46 1 Prime Movers and Powers Sources PC

Philippine Society of Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering in Collaboration
with the Institute of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

College of Engineering and Agro-industrial Technology UP Los Baños
Online ABE Review Class 2021
AGRICULTURAL AND
BIO-PRODUCTION MACHINERY
Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

Professor 6
Agribiosystems Machinery and Power Engineering Division
Institute of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
Agricultural & Bio-Production Machinery
OUTLINE
Sources of Power in the Farm
Tractors and Transmission Systems
Tillage Machinery and Equipment
Crop Establishment Machinery
Crop Care Machinery
Harvesting and Threshing Machinery
Drying and Milling Machinery

Professor 6
Sources of Power in the Farm

Professor 6
Sources of Power
➢ Human Power
➢ Animal Power
➢ Electric Motors
➢ Internal Combustion Engines
➢ Renewable Sources
- Solar
- Hydro
- Wind
- Biomass

Professor 6
Human and Animal Power

Professor 6
Human Power
• Oldest sources of power in the farm
• Man used his muscles to walk long

distances, hunt animals and till the soil.
• Man learned to tame animals he

hunted for food to work for him by
providing pulling power.

Professor 6
Human Power
• Man learned the use of sleds for transporting

cargoes; use of rollers underneath the sleds; and
finally the use of wheels.
Sled
Sled with rollers

Professor 6
Human Power
• While fire is considered the

greatest discovery of man;
the wheel is the considered
the greatest invention of
man
Evolution of the
WHEEL

Professor 6
Human Power
➢Today, still considered the major sources of

power in the farm because of:
- Size of farm
- Topography
- Crops grown
- High cost of equipment
- High cost and non-availability of fuel
- Availability of low-cost labor.
Professor 6
Human Power
➢Poor source of power.
➢Develops only 0.1 hp working continuously

under favorable conditions (good health, well
fed, and favorable environment).
➢Considering that there are 3M farms, 12M

hectares of agricultural lands, and assuming 5
farmers per farm, human power contribution is
about 0.125 hp/ha.
➢Man is suited to farm operations requiring

judgment rather than simple power.

Professor 6
Human Power
Human energy output in rice production
OUTPUT
TASK/TECHNOLOGY
HP MAN-DAYS/HA
Land preparation
Plowing with carabao 0.06 5.80
Plowing with hand tractor 0.05 1.69
Harrowing with carabao 0.05 2.05
Harrowing with hand tractor 0.08 0.51
Planting
Hand transplanting (dapog) 0.08 12.84
Broadcasting 0.11 0.39
Mechanical (IRRI drum seeder) 0.20 0.53
Weeding
Hand 0.10 9.75
Push-type rotary 0.10 3.72
Power 0.14 1.48
Herbicide broadcasting 0.12 0.19
Harvesting
Cutting with sickle 0.07 8.84
Hauling and piling 0.08 5.80
Threshing
Table thresher 0.05 3.70
Frame thresher (hampasan) 0.07 3.93
Source: Beeghy, W. 1972. Nutrition, Employment and Working Efficiency: Toward Measuring Human Activity in the Rural Tropics.
Cornell Agricultural Economics Staff Paper No. 72-73, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
Professor 6
Animal Power
In the Philippines, the Carabao is the major beast of
burden.
It can generate 1 hp walking continuously under favorable

conditions.
Its work is confined mostly to pulling operations such as

plowing, harrowing, cultivating and transport.

Professor 6
Animal Power
Performance of draft animals under varying pulling loads.

Draft (kg) Speed (kph) Power (hp)
Load
Carabao Cattle Carabao Cattle Carabao Cattle
50 24 20 4.8 4.4 0.42 0.32
100 55 40 4.6 4.0 0.92 0.58
150 75 62 4.3 3.6 1.18 0.82
200 101 88 4.3 3.2 1.58 1.03
250 146 118 3.9 2.4 2.08 1.03
300
350
400
Note: Test animals could not pull load beyond 250 kg.
Source: Test data of the National Carabao Research Center, Institute of Animal
Science, UPLB, 1990.

Professor 6
Animal Power
Power output of animals performing different works in the paddy field.
AVERAGE DRAFT OUTPUT

NATURE OF WORK (kg) (Hp)
Normal plowing 55 0.82
Deep plowing 112 0.96
Harrowing 42 0.87
Cultivating 48 0.79
Source: Tatsumi, H. 1958. Energy Expense of Horses in Culture in a Paddy Field. National
Institute of Agricultural Science Bulletin Series 6. No.14.

Professor 6
Animal Power
Advantages (Compared with mechanical energy sources)
a. lower initial cost

b. easy to maintain
c. rarely bogs down in mud
d. can work closer to the levees
e. mobile in most terrain conditions,
f. if female, it is capable of reproduction
g. source of milk, meat, leather and fertilizer.

Professor 6
Animal Power
Disadvantages
a. low work capacity - this means more time spent for a

single operation (25-50 h/ha plowing once)
b. more labor input and drudgery (a farmer walks with the
carabao 77 km/ha), and limited working period to avoid
the intense heat of the sun
c. prone to disability by disease, poisoning and death and
lost by rustling,
d. requires daily attention such as feeding and pasturing
even when not in use
e. under poor management practices, carabao causes
unsanitary conditions near the house due to wasted
feed, dung and urine.
Professor 6
Sample Problem
Determine the time required and distance travelled in plowing a one-

hectare field using a 13-cm wide animal-drawn plow with a field
efficiency of 70%. If the draft is 60 kg and the animal is travelling at 3
kph, what is the horsepower output of the animal?
Capacity –
Given: Theoretical = SWEff/10
Area = 1 ha Draft = 60 kg Actual =
Width = 13 cm Speed = 3 kph Area /Time
Field efficiency = 70 % Ha/h
A= WD
Time= 1/C = h/ha
Required: SD= Kg/cm^2

Time to plow one hectare Draft soil = SD X w X d = kg
Distance travelled per hectare HP = (Sx Dsoil)/ 274 or 375
Horsepower output of animal
Professor 6
Sample Problem
Time to plow one hectare:
SWEff.
C = ----------- EQN. 1
10
where:
C = effective field capacity, ha/h
S = speed of travel, kph
W = width of cut, m
Eff = field capacity, Decimal
(3 kph) (0.13 m) (0.70)

hence: C = ------------------------------- = 0.0273 ha/h
10
1 1
t = ------ = ------------------ = 36.63 h/ha
C 0.0273 ha/h
Professor 6
Sample Problem
Distance travelled in one hectare:

WD
A = ------------ EQN. 1-2
10
where:
A = area, ha
W = width of cut, m
D = distance travelled, km
10A 10 x 1 Ha
therefore, D = ------------- = --------------------- = 76.92 km
W 0.13 m

Professor 6
Sample Problem
Horsepower output of the animal:
DS
Hp = --------- EQN. 1-3
274
where:
D = draft, kg S = Speed, kph
60 kg x 3 kph
therefore, Hp = ----------------------- = 0.66 hp
274

Professor 6
Electric Motors

Professor 6
Electric Motors
Electro-mechanical devices used to convert electrical

energy into mechanical energy
P= VI cos θ
where:
P = Power
V = Voltage
I = Current
cos θ = phase factor
Source: autosystempro.com

Professor 6
Electric Motors
Efficient means of converting energy into mechanical

energy compared to gasoline and diesel engines.
Energy conversion efficiencies of major farm power units.

ENERGY CONVERSION
POWER UNIT EFFICIENCY
%
Electric motor 50 - 99
Gasoline engine 25
Diesel engine 40
Source: Gustafson and Morgan, 2004

Professor 6
Electric Motors
They are commonly used as prime movers for stationary
and indoor equipment such as those used for processing
of farm products and by-products
Source: https://www.medlife.com/blog/5-fruits-
vegetables-consume-winter/
Source: https://www.exportersindia.com/patel-brothers-
company4683743/maize-sheller-3558786.htm

Professor 6
Electric Motors
Advantages over engines
1. low initial cost,

2. available in fractional hp sizes (1/4, ½, ¾ Hp) and
low integral hp sizes (1, 1 ½, 2, 2 ½, 3 Hp),
3. Compact
4. long life
5. easy to start and simple to operate
6. inexpensive to operate
7. quiet operation
8. no exhaust fumes
9. potential for automatic control
Source: Gustafson, 2004

Professor 6
Electric Motors
Disadvantages
1. not adapted to mobile applications such as field

machines,
2. used only in farms with existing electric lines
3. affected by power outages

Professor 6
Electric Motors
Classifications
Source: PAES 129:2002

Professor 6
Electric Motors
Direct-current motors
- use direct-unidirectional current.

- commonly used in special applications where high
torque starting or smooth acceleration over a broad
speed range is required.
DC Motor.
Source: Direct Industry, 2005
Electric Motors
Direct-current motors main components:
1. Field pole
- interaction of two
magnetic fields causes
the rotation in a DC
motor.
- north and south poles
that are stationary and
an armature (rotor) that
turns on bearings in
the space between the
field poles.
Professor 6
Electric Motors
2. Armature (rotor)
- becomes an electromagnet when current goes
through it.
- linked to a drive shaft in order to drive the load.
- it rotates in the magnetic field established by the
poles, until the north and south poles of the
magnets change location with respect to the
armature.
- the current is reversed to switch the south and north
poles of the armature. Thus rotation is achieved

Professor 6
Electric Motors
3. Commutator
Commutator is found only in DC motors. Its purpose is to

overturn the direction of the electric current in the
armature. The commutator also aids in the transmission of
current between the armature and the power source.

Professor 6
Electric Motors
Alternating -current motors
- use an electrical current, which reverses its direction

at regular intervals.
- majority of electrical motors used in homes and on
farms are alternating current motors
- two major parts: stator and rotor
- difficult to control the speed; can be equipped with
variable frequency drives
AC motor
Source: Integrated Publishing, 2003

Professor 6
Electric Motors
Synchronous motor
- runs at constant speed

- requires direct current (DC) for excitation
- low starting torque.
- Applications: low load requirement such as air
compressors, frequency changes and motor
generators.
- Synchronous motors are able to improve the power
factor of a system, which is why they are often used
in systems that use a lot of electricity

Professor 6
Electric Motors
Synchronous motor
Application in agriculture :
- clocks and timers

- three-phase synchronous motors are more widely
used. with very large horsepower and relatively low
speed.

Professor 6
Electric Motors
Induction motor
Induction motors the most popular motors in industry

because of their ruggedness and lower maintenance
requirements. AC induction motors are inexpensive, half or
less of the cost of a DC motor, and also provide a high
power to weight ratio, about twice that of a DC motor

Professor 6
Electric Motors
Induction motor
Two main electrical components: rotor and stator

Two types of rotors: squirrel-cage rotor and wound rotor.
Squirrel-cage rotor consists of thick conducting bars, short-
circuited at both ends by means of short-circuiting rings,
embedded in parallel slots.
- wound rotor has a three-phase, double-layer, distributed
winding.
- It is wound for as many poles as the stator. The three
phases are wired internally, and the other ends are connected
to slip-rings mounted on a shaft with brushes resting on them.

Professor 6
Electric Motors
Classification of electric motors based on electrical

service required:
Single-phase alternating current (< 5 hp)

Three-phase alternating current (> 5 hp)

Professor 6
Electric Motors
Motor Ratings and Selection
1. Torque requirement:
Starting torque
Running torque
At all times from start to full
speed, the torque supplied by
the motor > than that required
by the load.
If the load torque becomes

higher than the motor torque, Figure 1. Speed-vs-torque curve
for general-purpose motor
the motor will stall.
Professor 6
Electric Motors
2. Starting current requirements:
During starting, a current of magnitude 2- 7x larger than the

full-load current is expected.
Knowing the starting current requirements of motors, the

corresponding rating of transformers, fuses, switches and
wires can be determined.
A motor code designated by a letter on the motor nameplate,

may be used to compute for the starting current.
Professor 6
Electric Motors
Motor code
LOCKED ROTOR,
CODE LETTER
KVA/HP
F 5.0 - 5.6
G 5.6 - 6.3
H 6.3 - 7.1
J 7.1 - 8.0
K 8.0 - 9.0
L 9.0 - 10.0

Professor 6
Electric Motors
For example, calculate the maximum locked-rotor current
(starting current) for a ½-hp, 220-volt motor with an H motor
code.
Locked Rotor (VA/Hp) X Power (Hp)

Max. starting current = A = ------------------------------------------- = Amp.
Voltage

Professor 6
Electric Motors
For example, calculate the maximum locked-rotor current
(starting current) for a ½-hp, 220-volt motor with an H motor
code.
7,100 VA/Hp X 0.5 Hp

Max. starting current = A = ------------------------------ = 16.14 amp.
220 V

Professor 6
Electric Motors
3. Temperature rating:
Both bearing and insulation life are reduced as the operating

temperature of the motor increases.
Motors are built with four insulation classes and are

classified by the maximum temperature any spot in the
motor can tolerate continuously.

Professor 6
Electric Motors
Insulation class of motors
MAX. HOT SPOT CONT.

INSULATION CLASS TEMPT.
ºC ºF
A 105 221
B 130 266
F 155 311
H 180 356
Normal maximum ambient temperature for motor operation is 40ºC
(104ºF) for most motor ratings
As a generalDr.rule, never operate the motor under the direct heat of the
Rossana Marie C. Amongo
sun. Professor 6
Electric Motors
4. Duty rating:
Motor duty refers to how frequently the motor is started and

for how long it will run each time it is started.
Continuous duty is the type of service in which the motor is

operated for more than 60 minutes at a time.
Intermittent duty type is operated only for up to 30 minutes

at a time with a rest or cooling period between operations.

Professor 6
Electric Motors
4. Duty rating:
However, most motors are designed for continuous duty.
Use of intermittent duty motors is a matter of cost. Heat

dissipation is not as critical on an intermittent duty motor;
therefore, some components can be constructed less
expensively.

Professor 6
Electric Motors
5. Enclosure:
The open-type enclosure allows for easy movement of air

through the windings by providing slots in the end shields or
frame where air can pass through.
A blower attached to the rotor shaft sucks the air in through

the slots in the front end shield and out of the rear end
shield.
This is desirable for motors operating in clean air or where

water is kept from entering the motor.
Professor 6
Electric Motors
5. Enclosure:
The closed-type enclosure does not allow entry of air to the

windings.
➢ A fan on the rotor shaft blows air on the outside surface of
the frame to dissipate the heat.
➢ Fins are constructed on the frame to increase the surface

area for heat dissipation.
➢ One advantage of closed-type enclosure is that they are

not affected by dusty conditions and water splashes.
Professor 6
Electric Motors
6. Service factor:
Service factor indicates the maximum load that can be

successfully carried by the motor if it is to operate
continuously and remain within a safe temperature range.
Integral horsepower motors have service factor of 1.15

Fractional horsepower motors have service factors ranging
from 1.25 for ¾ hp to 1.4 for 1/20 hp.
The service factor on the nameplate is multiplied by the

horsepower rating to give the maximum load that the motor
can safely sustain.
Professor 6
Electric Motors
Motor Nameplate
The motor nameplate carries a good deal of essential

information about the motor.
Refer to it when you specify, buy, install, replace, operate

and repair motors.

Professor 6
Internal Combustion Engines

Professor 6
The internal combustion engine is a heat engine
that converts the heat energy of fuels into
mechanical energy.
The combustible fuel and air mixture is placed

inside the cylinder in a gaseous condition,
compressed and ignited resulting in a very rapid
combustion and instantaneous application of Source:
https://hu.pinterest.com/pin/308144799506432571/?ni
pressure on the piston. c_v2=1a5EOp8ag
Its thermal efficiency, however, is low ranging

only from 15% to 40 %. Despite this, it is still
considered one of the few inventions that have
great influence on human lives.

Professor 6
Construction and Parts of Engines:
The internal combustion engine

is composed of mutually
constrained and related parts that
convert the pressure generated in
the cylinder into rotational motion
Source: https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-
basic-parts-of-an-engine

Professor 6
The engine body consists of:
1. Cylinder - confines the expanding gases and forms the

combustion chamber.
2. Cylinder head - forms a cover on one end of the cylinder.
3. Piston - covers the other end of the cylinder, slides inside the
cylinder to transmit the force of expansion to the connecting rod
and drives the crankshaft into rotary motion.
4. Piston rings - effects a tight seal against the cylinder wall.

Professor 6
5. Connecting rod - transmits the power of

combustion from the piston to the crankshaft.
6. Crankshaft - converts the reciprocating

motion of the piston to rotary motion by means
of a crank and two bearing supports.
7. Flywheel - stores energy during the power

stroke and returns this energy during the idle
strokes producing a uniform rotation.

Professor 6
8. Valves - open and close the ports leading

into and out of the combustion chamber.
9. Spark plug - produces the spark to initiate

the ignition of the fuel and air mixture.
10. Crankcase - covers the crankshaft and

holds the oil for the lubrication of the moving
parts.

Professor 6
Classifications:
1. Based on the number of strokes to

complete the cycle:
All internal combustion engines during

their operation follow a definite cycle.
A cycle is a series of events occurring Engine Cycle of

one after the other in a definite order operation
and repeats itself after the last event
has occurred.

Professor 6
Events for one cycle
a. Intake -air or air-fuel mixture enters
the combustion chamber.
b. Compression - air or air-fuel mixture
is compressed inside the
combustion chamber. Source:https://nafrizaltimes.wordpress.com/2011/11/28/c
ombustion-in-the-gasoline-engine/
c. Power - air-fuel mixture is ignited

resulting to a very rapid
expansion of the burning
mixture.
d. Exhaust - burned gases are removed Source: https://www.britannica.com/technology/diesel-
engine
from the combustion chamber,

and the cycle is repeated.
Professor 6
Four-stroke-cycle engine:
This engine requires four strokes of

the piston to complete the cycle.
A stroke is the movement of the piston

from one extreme position to the other
extreme position. Source: https://i1.wp.com/mechstuff.com/wp-
content/uploads/2015/10/4-stroke-engine.jpg
-Top dead center position (TDC)

-Bottom dead center position (BDC).

Professor 6
Two-stroke-cycle engine
This engine requires only two

movements of the piston to
complete the cycle. This implies
that in one stroke several events
have to occur.

Professor 6
1) Downward stroke –
At the beginning of the stroke,

power event is being
accomplished. Towards the
end of the stroke, the exhaust
port along the side of the
cylinder is uncovered by the
piston that starts the exhaust
event. Still further down, the
piston also uncovers the inlet
port that now starts the intake
event.
Professor 6
2) Upward stroke –
At the beginning of the stroke,

both intake and exhaust events
are occurring. As the piston goes
up, the inlet port will be covered
and followed by the exhaust port.
From then on, compression will be
accomplished, and the crankcase
recharged with fresh supply of air-
fuel mixture.

Professor 6
2. Based on the manner of igniting the fuel:
a. Spark-ignition engine –
This engine uses a spark produced by a spark
plug to ignite the compressed air-fuel mixture.
The spark is timed to occur before the end of
compression such that maximum pressure due to
the expansion of burning gases is felt when the
piston is ready to start its downward movement.
The fuel used in this engine is gasoline and the
carburettor does the metering.

Professor 6
2. Based on the manner of igniting the fuel:
b. Compression-ignition engine –
Uses the heat of compressed air to ignite the fuel.
Intake stroke, only air is taken and compressed to a very high degree
producing a very high temperature in the combustion chamber.
Towards the end of compression, pressurized fuel is injected into the

cylinder. The moment the fuel comes in contact with the hot air,
spontaneous ignition and combustion occurs producing the power of the
engine.

Professor 6
Comparison between four-stroke and two-stroke engines
CHARACTERISTICS 4-STROKE- ENGINE 2-STROKE ENGINE
No. of power events 1 per two rev. of 2 per two rev. of
crankshaft crankshaft
Power output smaller larger (1.5 times)
Valve mechanism required not required
Fuel consumption lesser more (15% more)
Oil consumption little much
Size of crankcase smaller larger
Carbon deposits little much
Weight per hp heavier lighter
Cost higher lower

Professor 6
Comparison between spark-ignition and compression-ignition
engines
SPARK-IGNITION COMPRESSION-IGNITION
CHARACTERISTICS
ENGINE ENGINE
Method of ignition Spark heat of compression
Compression ratio lower (5-8:1) higher (14-22:1)
Thermal efficiency lower (25-30%) higher (30-36%)
Fuel induction carburetor injector
Fuel used gasoline diesel
Air-fuel ratio 12-15:1 15-100:1
Fuel consumption higher lower
Exhaust gas temp. higher (1300F) lower (900F)
Weight per hp lower higher
Cost lower higher
Professor 6
Comparison between spark-ignition and compression-ignition
engines
SPARK-IGNITION COMPRESSION-IGNITION
CHARACTERISTICS
ENGINE ENGINE
Method of ignition Spark heat of compression
Compression ratio lower (5-8:1) higher (14-22:1)
Thermal efficiency lower (25-30%) higher (30-36%)
Fuel induction carburetor injector
Fuel used gasoline diesel
Air-fuel ratio 12-15:1 15-100:1
Fuel consumption higher lower
Exhaust gas temp. higher (1300F) lower (900F)
Weight per hp lower higher
Cost lower higher
Professor 6
Specifications of engines:
In the acquisition, replacement and comparison of engines, it is
necessary to take into consideration the following specifications:
1. Engine type (number of strokes, manner of ignition, cylinder number

and arrangement).
2. Engine dimensions (bore, stroke, displacement, weight, length, width,
and height)
3.Output (maximum power, rated power, compression ratio, maximum
torque and rpm)
4.Capacities (fuel, lubricating oil and cooling water)
5. Auxiliary systems (valve, ignition, fuel, air cleaning, cooling,
lubrication, starting and governing)

Professor 6
Specifications of engines:
Example of engine specifications
CHARACTERISTIC SPECIFICATION
Engine type : 4-stroke spark-ignition vertical single cylinder
Maximum output : 6.8 hp at 4,000 rpm
Rated output : 5.0 hp at 3,600 rpm
Bore x stroke, displacement : 72 x 59 mm, 240 cc
Compression ratio : 6:1
Maximum torque : 1.25 kg-m at 3,000 rpm
Ignition system : flywheel magneto
Starting system : recoil starter
Air cleaner : semi-dry type (polyurethane)
Lubrication system : splash type
Lubrication capacity : 0.82 li
Fuel tank capacity : 6.9 li
Dry weight : 28 kg
Dimensions : 410 mm x 370 mm x 490 mm

Professor 6
Sample problem:
Determine the compression ratio of the engine with the following
specification: Total volume = 70 cc, Bore = 4 cm and Stroke = 5 cm.
Given: TV = 70 cc, D = 4 cm, L = 5 cm
Required: Find CR
Solution:
Π𝐷2 𝐿
𝑃𝐷 =
4
𝐶𝑉 = 𝑇𝑉 − 𝑃𝐷
𝑇𝑉
𝐶𝑅 =
𝐶𝑉

Professor 6
Sample problem:
Determine the compression ratio of the engine with the following
specification: Total volume = 70 cc, Bore = 4 cm and Stroke = 5 cm.
Given: TV = 70 cc, D = 4 cm, L = 5 cm
Required: Find CR
Solution:
D 2 L  (4cm ) 5cm
2
PD = = = 62.83cu.cm
4 4
CV = TV − PD = 70cc − 62.83cc = 7.17cc
TV 70cc 9.76
CR = = = = 9.76 : 1
CV 7.17cc 1
Professor 6
Sample problem:
Determine the bore of the engine if its clearance volume is 7.18 cc,
compression ratio is 8:1 and stroke is 4 cm.
Given: CV = 7.18 cc, CR = 8:1. L = 4 cm

=
Required:
= Bore = D
=

Professor 6
Sample problem:
Determine the bore of the engine if its clearance volume is 7.18 cc,
compression ratio is 8:1 and stroke is 4 cm.
Given: CV = 7.18 cc, CR = 8:1. L = 4 cm

=
Required:
= Bore = D
=
TV
CR = TV = CRXCV = 8 X 7.18 = 57.44cc
CV
TV = PD + CV PD = TV − CV = 57.44cc − 7.18cc = 50.26cc
D 2 L 4 PD 4 X 50.26cc
PD = D= 16 4cm
4 L 3.14 X 4cm

Professor 6
Reading Assignments
PAES 116:2001-
Agricultural Machinery - Small Engine Specifications
PAES 117-2001-
Agricultural Machinery-Small Engine Methods of Test
PAES 129-2002-
Agricultural Machinery -Electric Motors Specifications
PAES 130-2002-
Agricultural Machinery -Electric Motors Methods of Test

Professor 6
Tractors and Transmission System

Professor 6
Tractors
• Mechanical device consisting of an engine and

power transmission system. The engine ranges
from 3 hp to over 100 hp.
• Equipped with a transmission system that produces

high torque on its wheels for pulling various
implements in the farm.
• Equipped with a rotary shaft (power take-off shaft,

PTO) that produces rotary power for the operation
of rotary implements.

Professor 6
Tractors
• Equipped with a hydraulic system for lifting and

lowering (during transport) and positioning (during
operation) of various implements in the farm
• Tractors are classified as two-wheel tractor and

four-wheel tractor.

Professor 6
Tractors
• The first four-wheel tractors were brought to the

Philippines during the American occupation for
large-scale sugar cane production.
• The first two-wheel tractors were introduced in the

Philippines from Japan in the 1960s for wetland rice
cultivation.

Professor 6
Two-Wheel Tractors
• Single-axle machine powered by an

engine ranging from 3 hp to 15 hp.
• Used for land preparation, planting,

cultivating, harvesting and transport.
Two Wheel Tractor
Source: AMTEC Test Report
• Various implements are attached to

this tractor and the operator walks
behind to provide control.

Professor 6
Two-Wheel Tractors
Classification According to Function
1.Traction type – provides pulling

power through its drawbar
• Fitted with pneumatic tires for dry land

operation.
• Fitted with steel cage wheels for wet land
Traction type hand tractor
operation. Source: Amongo Photo Gallery
• Equipped with a single-bottom moldboard

plow or two-bottom disc plow and comb-
tooth harrow for land preparation and a
trailer for transport.
Professor 6
Two-Wheel Tractors
Basic Parts
Typical hand tractor and its components

Source: PAES 109-2009 (Walking Type Agricultural Tractor)

Professor 6
Two-Wheel Tractors
2. Rotary type – fitted with rotary

blades to cut and pulverize the soil
• Rotary blades may be attached to a rear axle

powered by the tractor PTO for dry land
operation. Rotary type hand tractor
Source: AMTEC Test Report 2000-48
• It comes with a floating device for deep mud
conditions.
• Rotary blades may be attached to and
powered by the wheel axle itself for dry land
or wet land operation.

Professor 6
Two-Wheel Tractors
Basic Parts
Float Assist Tiller

Source: PAES 124:2002

Professor 6
AMO NCII TRAINING AMD, IAE, CEAT RMCAMONGO
MAY 7-10, 2019
Two-Wheel Tractors

3. General-purpose type – fitted
with a drawbar for traction work
and a power-take-off (PTO) for
rotary work
• It comes with a moldboard or disc plow
attached to the drawbar and a
detachable rotary blade assembly General purpose type hand tractor
powered by the PTO. Source: AMTEC Test Report 2003-17
• The common general-purpose tractor is

of Japanese design and comes
normally with steering clutches and
multiple speed transmission including
reverse.
Professor 6
Two-Wheel Tractors
Basic Parts
PTO Driven Rotary Tiller

PAES 110: 2001

Professor 6
Two-Wheel Tractors
Basic Parts
Axle Driven Rotary Tiller

PAES 110: 2001

Professor 6
Two-Wheel Tractors
Basic Components
• Prime mover
• Power transmission system
• Mounting frame
• Different control levers
• Wheels.

Professor 6
Utilization of two-wheel tractor in the
agricultural production system
Utilization:
land preparation,
planting, Weeding/cultiv
weeding/cultivation ation and

transport
transport 32%
Land
Preparation
only
68%

Professor 6
Two-wheel tractor in the
agricultural production system
DESIGNS and MODELS of the TRACTION TYPE HAND TRACTOR

(AMTEC, TEST REPORT 1999-2009)
Professor 6
Four-Wheel Tractors
• Double-axle machine powered by an engine

ranging from 15 hp to over 100 hp.
• Power is delivered as draft at the drawbar,

rotary at the PTO and lifting at the hydraulic
system.
• Implements are mounted on the tractor

using the hydraulic-controlled three-point
hitch system.
Professor 6
Four-Wheel Tractors
• It is a slow-moving vehicle (up to 30 kph)

with high torque on the driving wheels.
• It comes with multiple speed transmission

including reverse to accommodate various
field speeds.
• The operator is provided with a seat from

where the tractor is controlled.

Professor 6
Four-Wheel Tractors
• The tractor is provided with various controls

for its operation: throttle lever, clutch pedal,
brake pedals, gear shift lever, steering
wheel, hydraulic main control lever (draft
and position control), PTO control lever,
differential lock pedal and others.

Professor 6
Four-Wheel Tractors
Classified as either compact or standard type

according to the hp rating of the engine
Compact tractors – tractors with power rating

below 32 hp
Standard light tractors – 32 hp to 49 hp
Standard light-medium tractors – 50 hp to 69 hp
Standard medium tractors – 70 hp to 89 hp
Standard heavy tractors – 90 hp and above.

Professor 6
Four-Wheel Tractors
Compact tractors

Professor 6
Four-Wheel Tractors
Standard tractors

Professor 6
Transmission Systems
The transmission system is the second major

component of the tractor; the engine being the first
major component.
The transmission system provides:

draft power to the tractor through the wheels,
rotary power through rotating axles and shafts,
lifting power through the hydraulic system.

Professor 6
Common methods of power transmission
Direct coupling
The load is directly connected to the
engine by some kind of flange device.
Transmission efficiency: 100% Rotation

of the engine shaft is equal to the
rotation of the input shaft of the load
(N1 = N2)
Direction of rotation are the same.

Professor 6
Belt and pulleys
Transmission efficiency is <100%

because of some slippage between the
belt and pulley.
Transmission efficiency is a function of:

belt tightness,
diameter and class of pulleys
type of belt magnitude of power being
transmitted.

Professor 6
Belt and pulleys
The directions of rotation of the two

pulleys are the same.
Clutch action may be obtained by

shifting the belt from a loose to a tight
connection using a third pulley or other
techniques.

Professor 6
Belt and pulleys
The speed ratio between the engine and load

depends on the diameter ratio of the two pulleys as
shown in the equation:
N1D1=N2D2 =
N 1 D2
where: = 1
N1 is the rpm of pulley
N 2 2 D1
N2 is the rpm of pulley
D1 is the Diameter of pulley 1
D2 is the Diameter of pulley 2

Professor 6
Chain and Sprockets
Two sprockets are used and connected

by a roller chain.
The sprocket is characterized by a

number of teeth around its periphery.
While the chain is characterized by
rollers spaced uniformly along the
length

Professor 6
Chain and Sprockets
Transmission efficiency is < 100%

because of chain slack.
The direction of rotation of the two

sprockets is the same.
Common examples using chain and

sprockets are the transmission of
bicycles and motorcycles.

Professor 6

Chain and Sprockets
The speed ratio between the engine

and load depends on the number of
teeth ratio of the two sprockets as
shown in the equation:
N1 T2
N1T1=N2T2 = =
N 2 T1
Where: T1 is the number of teeth of sprocket 1
T2 is the number of teeth of sprocket 2

Professor 6
Gear System
Two gears are used without the need

for a third element by placing them
side-by-side and transmitting power
through their teeth.
Transmission efficiency < 100%

because of gear slack
Center-to -center distance between the

shafts of the engine and load is dictated
by the size of the gears.
Professor 6
Gear System
Direction of rotation of the two gears is

opposite each other.
Speed ratio may be determined using

eqn. 2.

Professor 6
Gear System
There are many different types of gears an

example of which is the spur and bevel
gears
The spur gears are used to transmit rotary

motion between parallel shafts.
Bevel gears are used to transmit motion

between intersecting shafts.

Professor 6
Two-wheel tractor transmission system
Belt
Engine
Gear box
Driven pulley Sprocket
Chain
Axle
Drive wheel

Professor 6
Two-wheel tractor transmission system
Speed Ratios: 3 speed reduction system
N1D1 = N2D2
N2=N3
N3T3=N4T4
N4 = N5
N5T5=N6T6
N6 =N7-Rev of the Ground wheel
Vw = 2πrN7 = πDN7, kph
ROSSANA MARIE C. AMOMGO, PhD
Professor 6
AMPED, IABE, CEAT, UP LOS
BAŇOS
Professor 6
Two-wheel tractor transmission
system
-The transmission system is consists of
several speed reductions.
-The first speed reduction uses the pulleys and belt with a third pulley for
clutching.
-The second and third speed reductions use the chain and sprockets
enclosed in a transmission box for lubrication.
-The transmission box has two output shafts or axles where the two
traction wheels are attached.
-The rpm and diameter of the wheels determine the linear speed of the
tractor.

Professor 6
Four-wheel tractor transmission system
Right wheel
Belt pulley
Final
drive
Transmission
gear box
Differential
Engine Clutch Hydraulic

pump Power take-off
shaft

Professor 6

It starts from the clutch that is connected to the engine
flywheel.
The output shaft of the clutch connects to the belt pulley,

the pump of the hydraulic system, the power-take-off (PTO)
shaft and the transmission gearbox.
The output shaft of the transmission gearbox leads to the

differential.
The differential has two output shafts called left and right
axles to which
Dr. Rossanathe
Professor 6
Marie two rear wheels are connected.
C. Amongo

Speed Ratios
SRt= Ne/Ngw
SRt = SRtr x SRd x SRfd
Where: SRt is the speed ratio of the tractor
Ne is the rpm of engine
Ngw is the rpm of the groundwheel
SRtr is the speed ratio of the transmission system
SRd is the speed ratio of the differential
SRfd is the speed ratio of the final drive

Professor 6
The clutch is used to connect or Pressure spring Release lever
disconnect the load from the engine. Throw-out bearing

Flywheel
Clutch shaft
Crank-shaft Clutch pedal
The friction clutch which is the most
common type of clutch in tractors has
Release
a coupler that utilizes the friction Pilot bearing fork
between two surfaces pressed Driven disc
together to transmit power. Pressure plate

Eyebolt
Clutch cover

Professor 6
Driven Shaft Driving Shaft
Counter Shaft
FIRST SPEED THIRD SPEED
Reverse
idler gear
SECOND SPEED REVERSE
Transmission system

Professor 6
A
B
C D
G
E F
Differential
A- Shaft E/F- Side Gears
B - Bevel pinion G- Differential Bevel Pinion
C- Ring Gear H - Axle
D- Differential Housing I- Wheel
Professor 6
Sample Problem
Determine the forward speed (VW ) of the two-

wheel tractor (kph) if the specifications of the
transmission devices are as given below:
TRACTION
1ST REDUCTION 2ND REDUCTION 3RD REDUCTION WHEELS
N1 = 3,000 rpm N3 = N5 = N7 =
N2 = N4 = 250 rpm N6 = 75 rpm D7 = 50 cm
D1 = 10 cm T3 = T5 = 33 teeth Speed =
D2 = 30 cm T4 = 100 teeth T6 =

Professor 6
Solution:
N1 D2 N1 D1 (3,000rpm)(10cm)
=  N2 = = = 1,000rpm
N 2 D1 D2 30cm
N 3 = N 2 = 1,000rpm
N 3 T4 N T (250rpm)(100teeth)
=  T3 = 4 4 = = 25teeth
N 4 T3 N3 1000rpm
N 5 = N 4 = 250rpm
N 5 T6 NT (250rpm)(33teeth)
=  T6 = 5 5 = = 110teeth
N 6 T5 N6 75rpm
N 7 = N 6 = 75rpm
1km 60 min
VW = D7 N 7 =  (0.5m)(75rpm)( )( ) = 7.07 kph
1,000m 1hr
Professor 6
Sample Problem
If it is desired to reduce the forward speed of

the two-wheel tractor to 3 kph, what should be
the diameter of D2 if D1 and N1 remain the
same?
1ST 2ND 3RD TRACTION
REDUCTION REDUCTION REDUCTION WHEELS
N1 = 3,000 rpm N3 = N5 = N7 =
N2 N4 = N6 = D7 = 50 cm
D1 = 10 cm T3 =25 teeth T5 = 33 teeth Speed = 3 kph
D2 = T4 = 100 teeth T6 = 110 teeth

Professor 6
Solution:
3kph 1,000m 1hr
VW = D7 N 7  N 7 = ( )( )( ) = 31.85rpm
x0.5m 1km 60 min
N 7 = N 6 = 31.85rpm
N 5 T6 N 6T6 (110teeth)(31.85rpm)
=  N5 = = = 106.17 rpm
N 6 T5 T5 33teeth
N 5 = N 4 = 106.17 rpm
N 3 T4 NT (100teeth)(106.17 rpm)
=  N3 = 4 4 = = 424.68rpm
N 4 T3 T3 25teeth
N 3 = N 2 = 424.68rpm
N1 D2 N D (3,000rpm)(10cm)
=  D2 = 1 1 = = 70.64cm
N 2 D1 N2 424.68rpm

Professor 6
Basic Operation of the
Two-Wheel Tractor

Professor 6
Operation of the Two-Wheel Tractor for Land
Preparation Operation
1. Inspect the Two-Wheel Tractor.

- Check the wheels
(cage wheels or pneumatic tires)
-Tighten the connections

Professor 6
2. Attach the Implement using the hitch assembly

Moldboard Plow
- Disc Plow

Professor 6
3. Inspect the Prime Mover (engine).

- Check the fuel
- Check the oil
-Tighten parts

Professor 6
4. Start the engine using the recoil rop
For diesel engine,
- open the fuel cock
- adjust the throttle lever midway
-depress the decompression lever first before pulling the
rope.
Decompression lever Rope recoil

Fuel throttle starter
Professor 6
4. Start the engine using the crank
For diesel engine,
- adjust the throttle lever midway
-depress the decompression lever first cranking
the engine

Professor 6
4. Start the engine using the recoil
rope or crank.
For gasoline engine,
- check the high-tension wire if it
is connected to the spark plug
- set the choke lever to halfway Source:Champion 4000W/3000W Model C46535

- adjust the throttle lever halfway
before pulling the rope

Professor 6
5. To run the tractor forward, engage the clutch

lever until it locks.
Clutch lever

Professor 6
6. After the operation ,

clean the tractor and
the implement before
storage.
- as much as possible
re-coat/re-paint the
implement to avoid
rusting

Professor 6
Basic Operation of the
Four-Wheel Tractor

Professor 6
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
SYSTEMS

Professor 6
INSTRUMENTS AND
1. Dashboard and Control Panel CONTROLS
2. Hand Throttle Lever
3. Switches
4. PTO Clutch Lever
5. Brake Pedals
6. Gearshift Lever
7. Hydraulic Lift Levers
8. Accelerator Pedal
9. Speed Range Selector
10. Gearshift Clutch Pedal

11. Light Switch
Professor 6
INSTRUMENTS AND
CONTROLS
1. Spool Valves lever for Remote Controls
2. Hydraulic Sensitivity Control Lever
3. PTO Control Lever
4. 4WD Engaging Lever
5. Parking Brake Lever
6. Differential Lock Engaging Lever

Professor 6
DASHBOARD/CONTROL PANEL
1. Engine Coolant at High

Temperature
2. Battery Charging Light
3. Engine Oil Pressure Warning

Light
4. Dry Air Filter Cartridge

Blockage

Professor 6
5. Parking Warning Lights
6. Oil Warning Light
7. Low Pressure in the Trailer

System
8. Transmission and Hydraulic

Oil Blockage

Professor 6
1. Direction Indicator – 1st Trailer
2. Direction Indicator–2nd Trailer
3. Main Beam Indicator
4. Sidelights Indicator
5. Turn Indicator
6. Fuel Reserve Warning Light

Professor 6
7. Synchronized PTO
8. ECO 540/Economy PTO
9. Independent PTO engaged
10. 4WD Indicator
11. Differential Lock Indicator

Professor 6
INSTRUMENTS AND CONTROLS
RPM METER
1. The engine speed is displayed by a

pointer on the outer graduated scale. The
pointer shouldn't reach the 2450 rpm
zone.
2. Scale for 540 rpm PTO
3. Scale for 1000 rpm PTO
4. Hour counter

Professor 6
Fuel Gauge
When the pointer moves into

the yellow zone and the
yellow reserve light turns on,
there are still about 10 liters
of fuel in the tank.

Professor 6
GEARSIFT CONTROL LEVERS

1. Range selector lever
2. Speed control lever

Professor 6
1. Hand throttle lever –

Idling Speed
2. Hand throttle lever –

Maximum
Acceleration
3. Ignition switch
4. Light switch

Professor 6
Operation of the Four Wheel Tractor for
Land Preparation Operation
1. Start the engine using the
ignition starter
- Make sure that the gear
shift lever is in neutral
position
- All other levers should be PAES 118:2001

in neutral position

Professor 6
2. Attach the implement using the hydraulic
controls and the hitch links
PAES 118:2001

Professor 6
3. In hitching:
The tractor top hitch link should be
aligned with the mast/ top link of
the implement
www.tractorbynet.com/forums/kubota
- The tractor should be side by side

with the implement before hitching
- Drive the tractor following an “S”

pattern for easier alignment of the
tractor and the implement www.everythingattachments.com

Professor 6
3. In hitching:
The tractor top hitch link should be aligned with the
mast/ top link of the implement

Professor 6
3. In hitching: www.agefotostock.com
- Using the hydraulic

controls, hitch the
implement
- attach first the right/left

link then the top link
followed by the last link
- for easy attachment, use

the adjustments of the links
Professor 6
3. In hitching:

Professor 6
3. In hitching:

Professor 6
4. Leveling the implement:
-Drive the tractor to the steel plank

with the left front and rear wheels
on top of the plank
-Lower the plow such that the lowest www.motionelements.com
bottom is about 1 cm from the

pavement
-Use the top link and the right lift link
adjustments to level the plow
longitudinally and laterally.

Professor 6
4. Driving the tractor:
- The hand should be in a 10:10 position before engaging
the tractor and lightly hold the handle with your thumbs.

Professor 6
4. Driving the tractor: Always FASTEN your SEATBELT
- Check the position of the side
mirror which should be in line
of the operator’s sight

Professor 6
4. Driving the tractor:
-Step on the clutch before shifting the gear lever to
another speed.
- Step on the brakes if you want to stop the tractor
-OBEY TRAFFIC RULES when passing through pedestrians

Professor 6
5. Travelling to the field:
- Make sure that the implement is lifted by the
tractor using the hydraulic control
depositphotos.com

Professor 6
6. Before actual operation in the
field:
- Inspect the condition of the
field
- It should be free from

obstructions ( stones, planks, https://dissolve.com/stock-photo
etc)
- Inspect the soil condition

using the feel method
Professor 6
6. During operation:
- set the working speed

using the hand throttle
www.rktractors.com/products-tractors-rk24-series
-if necessary AVOID

stepping on the
accelarator’s pedal

Professor 6
Operation of the Four-Wheel Tractor for
7. Dismounting from the tractor:
- before dismounting from the tractor,
make sure that the implement is on
the ground for safety
- set all the levers and controls to

neutral position
-engage the hand brake https://www.public-health.uiowa.edu/face/
- dismount from the tractor on a backwards

position holding on the stable parts
Professor 6
8. Cleaning the tractor before
parking & storage:
- Clean the tires

www.liamchawke.ie
- Clean al the metal parts free

from soil and other debris to
avoid rusting
- re-coat/re-paint implements
before storage
Professor 6
Reading Assignments:
PAES 109:2000
Agricultural Machinery – Walking-type Agricultural Tractor – Specifications. Part 1: Pull
type
PAES 110: 2001
Agricultural Machinery - Walking-type Agricultural
Tractor – Specifications. Part 2: Rotary Tilling-type
PAES 111: 2000
Agricultural Machinery – Walking-Type Agricultural
Tractor – Methods of Test
PAES 118:2001
Agricultural Machinery – Four-wheel Tractor - Specifications
PAES 119:2001
Agricultural Machinery – Four-Wheel Tractor – Methods of Test
PAES 124:2002 Agricultural Machinery – Walking-type Agricultural Tractor –
Specifications. Part 3: Special Type (Float-assist Tiller)
Professor 6
END OF PRESENTATION
THANK YOU FOR LISTENING! ☺

Professor 6

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Philippine Society of Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering in Collaboration

with the Institute of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

Online ABE Review Class 2021

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

• Oldest sources of power in the farm

• Man used his muscles to walk long

• Man learned to tame animals he

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

• Man learned the use of sleds for transporting

Sled with rollers

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

• While fire is considered the

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

➢Today, still considered the major sources of

➢Poor source of power.

➢Develops only 0.1 hp working continuously

➢Considering that there are 3M farms, 12M

➢Man is suited to farm operations requiring

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

It can generate 1 hp walking continuously under favorable

Its work is confined mostly to pulling operations such as

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

Performance of draft animals under varying pulling loads.

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

AVERAGE DRAFT OUTPUT

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

Advantages (Compared with mechanical energy sources)

a. lower initial cost

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

a. low work capacity - this means more time spent for a

Determine the time required and distance travelled in plowing a one-

Required: SD= Kg/cm^2

(3 kph) (0.13 m) (0.70)

Distance travelled in one hectare:

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

Horsepower output of the animal:

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

Electro-mechanical devices used to convert electrical

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

Efficient means of converting energy into mechanical

Energy conversion efficiencies of major farm power units.

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

1. low initial cost,

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

1. not adapted to mobile applications such as field

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

Source: PAES 129:2002

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

- use direct-unidirectional current.

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

Commutator is found only in DC motors. Its purpose is to

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

- use an electrical current, which reverses its direction

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

- runs at constant speed

Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo

- clocks and timers