Anti-Inflammatory drugs

A) H1 Antihistamines
Inverse agonist of H1 histamine receptors
Produces a reversible, competitive inhibition of histamine action
Indications:

Chronic Pruritus of Short-term Pruritus Anaphylactic Shock Atopy

undetermined cause tolerant of GCC
treatment
Urticaria, dermatitis, Upper respiratory Laminitis in horses Motion sickness
and insect tract inflammation and cattle
bites/stings
H1 Antihistamines antagonize H-1 receptors to produce different therapeutic and adverse
effects. First generation antihistamine can easily cross the blood-brain barrier into the
central nervous system unlike 2nd generation drugs which selectively bind to peripheral
histamine receptors. These crossing of the 1st generation drugs cause the sedative side
effect.
First Generation drugs:
Chlorpheniramine maleate, Diphenhydramine HCl, Dimenhydrinate, Clemastine,
Hydroxyzine, Meclizine*, Mepyramine, Pyrilamine maleate, Trimeprazine,
Tripelennamine Cyproheptadine

*has anti-motion sickness effect

Second Generation drugs:

Astemizole, Bilastine, Cetirizine, Desloratadine, Fexofenadine, Levocetirizine,
Loratadine, Rupatadine, Terfenadine

B) Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)

MOA: Inhibition of cyclooxygenase enzyme prevents conversion of arachidonic acid into thromboxanes,
prostaglandins, and prostacyclins

DRUG INDICATION/ SIDE CONTRAINDICATIONS PRECAUTIONS OTHER

CLINICAL EFFECTS NOTES
USE
Aspirin As analgesic, GI upset and Hypersensitivity to the drug, Has long half-life Prototype of
antipyretic, anti- irritation patients with GI bleeding, in cats the salicylate
inflammatory, patients with asthma, bleeding drugs
& antiplatelet disorders, renal insufficiency Has low grade
effects teratogenic effects Non-selective
COX inhibitor
Extra label use in Could affect labor
treatment of of pregnant patients
embolism in
heartworm Neonates are prone
to toxicity
 treatment (further
studies needed)
Phenylbutazone For lameness in Horses: oral & GI Hypersensitivity to the drug, Do not give IM or Used
horses ulceration, preexisting hematologic or SC primarily in
diarrhea, bone marrow abnormalities, horses
analgesic/anti- hypoalbuminemia, preexisting GI ulcers, food IA injection could
inflammatory, anorexia, renal producing animals cause seizures Non-selective
antipyretic in effects COX inhibitor
dogs, cattle, and Dogs: GI
swine ulcerations, Na &
H2O retention,
diminished renal
blood flow, blood
dyscrasia
Flunixin Pain management Anaphylaxis after Cats Patients with GI Veterinary
meglumine of rapid IV ulcers, renal, use only
musculoskeletal administration Hypersensitivity to the drug hepatic, or
origin in horses, hematologic Very potent
cattle and swine. Pain & Swelling diseases COX inhibitor
Also used in dogs after IM injection
in some If first dose is
countries. ineffective,
subsequent
Visceral pain doses would
associated with also be
colic ineffective.

Surgical pain

endotoxic shock
Carprofen Pain management GI upset may Patients with bleeding Gastric patients Currently
for dogs and occur but unlikely disorders being studied
other small Patients with for its anti-
animals May cause hepatic preexisting chronic neoplastic
failure disease effects
Anti-
inflammatory repeated doses in COX-2
agent in dogs cats may cause specificity
vomiting depends on
species and
dose
Naproxen For lameness in Uncommon in Patients with GI ulcers Patients with Commonly
horses associated horses history of GI ulcers not used in
with myositis and hypersensitivity to the drug or heart failure dogs since the
other soft tissue GI ulcerations and risks
diseases of perforations Patients with hematologic, outweighs the
musculoskeletal renal, or hepatic disease benefits
origin Renal effects
Non-selective
Hepatic effects COX inhibitor
Piroxicam Pain and Significant GI Hypersensitivity to the drug Patients with Should only
inflammation ulceration and and other NSAIDs cardiac conditions be used if
relief in dogs bleeding in dogs benefits
with DJD outweighs the
Renal papillary potential risks
Used primarily in necrosis in dogs in patients
 dogs as adjunct with history
treatment of GI effects in cats of GI ulcers
transitional cell and bleeding
carcinoma renal toxicity for disorders
prolonged use in
cats Non-selective
COX inhibitor
Tepoxalin Pain and GI and renal Hypersensitivity to the drug patients with COX and
inflammation due problems hepatic, LOX inhibitor
to osteoarthritis cardiovascular or
in dogs renal conditions Being studied
as adjunct
therapy for
allergic
conditions in
dogs
Deracoxib Post-operative GI, urinary, Hypersensitivity to the drug Patients with GI, May be useful
pain in dogs hematologic, hepatic, and renal as alternative
hepatic problems dysfunctions to piroxicam
Osteoarthritis in as an adjunct
dogs treatment for
transitional
cell
carcinoma

will
predominantly
cause COX-2
inhibition at
low dose
Firocoxib Post-operative vomiting and Hypersensitivity to the drug Consider washout Believed to be
pain in dogs anorexia are seen and other NSAIDs period if changing predominantly
in some patients to or from another a COX-2
Osteoarthritis in but full scope of Patients with hematologic, NSAID inhibitor at
dogs & horses adverse effects are renal, or hepatic disease therapeutic
still being doses
antipyretic determined and
studied

Robenacoxib Analgesic and GI upset Hypersensitivity to the drug Patients with GI, Believed to be
anti- and other NSAIDs hepatic, and renal predominantly
inflammatory in dysfunctions a COX-2
dogs and cats Patients with hepatic disease inhibitor in
cats and dogs

Limited
clinical
experience
Meloxicam Osteoarthritis in GI upset Hypersensitivity to the drug Has long half-life Can be used
dogs in dogs as a low cost
elevated BUN and analgesic in
Post-operative post-treatment dehorning of
pain in cats anemia in cats calves
 Tolfenamic Chronic pain and Vomiting and Hypersensitivity to the drug Not recommended Potent COX
acid inflammation in diarrhea after oral for use pre- inhibitor
dogs administration Patients with hematologic, surgically
renal, or hepatic disease
acute pain and
inflammation in
cats and cattle
Acetminophen Oral analgesic hematologic, Toxic in cats and ferrets Dogs cannot N-
for dogs and renal, or hepatic metabolize well acetylcysteine
other small effects unlike with as antidote for
mammals humans. Caution toxicity
must be observed
Chronic pain can be used
management for with codeine,
dogs with renal hydrocodone,
dysfunction or tramadol

Antipyretic

C) Glucocorticoids (GCCs)
INDICATION:
As anti-inflammatory
Allergic reactions, asthma, inflammation of the musculoskeletal system, conjunctivitis,
uveitis, toxemia, inflammatory bowel disease, laminitis
As immunosuppressant
Lymphocytic neoplasms, auto-immune diseases, prevention of transplant rejection
Corticosteroid-replacement therapy
Addison’s disease
MOA:
Genomic mechanism:
GCCs bind to GCC receptors resulting to the formation of the activated glucocorticoid
receptor-glucocorticoid complex thereby translocating the nucleus.
The complex reversibly binds to several specific DNA sites resulting in transactivation
and transpression of a large variety of gene transcription.
Suppression of synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines results from the tranpression of
transcription factors.
Activation of the synthesis of anti-inflammatory cytokines is caused by the
transactivation of transcription factors.
Non-genomic mechanism:
 GCCs bind to membrane-associated glucocorticoid receptors of target cells such as T-
lymphocytes resulting in impairment of receptor signaling and immune response of T-
lymphocytes. The calcium and sodium cycling of the cell is also affected.

Adverse effects:
Musculoskeletal effects, Metabolic and Endocrine effects, Risk of infections due to
immunosuppression, Cardiovascular effects, Dermatologic effects, Ophthalmologic effects,
Gastrointestinal effects, Neuropsychiatric effects
Contraindications:
Systemic use:
Systemic fungal infections, Concomitant live or live attenuated virus vaccination,
idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP)
Topical use:
Bacterial, viral, or fungal infections

Examples:
Prednisolone
Dexamethasone
Betamethasone
Fluoromethalone
Loteprednol
Rimeloxolone

_____________________________________________________________________________________
ANTIBACTERIALS
Betalactams
MOA: Bind to essential penicillin-binding proteins, enzymes that are essential for peptidoglycan
cross-linking, to disrupt bacterial cell-wall formation
A. Penicillins
a. INDICATIONS: Gram+ and Gram- bacterial infections
b. ADVERSE EFFECTS: GI effects, Neurotoxicity with very high doses
c. CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivity to beta-lactams
d. EXAMPLES:
i. Natural PCNs
1. Penicillin G
2. Penicillin V
ii. Aminopenicillins
1. Amoxicillin
2. Ampicillin
 iii. Beta-lactamase resistant
1. Clavulanic acid
2. Sulbactam
3. Tazobactam
iv. Anti-staphylococcal PCNs
1. Oxacillin
2. Cloxacillin
3. Dicloxacillin
4. Methicillin
5. Nafcillin
v. Extended spectrum PCNs
1. Piperacillin
2. Ticarcillin
3. Carbenicillin

B. Cephalosporins and Cephamycins

a. INDICATIONS:
i. 1st generation: Great effects to Gram+ bacteria with moderate effects to
Gram- bacteria
ii. 2nd generation: General effects on both Gram+ and Gram- bacteria
iii. 3rd generation: Greater effects on Gram- bacteria but has substantial effects
on Staphyloccus sp. and Streptococcus sp.
iv. 4th generation: broad spectrum antibacterial
v. 5th generation:
b. ADVERSE EFFECTS: Vomiting after oral administration, GI upset
c. CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivity to beta-lactams
d. EXAMPLES:
i. 1st gen
1. Cephalexin
2. Cefadroxil
3. Cephalothin
4. Cefazolin
5. Cephapirin
nd
ii. 2 gen
1. Cefaclor
2. Cefoxitin
3. Cefuroxime
4. Cefonicid
5. Cefprozil
6. Cefmetazole
7. Cefotetan
8. Cefamandole
9. Ceforanide
rd
iii. 3 gen
1. Ceftiofur
2. Cefotaxime
3. Ceftazidime
 4. Cefoperazone
5. Moxalactam
6. Ceftriaxone
7. Cefixime
8. Cefpodoxime
9. Cefovecin
iv. 4th gen
1. Cefepime
v. 5TH gen
1. Ceftaroline

C. Carbapenems
a. INDICATIONS: Last resort for infections involving Gram+, Gram-, anaerobes, and
other drug resistant bacteria
b. EXAMPLES:
i. Doripenem
ii. Ertapenem
iii. Imipenem/Cilastatin
iv. Meropenem
c. Other notes
Not for veterinary use.

D. Monobactams
a. INDICATIONS: treatment for gram- bacterial meningitis
b. ADVERSE EFFECTS: GI distress
c. CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivity to macrolides
d. EXAMPLES:
i. aztreonam

Cell Wall inhibitors

A. Glycopeptides
MOA: Glycopeptides attach to the end of the peptidoglycan precursor units thereby
preventing them from being laid down into the matrix thus inhibiting cell wall synthesis.
INDICATIONS: treatment for Gram+ bacterial infections including methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis

Drug Adverse Contraindications Precautions Other notes

effects
Vancomycin nephrotoxicity Should only be Patients May cause
used as a last with severe tissue
ototoxicity resort treatment decreased damage if
renal given IM,
GI effects if Hypersensitivity to function SC, or IP.
given orally the drug
Not included
 in the OIE
list for
veterinary
use
Teicoplanin Fever Hypersensitivity to Patients May be
the drug with injected via
maculopapular decreased rapid IV
or renal injection
erythematous function
rash
Pregnant
nephrotoxicity and
lactating
ototoxicity patients
Avoparcin Hypersensitivity to Was banned
the drug in Europe as
an antibiotic
growth
promoter
because of
residue and
resistance
issues

B. Bacitracin
MOA: Prevents the final dephosphorylation step in the phospholipid carrier cycle thereby
interfering with the mucopeptide transfer to the growing cell wall.
INDICATIONS:
Intramammary treatment of mastitis in lactating cows
Primarily used as treatment for Gram+ bacterial infections, a few Gram- bacterial
infections and some spirochetes

CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivity to the drug

ADVERSE EFFECTS: Nephrotoxicity if given parenterally
OTHER NOTES:
Poor oral absorption
Usually combined with neomycin & polymyxins to enhance efficacy

C. Fosfomycin
MOA: Irreversibly inhibits phosphenol pyruvate transferase to prevent microbial cell wall
peptidoglycan synthesis
INDICATIONS:
 multi-drug resistant urinary tract infections in dogs
treatment of E. coli and Salmonella spp. In broilers
treatment of a wide variety of bacterial infections in pigs
ADVERSE EFFECTS: Diarrhea, Kidney problems in cats
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Nephrotoxic in young cats
OTHER NOTES: Has low toxicity
D. Polymyxins
MOA: Binds to LPS and causes disruption of the cell membrane
INDICATIONS: Gram- bacterial infections except Proteus sp. and Serratia sp.

CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivity to the drug

30s Ribosomal subunit antibiotics
MOA: Binds to specific sites on the 30s subunit to interfere with protein synthesis
AMININOGLYCOSIDES
INDICATIONS: primarily effective against Gram- organisms such as Pseudomonas,
Proteus, and Enterobacter
ADVERSE EFFECTS: ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity when used systemically
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivity to the drug, renal patients
EXAMPLES:
Streptomycin, Dihydrostreptomycin, Kanamycin, Neomycin, Apramycin, Tobramycin,
Framycetin, Paromomycin, Gentamicin, Amikacin
SPECTINOMYCIN
INDICATIONS: relatively broad spectrum drug, that works greater on Gram- bacteria,
used primarily in food producing animals
ADVERSE EFFECTS: neuromuscular blockade
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivity to the drug
OTHER NOTES: Bacteriostatic, used in combination with lincomycin
TETRACYCLINES
INDICATIONS: broad-spectrum antibiotics used to treat a variety of bacterial infections
such as Borrelia recurrentis, Mycobacterium marinum, Mycoplasma pneumoniae,
Staphylococcus aureus (including methicillin-resistant S. aureus [MRSA]), Vibrio
vulnificus, and vancomycin-resistant enterococcus (VRE)
ADVERSE EFFECTS: GI upset, photosensitivity, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivity to the drug
 EXAMPLES:
tetracycline, chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, demeclocycline, lymecycline,
methacycline, minocycline, rolitetracycline, doxycycline, ervacycline,
sarecycline, omadacycline
OTHER NOTES: Tetracyclines are not dialyzable.
50s Ribosomal subunit antibiotics
MOA: bind to 50S ribosomal subunits to inhibit elongation of peptide chains
Macrolides
INDICATIONS: treatment for Rhodococcus respiratory tract infections in foals,
respiratory tract infections of cattle and swine, liver abscesses and mastitis in cattle, foot
rot in sheep, and various infections in dogs and cats
ADVERSE EFFECTS: dependent on animal species, antimicrobial-induced colitis in
adult horses, severe diarrhea in calves via oral administration,

CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivity to macrolides and related drugs, lactating

patients
EXAMPLES: Erythromycin, Tylosin, Tilmicosin, Tildipirosin, Tulathromycin,
Azithromycin, Clarithromycin, Spiramycin, Josamycin, Kitasamycin
OTHER NOTES: practice withdrawal periods for dairy animas
Lincosamides
INDICATIONS: Treatment for infections concerning susceptible gram-positive
organisms (streptococci and staphylococci) and anaerobic pathogen, treatment for post-
surgical orthopedic infections
ADVERSE EFFECTS: GI disturbances
CONTRAINDICATIONS: horses, guinea pigs, hamsters, rabbits, chinchillas, and
ruminants
EXAMPLES: Lincomycin, Clindamycin, Pirlimycin
OTHER NOTES: have additive neuromuscular effects with anesthetic agents
Pleuromutilins
INDICATIONS: Treatment for Gram+ bacteria such as streptococci and staphylococci,
anaerobic bacteria and mycoplasmata
ADVERSE EFFECTS: antimicrobial-induced colitis in adult horses, myotoxicity in
poultry, cattle, and swine when combined with ionophores
CONTRAINDICATIONS: horses
EXAMPLES: Tiamulin, Valnemulin
 OTHER NOTES: Used as feed additive
Phenicols
INDICATIONS: Treatment for Salmonellosis and Bacteroides sepsis, Florfenicol is used
as treatment for bovine respiratory disease
ADVERSE EFFECTS: blood dyscrasias, bone marrow suppression
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Food animals
EXAMPLES: Chloramphenicol, Thiamphenicol, Florfenicol
OTHER NOTES: Has bitter taste, Florfenicol &Thiamphenicl have less risks of blood
dyscrasias
Streptogramins
INDICATIONS: For Gram+ bacterial infections, vancomycin-resistant staphylococci
and Enterococcus faecium infections
ADVERSE EFFECTS: Diarrhea, Vomiting, Pain at injection site
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivity to the drugs
EXAMPLES:
Grp A: Virginiamycin M, Dalfopristin
Grp B: Virginiamycin S, Quinupristin
OTHER NOTES: Grps A and B when used alone only produce bacteriostatic effects but
when combined together, produces bactericidal effects
Linezolid
INDICATIONS: Treatment for infections concerning Staphylococcus aureus (including
MSSA & MRSA strains), Streptococcus pneumoniae (including multidrug-resistant
strains), vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium
ADVERSE EFFECTS: Anemia, Thrombocytopenia, Diarrhea, Nausea, Hypoglycemia
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersentivity to the drug
Inhibitors of nucleic acid formation (DNA and RNA)
Quinolones & Fluoroquinolones
Quinolones
MOA: Inhibit the activity of DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV
INDICATIONS: treatment of local and systemic infections located in tough-to-penetrate
tissues
ADVERSE EFFECTS: Retinal degeneration in cats, neurotoxicity, embryonic toxicity,
maternal toxicity
 CONTRAINDICATIONS: pregnant patients, patients with eye conditions
EXAMPLES: Nalidixic acid, Pradofloxacin, Flumequine
Fluoroquinolones
INDICATIONS: Treatment for urinary tract infections and soft tissue infections in dogs
and cats, and colibacillosis in poultry
treatment for established gram-negative corneal infections
ADVERSE EFFECTS: Formation of crystalline precipitates, phantom-itching,
embryonic toxicity, maternal toxicity
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivity to the drug class and related drugs,
Pregnant patients
EXAMPLES: Ciprofloxacin, Enrofloxacin, Gatifloxacin, Levofloxacin, Marbofloxacin,
Moxifloxacin, Norfloxacin, Ofloxacin, Trovafloxacin
Rifamycin
MOA: Inhibits the DNA-dependent RNA polymerase
INDICATIONS: For infection concerning Gram+ organisms, some mycobacteria, a few strains
of Gram- bacteria
ADVERSE EFFECTS: GI disturbances, hepatic function abnormalities
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Food animals
EXAMPLES: Rifampin, Rifamycin
Inhibitors of metabolism
Sulfonamides & Potentiated Sulfonamides
MOA: Prevents synthesis of folic acid by competitive inhibition
INDICATIONS: Treatment of actinobacillosis, coccidiosis, mastitis, metritis, colibacillosis,
pododermatitis, polyarthritis, respiratory infections, and toxoplasmosis
ADVERSE EFFECTS: Crystalluria with hematuria, bone marrow depression, photosensitization
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivity
EXAMPLES: sulfamethazine, sulfamerazine, sulfadiazine, sulfabromomethazine,
sulfaethoxypyridazine, sulfadimethoxine
Potentiated sulfonamides
trimethoprim, methoprim, ormetoprim, aditoprim, pyrimethamine

Other Antibacterial Agents

Nitrofurans
 MOA: basic mechanism of action has not yet been clarified
INDICATIONS: Treatment against both Gram+ and Gram- bacteria, including Salmonella and
Giardia spp, trichomonads, amebae, and some coccidial species
ADVERSE EFFECTS: carcinogenic effects
CONTRAINDICATIONS: food animals
EXAMPLES: Nitrofurantoin, Nitrofurazone, Furazolidone
OTHER NOTES: administered either orally or topically, no nitrofuran is effective systemically

Nitroimidazoles
MOA: Reduction of the drug in anaerobic conditions forms a compound that binds to the DNA of
bacteria. The binding results to the loss of the helical structure of the DNA causing breakage of
the strand and loss of function.
INDICATIONS: Treatment of trichomoniasis, giardiasis, and amebiasis, treatment for bacterial
infections concerning obligate anaerobic bacteria
ADVERSE EFFECTS: neurotoxicity in dogs at high doses, anorexia and salivation in equines
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivity
EXAMPLES: Metronidazole

Aminocoumarins
MOA: inhibits DNA and RNA syntheses
INDICATIONS: Treatment for Gram+ bacterial infections
EXAMPLES: Novobiocin, Clorobiocin
OTHER NOTES: potential treatment to melioidosis
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Emetics
INDICATIONS: For emptying of the stomach, Expulsion of non-corrosive poisons
CONTRAINDICATIONS: ingestion of corrosive substances, blockage in the esophagus or oral cavity
Centrally-acting
MOA: Causes excitation of vomiting center thru stimulation of the CRTZ
ADVERSE EFFECTS: CNS depression, prolonged emesis
EXAMPLES: Xylazine, Apomorphine
 OTHER NOTES: Apomorphine causes CNS stimulation in cats

Locally-acting
MOA: Causes irritation to the GIT tract (Pharynx)
ADVERSE EFFECTS: Prolonged emesis, extensive irritation of the stomach
EXAMPLES: 3% Hydrogen peroxide
OTHER NOTES: may cause aspiration pneumonia
Anti-Emetics
INDICATIONS: Vomiting due to infectious agents and metabolic disorders, motion sickness
CONTRAINDICATIONS: ingestion of non-corrosive poisons, hypersensitivity
Antihistamines
MOA: Blocks H1 receptors in the CRTZ
EXAMPLES: Diphenhydramine, Dimenhydrinate, Promethazine, Meclizine
Phenothiazine tranquilizers
MOA: Blocks D2 receptors in the CRTZ
EXAMPLES: Chlorpromazine, Prochlorperazine
Serotonin receptor antagonists
MOA: Inhibits 5HT3 receptors in the CRTZ
EXAMPLES: Ondansetron & Dolasetron, Granisteron
` Metoclopramide
MOA: D2 receptor antagonist
Maropitant Citrate
MOA: NK-1 receptor antagonist

Anti-ulcers
INDICATIONS: Rumen acidosis, hyperacidity, GI ulcers
Antacids
MOA: Lowers the concentration of HCl in the stomach
ADVERSE EFFECTS: flatulence, diarrhea, vomiting, stomach cramps
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Renal failure, Heart failure, Edema
EXAMPLES: Al hydroxide, Mg hydroxide, Ca carbonate
 H2 receptor antagonists
MOA: Regulates HCl production
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivity
EXAMPLES: Cimetidine, Ranitidine, Famotidine, Nizatidine
OTHER NOTES: Famotidine= most potent, Cimetidine= least potent
Proton pump inhibitors
MOA: Binds irreversibly to proton-pumps
ADVERSE EFFECTS: constipation, sedation, CNS depression
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivity
EXAMPLES: Omeprazole, Lansoprazole, Pantoprazole, Rabeprazole

Synthetic prostaglandins
MOA: Regulates HCl secretion by the parietal cells and stimulates mucus secretion
ADVERSE EFFECTS: vomiting, diarrhea, flatulence
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivity
EXAMPLES: Misoprostol
Gastromucosal protectants
MOA: covers the ulcers with protective substance
EXAMPLES: Sucralfate
Anti-diarrheals
INDICATIONS: Non-infectious diarrhea
CONTRAINDICATIONS: infectious diarrhea, bloody or mucoid stool
Narcotic analgesics
MOA: Inhibits the release of acetylcholine prostaglandins to slow down intestinal
motility to allow for longer time for water and electrolyte absorption
ADVERSE EFFECTS: Flatulence, abdominal cramps, constipation, urinary retention
EXAMPLES: Diphenoxylate, Loperamide, Paregoric
Anticholinergics
MOA: inhibit intestinal smooth muscle depolarization at the muscarinic receptor
ADVERSE EFFECTS: dizziness, drowsiness
EXAMPLES: Aminopentamide, Hyoscine, Propantheline, Clidinium, N-
butylscopolammonium bromide
 Adsorbents/Protectants
MOA: Binds toxins or coats the intestinal mucosa
ADVERSE EFFECTS: May interact with other drugs
CONTRAINDICATIONS:
EXAMPLES: Kaolin/pectin, Bismuth subsalicylate, Activated charcoal
Laxatives
Osmotic agents
MOA: attracts water into the intestinal lumen to soften stool
EXAMPLES: MgOH, Lactulose
Irritants/Stimulants
MOA: Causes irritation to the intestinal mucosa to promote peristalsis
EXAMPLES: Emodin, Castor Oil, Bisacodyl
Bulk-forming
MOA: Increases the weight and size of stool to better facilitate movement
EXAMPLES: Psyllium, Bran, Methylcellulose, Metamucil
Lubricants
Mineral oil, Petrolatum
Stool softeners
dioctyl sodium sulfoccinate, dioctyl calcium sulfoccinate
Carminatives/antifoaming agents
MOA: Produces a surfactant effect to break down froth
INDICATIONS: Frothy bloat
CONTRAINDICATION: Hypersensitivity
EXAMPLE: Poloxalene
Probiotics
MOA: repopulation of gut microflora with cultured substance containing live microorganisms
INDICATIONS: prevention of infections

Positive Inotropes
INDICATIONS: Cardiogenic shock, septic shock, heart failure, bradycardia, pulmonary hypertension
 A. Cardiac glycosides
MOA: Promote intracellular retention of Na+ to increase intracellular Ca2+ concentrations
ADVERSE EFFECTS: GI upset, fatigue, headaches, seizures, coma, heart block,
arrhythmia
CONTRAINIDICATIONS: Obstructed ventricular flow, renal failure, liver failure, heart
block, circulatory shock
EXAMPLES: Digoxin, Digitalis, Digitoxin
B. Bipyridine compounds
MOA: Inhibits phosphodiesterase to increase cardiac cAMP levels
ADVERSE EFFECTS: cardiac arrhythmias, hepatic effects, diarrhea
CONTRAINDICATIONS: liver patients
EXAMPLES: amrinone, milrinone
OTHER NOTES: amrinone is incompatible with dextrose and furosemide, milrinone
incompatible with furosemide
C. Beta-adrenergic agonists
INDICATIONS: hypotension,
ADVERSE EFFECTS: hypertension, reflex bradycardia, piloerection, urinary retention
EXAMPLES: dopamine, dobutamine
OTHER NOTES: Do not use more than 2-3 days
Vasodilators
For hypertension, CHF
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors
Regulates production of angiotensin II
For hypertension, CHF
May cause renal problems
Ex. Captopril, Enalapril maleate, Benazepril
Angiotensin receptor blockers
Block angiotensin II receptors
Ex. Losartan, irbesartan
Antiarrhythmic drugs
Class I
MOA: Inhibits the Na+ and K+ channels on atrial and ventricular myocyte cells
IA

Drug Indications Adverse effects Contraindication Other notes

Disopyramide Prevention and Dry mucus Patient with Rarely used 2nd
Phosphate treatment of membranes, glaucoma, urinary or 3rd line
ventricular constipation, retention, antiarrhythmic
tachyarrhythmia urinary retention, myasthenia gravis
in dogs cardiovascular
 effects, reduction
of serum glucosa
Procainamide Atrial fibrillation, GI effects, Myasthenia
HCL ventricular weakness, gravis,
tachycardia, hypotension, hypersensitivity to
ventricular fever, leukopenia the drug, heart
premature block
complexes
caution with
hepatic and renal
patients

extreme caution
with systemic
lupus patients
Quinidine Ventricula Anorexia, Myasthenia
gluconate, arrhythmias, vomiting, diarrhea gravis,
Quinidine refractory in dogs hypersensitivity to
Polygalacturonate, supraventricular the drug, heart
Quinidin sulfate tachycardia, inappetence and block
suprventricula depression in
arrhythmia horses
IB
Drug Indications Adverse effects Contraindications Other notes
Lidocaine HCL Ventricular Rare: CNS signs hypersensitivity to Cats more
arrhythmias the drug, heart sensitive
block, Adam’s
Stokes syndrome
Phenytoin Sodium digitalis-induced Anorexia, hypersensitivity to Also an
ventricular vomiting, ataxia, the drug, patients anticonvulsant
arrhythmias in sedation taking primidone Can inhibit insulin
dogs or phenobarbital and vasopressin
secretion
Mexiletine HCL Ventricular GI distress, CNS hypersensitivity to
arrhythmias effects, seizures, the drug, heart
agranulocytosis, block, severe CHF,
thrombocytopenia myocardial
infarction, hepatic
conditions,
seizures
IC

Drug Indications Adverse effects Contraindications Other notes

Encainide Atrial fibrillation, Tremors, ataxia, hypersensitivity to
atrial flutter, headache the drug, heart
ventricular block
tachycardia,
ventricular
fibrillation
 Flecainide Supraventricular Wheezing, hypersensitivity to
arrhythmias, difficulty in the drug, heart
ventricular breathing block,
arrhythmias hypertension, left
ventricular
hypertrophy

Class II
MOA: Blocks beta-adrenergic receptor
INDICATIONS: Supraventricular and ventricular tachyarrhythmia
DRUGS: Propranolol, oxyprenolol, alprenolol, Sotalol
Class III
MOA: Blocks K channels
INDICATIONS: emergency treatment for ventricular tachycardia and fibrillation
ADVERSE EFFECTS: Vomiting
DRUGS: Bretylium, Amiodarone, Sotalol
Class IV
MOA: Blocks Ca2+ channels
INDICATIONS: supraventricular tachyarrhythmias and hypertension
DRUGS: Amlodipine, Diltiazem, Nifedipine, Verapamil

_____________________________________________________________________________________
Expectorants
MOA: Dilutes respiratory secretions
INDICATIONS: Productive cough

Drugs Adverse effects Contraindications

Ethylenediamine Asthma-like allergy Hypersensitivity to the
dihydroiodide drug
Guaifenesin Diarrhea, headache, Chronic cough
nausea

Mucolytics
MOA: Alters mucus consistency
INDICATIONS: Productive cough with sticky mucus
DRUGS: Acetylcysteine, carbocysteine, erdosteine
Decongestants
MOA: Stimulation of adrenergic receptors to induce vasoconstriction in mucus membranes
INDICATIONS: Congested nasal passages
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivity to the drug
EXAMPLES: Phenylephrine, Oxymetazoline, Xylometazoline, Pseudoephedrine, phenylpropanolamine
Antitussives
INDICATIONS: non-productive cough
CONTRAINDICATIONS: patients with excessive respiratory secretions
EXAMPLES: Menthol, Tincture of benzoin, Benzonatate, codeine, morphine, hydrocodone,
Dextromethorphan, Butorphanol tartrate

Analeptics:

Drug MOA Indications Adverse effects Contraindications

Doxapram HCL Direct stimulation Stimulate Seizures, Seizures, asthma,
of medullary respiration after arrhythmias, arrhythmias
respiratory centers general anesthesia hyperventilation
Methylxanthines CNS stimulant asthma Stomach upset, Hypersensitivity to
headache, the drug
tachycardia,
tachypnea

_____________________________________________________________________________________
Diuretics
INDICATIONS: Hypertension, CHF, urinary stones(in certain cases only)
Xanthine derivatives
MOA: Increases blood flow in the kidneys
ADVERSE EFFECTS: cardiac stimulation, bronchodilation
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Kidney patients
EXAMPLES: Theophylline, Aminophylline,

Mannitol
MOA: Prevents water from being reabsorbed in the kidneys
INDICATIONS: acute oliguric renal failure, reduction of intraocular and intracerebral pressures,
urinary excretion of toxins, edema
ADVERSE EFFECTS: fluid and electrolyte imbalance
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Pulmonary edema, pulmonary congestion, anuria
Thiazides
MOA: Decrease Na reabsorption to reduce fluid reabsorption
INDICATIONS: edema,
ADVERSE EFFECTS: hyperglycemia, electrolyte imbalance
 EXAMPLES: Chlorothiazide, Hydrochlorothiazide, Bendrofluazide

Furosemide
MOA: Prevents reabsorption of Na and Cl at the loop of Henle
INDICATIONS: edema
ADVERSE EFFECTS: dehydration, electrolyte imbalance,
CONTRAINDICATIONS: urinary blockage
OTHER NOTES: very potent effect
Bethanecol
MOA: Stimulates muscarinic receptors in the detrusor muscle to promote contraction of the
urinary bladder
INDICATIONS: urinary retention, bladder hypo-contractility
ADVERSE EFFECTS: dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, diarrhea, hypotension, vomiting,
salivation, lacrimation, belching, fainting
CONTRAINDICATIONS: urinary blockage, hypersensitivity, recent GI and urinary surgeries

PROPANTHELINE BROMIDE
MOA: Blocks acetylcholine receptors
INDICATIONS: hyper reflexive detrusor muscle,
ADVERSE EFFECTS: dehydration, electrolyte imbalance,
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity to anticholinergics, tachycardia, myocardial
ischemuia, severe ulcerative colitis, myasthenia gravis, obstructive uropathy
OTHER NOTES: also used as treatment for anticholinergic responsive bradycardias

PHENYLPROPANOLAMINE HCL
MOA: Believed to stimulate both alpha and beta adrenergic receptors
INDICATIONS: urethral sphincter hypotonus in dogs and cats
ADVERSE EFFECTS: urine retention, anxiety, tachycardia, hypertension
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity, glaucoma, prostatic hypertrophy, diabetes mellitus,
cardiovascular diseases, hypertension
Hemostatics
Clotting Factors
INDICATIONS: Used to prevent localized bleeding
CONTRAINDICATIONS: IV administration
Examples: Thromboplastin, Thrombin, Fibrinogen Fibrin Foam

Artificial Matrices

Gelatin sponge

MOA: binds to tissue and acts as a plug as it soaks with blood

ADVERSE EFFECTS: abscess formation, giant cell granuloma
INDICATION: Capillary and venous bleeding
CONTRAINDICATIONS: closure of skin incisions, control of post-partum hemorrhage

Oxidized cellulose

MOA: binds to tissue and acts as a plug as it soaks with blood

ADVERSE EFFECTS: headache, hypotension, hypertension
INDICATION: Local control of bleeding during surgical procedures
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Hypersensitivty

Microfibrillar collagen
MOA: Binds platelets together and activates them
INDICATIONS: local control of hemorrhage
ADVERSE EFFECTS: interference with bacterial clearing and wound healing
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity

Phytonadione Vitamin K1
MOA: acts as a co-factor in the formation of clotting factors
INDICATIONS: antidote for rodenticide toxicity, Vitamin K deficiency
ADVERSE EFFECTS: anaphylactoid reactions via IV administration
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity
OTHER NOTES: Effect may take 6-12 hrs to work
Desmopressin acetate
MOA: triggers the release of von Willebrand factor
INDICATIONS: diabetes insipidus, Von Willebrand’s disease
ADVERSE EFFECTS: eye irritation via conjunctival administration
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity
Protamine sulfate
MOA: Forms a complex with heparin to produce an inactive salt and prevents anticoagulant
activity of heparin
INDICATIONS: Bracken fern poisoning, heparin overdose
ADVERSE EFFECTS: hypotension, bradycardia, pulmonary hypertension, dyspnea
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity

Anticoagulants
Heparin
MOA: inactivates thrombin and factor Xa
INDICATIONS: diabetes insipidus, Von Willebrand’s disease
ADVERSE EFFECTS: eye irritation via conjunctival administration
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity
Warfarin Sodium
MOA: interferes with the activity of vitamin K1
INDICATIONS: chronic treatment of thrombotic conditions in dogs, cats, and horses
ADVERSE EFFECTS: dose-related hemorrhage
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity, pre-existing hemorrhage, pregnancy, upcoming
CNS surgeries, major regional lumbar block anesthesia, hepatic insufficiency, acute nephritis
OTHER NOTES: most common rodenticide
Aspirin
MOA: reduces the synthesis of TXA via COX inhibition
INDICATIONS: treatment for DIC and pulmonary artery disease secondary to heartworm
infestation in dogs
ADVERSE EFFECTS: GI irritation, secondary anemia, hypoproteinemia
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity
Clopidogrel Sulfate
MOA: metabolized in the body to form an unstable compound that inhibits platelet-aggregation
INDICATIONS: prevention of thrombi occurrence in cats
ADVERSE EFFECTS: vomiting, anorexia
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity, pathologic bleeding

Anti-neoplastic drugs
Akylating agents
MOA: adds an alkyl group to the DNA to prevent protein synthesis

Drug Indications Adverse effects Contraindications

Cyclophosphamide Lymphoma, sarcoma, Myelosuppression, Hypersensitivity,
carcinoma gastroenterocolitis, impaired renal or
alopecia, hemorrhagic hepatic function,
cystitis
 immunocompromised
patients
Chlorambucil Lymphocytic leukemia, Myelosuppression, GI Hypersensitivity,
multiple myeloma, toxicity immunocompromised
polycythemia vera, patients, patients with
macroglobulinemia resistance to
chlorambucil

Doxorubicin HCL
MOA: precise action is not well understood, interferes with DNA synthesis, DNA-dependent
RNA synthesis and protein synthesis
INDICATIONS: lymphomas, carcinomas, leukemias, and sarcomas in dogs and cats
ADVERSE EFFECTS: myelosuppression, alopecia, gastroenteritis, stomatitis, cardiac toxicity,
nephrotoxicity
CONTRAINDICATIONS: patients with myelosuppression, cardiac conditions, renal
conditions; patients who have reached the threshold of dose level
Antimetabolites
MOA: inhibits DNA replication by inducing a depletion of nucleotides

Drug Indications Adverse effects Contraindications

Cytosine arabinoside Mammary tumors, GI upset, vomiting, Anemia,
blood malignancies, diarrhea, nausea, blood hypersensitivity,
leptomeningeal effects, myelosuppression
carcinomatosis myelosuppression
Methotrexate Lymphoma, solid Diarrhea, vomiting, Hypersensitivity,
tumors nausea, GI toxicity, impaired renal or
myelosuppression, hepatic function,
renal tubular necrosis, immunocompromised
alopecia patients

Antitubulins
MOA: suppresses microtubule activities thereby inhibiting mitotic functions

Drug Indications Adverse effects Contraindications

Vinblastine sulfate ymphomas, Gastroenterocolitis, Preexisting leukopenia
carcinomas, Myelosuppression, GI or granulocytopenia,
mastocytomas, and toxicity, alopecia, active bacterial
splenic tumors stomatitis infection
Vincristine sulfate lymphoid and less myelosuppressive Hepatic patients,
hematopoietic than vinblastine, leukopenia, infection,
neoplasms peripheral neurotoxic or preexisting
effects neuromuscular disease
Antivirals
Idoxuridine
MOA: inhibits viral replication by substituting thymidine in the viral DNA
INDICATIONS: keratoconjunctivitis and keratitis caused by herpes simplex virus
ADVERSE EFFECTS: photosensitivity; leukopenia, hepatotoxicity, GI signs when given
systemically
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity
OTHER NOTES: expensive
Ribavirin
MOA: inhibits viral polymerase
INDICATIONS: RSV infection, hepatitis C, viral hemorrhagic fever
ADVERSE EFFECTS: gastrointestinal signs, hemolytic anemia, hepatopathies,
thrombocytopenia, myelosuppression
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity, pregnancy
Zidovudine
MOA: interferes with viral RNA-directed DNA polymerase
INDICATIONS: feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), feline leukemia virus (FeLV)
ADVERSE EFFECTS: anemia, diarrhea, weakness
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity; bone marrow, renal or hepatic dysfunction
Amantadine
MOA: inhibits viral replication by interfering with influenza A virus M2 protein
INDICATIONS: equine influenza
ADVERSE EFFECTS: flatulence, diarrhea
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity, poultry animals

Antiprotozoals
Sulfonamides
Sulfaguanidine, sulfadimethoxine, sulfadiazine, sulfadimethoxazole, sulfaquinoxaline sulfadimidine
MOA: inhibits synthesis of folic acid
INDICATIONS: treatment and prevention coccidiosis in poultry, cattle, dogs, cats, rabbits
ADVERSE EFFECTS: keratitis sica
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity, hepatic insufficiency, urinary calculi
OTHER NOTES: for 1st and 2nd stages of schizonts
Diclaruzil
MOA: believed to target the plastid body
INDICATIONS: equine protozoal myeloencephalitis caused by Sarcocystis neurona, as
coccidiostat in broiler chickens
ADVERSE EFFECTS: no known adverse effects in horses, not well known
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity
Toltrazuril
MOA: believed to inhibit protozoal enzyme systems
INDICATIONS: coccidiosis in dogs and cats, Isospora and Hepatozoon infections, oocyst
shedding stage of toxoplasmosis in cats, equine protozoal myeloencephalitis caused by
Sarcocystis neurona
ADVERSE EFFECTS: possible GI disturbances
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity
Amprolium Hydrochloride
MOA: inhibits thiamine utilization by mimicking its structure
INDICATIONS: Eimeria tenella and E. acervulina in poultry; coccidiosis in dogs, swine, sheep,
and goats
ADVERSE EFFECTS: depression, anorexia, diarrhea
CONTRAINDICATIONS: do not use for more than 12 days in puppies
Atovaquone
MOA: believed to selectively inhibit protozoan mitochondrial electron transport
INDICATIONS: pneumocystosis and Babesia gibsoni infections in dogs, Cytauxzoon felis
infections in cats
ADVERSE EFFECTS: GI effects
CONTRAINDICATIONS: malabsorption syndromes
Metronidazole
MOA: not yet understood for its anti-protozoal activity
INDICATIONS: Entamoeba histolytica (trophozoite),Trichomonas, Giardia, Balantidium coli
ADVERSE EFFECTS: neurologic disorders, lethargy, weakness, neutropenias, hepatotoxicity,
hematuria, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
CONTRAINDICATIONS: food animals, hypersensitivity
Tinidazole
MOA: not yet understood for its anti-protozoal activity
INDICATIONS: Entamoeba histolytica, Trichomonas, Giardia infections
ADVERSE EFFECTS: vomiting, inappetence, diarrhea
CONTRAINDICATIONS: hypersensitivity, hepatic patients
Albendazole
MOA: disrupts intracellular microtubular transport systems
INDICATIONS: giardia infections
ADVERSE EFFECTS: lethargy, depression, anorexia, resistance to albendazole medication
CONTRAINDICATIONS: pigeons, alpaca crias, first 45 days of pregnancy in cattle, first 30
days of pregnancy in ewes

References:
Alousi, A. A., & Johnson, D. C. (1986). Pharmacology of the bipyridines: amrinone and milrinone.
Circulation, 73(3 Pt 2), III10–III24.
Antacids . NCBI bookshelf. (n.d.). Retrieved January 21, 2023, from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526049/
Antidiarrheal agent. Antidiarrheal Agent - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved January
21, 2023, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/antidiarrheal-agent
Aronson, J. K., & Meyler, L. (2016). Meyler's side effects of drugs: The International Encyclopedia of
Adverse Drug Reactions and interactions (16th ed.). Elsevier Science.
Arunachalam K, Alzahrani T. (2022). Flecainide. - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf. Retrieved January 24,
2023, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542291/
Auer Jörg A, Stick, J. A., & Mudge, M. C. (2012). Chapter 4 - Hemostasis, Surgical Bleeding, and
Transfusion. In Equine surgery (Fourth edition) (4th ed., pp. 35–47). essay, W.B. Saunders.
Bacitracin. Uses, Interactions, Mechanism of Action | DrugBank Online. (n.d.). Retrieved January 15,
2023, from https://go.drugbank.com/drugs/DB00626
Brown SA. Fluoroquinolones in animal health. J Vet Pharmacol Ther. 1996;19(1):1-14.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2885.1996.tb00001.x
Farzam, K., Sabir, S., & O'Rourke, M. C. (2022, January). Antihistamines - statpearls - NCBI
bookshelf. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved January 8, 2023, from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538188/
Girardin, M., & Seidman, E. G. (2011). Indications for the use of probiotics in gastrointestinal diseases.
Digestive diseases (Basel, Switzerland), 29(6), 574–587. https://doi.org/10.1159/000332980
Gottwalt B, Tadi P. (2022). Methylxanthines. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559165/#:~:text=Methylxanthines%20are%20contraindicated
%20in%20any,aminophylline%2C%20theophylline%2C%20ethylenediamine).
Gupta R, Wadhwa R. (2022). Mucolytic Medications. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559163/#:~:text=Mucolytics%20are%20drugs%20used%20to,
of%20agents%20called%20mucoactive%20agents.
Hashemian, S. M. R., Farhadi, T., & Ganjparvar, M. (2018). Linezolid: a review of its properties,
function, and use in critical care. Drug design, development and therapy, 12, 1759–1767.
https://doi.org/10.2147/DDDT.S164515
Mercer, M. (2022). Bacitracins use in animals - pharmacology. MSD Veterinary Manual. Retrieved
January 15, 2023, from https://www.msdvetmanual.com/pharmacology/antibacterial-agents/bacitracins-
use-in-animals
Mercer, M. A. (2022). Lincosamides use in animals - pharmacology. MSD Veterinary Manual. Retrieved
January 16, 2023, from https://www.msdvetmanual.com/pharmacology/antibacterial-agents/lincosamides-
use-in-animals
Mercer, M. A. (2022). Macrolide use in animals - pharmacology. MSD Veterinary Manual. Retrieved
January 16, 2023, from https://www.msdvetmanual.com/pharmacology/antibacterial-agents/macrolide-
use-in-animals
Mercer, M. A. (2022). Nitrofurans use in animals - pharmacology. MSD Veterinary Manual. Retrieved
January 18, 2023, from https://www.msdvetmanual.com/pharmacology/antibacterial-agents/nitrofurans-
use-in-animals
Mercer, M. A. (2022). Nitroimidazoles use in animals - pharmacology. MSD Veterinary Manual.
Retrieved January 19, 2023, from https://www.msdvetmanual.com/pharmacology/antibacterial-
agents/nitroimidazoles-use-in-animals
Mercer, M. A. (2022). Phenicols use in animals - pharmacology. MSD Veterinary Manual. Retrieved
January 17, 2023, from https://www.msdvetmanual.com/pharmacology/antibacterial-agents/phenicols-
use-in-animals
Mercer, M. A. (2022). Rifamycins use in animals - pharmacology. MSD Veterinary Manual. Retrieved
January 18, 2023, from https://www.msdvetmanual.com/pharmacology/antibacterial-agents/rifamycins-
use-in-animals
Mercer, M. A. (2022). Streptogramins use in animals - pharmacology. MSD Veterinary Manual.
Retrieved January 17, 2023, from https://www.msdvetmanual.com/pharmacology/antibacterial-
agents/streptogramins-use-in-animals
Mercer, M. A. (2022). Sulfonamides and sulfonamide combinations use in animals - pharmacology. MSD
Veterinary Manual. Retrieved January 20, 2023, from
https://www.msdvetmanual.com/pharmacology/antibacterial-agents/sulfonamides-and-sulfonamide-
combinations-use-in-
animals#:~:text=The%20sulfonamides%20are%20commonly%20used,%2C%20respiratory%20infections
%2C%20and%20toxoplasmosis.
MIMS Pte Ltd. (n.d.). Teicoplanin. Teicoplanin: Indication, Dosage, Side Effect, Precaution | MIMS
Malaysia. Retrieved January 15, 2023, from
https://www.mims.com/malaysia/drug/info/teicoplanin#:~:text=Adverse%20Reactions%20Significant%3
A%20Thrombocytopenia%2C%20ototoxicity%20%28deafness%2C%20tinnitus%29%2C%20renal,and%
20lymphatic%20system%20disorders%3A%20Leucopenia%2C%20eosinophilia%2C%20agranulocytosis
%2C%20neutropenia.
National Center for Biotechnology Information (2023). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 21921,
Ethylenediamine dihydroiodide. Retrieved January 26, 2023 from
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Ethylenediamine-dihydroiodide.
National Center for Biotechnology Information (2023). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 48041,
Encainide. Retrieved January 26, 2023 from https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Encainide.
Nettina, S. M. (2018). Lippincott manual of nursing practice (11th ed.). Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
Pérez, D. S., Tapia, M. O., & Soraci, A. L. (2014). Fosfomycin: Uses and potentialities in veterinary
medicine. Open Veterinary Journal, 4(1), 26-43.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4629597/
Plumb, D. C. (2011). Plumb’s Veterinary Drug Handbook. 7th edition. PharmaVet Inc.
Roberts, D. M., Gallapatthy, G., Dunuwille, A., & Chan, B. S. (2016). Pharmacological treatment of
cardiac glycoside poisoning. British journal of clinical pharmacology, 81(3), 488–495.
https://doi.org/10.1111/bcp.12814
RxList. (2019). Gelfoam sponge (absorbable gelatin sponge, USP): Uses, dosage, side effects,
interactions, warning. RxList. Retrieved January 23, 2023, from https://www.rxlist.com/gelfoam-sponge-
drug.htm#clinpharm
Salisbury BH, Terrell JM. (2022). Antacids. Retrieved January 21, 2023, from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526049/
Shutter, M.C. & Akhondi, H. (2022). Tetracycline. NCBI Bookshelf. Retrieved January 16, 2023, from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549905/
Thomas, E., Ghany, M. G., & Liang, T. J. (2012). The application and mechanism of action of ribavirin in
therapy of hepatitis C. Antiviral chemistry & chemotherapy, 23(1), 1–12.
https://doi.org/10.3851/IMP2125
Tilley S. L. (2011). Methylxanthines in asthma. Handbook of experimental pharmacology, (200), 439–
456. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-13443-2_17
Urecholine (Bethanechol) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more. Urecholine
(bethanechol) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more. (2019, September 28).
Retrieved January 24, 2023, from https://reference.medscape.com/drug/urecholine-bethanechol-343056#5
V., S. A. H., Byrne, E., Whiteley, W., & Grant, R. (2007). CHAPTER 100 - NEUROLOGICAL
COMPLICATIONS OF CANCER TREATMENTS. In Neurology and clinical neuroscience (pp. 1353–
1360). essay, Mosby Elsevier.
van Duijkeren, E., et al. (2014). Pleuromutilins: Use in food-producing animals in the European Union,
development of resistance and impact on human and Animal Health. Journal of Antimicrobial
Chemotherapy, 69(8), 2022–2031. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dku123
Willcocks, S. J., Cia, F., Francisco, A. F., & Wren, B. W. (2020). Revisiting aminocoumarins for the
treatment of melioidosis. International journal of antimicrobial agents, 56(1), 106002.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.106002
Yasir, M., Goyal, A., & Sonthalia, S. (2022). Corticosteroid adverse effects. NCBI Bookshelf. Retrieved
January 10, 2023, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK531462/