LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

The following 14 psychological factors pertain to the learner and the learning process. They focus on

psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of the learner rather than

conditioned habits or physiological factors. However, the principles also attempt to acknowledge external

environment or contextual factors that interact with these internal factors.

The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-world learning

situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of principles; no principle should be viewed in

isolation. The 14 principles are divided into those referring to cognitive and metacognitive, motivational and

affective, developmental and social, and individual difference factors influencing learners and learning.

Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners-from children, to teachers, to

administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in our educational system.

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process. The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an

intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience. There are different types of

learning processes; for example, habit formation in motor learning, and learning that involves the generation

of knowledge or cognitive skills, and learning strategies. Learning in schools emphasizes the use of

intentional processes that students can use to construct meaning from information, experiences, and their

own thoughts and beliefs. Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating, and assume personal

responsibility for contributing to their own learning.

2. Goals of the learning process. The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional

guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge. The strategic nature of learning

requires students to be goal directed. To construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the

thinking and learning strategies necessary for continued learning success across the life span, students must

generate and pursue personally relevant goals. Initially, students’ short-term goals and learning may be

sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving

inconsistencies, and deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longerterm
goals. Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent with both

personal and educational aspirations and interests.

3. Construction of knowledge. The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in

meaningful ways. Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new

information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links can take a variety

of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How these links are

made or develop may vary in different subject areas and among students with varying talents, interests, and

abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with the learner’s prior knowledge and

understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated, cannot be used most effectively in new tasks, and does

not transfer readily to new situations. Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge

by a number of strategies that have been shown to be effective with learners of varying abilities, such as

correct mapping and thematic organization or categorizing.

4. Strategic thinking. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning

strategies to achieve complex learning goals. Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to

learning, reasoning, problem solving, and concept learning. They understand and can use a variety of

strategies to help them reach learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel

situations. They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the methods they use

to see which work well for them, by receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or

interacting with appropriate models. Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in

developing, applying, and assessing their strategic learning skills.

5. Thinking about thinking. Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate

creative and critical thinking. Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable

learning or performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor

their progress toward these goals. In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if

they are not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can generate alternative methods to

reach their goal (or reassess the appropriateness and utility of the goal). Instructional methods that focus on
helping learners develop these higher order (metacognitive) strategies can enhance student learning and

personal responsibility for learning.

6. Context of learning. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and

instructional practices. Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with

both the learner and the learning environment. Cultural or group influences on students can impact many

educationally relevant variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking.

Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners’ level of prior knowledge,

cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking strategies. The classroom environment, particularly the

degree to which it is nurturing or not, can also have significant impacts on student learning.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning. What and how much is learned is influenced by the

learner’s motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs,

interests and goals, and habits of thinking. The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and

expectations for success or failure can enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and

information processing. Students’ beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a

marked influence on motivation. Motivational and emotional factors also influence both the quality of

thinking and information processing as well as an individual’s motivation to learn. Positive emotions, such

as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and performance. Mild anxiety can also

enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner’s attention on a particular task. However, intense

negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and relative thoughts (e.g., worrying about

competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule or stigmatizing labels) generally detract

from motivation, interfere with learning, and contribute to low performance.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn. The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all

contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty

relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice of control. Curiosity, flexible and insightful

thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the learners’ intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large

part a function of meeting basic needs to be competent and to exercise personal control. Intrinsic motivation
is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting and personally relevant and meaningful,

appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the learners’ abilities, and on which they believe they can

succeed. Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-world situations and

meet needs for choice and control. Educators can encourage and support learners’ natural curiosity and

motivation to learn by attending to individual differences in learners’ perception of optimal novelty and

difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.

9. Effects of motivation and effort. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner

effort and guided practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is

unlikely without coercion. Effort is another main indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of

complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort,

along with persistence over time. Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies

that enhance learner effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension

and understanding. Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by practices that

enhance positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods that increase learners’ perceptions

that a task is interesting and personally relevant.

Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning. As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and

constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across

physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account. Individuals learn best when

material is appropriate to their developmental level and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.

Because individual development varies across intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains,

achievement in different instructional domains may also vary. Overemphasis on one’s type of developmental

readiness–such as reading readiness, for example–may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are

more capable in other areas of performance. The cognitive, emotional and social development of individual

learners and how they interpret life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home, culture, and

community factors. Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and the quality of language

interactions and two-way communications between adults and children can influence these developmental
areas. Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among children with and without

emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, can facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.

11. Social influences on learning. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and

communication with others. Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to

collaborate with others on instructional tasks. Learning settings that allow for social interactions, and that

respect diversity, encourage flexible thinking and social competence. In interactive and collaborative

instructional contexts, individuals have an opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that

may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social, and moral development, as well as self-esteem. Quality

personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring can increase learners’ sense of belonging, self-

respect and self-acceptance, and provide a positive climate for learning. Family influences, positive

interpersonal support and instruction in self-motivation strategies can offset factors that interfere with

optimal learning such as negative beliefs about competence in a particular subject, high levels of test

anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and unique pressure to perform well. Positive learning climates can

also help to establish the context for healthier levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such contexts help

learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the learning process, and create a learning

community.

Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual differences in learning. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for

learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity. Individuals are born with and develop their own

capabilities and talents. In addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own

preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which they learn. However, these preferences are not

always useful in helping learners reach their learning goals. Educators need to help students examine their

learning preferences and expand or modify them, if necessary. The interaction between learner differences

and curricular and environmental conditions is another key factor affecting learning outcomes. Educators

need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They also need to attend to learner perceptions of

the degree to which these differences are accredited and adapted to by varying instructional methods and

materials.
13. Learning and diversity. Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural, and

social backgrounds are taken into account. The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective

instruction apply to all learners. However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all can

influence learning. Careful attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhances the possibilities for

designing and implementing appropriate learning environments. When learners perceive that their individual

differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are valued, respected, and accommodated in

learning tasks and contexts, levels of motivation and achievement are enhanced.

14. Standards and assessment. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the

learner as well as learning progress including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment are integral parts

of the learning process. Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all

stages of the learning process. Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work towards

appropriately high goals. Therefore, appraisal of the learner’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well as

current knowledge and skills, is important for the selection of instructional materials of an optimal degree of

difficulty. Ongoing assessment of the learner’s understanding of the curricular material can provide valuable

feedback to both learners and teachers about progress toward the learning goals. Standardized assessment of

learner progress and outcomes assessment provides one type of information about achievement levels both

within and across individuals that can inform various types of programmatic decisions. Performance

assessments can provide other sources of information about the attainment of learning outcomes. Self-

assessments of learning progress can also improve students’ self-appraisal skills and enhance motivation and

self-directed learning.