NATURAL RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCES

ANIMAL HEALTH I

AS 241 MODULE

PREPARED BY Dr. M.Hamakoko

ODL‐NRDC 2015
Module Overview

Upon completion of this module you should be to

 Identify sick and healthy animals

 Describe micro organisms
 Diagnose viral and bacterial diseases affecting farm animals
 Explain the principles and practices of tick control measures
 Outline the life cycles of various internal parasites
 Outline the life cycles of common ticks in Zambia
 Recognize and correct problems associated with pregnancy and calving
 Diagnose and treat infectious diseases of ruminants, pigs and poultry

Assessment

Continuous assessment contributes 30%, practical exam 30% and final exam
40%.

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Course Overview
UNIT 1 HEALTH

UNIT 2 DISEASE STATES

UNIT 3 METHODS OF SPREAD OF DISEASE

UNIT 4 DEFENSE AGAINST DISEASE

UNIT 5 DISEASE CONTROL METHODS

UNIT 6 CLINICAL EXAMINATION

UNIT 7 DIAGNOSIS

UNIT 8 ECTOPARASITES

UNIT 9 PROTOZOA

UNIT 10 HELMINTHS

UNIT 11 FUNGI

UNIT 12 CHLAMYDIA, RICKESSTIA AND MYCOPLASMA

UNIT 13 BACTERIA

UNIT 14 VIRUSES

UNIT 15 HEAT AND PARTURITION IN CATTLE

UNIT 16 INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE

UNIT 17 INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF SHEEP AND GOATS

UNIT 18 INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF PIGS

UNIT 19 INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF POULTRY

UNIT 20 TOXICOLOGY

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UNIT 1 HEALTHY AND UNHEALTHY SIGNS

OBJECTIVES: Healthy animals provide good quality and quantity of products and
draft power. It takes time and costs to cure animals once they get disease.
Sometimes animals just die and it means that income would reduce. Hence, it’s very
important to keep animals healthy to get benefits from them.

OUTCOMES: After studying this unit, you should be able to

- Differentiate healthy and sick animals.

- Understand position of main organs and structure within the body.

1.1 Signs of normal health

Healthy animals

- eat and drink regularly. Pigs naturally rush at their feed. Ruminants chew their cud for 6-
8 hours each day.
- defecate and urinate regularly and have normal consistency. Usually feces are firm
and urine is clear. Consistency of feces is dependent what animals eat even though
they’re not sick.
- walk with normal gait.
- have normal temperature. We can assume the temperature by taking with a
thermometer.
- breathe normally. Animals don’t breathe by opening their mouth, except dogs.
- have good body condition. We can evaluate body condition from back in case of
cattle. See figure1.
- are lively and attentive to the surroundings.
- have shinny eyes and hairs. Healthy poultry have smooth and glossy feathers not
ruffled.
- have pinkish mucous membrane. Pinkish color is because of capillary blood.
- have moist muzzle or nose. Sheep and goats have cool and dry nose in healthy state.
- have no discharge from nose

1.2 Abnormal signs

- Loss of appetite or complete lack of food intake called anorexia
- You may have diarrhea and lack or little urine produced. Color changes may
be evident such as cloudy or concentrated urine suggestive of disease
process.
- Animals may show signs of lameness with pain such as in joint ill, foot rot and
FMD.
- High temperature called pyrexia is indicative of disease process.
- Excessive panting or irregular breathing patterns are suggestive of respiratory
infections.
- Animals with poor health will have a poor body status score
- Animals with poor health are not in touch with their environments they show
no interest in surrounding activities.
- Eyes may sunken and dry showing dehydration through loss of body fluids
- Pale mucous membranes signify anemia
- Discharges from nose such as blood, pus or profuse watery fluids warrant
concern as they are not normal.

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UNIT 2 DISEASE STATES

OBJECTIVES: Sick animals show different signs. We have to identify sick animals as
soon as possible and determine their causes.

OUTCOMES: After studying this unit, we will able to

- Describe different disease states.

2.1- Factors of disease:

HOST AGENT

ENVIRONMENT

2.2 Host:
-Sex (male vs. female)

-age (young vs. adult)

-species

-breed (local breed vs. exotic breed)

-stress (poor hygiene, excessive density, poor handling, transportation,

pregnancy)

-heredity

2.3 Agent:

-Chemical agents (antibiotics, growth promoter, disinfectants, agriculture

chemicals, poisoning)

-Nutritional agents (lack or over ingestion of nutrition)

-Biological agents (parasites, fungi, mycoplasma, rickettsia, chlamydia, bacteria,

viruses)

Disease caused by biological agent is called an infectious disease. Disease

caused by non-biological agent is called a non-infectious disease.

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2.4 Environment:

-Climate

-Excessive temperature

-Rainfall

-Humidity

-How we keep animals (density, temperature control, ventilation)

2.5 Signs of Disease State

- Low appetite or stop eating: It may because of dirty feeding area.

- Low productivity(dropped milk yield, stop laying eggs,,,)
- Abnormalities in gait (lameness): It may because of pain in the hooves, foot or
limbs.
- Not being able to stand(recumbence)
- Dullness or depressed
- Rough hair coat(Poultry may have ruffled feather)
- Abnormal colour of mucous membrane or skin: Pale, redness, bluish,
yellowish,,,
- Elevation of skin
- Increasing respiration: It may because of high body temperature
- Soft or watery faeces: It may because of infectious diseases, stress, coldness
or excessive ingestion
- Difficulty in defecating: it may because of stress or lack of water.
- Stop defecating: It may because of obstruction of digestive tracts or no
appetite
- Respiratory signs (coughing, nasal discharge, increasing respiration): It may
because of infections in the trachea, bronchi or the lungs.
- Nervous signs (grinding teeth, twitching lips, circling, swimming, paralysis,
eating what they can’t eat): it may because of poisoning, deficiency or some
infectious diseases.

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UNIT 3 METHODS OF SPREAD OF DISEASE

OBJECTIVES: Biological agents cause infectious diseases spread in different ways. It’s
important to know how it’s spread to prevent infectious disease. These biological
agents that are harmful against animals are called pathogens or pathogenic
organisms.

OUTCOMES: After studying this unit, we will able to

- Understand how pathogen spreads to a host

3.1 Method of spread

Procedure of disease spread

A: Source of infection: Where does pathogen come from?

A-1: Environment

Where pathogen inhabits and multiplies. Pathogen can be transmitted to

susceptible animals. Reservoir exists in nature.

A-2: Infected animals:

Animals that have showed clinical signs and animals that haven’t showed clinical
signs (Carrier).

A-3: Inanimate sources

-Products (milk, dairy products)

-Secretion, discharge and faeces

-Contaminated water, food and ground

-Contaminated boots, cloths and vehicle

-Air in terms of wind borne diseases

B: Route of infection: How does pathogen spread?

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 - Direct contact between animals. (Mating, biting)
- Pathogens in feed and water. (Oral infection)
- By any discharges from sick animals
- By vector: Arthropods like insects and ticks that suck blood. Every animal which
transport pathogen can be called a vector in a broad sense.
- By dirty housing or shelters.
- By vertical transmission: From mother to child through placenta, milk or egg

C; Hosts (review unit1): When do they get sick easily?

-Sex (male vs. female)

-age (young vs. adult)

-species

-breed (local breed vs. exotic breed)

-stress (poor hygiene, excessive density, poor handling, transportation,

pregnancy,)

-immunity

-heredity

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UNIT 4 DEFENSE AGAINST DISEASE

OBJECTIVES: Not all animals show clinical signs and not all pathogen can invade
animal’s body. This is because animals have the system to protect their body. This
defense system is called the immune system. It’s important to know this system to
enhance animal’s healthy state.

OUTCOMES: After studying this unit, we will able to

- Describe the defense system against disease

- Describe how vaccine works to protect animals

KEY WORDS

・Inflammation

・Antibody

・Antigen

4.1 First Line of Defense

Pathogens fail to invade animals’ body due to these structures.

4.1.1 Skin- Sebaceous glands that produce sebum a special oil for the skin

4.1.2 Alimentary canal: saliva, acid in saliva, bacterial flora in the intestines

4.1.3 Respiratory system- mucus

4.1.4 Eyes-ocular fluid

4.1.5 Vagina- vaginal fluid

4.1.6 Urinary tract- urine

4.2 Second Line of Defence

Blood vessels expand where pathogens invade animals’ body. Blood cells come
and filtrate from vessels to the tissue where pathogen invaded. These blood cells
induce reaction to protect the body. White blood cells occupy major part of system.
Neutrophils and monocytes digest pathogens and some lymphocytes attack
pathogens directly. Production and development of lymphocytes have increased in

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lymph node. Monocytes are called macrophage when they move to tissue from
vessel.

4.2.1 Inflammation

• Inflammation is a reaction of body against irritation such as physical or chemical

agents and bacterial or viral infection. Tissue and blood cells work together in the
healing process.
• Five signs of inflammation are redness, hot, swelling, pain and dysfunction.

4.2.2 Abscess formation

• Abscess is a collection of pus frequently associated with inflammation. Collapsed

neutrophils form pus with plasma and other cells.

4.2.3 The lymphatic system

4.2.3.1 Lymph node (Check your practical manual)

4.2.3.2 Tonsil: Aggregation of lymphocyte and lymphoid tissue those are located
in the pharynx. (See location on practical manual)

4.2.3.3 Thymus: A primary lymphoid organ, located in the neck. It’s necessary in
early life for the normal development of immunologic function. T lymphocytes
develop in thymus.

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 Thymus of calves Thymus (5, 6) and muscle (7)

4.2.3.4 Spleen: A large vascular lymphatic organ lying in the abdomen. It

produces lymphocytes. Many macrophages present to destroy old red blood cells.
Iron is metabolized here. It’s located on caudal side of stomach in case of
monogastric animals and it does on dorsal side of rumen in case of ruminants.

4.2.3.5 Payer patch: A lymph node-like structure in the digestive organs.

Epithelial cells phagocyte foreign substances and lymphocytes are developed.

4.2.3.6 Bursa of fabricius: A saclike structure located on the dorsal wall of the
cloaca of poultry. It produces B lymphocytes.

4.3 Third Line of Defense

4.3.1 General systemic reaction

B lymphocytes produce antibody that is specialized combining each antigen. White

blood cells can easily recognize this complex so the body can eliminate pathogen
quickly. Such reactions observed include

4.3.2 Fever;

White blood cells produce substance to enhance inflammation to eliminate

pathogen. Fever is one of the inflammations that body system try to eliminate
pathogens.

4.3.3 Allergy

A state that the defence system uses against foreign objects works excessively to
protect body. It can be called hypersensitivity.

4.3.4: Anaphylaxis: One of allergic reactions. A state that defence system fight the
antigen excessively when the animal’s body is invaded with the same antigen.
Anaphylactic shock is a serious state of systemic reaction.

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4.4 Vaccine: It is one of preventive methods against infectious diseases.
・Each vaccine has an antigen. Antigen is a substance that induces an immune
reaction. Each pathogen has its antigen. Blood cells produce antibodies to combine
with antigen. Antibodies are general name of protein that can attach with antigen.
Blood cell that produces antibodies is called B cell which is one of the lymphocyte.

・・The immune system can react against specific pathogen quickly if animal has
been vaccinated already. Animals may not show signs or may show serious signs if
they had been vaccinated.

Think about it! : Why new born animals should take first milk- colostrum?

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UNIT 5 DISEASE CONTROL METHODS

OBJECTIVES: Some infectious diseases are very difficult to treat and they can spread
immediately. It costs and takes time till sick animals recover even if it’s a curable
disease. Additionally we can’t sell products during residue period. Preventing
diseases induce not only healthy state of animals but also regular income.

OUTCOMES: After studying this unit, we will able to

- Describe how to control infectious diseases

- Describe type of disinfectants
- Describe proper using method of vaccination

5.1 Ban

Ban importing or exporting animals and products from contaminated area or

country.

5.2 Quarantine: Period that an animal is kept away from others in order to prevent
the disease from spreading. It’s a time animals are under observation to determine
cause of disease

・A quarantine line can be established to prevent spread of disease from the

affected zone to the free zone. It can be a fence or two fences spaced apart by
a distance varying from a few meters to kilometres, a wall or simply a line marked
on a map between 2 areas one in which the organism is known to inhabit and the
other to be free.

・Natural barriers such as mountain chains, oceans or rivers may also be defined
as quarantine lines.

・When there is an outbreak of a notifiable disease in an area, the area can be

declared as a quarantine area. If however the disease has been cleared, the
quarantine may be lifted. Sometimes a whole country may be declared as a
quarantine area.

5.3 Vector control(biological control)

・Ticks

・Flies

・Rodents e. g. rats

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 5.4 Disinfection(see appendix)

Disinfection: Destroying specific pathogen

We should clean the place before we use disinfectants. Temperature of water and
concentration of disinfectants should be followed by their instructions.

Skin: Iodine, Alcohol, chlorhexidine, gentian violet

Premises (floor): Caustic soda, sodium carbonate, glutaraldehyde, benzalconium

chloride,

Soil: Chlorinated lime

Carcass: Phenol, cresol, formalin (formaldehyde)

5.5 Test and slaughter

Carriers discharge pathogens without showing signs. We can examine and

eliminate them when they have a positive reaction to examination.
E.g.) Brucellosis, Tuberculosis

5.6 Slaughter infected animals

We may slaughter infected animals to stop spread of pathogen.
E.g.) Outbreak of African swine fever in e.g. Lusaka district

5.7 Vaccination
Vaccine is NOT medicine or a drug. Vaccinated animals should be healthy.
(Review UNIT4.4)
Vaccine should be preserved in a cool environment.

5.8 Hygiene control with regular cleaning- general cleaning to removal dirt
Food management- provide clean and healthy feed to animals.

5.9 Biosecurity: Management to protect animals from infectious pathogens at

farm,
Distance between farms
Limit entrance of human and vehicle
Vector control (ticks, rats)
Quarantine when you introduce new animals
Vaccination
Hygiene control
Feed management
All in all out policy

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UNIT 6 CLINICAL EXAMINATION

OBJECTIVES: We need to examine clinically examine. We can not only inspect but
also need to palpate and auscultate the affected animals.

OUTCOMES: After studying this unit, we will able to

- How to examine animals

- Describe abnormal signs of clinical examination

6.1 History taking

• General questions
-How old is it? (Age)

-What does it eat now? Or how is appetite? (Food)

-Is it pregnant? And if so which trimester is it in?

-When did it first appear ill? (Since when it has been sick)

-What has its manure (faecal material) and urine been like?

-Has it had other illnesses?

-What have you treated it with?

-Have any other animals had a similar problem?

-any medications or vaccinations given?

• Especially for dairy cows

-When did she give birth? (Parturition)

-How much milk was she producing before she became ill, and what is she
producing now?

6.2 Inspection

• attitude(posture, trying to kick belly, nervous signs such as pica, dull,

recumbence, arched back, grinding teeth)
• condition(dry hair coat, emaciation)
• conformation
• skin
-Abscesses

-Cyanosis: bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes owing the
lack of oxygen in the blood.

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 -Jaundice (icterus): A yellowish staining of the skin, mucosa or deeper tissues,
and excretions with bile pigments (bilirubin), resulting from increased levels in the
blood plasma.

-Congestion: presence of an abnormal amount of fluid in the vessels.

- Injury

- Erosion: a shallow ulcer

- Ulcer: a lesion through the skin or a mucous membrane resulting from loss of
tissue, usually with inflammation

- Scar: Fibrous tissue replacing normal tissues destroyed by injury or disease or

divided after an incision

- Hair loss (alopecia)

- Ectoparasites

- Skin elevation (see UNIT6.3 palpation)

• mucous membrane (colour, wet, odour, discharge, haemorrhage)

-pale (anaemia)

-haemorrhage (warfarin poisoning, anthrax)

-jaundice (liver dysfunction, haemolytic anaemia)

-congestion (septicaemia, inflammation)

6.2 Checking body temperature

Raise the tail and insert thermometer into anus at 45 ̊C

-Mercury thermometer: Shake it before checking to make sure that mercury level
is lower than 35℃.Place it in the anus for 2-3 minutes. Wash it with water and
disinfect using cotton with spirit (alcohol) after checking. .

-Electronic thermometer: Place it in the anus until it rings. Wipe using cotton with
spirit after using.

Normal temperature, pulse, respiratory rate

Species Temperature Pulse(per minute) Respiratory rate

(per minute)
Cattle 38.0-39.0℃ 60-80 10-30
Calves 38.5-39.5℃ 100-120 30-50

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 Sheep 39.0℃ 70-90 20-30
Goats 39.5℃ 70-90 20-30
Pigs 38.0-39.0℃ 60-90 10-25
Horses 38.0℃ 35-40 8-12
Poultry 40-43℃(41.7℃) 200-300 20-40
Dogs 38.5-39.5℃ 70-160 10-30
Puppies 38.5-39.5℃ ＞220
Cats 38.5-39.5℃ 110-140 10-30
Kittens 38.5-39.5℃ ＞220

6.3 Palpation
• Skin
-Crackles: Short sharp sound like something is burning in a fire
-Edema: An accumulation of excessive water in cells or tissues
-Blisters: A small circumscribed elevation of the skin containing fluid (colourless)

-Nodule: A small node; in skin, a node up to 1cm in diameter, solid, can be

touched depth.)

• lymph nodes: swelling

• rectum
• vagina
6.4 Auscultation

Heart: Pulse rate, sound

Lungs: Respiratory rate, sound

Digestive organ: motility, sound

6.5 Percussion

Thoracic cavity

Abdominal cavity

6.6 Other abnormalities

Faeces (colour, odour, state, frequency, parasites)

Urine (colour, frequency, urinary stone, glucose, protein, ketone body)

Milk (colour, clots,)

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UNIT 7 DIAGNOSIS

OBJECTIVES: Some diseases are difficult to diagnose using just clinical examinations.
We may need to take samples from live animals or carcass. Identifying cause of
disease is very important to control disease.

OUTCOMES: After studying this unit, we will able to

- Describe how to take and preserve samples

- Describe how to diagnose various diseases

 Clinical diagnosis: Determination of disease made from history, clinical signs,

inspection and physical examination.
 Laboratory diagnosis: Detection of organisms, antigen, antibody or gene.
 Epidemiologic approach

7.1 Sampling: Correct sampling induces correct result of examination.

Sample collection should target the site of agent replication and/or shedding.

7.1.1
Sampling from live animal
-Blood (blood cells, parasites, infectious disease)
-milk (mastitis)
-faeces (diseases show diarrhea such as salmonellosis)
-urine, any discharges
-lymph node
-Abdominal Fluid
- Tissue biopsy
7.1.2 Sampling from carcass

-lymph node, spleen, tonsil, liver, brain, vessel, lungs, digestive tract, kidney,

Specimen from carcass is called necropsy specimen. Fresh necropsy specimen is for
detecting pathogen itself. Fixed necropsy specimen is for checking damage of
tissue. We use 10% formalin to fix specimen. Disinfectant should not be used to
preserve fresh specimen.

7.1.3 Correct procedure of sampling

-disinfect surface when we take sample through skin (blood, milk)

-using sterilized material

-labelling information

-packing well

-keeping in cold storage

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 -using 10% formalin to fix specimen

7.2 Necropsy (Postmortem examination): Examination of carcass. We check contents,

hemorrhage, color and any other abnormality of each organ. Carcass might have
pathogens so we should be careful to not contaminate environment. We should
bury or burn carcass just in case. Additionally we clean our hands and disinfect
materials nicely.

7.3 Laboratory examination: We detect pathogenic organisms directly and indirectly.

7.3.1 Detection of organisms or toxin directly
-virus culture and isolation

Changes in chick embryos inoculated with infectious bronchitis virus

(dwarfing) .On the right is normal chick embryo.

Left: influenza a virus, Right: African swine fever virus

-microbial culture and isolation

Blood agar (left) and MacConkey agar

(right)
-microbial identification (gram stain)

Bacillus anthracic
-toxin identification
-parasite identification (giemsa stain, fecal examination see UNIT29)

7.3.2 Detection of antigens or antibodies

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• Paired serum: bacterial and viral diseases
- Take serum samples twice that when animals show clinical signs and they are
recovering. This is because to detect increasing of antibodies (IgG). It can prove
the infection and we can detect whether it’s a resent infection or not.

• Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA): bacterial and viral diseases

- Antigen-antibody complexes are combined with enzyme-conjugated anti-species
antibody to bind them. These complexes are detected by exposure to the
enzyme-substrate containing an indicator dye. We use serum sample.

• Immunofluorescence: Rabies
- Fluorescence-labeled anti-species antibody is used to detect the antigen-antibody
complex that has formed.

7.3.3. Detection of gene (polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

It’s applied to diagnosis for viral diseases because it’s difficult to culture viruses.

7.3.4. Pathological and histo pathological test

- Evaluating organs and tissues for the presence of characteristic changes or

lesions.

Left: Normal bursa of Fabricius

Right: Bursa of Fabricius of affected in poultry with Gumboro

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UNIT 8 ECTOPARASITES

OBJECTIVES: Ectoparasites are parasites that inhabit the outside body. Mortality is
not directly as a result of parasites themselves but some parasites carry fatal disease
agents against livestock. Hence it’s important to know about ecoparasites that carry
disease agents.

OUTCOMES: After studying this unit, we will able to

- Describe characteristic of ectoparasites.

- Describe diseases of ectoparasites.

KEY WORDS

• Vector: Insects and ticks that suck blood and transmit pathogen are called
vectors
• Life cycle: the way how parasites survive inside and outside their hosts.

8.1 Ticks: They suck blood and cause anaemia. Ticks transmit pathogen into blood.
We have hard ticks and soft ticks.

- Hard ticks (Ixodidae): blue tick, red-legged tick, brown ear tick, tropical bont tick

- Soft ticks (Argaesidae): Ornithodoros porcinus is a vector of African swine fever

virus.

8.1.1 Life cycles of hard ticks

Figure larvae (6legs) nymph (8legs) adult (8legs)

http://webpages.lincoln.ac.uk/fruedisueli/FR-webpages/parasitology/Ticks/TIK/tick-
key/index.htm

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8.1.2 Number of host

-One-host tick: Tick species where all stages live and molt on the same host, eggs
are laid on the ground. Blue tick (Boophilus decoloratus) and Tropical cattle tick
(Bophilus microplus) belong to this group

-Two-host tick: Tick species where larva and nymph share the same host but the
adult stage reproduces and feeds on a separate host. Red-legged tick
(Rhipicephalus evertsi) and Mediterranean tick (Hyalomma marginatum)

-Three-host tick: Tick species where all three stages target different hosts. Brown ear tick
(Rhipicephalus appendiculatus) and Tropical bont tick(Amblyomma variegatum) are this
group.

Life cycle of three host ticks

8.1.3 Type of ticks

8.1.3 Principles and practice of tick control

-Plunge dip

-Spray dip

-Hand spray

-Hand dressing

8.1.4 Tick-borne diseases

Ticks can cause anaemia by their blood sucking habits but they also can transmit
other pathogenic organisms that inhabit the blood.

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8.1.4.1East coast fever (ECF): ECF or Theileriosis. It’s very common in Zambia and it’s
called also Corridor disease,

CAUSE: Theileria parva

HOST: Cattle

LIFE CYCLE: see figure

SIGNS: High fever, swollen lymph nodes, difficulty in breathing

TRANSMISSION (VECTOR): Brown ear tick (R.appendiculatus)

DIAGNOSIS: lymph node or blood smear

TREATMENT: Parvoquone, Buparvoquone, Oxytetracycline

PREVENTION: Tick control (dipping, spraying, pour on, repellent), injection of

sporozoits

Sporogony
(salivary gland) Schizogony
(cattle)

Gametogony
(midgut)

Life cycle of Theileria spp.

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 Left: swollen lymph node of calf (Foreign animal diseases)

Right: Shizonts in lymphocytes by giemsa stain

Left: froth in the lungs

Right: Vaccination

8.1.4.2 Babesiosis: Disease show anemia. It’s called also red water fever

CAUSE: Babesia spp (protozoa)

HOST: Cattle (B.bigemina, B.bovis), horses, dogs

LIFE CYCLE: see figure Babesia spp go to the ovary in the ticks. Infected female
ticks lay eggs and these eggs have been infected already. After eggs hatch to
larvae stage, Babesia spp move to salivary gland.

SIGNS: Fever, anemia, jaundice, red urine

TRANSMISSION (VECTOR): Blue tick (Boophilus decolorutus)

DIAGNOSIS: Blood smear

TREATMENT: Diminazene, diaceturate,amicarbalide, Imidocarb

PREVENTION: Tick control

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 Life cycle of Babesia spp.

Left: Sporozoits in RBCs of blood smear by giemsa stain (Foreign animal diseases)

Right: Red urine (hemoglobinuria) in urinary bladder (Foreign animal diseases)

8.1.4.3 Anaplasmosis:

CAUSE: Anaplasma spp (Rickettsia)

HOST: Cattle

SIGNS: Anaemia, fever, jaundice

TRANSMISSION: Hard ticks (especially blue ticks)

DIAGNOSIS: Blood smear

TREATMENT: Oxytetracycline, Doxycycline

PREVENTION: Tick control

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A. marginale in RBCs of blood smear with giemsa stain

8.1.4.4 Heart water (rickettsia)

CAUSE: Ehrlichia (cowdria) ruminantium.

HOST: Sheep, goats, cattle

TRANSMISSION: hard tick (Amblyomma)

SIGNS: Fever, Difficulty in breathing, Nervous signs, hydro pericardium

DIAGNOSIS: Signs, brain smear with Giemsa stain

TREATMENT: Tetracycline, Doxycycline

PREVENTION: control of ticks, prophylactic treatment (Inoculation of infected blood)

• Parasites multiply in cells found in the vessels (vascular endothelial cell).

Fluid in thoracic cavity on affected animal (Foreign animal diseases)

8.1.4.5 Ehrlichiosis

CAUSE: Ehrlichia spp.

HOST: Ehrlichia bovis (cattle), E.ovina (sheep), E.canis (Dogs)

SIGNS: Anaemia, fever, jaundice by mixed infection with Theileriosis and Babesiosis.

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TRANSMISSION (VECTOR):Hard ticks

TREATMENT: Oxytetracycline, Doxycycline

PREVENTION: Tick control

8.2 Mites: They suck body fluid and cause itchness. Mites are smaller than ticks.

8.2.1 Mange: skin disease

CAUSE: mites (Psoroptes, Sarcoptes)

LIFE CYCLE: Female mites dig shallow tunnel in the skin to lay eggs. Mites ingest
lymph fluids, skin or wax.

SIGNS: red spots, swelling lesions, blisters, bleeding, baldness and itch

DIAGNOSIS: scratch lesion and detect mites by microscope after you stain with 10%
KOH

TREATMENT: Ivermectin (0.2mg/kg)

PREVENTION: deworming regularly

Left: Mite(Psoroptes)

Center: Affected pig

Right: scratching skin sample from the ear

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8.2.2 Demodicosis: skin disease. Aetiology is same as mange. We can’t differentiate
the two using a microscope.

Left: Demodex mite

Right: Affected dog

8.3 Lice: Blood sucking lice and biting lice

8.4 Flies: Adult flies can bother animals by flying around them. They lay eggs on
animals’ skin and it cause myiasis.

8.4.1 Myiasis: The infestation of live vertebrate animals with fly larvae. They feed on
the hosts’ dead or living tissues, body fluids or ingested food.

SINS: holes on skin, low appetite

DIAGNOSIS: Signs

TREATMENT: Eject maggots, ivermectin

PREVENTION: Keep in clean environment, brushing

Holes on the skin and larvae that is squeezed on hock joint

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UNIT 9 PROTOZOA

OBJECTIVE: Protozoa is an internal parasite that consists of single cell.

OUTCOMES: After studying this unit, we will able to

- Describe characteristic of protozoa

- Describe diseases of disease of protozoa
KEYWORD

・Zoonosis

9.1 African animal trypanosomiasis: it’s a vector borne disease.

CAUSE: Trypanosoma congolense, T.brucei brucei, T.vivax

HOST: Herbivore, pigs, dogs, cats, monkeys(see table)

SIGNS: Intermittent fever, anaemia, weight loss, reduced productivity

TRANSMISSION(VECTOR): Tsetse fly

DIAGNOSIS: Detection of parasites outside the RBCs in blood

TREATMENT: Isometamidium chloride(Samorin, Trypamidium, M&B4180A),

Diaminazine aceturate(Berenil)

PREVENTION: Giving Isometamidium chloride as prophylaxis in outbreak

area(Samorin, Trypamidium, M&B4180A)

Cross-breeding experiments using resistant breeds such as the West African

Shorthorn and the N’Dama

28
Tsetse fly(HOKKAIDO UNIVERSITY UNZA LAB)

Various Trypanosomiases

29
HOKKAIDO UNIVERSITY UNZA LAB Foreign animal diseases

9.1.1 Human sleeping sickness

Cause: Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense(East African sleeping sickness),

T.brucei gambiense(West African sleeping sickness)

Vector: Tsetse fly

Clinical signs: first stage(fever, headache, muscle and joint aches and enlarged
lymph nodes)

Second stage(mental deterioration and other neurologic problems)

Mortality: high (infected humans die unless they’re treated)

30
Life cycle of trypanosome

9.2 Coccidiosis:
CAUSE: Eimeria spp

HOST:E.tenella(poultry), E.bovis, E.zuernii(cattle)

SITE: Cecum, intestines

SIGNS: bloody or watery diarrhoea, anorexia, anaemia

DIAGNOSIS: faecal examination(detection of oocytes),signs

TREATMENT: dilute 0.1-0.2% of sulpha drugs into water for 3-5 days, 20-30mg/kg for 5
days IV,IM,PO
(Sulpha drug: sulfadimethoxine or sulfamonomethoxine)

PREVENTION:
-disinfection of the floor, litter and equipment with ammonia or boiling water.
-mixing effective drugs in the feed or drinking water.
-giving toltrazuril(Baycox) for cows, sheep and pigs

31
E.tenella(left), E.bovis(center), E.zuernii(right)

Life cycle of E.tenella

1. Sporozoit
2. Trophozoite
3. Immature scizont
4. Mature scizont
5. Merozoit
6. Macrogametocyte

7. Macrogameto

9. Microgametocyte

10. Microgameto

11. Zygote

12-15. oocyst

32
swollen intestine (left)and bloody diarrhea(right)

3.2.3 TOXOPLASMOSIS

CAUSE: Protozoa (Toxoplasma gondii)

HOST: Almost all mammal animals

SIGNS: Fever, anorexia, red and purple spot on ear, the lower belly or limbs, dull
(they may not show any signs), abortion(pregnant animals)

DIAGNOSIS: Tissue smear, examination using serum

TREATMENT: Sulpha drug (sulfadimethoxine or sulfamonomethoxine)

Poultry: dilute 0.1-0.2% of sulfa drugs into water , 20-30mg/kg for 5 days PO

Calves: 20-30mg/kg 3-5days by IV, IM .PO

PREVENTION: keep cats away from farm. Disinfection to break oocysts using boiling
water.

33
 oocyst(left) and cyst(right)

3.2.4 Trichomoniasis

CAUSE: Trichomonas foetus

HOST: Cattle

SIGNS: Abortion in early or middle stage, Bulls don’t show outward signs.

TRANSMISSION: Mating

DIAGNOSIS: Isolation from preputial scrapings and asp

TREATMENT: Eliminate natural service and use only commercially prepared semen by
Artificial insemination. Administer antiprotozoal drug.(ipronidazole, metronidazole,
dimetridazole)

PREVENTION: Eliminate natural service and use only commercially prepared semen
by Artificial insemination

34
UNIT 10 HELMINTH

OBJECTIVES: Helminths can be classified into three broad groups. It consists of

multiple cells. Some diseases are zoonotic hence the public health significance.

OUTCOME : After studying this unit, we will able to

- Describe characteristic of helminth

- Describe diseases of helminth

KEYWORDS

• Intermediate host: Where larvae or immature worms inhabit.

• Final host, definitive host: Where adult worms inhabit.
• Zoonosis:Infectious diseases which infect both human and other animals in
nature.
• Cysticercus: larvae swells after sucking body fluid in intermediate hosts. They
have a head of adult worm inside. When they invade their final hosts, this head
stick to small intestine membrane.
• Cysticercosis is a disease caused by cysticercus

10.1 Roundworms(nematodes)
・They have thread or a rope like shape and most of them have shaped tips on
both sides.

・hey don’t have a joint or a segment.

・They molt 4 times in their life cycle.

・There are male and female roundworms.

10.1.1 Gastro-intestinal worms of ruminants: Parasites cause diarrhea

CAUSE: see table

35
 LIFE CYCLE: see figure

SIGNS: Diarrhea, low appetite, anemia (Haemonchus spp, Hook worms), poor
growth
DIAGNOSIS: Fecal examination, signs
TREATMENT: Levamisol hydrochloride 7.5mg/kg SQ, SO, PO, Fenbendazole 5-
7.5mg/kg PO, Albendazole 5-7.5mg/kg PO, Ivermectin 0.2mg/kg SQ, SO
PREVENTION: Regular deworming (e.g. every April and October) especially for
young grazing animals, clean hygiene

H.contortus (barbarpole worms, twisted worms) M: 10-20mm, F: 18-30mm adult (left)

and eggs (right)

H.contortus on abomasa membrane

Left: Ostertagia spp egg (brown stomach worms) Adult: M7mm, F10-12mm

Right: Trycostrongylus spp (thread worms) Adult: M4-6mm, F5-7mm

Nematodirus tip of larva (left) and egg (right) Adult: M7-17mm, F12-35mm

36
 150μm

Strongyloides papillosus adult (left) and egg (right) Adult: F3.5-6mm

50μm

Oesophagostomum spp. (Nodularp@:;worms) adult (left) and eggs (right) Adult:

M12-17mm, F15-22mm

Trichuris spp. (Whipworm) adult (left) and egg (right) Adult: 55-75mm

37
 70μm

Pictures are from Merck manual and helminthology

Life cycle of gastro-intestinal worms.

When they become third-stage larvae (L3), they can infect their hosts.

38
 10.1.2 Lungworm disease

CAUSE: Dictyocaulus viviparous (cattle

TRANSMISSION: Ingestion of L3 in dew on grass

DIAGNOSIS: Fecal examination, signs

SIGNS: Deep moist cough, fever, bronchitis, pneumonia,

TREATMENT: Same as gastro-intestinal round worms

PREVENTION: Regular deworming

Dictyocaulus viviparous in bronchi (cattle)

10.1.2 Ascariasis
CAUSE: Ascaris suum (pigs) F 20-30cm M15-30cm Toxocara canis (dogs) M10cm,
F18cm

LIFE CYCLE: Eggs hatch in intestine and go to the lungs though the liver and the
heart.

TRANSMISSION: Ingestion of eggs

SIGNS: white spot of the liver (abattoir)

TREATMENT: Same as gastro-intestinal round worms

PREVENTION: Regular deworming

39
 milk spot

10.2 Flukes(Trematodes)
• Most of them are like leaves and flat in shape.
• Some of them are oval or look like thread as roundworms.
• Most of them have both genital organs.
• Most of them need snail as an intermediate hosts.

10.2.1 Liver fluke

CAUSE: Fasciola hepatica, Fasciola gigantica (2-3cm long, 2.5-5cm long
respectively)

INTERMEDIATE HOST: Snails

FINAL HOST: Ruminants

SITE of FINAL HOST: Liver (immature worms), Bile duct (adult worms)

TRANSMISSION: Ingesting parasites with grass

SIGNS: Weight loss, anaemia, dysfunction of the liver

DIAGNOSIS: Faecal examination (sedimentation method), detection of parasites

from the liver

TREATMENT: Albendazole (Small ruminants 4.75mg/kg, Cows 10mg/kg), Bithionol

(Small ruminants 75mg/kg, Cows 30mg/kg not applied for dairy cows)

PREVENTION: Deworming, Snail control(e.g. rearing ducks in river, regular clearing

drainage canal, establishing proper water pomp facility)

* We should condemn affected liver. Liver fluke can infect human.

40
TV DOCTOR published in Japanese

10.3 Tapeworms(Cestodes)
・They have many segments.

41
 ・They have reproductive organs on each segment.

・They don’t have digestive organs.

10.3.1 Beef tapeworm disease

CAUSE: Taenia saginata(Adult: 4-12m)

INTERMEDIATE HOST: Cattle(muscle)

FINAL HOST: Human(small intestine)

SIGNS: Intermediates hosts and final host don’t show typical signs.

DIAGNOSIS: Fecal examination(final host)

TREATMENT: Same as roundworms

PREVENTION: Regular deworming, clean hygiene

42
10.3.2 Pork tapeworm disease

CAUSE: Taenia solium (Adult: 2-3m long)

INTERMEDIATE HOST: Pigs (muscle)

FINAL HOST: Human (small intestine)

SIGNS: Intermediates hosts don’t show any signs. In case human intake pork
tapeworms, they may show serious signs.

DIAGNOSIS: Faecal examination (final host)

TREATMENT: Same as roundworms

PREVENTION: Regular deworming, clean hygiene

10.3.3 Echinococcus: zoonosis

CAUSE: Echinococcus granulosus (Adult: 3 to 6 mm long)

INTERMEDIATE HOST: sheep, goat, swine, cattle, horses, camel (liver and lung)

FINAL HOST: Dogs (small intestine)

43
SIGNS: Intermediates hosts don’t show any signs. In case human intake pork
tapeworms, they may show serious signs.

DIAGNOSIS: Fecal examination (final host)

TREATMENT: Same as roundworms

PREVENTION: Regular deworming, dispose organ attached cyst at abattoir

Life cycle of Ecchinococcus

10.4 Anthelmintics and their application see appendix(UNIT30)

44
UNIT 11 FUNGI

OBJECTIVES: We have few fungal diseases of livestock but some of them are
zoonotic. It’s important to know about these fungal diseases to protect animals and
human both.

OUTCOME: After studying this unit, we will able to

- Describe characteristic of fungi

- Describe diseases of fungi

11.1Characteristc

Fungi are microorganisms that multiply sexually or asexually. They’re divided into
mold and yeast. Mold type produce spore as next generation and yeast type
multiply by binary fission. Some molds are used to produce antibiotics.

11.2 Structure

Mold type

11.3 Ringworm (Dermatophytosis)

CAUSE: Trichophyton verrucosum

HOST: Cattle, human

TRANSMISSION: Direct contact

SIGNS: Round or oval areas crusting and alopecia that ranges from 1.0cm to 5.0cm
in diameter

45
Diagnosis: Sign, Detection of fungus from skin lesion (put scratch on slide and drop
potassium hydroxide)

Topical treatment: Natamycin, Niconazole, Imaverol, thiabenzadole, mitoconazole,

clotrimazole

11.4 Aspergilosis

CAUSE: Aspergillus spp.

HOST: Poultry

TRANSMISSION: Inhalation of spores in air, soil, feed and body surface.

SIGNS: high mortality in chicks. Fever, inappetence, Lung lesion, diarrhoea.

Topical treatment: Natamycin, Niconazole

Left: nodules in the lungs

Right: Aspergillus fumigatus by microscope

46
UNIT 12 CHLAMYDIA, RICKETTSIA AND MYCOPLASMA

OBJECTIVE: Chlamydia, Rickettsia and Mycoplasma have different structure

comparing with bacteria. Chlamydia and Rickettsia are gram negative bacteria but
they survive only inside cells. Three of them multiply by binary fission.

OUTCOMES: After studying this unit, we will able to

- Describe characteristic of chlamydia, rickettsia and mycoplasma

- Describe diseases of chlamydia, rickettsia and mycoplasma

12.1 Chlamydia is a gram negative bacterium but inhabits inside cells.

12.1.1 Enzootic abortion

CAUSE: Chlamydia psittaci

HOST: Cattle, sheep, goats

SIGNS: Abortion, weak neonates

TRANSMISSION: Oral ingestion of contaminated food or water

DIAGNOSIS: Stain (tissue from placenta or aborted foetus)

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: Disinfection of pens

12.2 Rickettsia is a gram negative bacteria but inhabits inside cells. The diseases are
transmitted to the host through vectors.

12.2.1 Anaplasmosis

12.2.2 Heart water

12.2.3 Ehrlichiosis

12.3 Mycoplasma: Mycoplasma don’t have cell wall.

12.3.1 Contagious bovine pleuro pneumonia

CAUSE: Mycoplasma mycoides subs. mycoides

HOST: Cattle

TRANSMISSION: Oral infection or inhalation of mycoplasma that is discharged in

affected animal’s exhalation.

47
SIGNS: Cough, emaciation, in appetent, swollen joints

DIAGNOSIS: Signs, Post-mortem exam, Serum (ELISA: Enzyme linked Immunosorbent

Assay, et), nasal swab, pleural fluid

TREATMENT: N/A

POST MORTEM EXAM: Inflammation of the lungs and pleura, fluid in thoracic cavity

PREVENTION: Vaccination, Test and slaughter

• In Zambia most commonly occurs in Western, North Western, Northern and

Southern province. Transporting live animals from Kazungula is not allowed.

Left: fluid in thoracic cavity, Right: Marbled lung

12.3.2 Mycoplasmosis

Cattle: Pneumonia, Inflammation of joint

Pigs: Pneumonia

Poultry: Pneumonia, Inflammation of joint

12.3.3 Agalactia

CAUSE: Mycoplasma agalactiae

HOST: sheep, goats

SIGNS: Drop of milk yield, stop producing milk, fever, septicaemia in acute case

TRANSMISSION: Direct contact, milk

DIAGNOSIS: Signs, isolation of mycoplasma from sample, ELISA

TREATMENT: Give tetracycline and PREVENTION: Hygiene control

48
UNIT 13 BACTERIA

OBJECTIVE: We have a lot of bacterial diseases in Zambia. Understanding each

disease is very important to prevent these diseases.

OUTCOMES：After studying this unit, we will able to

- Describe characteristic of bacteria

- Identify bacterial disease
- Differentiate each antimicrobial drug
KEY WORD

・Spore

・Gram stain

13.1 Characteristics

- They have DNA and RNA.

- They multiply by binary fission.
- They need enough temperature, gas (oxygen or CO2), enough moisture,
enough pH (concentration of hydrogen) to multiply.
13.2 Structure

Above: Bunches (Staphylococci), Chains (Streptococci), Pairs (Diplococci), 4’s

(tetracocci), 8’s,

Bottom: Coccobacilli, Rod-shaped bacteria (Bacilli), Streptobacillus, Spiral bacteria

49
 • Capsule: An additional protective layer against antibacterial agents. Capsule
formation is related to pathogenicity of the organisms. Not all bacteria
possess a capsule.
• Cell wall: Membrane which possesses great elasticity and resists pressure.
Bacteria can be classified into two groups which is dependent thickness of
cell wall (Gram stain).
• Cytoplasmic membrane (cell membrane): doubled layered membrane that
around cell.
• Cytoplasm: it contains DNA, ribosomes and plasmid.
• Ribosomes: Organ that produce protein in cytoplasm. It’s consists of protein
and RNA.
• Plasmid: structure that contains extra DNA. (It carries some genes that counter
resistance to a bacterial cell against a variety of antibiotics. It’s not necessary
for survival of cell)
• Pilli: tubular and hair like structure of bacteria.
• Flagella: one of the loco motor organs. It’s important to differentiate bacterial
type.
• Spore: Members of Bacillus and Clostridium species produce inside their body.
Bacteria which produce spore resist drying, excessive temperature,
disinfectant

13.3 Major bacterial diseases

Character Bacteria Disease HOST Typical sign

Escherichia coli Colibacillosis, C,S,G,P,H Diarrhea, septicemia
mastitis C Abnormal milk
Salmonella spp Salmonellosis C,S,G,P Diarrhea, septicemia
Gram Pasteurella mutocida Hemorrhagic C,S,G,P Septicemia
negative septicemia
Fowl cholera Po
Mycobacterium spp. Tuberculosis C,S,G Emaciation, lung lesion

50
 Brucella spp. Brucellosis C,S,G,P,Hu Abortion
Bacillus anthracic Anthrax C,S,G,H,P,Hu Septicemia
Gram Clostridium tetani Tetanus H,S,G,C,P,Hu Nervous sign
positive Clostridium chauvei Blackleg C,S,G,P Muscle edema
Actinomyces bovis Actinomycosis C Abscess of tongue
Staphylococcus aureus Mastitis C Abnormal milk
Streptococcus spp. Mastitis C Abnormal milk
C: Cattle, S: Sheep, G: Goat, P: Pigs, H: Horses, Hu: Human, Po: Poultry

13.4 Treatment of bacterial disease

Antimicrobial is effective to treat bacterial diseases but careless using lead

resistance of antibiotics.

Table: List of antimicrobial (antibiotics)

G+ G- Mycoplasma Chlamydia Rickettsia

Benzyl penicillin(PCG) ○

Penicillins Ampicillin ○ △

Amoxicillin ○ △

Cephalosporin’s Cephalexin ○ △

Ceftiofur ○ ○

Streptomycin △ ○
Aminoglycosides
Gentamycin △ ○

Tylosin ○ ◎ ○
Macrolides
Erythromycin ○ ○ ○

Tetracyclines Oxytetracycline ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
(broad spectrum
antibiotics) Doxycycline ○ ○ ○ ○ ◎

◎: very effective, ○: effective, △: effective against some of them

Sulpha drug is a synthetic antimicrobial. It’s effective against Eimeria spp.

51
UNIT 14 VIRUSES

OBJECTIVE: We have a lot of viral diseases. Viral diseases are not curable by
antibiotics. Hence it’s important to know each characteristic of disease and how to
prevent.

OUTCOMES: After studying this unit, we will able to

- Describe characteristic of virus

- Differentiate viral diseases

14.1 Character
- They have DNA or RNA.
- They don’t have ribosome and mitochondria.
- They can’t reproduce by themselves. They use nucleus of host cells to make
additional viruses.
- Structure(nucleic acid, capsid, envelope, spike)
- Multiplication (1.attachment 2.panetration 3.uncoating 4.replication 5.packaging
6.release)

Example of virus multiplication

52
14.2 Structure

Capsid: Capsule that protect DNA or RNA inside.

Envelope: Capsule that protect capsid
1nm=0.001mm=0.000001cm

http://textbookofbacteriology.net/themicrobialworld/AnimalViruses.html

- Morphology
・Corona:crown-like
・Rhabdo: Rod-like(bullet shape)
・Pico: small

- Classification
The highest group among viruses is the family.
・Family: viridae

53
 ・Sub-family: virinae
・Genus: virus
・Species: virus and strain
E.g) Rabies virus
・Family: Rhabdoviridae
・Sub-family:
・Genus: Lissavirus
・Species:
In this module its mention viral name using viridae (family) and virus (genus)

14.3 Major viral diseases

Virus Disease HOST Typical sign Morbidity Mortalit

y
Rhabdoviridae Rabies Mammal Aggressiveness, Low High
animals salivation,
incoordination
Picornaviridae Foot and mouth Two Vesicles on muzzle and High Low
disease hooves hooves, salivation
animals
Orthomixoviridae Avian influenza Po Respiratory system High Low
Swine influenza P Respiratory system High Low
Paramixoviridae Newcastle P Respiratory sign, High High
disease diarrhea, nervous sign
Poxviridae Lumpy skin C Nodule on skin Variable Low
Sheep pox S Nodule on skin Variable Low
Goat pox G Nodule on skin variable Low
Fowl pox Po
Reoviridae Blue tongue C,S,G Swollen tongue high variable
disease
Asfaviridae African swine P Fever, skin High High
fever discoloration
Parvoviridae Parvo viral C,P,D Diarrhea High High
disease
Rota viridae Rota viral C,P,D Diarrhea High variable
disease
C: cattle, S: sheep, G: goat, P: pigs, H: horses, Po: poultry, D: dogs

14.4. Disinfectants that can apply for viruses

Iodine, aldehydes, formalin, chlorine: Effective against viruses with and without
envelope

Phenol, alcohol: Effective against viruses with envelopes

54
UNIT 15 HEAT AND PARTURITION OF CATTLE

OBJECTIVES: Proper breeding and parturition maintain regular outcome of calves.

We have to look out for signs of heat and mating to estimate date of birth. We have
to keep an eye cows that are giving birth to prevent cases of dystocia.

OUTCOMES: After studying this unit, we will able to

- describe signs of heat and parturition

- identify when we should help parturition

Basic information

• SEXUAL MATURITY: 12months old

• APPROPRIATE AGE FOR BREEDING: over 14 months old
• HEAT: every 21day
• PREGNANCY: 280days
• NUMBER OF FETUS: one

15.1 Signs of heat: Heat is a state that animals are ready to prepare next
generation. Female animals ovulate every 21days. Signs of heat are
standing(allowing to be mounted), mounting(the cow on top may not be on heat),
smelling the back, bellowing or restlessness ,swollen and congested vulva, sticky
mucus from vagina, dropping milk amount

Standing and mounting

Smelling back, getting close

From A manual for the primary animal health care worker

55
Mucous from vagina (left, enter), congested vulva (right)

15.2 Pregnancy: Pregnancy duration is 9 month.

SIGNS: Heat stops, Belly extends in late pregnancy period

PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS

- Can be done over 50-60 days since they have been mated.
- You can touch soft uterus and corpus lutein on the ovary of pronated
side.

15.3 Normal calving

As calving is coming the belly has extended, the udder is filling up and the vulva
has reddened and swollen.
• OPENING PERIOD: 3-6hours
- Restlessness, isolates from herd
- Frequency urination, soft feces
• EXPULSION PERIOD: 1-2hours
- Foot sac (water bag) appears at vulva and ruptures
- Giving birth

56
 Foot sac (left), fetus is coming out in normal position (middle, right)

• AFTER BIRTH PERIOD: 3-6hours

- Placenta comes out
RETURN OF HEAT: 20-30 days after calving
Normal position of fetus

15.3 Abortion: Expulsion of a foetus or embryo during gestation period.

CAUSE: Stress, drug, Brucellosis, Trichomoniasis, Chlamydia,

DIAGNOSIS: Isolation of infectious agents from foetal sample. Check environment

and management. Check semen of bulls.

TREATMENT: Dependent on diagnosis

PREVENTION: Hygiene control

57
15.4 Prolonged gestation

If a cow hasn’t showed any sign of parturition although it had been past more than
ten days from expected date, we should suspect prolonged gestation.

CAUSE：Large foetus, fatal loss, fatal mummification, fatal malformation

DIAGNOSIS: Rectal palpation

TREATMENT: Administer dexamethasone or/and prostaglandin. It starts parturition

within 48 hours normally. We should keep an eye to administered cow more
than others because it may be dystocia.

15.4 Dystocia: difficulty in giving birth

・Uterine torsion
CAUSE: Moving of uterine horn due to fetal weight
SIGN: Fetus doesn't come out for a long time although cow is showing signs,
slightly twisted vulva, in appetite
DIAGNOSIS: Rectal palpation, vaginal palpation
TREATMENT: Call vet! Correct position of uterine horn as where it was
PREVENTION: Handle animals gently

・Malformation: Deformity of fetus.

CAUSE: Unknown. Infectious agent can be cause.
DIAGNISIS: Rectal palpation, vaginal palpation
TREATMENT: Traction. We may take out fetus by cesarean surgery.

Digestive organ is coming out (TV DOCTOR published in Japanese)

・Large fetus: It occurs due to cross breeding between exotic breed and local
breed. It does also when too young or too small cow mates to bull. We can use
soap or paraffin to lubricate birth canal when we tract.

・Disposition: Abnormal position of fetus. We check fetal position by touching joints.

We secure the head and forelegs or back legs.

58
A manual for the primary animal health care worker

Various dispositions

 If it takes more than 30 minutes to help delivery, we may consider caesarian

surgery. We have to wash our hands, disinfect equipment, tie tails of cows and
always keep calm. Never break foot sac, if you did, you are the cause of
dystocia. Fetus can come up because of extension in uterus by foot sac.

15.5 Vaginal prolapse

CAUSE: Excessive expulsion force due to strong contractions prior to birth

SIGN: Exposure of the vagina
DIAGNOSIS: Appearance
TREATMENT: Putting it back after you wash nicely, Suture vulva if it still comes out

15.6 Uterine prolapse

CAUSE: Excessive pressure during giving birth

SIGN: Exposure of the uterus

59
 DIAGNOSIS: Appearance

TREATMENT: Push back after you wash exposure uterine nicely. You may use long
bar or bottle. The caudal part should be higher than the cranial part. Calcium
borogluconate injection is helpful to let the uterus contracted.

TV DOCTOR published in Japan

15.7 Retained placenta

CAUSE: Unknown
SIGN: Placenta doesn’t come out within 12 hours after giving birth
DIAGNOSIS: History taking, vaginal palpation
TREATMENT: Do nothing. It’s not recommended to pull out by force. Give
antibiotics for few days to prevent metritis.

Retained placenta from DISEASES OF DAIRY CATTLE

15.8 Puerperal metritis

CAUSE: Bacterial contamination of the uterus
SIGN: High fever, depression, dehydration
DIAGNOSIS: Culture blood samples and uterine discharge.
TREATMENT: Give antibiotic ( Oxytetracycline, Penicillin)
PREVENTION: Clean hygiene, proper traction

Think about it! What is artificial insemination?

60
UNIT 16 INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE

OBJECTIVES: There are a lot of infectious diseases of cattle in Zambia. Identifying

these diseases is very important to provide vaccination programs to protect cattle.
Certain diseases should be reported to the authority to stop their spread.

OUTCOMES: After studying this unit, we will able to

- describe each disease of cattle

- identify zoonosis

- describe how to prevent diseases

16.1 Foot and mouth disease

CAUSE: Picornaviridae Aphtovirus

HOST: Cloven-hooved animals and wild animals

TRANSMISSION: By air, direct contact or inhalation of virus from nasal discharge,

saliva or vesicles

SIGNS: Salivation, Vesicles and erosions of the mouth, tongue, nose, muzzle feet or
teat, Fever

DIAGNOSIS: Signs, Virus isolation from lesion, Serum serology

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: Quarantine, Ban import or export live animals and products,

Vaccination

• All body fluids and excretions of affected animals contain virus.

• Low pH solution (2% acetic acid, straight vinegar) or alkaline (2% sodium
hydroxide, 4% sodium carbonate) solution can inactivate FMD virus.
• African buffalo has a role to spread FMD virus to domestic cattle or other wild
animals.
• Mortality is low.
• You may find greyish or yellowish streaking in the heart during post mortem
exam.

61
From left: Salivation, Ruptured vesicle on interdigital space, ruptured vesicle on the
gum, ruptured vesicle on the tongue

From Disease control module UNZA, the department of veterinary and livestock
development and MACO

16.2 Lumpy skin disease

CAUSE: Poxviridae Capri poxvirus

HOST: Cattle

SIGNS: nodules on skin, fever

TRANSMISSION: Flies, mosquitoes, direct contact

DIAGNOSIS: Signs

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: Vaccination, separate affected animal from herd

62
Left: nodules on body surface From Disease control module UNZA, the department
of veterinary and livestock development and MACO

Right: Ruptured nodule of cow at NRDC farm

16.3 Ephemeral fever (Three-day stiff sickness)

CAUSE: Rhabdoviridae Ephemerovirus

HOST: Cattle

TRANSMISSION: Insects

SIGNS: Sudden fever, depression, muscle stiffness

DIAGNOSIS: Signs, Blood (serum)

TREATMENT: Antibiotics (effective although it’s viral disease for secondary bacterial
infections).

PREVENTION: Vaccination

16.4 Rinderpest

CAUSE: Paramixoviridae, Morbillivirus

Hosts: cloven-hoofed animals

Transmission: inhalation or oral intake of virus from nasal-ocular discharge, saliva,

urine and faeces

SIGNS: Diarrhoea, fever, nasal discharge, lacrimation, high mortality

DIADNOSIS: Blood (serum), Tissue (spleen, lymph nodes)

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: vaccination

This disease has been eradicated but still remains in some parts of Africa

63
16.5 Anthrax (ZOONOSIS)

CAUSE: Bacillus anthracis (G+ bacteria)

HOST: Herbivore (cattle, African buffaloes,), pigs, wild boars, carnivore, human

SIGNS: Tar like blood from natural opening of carcass, sudden death, fever

TRANSMISSION: Ingestion of spore from contaminated soil, carcass

DIAGNOSIS: Bacteria isolation from blood

TREATMENT: High level dosage of penicillin in early stage

PREVENTION: Vaccination

Left: culture of B.anthracic. Colony is very big.

Right: Gram stain of B.anthracic

64
 Epidemiology and control of anthrax from Disease control module UNZA,
the department of veterinary and livestock development and MACO

16.6 Black leg

CAUSE: Clostridium chauvoei (G+ bacteria)

HOST: Herbivore, pigs, wild bores

SIGNS: Fever, depression, inappetence, toxaemia, enlarging region of swollen

muscle, crackles by palpation of infected muscle, sudden death

TRANSMISSION: Ingestion of spore from contaminated soil, wounds (skin, membrane)

DIAGNOSIS: Dark swollen tissue in post mortem exam, Bacteria isolation from lesion
(gram stain)

TREATMENT: N/A, Administer high level of Penicillin (44,000IU/kg) if it’s diagnosed in

early stage.

PREVENTION: Vaccination

65
16.7 Tetanus

CAUSE: Clostridium tetani (G+)

HOST: Horses, cattle, sheep, goats, human

TRANSMISSION: wounds (skin, membrane)

SIGNS: Muscle stiffness (lameness, lockjaw), having eyelids opened, increasing of

reflexes

DIAGNOSIS: Signs, history of recent trauma

TREATMENT: Disinfection of wounds, give tetanus antitoxin, administer penicillin in

early stage.

PREVENTION: Proper surgery, disinfection of wounds,

16.8 Other Clostridial diseases

Malignant Edema: zoonosis and high mortality

CAUSE: Clostridium septicum (G+)

HOST: Cattle, sheep, goats, horses, pigs, human

TRANSMISSION: wounds (skin, membrane)

SIGNS: Fever, depression, inappetence, toxaemia, enlarging region of swollen

muscle (edema)

DIAGNOSIS: Signs, resent trauma, bacterial isolation from lesion (gram stain),

TREATMENT: N/A, Administer high level of Penicillin (44,000IU/kg) if it’s diagnosed in

early stage.

PREVENTION: Proper surgery, disinfection of wounds, vaccination

Enterotoxaemia

CAUSE: Clostridium perfringens(G+)

HOSTS: Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses

TRANSMISSION: Over multiplication of bacteria in the intestines (stress, malnutrition)

SIGNS: Weakness, abdominal pain, bloody diarrhoea, fever, septicaemia

DIAGNOSIS: Signs, bacterial isolation from intestinal contents

66
TREATMENT: N/A, administer penicillin in early stage.

PREVENTION: Hygiene control

16.9 Haemorrhagic septicaemia

CAUSE: Pasteurella multocida(G-)

HOST: Cattle, African buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, wild boars

SIGNS: Sudden death, fever, dullness, sepsis,

Haemorrhage and oedema of tissue

TRANSMISSION: Nasal discharge, saliva,feces

through mouth or trauma

DIAGNOSIS: Bacterial isolation from body tissue or blood, Serum

TREATMENT: Penicillin in early stage

PREVENTION: Vaccination

extensive swelling of neck、Foreign animal

diseases

16.10 Brucellosis (ZOONOSIS)

CAUSE: Brucella abortus (G-)

HOST: Cattle, human

TRANSMISSION: Oral infection (contaminated food, water), by mating

Drinking unpasteurized milk or eating unpasteurized cheeses from infected cattle is

extremely dangerous.

SIGNS: Abortion, still birth, premature birth, deformation of foetus, orchitis

67
Affected people may show fever and muscle pain. DIAGNOSIS: Blood (serum),
bacteria isolation (foetus tissue, milk)

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: Vaccination (avoiding bulls), Test and slaughter of carriers, hygiene

control

Discharges from reproductive tract contaminate environment.

16.11 Tuberculosis (ZOONOSIS)

CAUSE: Mycobacterium bovis (G+)

HOST: Cattle, deer, goats, human

TRANSMISSION: Inhalation of pathogen in sputum, air, tracheal discharge from

infected cattle. Digestion of infected milk or contaminated source of faeces.

SIGNS: No typical sign, cough, weight loss (chronic)

DIAGNOSIS: Tuberculin skin test (We inject liquid for test to neck subcutaneously and
observe the range of swelling 48 to 72 hours later. Over 5 mm swelling with stiffness is
positive.), bacteria isolation (lungs)

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: Test and slaughter

Left: Cheese like abscess in the lungs of infected cattle Right: Tuberculin skin test

68
16.12 Pink eye

CAUSE: Moraxella bovis (G-)

HOST: Cattle

TRANSMISSION: Stimulation such as strong sunlight or wind, direct contact, flies

SIGNS: Lacrimation, congested eye

DIAGNOSIS: Signs

TREATMENT: separate infected cattle and treat them using penicillin and tetracycline

PREVENTION: Putting animals under shade, vector control

Administering eye ointment.

69
UNIT 17 INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF SHEEP AND GOATS

OBJECTIVES: Most of bovine infectious diseases can be occur in sheep and goats as
we have learned already. In this unit we study about infectious diseases especially
against sheep and goats and how to protect them.

OUTCOMES: After studying this unit, we will able to

- describe each disease of sheep and goats

- identify zoonosis

- describe how to prevent diseases

17.1 Sheep pox, goat pox

CAUSE: Poxviridae Capripoxvirus

HOSTS: sheep, goats

TRANSMISSION: by aerosol following close contact between susceptible and

clinically affected animals. By insects.

SIGNS: skin lesion, fever, respiratory sign

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: vaccination

• High mortality in young animals

17.2 Nairobi sheep disease

CAUSE: Bunyaviridae Nairovirus

HOSTS: sheep, goats, (human infection is rare and light)

TRANSMISSION: Ticks (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus=Brown ear tick)

SIGN: fever, bloody faeces, abortion, high mortality in non-epidemic area

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TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: tick control (dipping)/ vaccination

17.3 Contagious pastular dermatitis(ECTHYMA): ZOONOSIS

CAUSE: Poxviridae Parapoxvirus

Hosts: sheep, goats

Transmission: trauma, oral by contaminated food

SIGNS: skin lesion(papule and vesicle) on muzzle, teat and hoof, lameness due to
skin lesion, It become severe with secondary infection

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: vaccination

Mortality is very low

17.4 Blue tongue disease

CAUSE: Virus

HOSTS: sheep, goats, cattle

TRANSMISSION: vector (mosquitoes)

SIGNS: fever, salivation, cyanosis of tongue, difficulty to swallow, ulcer of mucus

membrane of mouth

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: vaccination

• Mortality is low

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17.5 Infectious abortion

CAUSE: Chlamydia (gram negative bacteria and prefer intracellular life)

HOSTS: sheep

TRANSMISSION: contaminated food or water

SIGN: abortion (mother animals don’t show symptoms)

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: vaccination

17.6 Foot rot

Host: Sheep, cattle, goats

Cause: Dichelobacter nodosus, Fusobacterium necrophorum

Signs: lameness, interdigital inflammation

Diagnosis: Signs

Treatment: Trim and administer tincture, iodine or gentian violet to lesion

Prevention: Regular trimming

72
 How to hold or cast animals in order to trim the feet (from a manual for the primary
animal health care worker)

17.7 Parasitic gastro-enteritis

17.8 Nasal fly

Myiasis in sheep. Maggots inhabit in nasal cavity. Treatment is spraying trichlorphon.

73
UNIT 18 INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF PIGS

OBJECTIVES: There are some infectious diseases and some of them are very serious
diseases that bring high mortality. It’s important to know about these diseases to
protect pigs.

OUTCOMES: After studying this unit, we will able to

- describe each disease of pigs

- identify zoonosis

- describe how to prevent diseases

18.1 African swine fever

CAUSE: Asfarviridae Asfivirus

HOSTS: pigs, wild boar

TRANSMISSION: ticks, oral, nasal, direct contact

• After virus invade inside host, it’s spread organs( spleen, liver, lymph nodes,
lungs, kidney) through vessel or lymph
SIGNS: sudden death, fever, diarrhoea, difficulty in breathing, skin discoloration
(reddening)

TREATMENT: N/A

Mortality is near 100% in the acute case

PREVENTION

• Test and slaughter

• Limit import animals from outbreak area
• The carcasses should be burned or buried and the houses thoroughly
disinfected
• No vaccination(virus can change their form easily)
• Disinfection
• Tick control

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18.2 Foot and mouth disease

Pigs discharge a lot of virus in vesicle and saliva. It leads quick spread of FMD virus to
community; we must prevent infection of pigs.

Left: Ruptured vesicle on legs Right: Taking sample from vesicle

18.3 Swine erysipelas: ZOONOSIS

CAUSE: Erysipelothrix spp. (G+)

HOSTS: pigs, wild boar

TRANSMISSION: oral, trauma, by contaminated water, food or soil

SIGNS: acute type (septicaemia, skin lesion, fever, cyanosis), sub-acute type (fever,
skin lesion), chronic

TREATMENT: dose penicillin to infected animals and add food

PREVENTION: vaccination

75
18.4 Swine dysentery

CAUSE: Brachyspira hyodysenteriae

HOSTS: pigs

TRANSMISSION: Oral infection (faeces)

SIGN: Bad smell bloody diarrhoea, in appetent, emaciation

TREATMENT: Antibiotics (Lyncomycin, entryl or tylan)

PREVENTION: All in all out, separate affected pigs

18.5 Greasy pig disease

CAUSE: Staphylococcus hyicus (G+)

HOSTS: pigs

TRANSMISSION: Oral infection (faeces)

SIGN: Fatty discharge cover skin and skin peels. Bad

smell due to attachment of skin wax and dusts on
discharges. Bloody diarrhoea, in appetent or
emaciation

TREATMENT: Antibiotics (Lyncomycin, entryl or tylan)

PREVENTION: All in all out, separate affected pigs

76
UNIT 19 DISEASES OF POULTRY

OBJECTIVES: There are a lot of infectious diseases of poultry in Zambia. Identifying

these diseases is very important to act vaccination program to protect cattle.
Certain diseases should be reported to the authority to stop spread.

OUTCOMES: After studying this unit, we will able to

- describe each disease of pigs

- identify zoonosis

- describe how to prevent diseases

19.1 New castle disease: ZOONOSIS

CAUSE: Paramyxoviridae, paramyxovirus

HOST: Birds

TRANSMISSION: Contact with infective materials including secretions and excretions

SIGNS: Respiratory signs, neurologic signs, drop in laying eggs, high and low mortality

DIAGNOSIS: Signs, history, viral isolation from trachea or cloaca swab, gross lesions
(enlarged spleen)

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: Biosecurity, proper hygiene and feed management, vaccination

Petechial haemorrhage in proventricurus(left) and nervous sign

19.2 Avian influenza

CAUSE: Orthomyxoviridae Influenza virus

HOST: Chickens, quail

TRANSMISSION: Contact with virus discharged in faeces or respiratory secretions

77
SIGNS: Respiratory signs

DIAGNOSIS: viral isolation from the trachea or the lungs, cloaca, serum

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: Biosecurity, proper hygiene and feed management,

19.3 Highly infectious avian influenza

CAUSE: Orthomyxoviridae Influenza virus (H5, H7)

HOST: Poultry, quails, human

TRANSMISSION: Contact with virus discharged in faeces or respiratory secretions

SIGNS: Sudden death, Inappetence, depression with ruffled feathers, stop laying
eggs, diarrhoea, cyanosis

DIAGNOSIS: viral isolation from the trachea or the lungs, cloaca, serum

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: Biosecurity, proper hygiene and feed management, vaccination

(turkey)

Left: Cyanosis of comb (left) and normal comb (right)

Right: Severe petechial haemorrhage on the feet of a chicken

19.4 Infectious bronchitis

CAUSE: Coronaviridae Coronavirus

HOST: Poultry it’s common in chicks within 6 weeks of age.

TRANSMISSION: Inhalation of virus or invading from eye membrane. Virus is

discharged in exhalation and faeces

78
SIGNS: Respiratory signs (characteristic cough), drop in laying eggs or abnormal
production, inflammation of kidney.

DIAGNOSIS: Signs, history, viral isolation from trachea sample

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: Biosecurity, proper hygiene control and feed management,

vaccination

Left: Abnormal eggs normal (middle on the left side)

Center: Regression of ovary and oviduct normal (left)

Right: discoloration and swelling of kidneys

19.5 Marek’s disease

CAUSE: Herpesviridae Mardivirus

HOST: Poultry it’s common in poultry with1 to 5 months of age.

TRANSMISSION: inhalation of virus which is in scurf

SIGNS: Paralysis of legs.

DIAGNOSIS: Signs, swollen nerve or the liver, tumour of lymph nodes in post-mortem
exam

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: Biosecurity, proper hygiene control and feed management,

vaccination

79
Left: paralysis of legs

Right: liver and spleen

Swollen nerve

19.6 Gumboro disease (Infectious bursa disease)

CAUSE: Birnaviridae Avibirnavirus

HOST: Poultry it’s common in chicks at 2 to 4 weeks of age.

TRANSMISSION: Oral transmission of virus in faeces

SIGNS: Dullness, diarrhoea.

DIAGNOSIS: Serum, sampling bursa of fabricius

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: Biosecurity, proper hygiene control and feed management,

vaccination

19.7 Fowl pox

CAUSE: Poxviridae Avipoxvirus

HOST: Poutry

80
TRANSMISSION: Direct contact

SIGNS: nodule on face or wattle

DIAGNOSIS: Signs, serum

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: Vaccination

Left: pox on the face, comb, wattle and beak

Right: pox on the tracheal membrane

19.8 Leucosis (leukaemia)

CAUSE: Retroviridae Alpfaretrovirus

HOST: Poultry

TRANSMISSION: In egg transmission, direct contact,

SIGNS: Inappetance, green diarrhoea, swollen liver

DIAGNOSIS: serum (ELISA)

TREATMENT: N/A,

PREVENTION: Biosecurity

28.9 Avian salmonellosis

CAUSE: Salmonella sp.

HOST: Poultry

TRANSMISSION: In egg transmission, oral infection

81
SIGNS: White diarrhoea

DIAGNOSIS: Signs, serum, cloaca swab

TREATMENT: N/A, antibiotics

PREVENTION: hatchery hygiene, proper hygiene control, food management

• Fowl typhoid (S.gallinarum): 20% may die within 1 month after hatching.
Transmitted in egg.
• Bacillary white diarrhoea (S.pullorum): High mortality due to septicaemia
within few days after hatching. Transmitted in egg. Hatchery sanitation for
prevention.
• Paratyphoid infectious in chickens: Salmonella serovar Except S.pullorum and
S. gallinarum: 5-10% die within 2 weeks of age. enteritidis is a major cause of
food poisoning. Oral infection.

19.10 Fowl cholera

CAUSE: Pasteurella multocida

HOST: Poultry, wild birds

TRANSMISSION: Inhalation, indigestion of contaminated food and water, through

wound

SIGNS: Depression, fever, inappetance, ruffled feather, diarrhoea, high respiratory

rate, high mortality, haemorrhage of internal organs

DIAGNOSIS: isolate and identify bacteria using smear of blood and organ

TREATMENT: N/A,

PREVENTION: Biosecurity, vaccination in outbreak area

19.11 Infectious coryza

CAUSE: Haemophilus paragallinarum (G-)

HOST: Poultry

TRANSMISSION: Inhalation, indigestion of contaminated food and water, through

wound

SIGNS: Respiratory signs, fever, inappetance, nasal discharge, lacrimation, swollen

face

DIAGNOSIS: isolate and identify bacteria using smear of nasal or ocular discharge

82
TREATMENT: Tetracycline

PREVENTION: Biosecurity, vaccination

Swollen face

19.11 Aspergillosis(UNIT11)

19.12 Coccidiosis(UNIT9)

Let’s check vaccination program of each farm!

19.13 Other diseases

19.14 Ascites

CAUSE: Unknown but it’s suspected as cold stress

SIGN: Extended belly

DIAGNOSIS: Sign, Post-mortem examination

POSTMORTEM LESION: water in belly.

TREATMENT: N/A

PREVENTION: Remove stress, proper temperature control

19.15 Soft egg shell: lack of calcium

19.16 Disable to stand or walk

CAUSE: Wound on under the feet, lack of vitamins, infectious diseases

SIGNS: Not able to stand, softened legs (mycoplasmosis)

TREATMENT: hygiene control, antibiotic

83
UNIT 20 TOXICOLOGY

OBJECTIVES: Animals may intake poisonous plants or chemicals accidentally. It’s

important to know what the cause is and how to handle such cases Most of
poisonous diseases show similar signs; hence we must understand fundamentals in
treatment methods.

OUTCOMES: After studying this unit, we will able to

- Describe the causes of poisoning

- Describe how to treat poisoning case

20.1.1 Plants
20.1.2 LANTANA CAMARA ruminants/ alopecia/ cut plants in advance,
charcoal)
20.1.3 ONION (dogs/anaemia/supportive treatment)

20.2 POTATOES(over ingestion of green part or buds/vomiting, abdominal pain/

reject cause)
20.1.4 CYANOGENIC PLANTS (sorghum, cassava)

SIGNS: rapid breathing, excitement, convulsions, paralysis, bright red colour to

venous blood, sudden death.

DIAGNOSIS: Confirmed exposure to cyanogenic plants and signs.

TREATMENT: Sodium thiosulfate or sodium sulphite IV. In case of dairy cows, we can
dose 0.5g/kg body weight sodium thiosulfate in 30-40% solution IV. We can
administer orally. Removal of food.

20.1.6 STRYCHININE

CAUSE: Rodenticides, plants (chizimbiri tree)

SIGNS: Nervous signs, restlessness, stiffness, intermittent convulsions, respiratory

paralysis leading to death

DIAGNOSIS: Signs and history

TREATMENT: Ant convulsions (acetazolamide)

20.1.7 Feeding staff

20.1.7.1NITRATE POISONING

CAUSE: Pasture grown up by excessive manure

SIGNS: Brown blood, cyanosis, inability to stand, difficulty in breathing, low

appetite, weakness, salivation, abortion, infertility

DIAGNOSIS: Signs, Checking forage nitrate levels

84
 TREATMENT: 100ml of 2% methylene blue solution IV for adult cows.

PREVENTION: Avoidance of excessive manure to pasture and sudden change of

feed.

20.1.7.2 MYCOTOXICOSIS(Mold toxin)

CAUSE: Grass with mold

SIGNS: Dysfunction of liver, kidney, low productivity, swollen vulva, abortion.

DIAGNOSIS: Feed analysis for toxin of mold, signs

TREATMENT: Removal of contaminated feed.

PREVENTION: Avoidance of giving forage which have mold.

20.1.7.3 UREA
Urea is converted to Ammonia in rumen and it’s used by bacteria. Urea is important
as a source of non-protein nitrogen for ruminants but excessive feeding of urea
causes production of a lot of ammonia in a short period. It induces ammonia
poisoning so we can say urea poisoning is ammonia poisoning in other words.

CAUSE: Excessive urea in diet or accidental ingestion of fertilizer

SIGNS: No appetite, difficulty in breathing, salivation, colic (stomach pain),

neurologic sign, collapse, coma. Affected animals may die suddenly in acute
case.

DIAGNOSIS: History, checking urea ratio of feed or checking ammonia level in

blood

TREATMENT: Remove source. We can administer 2-6L vinegar and 20-30L cold
water through stomach tube to treat dairy cows.

PREVENTION: We should not give feed more than 1% or 2% of total ratio as urea
for dairy cows.

20.1.7.4 SALT poisoning which commonly happens in pigs.

Cause: excessive sodium chloride in diet or water
Signs: Depression, diarrhea, thirsty, vomiting, weakness, seizures, excessive
urination, difficulty in breathing
Diagnosis: High concentration of sodium in plasma. (Normal concentration of
sodium of pig and cows are 135-150mmol/l and 132-150mmol/l respectively.)
Treatment: Accessing small amounts of fresh water at regular interval. Free-choice
water may create edema of brain. Slow drip IV therapy with low percentage
dextrose and half-concentrated saline solution.

85
 20.1.7.5 FISH MEAL(Poultry/ membrane lesion of gizzard)
It can happen in poultry commonly. Fish produce toxin if they were under high
temperature during the production stage. This toxin stimulates secretion of gastric
juices.

Signs: Erosion or ulcer of gizzard

Diagnosis: Feed analysis and signs

Treatment: Removal of feed

20.2 Agrichemical and metal

20.2.1 ORGANOPHOSPHATE, CARBAMATE

Cause: Access or accidental exposure to insecticides, disinfectants or

herbicides that contain organophosphate or carbamates.

Signs: Salivation, miosis (pin point pupil), tremors, weakness, difficulty in

breathing, dehydration, diarrhoea, sweat

Affected animals show signs within hours in case they ingest cause which is
shown above. Signs may be delayed 1 to 7 days or more when they absorbed
it through skin.

Diagnosis: History, signs

Treatment: Atropine, oral dose of 1-2lb (1 pound = 454 gram) activated

charcoal, Pralidoxime (not used for carbamate poisoning), pralidoxime is a
drug to detoxify organophosphate.

20.2 WARFARIN
12 substances are required to clot blood. Warfarin disturbs the production of these
some substances. Vitamin K helps to produce some of them in the liver, so it’s used
for the treatment.
Cause: Rodenticides contain warfarin
Signs: Bleeding in nose, gum, digestive organs and urea
Diagnosis: Signs, history
Treatment: Administer vitamin K

20.3 PYRETHROID
Pyrethroid disturbs nervous transmission.
Cause: Pyrethroid insecticides
Signs: Salivation, paralysis in breathing, convulsions, tremor, vomiting
Diagnosis: History, signs
Treatment: Diazepam to treat convulsion and atropine to treat salivation

86
 20.4 ARSENIC
Cause: Rodenticides, herbicides, wood preservative
Signs: Affected animals may show vomiting, diarrhea or tachycardia in acute case.
They may show numbness of hands and legs or tooth grinding in chronic case.
Diagnosis: Signs, history
Treatment: Thioctic acid 20% solution 50mg/kg IM or sodium thiosulfate 30g orally to
treat dairy cows.

20.5 LEAD
Cause: Old paints (anti rust paints), batteries, drained motor oil, lead shot in feed
Signs: Affected animals may show vomiting, salivation, blindness, diarrhea,
excitement or convulsions in acute case. They may show anemia in chronic case.
Diagnosis: Signs, confirming exposure, analysis of blood
Treatment: Administer thiamine (vitamin B1), calcium disodium edetate (Ca EDTA),
dripping, removal of source.

20.8COPPER
Feeding cow’s feed to sheep is not good. Sheep are more susceptible to copper
than cows so copper amount in cow’s feed is too much for sheep.
Cause: Accidental ingestion of copper sulfate, feeding sheep with cow’s feed
Signs: Affected animals may show vomiting, paralysis of muscle, convulsions or die in
acute case. They may show anemia, jaundice or red urine.
Diagnosis: Confirming exposure, signs, analysis of blood and tissue
Treatment: Removal of source

20.3 PRINCIPAL TREATMENT OF POISONING

-Keep away cause of poisons from animals

-Discharge cause from affected animals

-Drench a large quantity of warm water and cathartic drug such as magnesium
sulphate or paraffin.

A manual for the primary animal health care worker

87
• Charcoal can absorb poisons into small pores. Give 1gm of charcoal mixed
with water per 20kg BW.
• Supportive treatment to treat dehydration, pin point pupil

88
RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOKS

1. SOULSBY, Bailliere,Tindall and Cassell Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa of

Domesticated Animals.
2. Thomas J. Divers 2008, DISEASES OF DAIRY CATTLE Second Edition, SAUNDERS
3. Bacha W, Bacha, L, 2000, second edition Veterinary Histology
4. Fraser , Bergeron J, Mays A 1995 The MERCK Manual 6th edition
5. Blood DC1995, Veterinary Medicine, 7th edition, Bailliere Tindall Ltd
6. Radostitis, O.Metal (1995), Veterinary Medicine A textbook of diseases of cattle,
sheep, pigs, goats and horses; The Bath Press, Avon.
7. FAO, Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases Control
8. Hall H.T.B., Diseases and Parasites of livestock in the Tropics, 2nd Edition.

89