireless networks

▪ Module 02: Wireless Physical and Mac Layers

▪ Module 03: Mobile Network Layer

▪ Module 04: Cellular Technology Concepts and Standards

▪ Module 05: Case Studies: WLAN and Sensor Networks

▪ Example of typical communication systems

national or global ISP

home network content

Input signal output signal Message

Mobile and Sensor Networks

Dr. Ahmed Abdelreheem

▪ Module 01: Introduction and history of wireless networks

▪ Module 02: Wireless Physical and Mac Layers

▪ Module 03: Mobile Network Layer

▪ Module 04: Cellular Technology Concepts and Standards

▪ Module 05: Case Studies: WLAN and Sensor Networks

Mobile and Sensor Networks

Dr. Ahmed Abdelreheem

➢ Stations (STA):Stations comprises of all devices and equipment that

➢ Each station has a wireless network interface controller.

➢ Basic Service Set (BSS): A basic service set is a group of stations

▪ GEO (Geostationary Earth Orbit) at about 36,000km

▪ LEO (Low Earth Orbit) at about 500-1500km above the

▪ MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) or ICO (Intermediate Circular

▪ HEO (Highly Elliptical Orbit)

▪ To ensure constant communication, the satellite must move at the same

Disadvantages of GEO satellite

Mobile and Sensor Networks

Dr. Ahmed Abdelreheem

carries the information signal from source to destination.

▪ This carrier is usually a sinusoidal wave (single frequency signal).

▪ Modulation could be analog or digital depending on the kind of the signal to be

▪ The first and simplest type of modulation is Amplitude Modulation (AM).

where : Acos(2πfct) : is the carrier signal with amplitude A and carrier

Figure 1 shows the FM waveforms.

Carrier signal Time

The modulated carrier signal s(t) is:

Mobile and Sensor Networks

Dr. Ahmed Abdelreheem

▪ Continuous and Discrete Time Signals

▪ Analogue and Digital

Mobile and Sensor Networks

Dr. Ahmed Abdelreheem

▪ Continuous and Discrete Time Signals

▪ Analogue and Digital

• very susceptible to interference

• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):

• Phase Shift Keying (PSK): 1 0 1

• Phase of the carrier is varied to

 A cos( 2f1t ) binary1

• Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is simply a combination of

• We can extend, by varying the the signal by shifts of 45 deg

Mobile and Sensor Networks

Dr. Ahmed Abdelreheem

1. Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)