Central Luzon State University

College of Engineering
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING
Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija 3120

AM 780 – AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION AND

MACHINERY MANAGEMENT

Harvesting And Threshing Machinery

Submitted by:
LARRY S. OLIPAS
MSAEn Student

Submitted to:
ROMEO B. GAVINO, Ph.D.
Professor VI

March 2020
 AM 780 – AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION AND
MACHINERY MANAGEMENT

Harvesting and Threshing Machinery

Introduction
Harvesting and threshing operations are known as crucial and influential processes on
quantity, quality and production cost of rice. Manual harvesting of rice is such a troublesome, time-
consuming and costly operation that it needs about 100-150 man-hour labor to harvest one hectare
of paddy field. In these conditions, developing mechanized approaches especially rice combine
harvesters would be an effective solution to reduce production cost and enhance labor productivity.
Therefore, some rice producing countries in Asia have seriously attempted to introduce compatible
technologies for current circumstance and pass from this crisis (Bora and Hansen, 2007).
Labor shortage and wage rise over work peak time will cause delay in harvesting operations
and increase of grain and panicle shattering in consequence so that farmers encounter severe
detriments. In addition, because of seasonal rainfall in northern parts of Iran in harvest time, rice
stalks tend to lodge. Hence, mechanized harvesting operations gets into trouble and the number of
labors required for manual harvesting gets up to double. Within few past years, farmers drawn to
purchase substantial number of rice reapers and combine harvesters and it is estimated they will
consider utilizing more machinery due to increasing trend of wages for upcoming years. Therefore,
it is required to conduct technical and economic investigations for determining appropriate type
on the viewpoint of existing conditions across the region. Many studies have been done regarding
the effect of different harvesting methods on quantitative and qualitative losses in rice producing
countries.
Investigations by Ali et al. (1990), Siebenmorgen et al. (1998), Surek and Beser (1998),
and Hossain et al. (2009) stated that harvest time had significant effect on head rice yield so that
it was required harvesting on optimum rough rice moisture content to obtain uttermost head rice
yield. If rough rice moisture content becomes lower than critical level, broken rice percentage will
raise significantly.
Therefore, it is essential to introduce mechanical harvester with simple operating system
that will harvest paddy in both wet and dry land condition. Power tiller mounted reaper is an
alternative to harvest rice and wheat within a short time.
Objectives
This exercise has familiarized the students to the different crop protection machinery with
focus to the frame mounted power sprayer crop protection equipment presented in this paper in
comprehensive description discussing the machinery’s:
1. general function and adaptability
2. operation and adjustments
3. major parts and specification
4. current market prices
5. method of testing

Methodology
The students visited the PhilMech, PhilSCAT and PhilRice and have identified different
harvesting and threshing machinery. The student then drafted its written report with the help of
reading materials and brochures given by the aforementioned agencies.
Several specifications were gathered from the Philippine Agricultural Engineering
Standards (PAES) Book, to then verify the machine’s conformation with the prevailing standards
established in the country and latter from the internet for further understanding and information
depth about the subject machine/equipment in focus.
The Student has also visited Go Traktora Traiding Inc. located at Brgy. Caanawan (the
closest agricultural machinery dealer at CLSU) to survey the current market price of the subject
machine/equipment.
HARVESTING

It is the operation of cutting, picking, plucking and digging or a combination of these

operations for removing the crop from under the ground or above the ground or removing the
useful part or fruits from plants.

Harvesting action can be done by four ways:

1. Slicing action with a sharp tool.
2. Tearing action with a rough serrated edge
3. High velocity single element impact with sharp or dull edge.
4. Two elements scissors type action.

Harvesting System

Harvesting systems vary from region to region. A wide variety of traditional and semi-
mechanical tools, or combine harvesters may be used.
Various harvesting systems can be observed in different locations. A wide variety of tools may
be used such as knives, sickles, animals, stationary threshing machines, tractor-mounted
harvesters, and self-propelled combined harvesters (IRRI | Rice Knowledge Bank).
Process of Harvesting

Harvesting is the process of collecting the mature rice crop from the field. It involves the
processes of:
• Cutting: cutting the panicles and straw.
• Hauling: moving the cut crop to the threshing location.
• Threshing: separating the paddy grain from the rest of the cut crop.
• Cleaning: removing immature, unfilled and non-grain materials.
• Field drying: (optional) leaving the cut crop in the field and exposing it to the sun for
drying.
• Stacking / Piling: (optional) temporarily storing the harvested crop in stacks or piles
 The most common systems of harvesting are of paddy harvesting these includes the
following:

• Manual harvesting and threshing

o This includes use of traditional tools for harvesting (e.g., sickles, knives) and
threshing (e.g., threshing racks, simple treadle threshers and animals for
trampling). A pedal thresher is a simple tool to improve manual threshing. But is
done mostly by impact action to separate the grains from the stalks.

Manual Harvesting Using a Sickle

Manual Threshing by impact action(left), by trampling(middle), and by pedal thresher(right)

• Semi-mechanical systems, such as

Manual reaping and mechanical threshing
o Manual harvesting is done by hand. The use of portable thresher is usually the first
step in mechanical threshing. The use of small stationary machine threshers
commonly replaces manual threshing given its high labor requirements. Stationary
threshing is generally done in the field, or near the field.
 Reaping followed by machine threshing
o Cutting and laying the crop on a windrow is done using a reaper, threshing by a
thresher, and cleaning either manually or by machine.

• Combine harvesting
o The combine harvester combines all operations: cutting the crop, feeding it into
threshing mechanism, threshing, cleaning, and discharge of grain into a bulk wagon
or directly into bags. Straw is usually discharged behind the combine in a windrow.

Regardless of the harvesting system used, it is important to ensure that good grain quality
is preserved during harvest operations and harvest losses are kept to minimum.
 The combine harvester combines all operations: cutting, handling, threshing and cleaning.
Small “mini combines” with 1.2m cutting width were developed recently in the Philippines and in
Vietnam (top left picture). They can harvest and thresh around 1 ha per day and are affordable.
They need three people to operate, a driver, a bagger and one person who handles the bags in the
field. Since they are light the three operators can drag them out of the field when they get stuck.
As of 2011 most combines used in Southeast Asia have between 2 and 3 m cutting width. They
have either rubber tracks (top right picture) or steel tracks (bottom right picture) to ensure mobility
in wet fields. The bigger combine harvesters collect the threshed grains in a corn tank and unload
into a trailer, thus supporting the shift from bag handling systems to bulk handling.

The Table below gives an overview of tools used at each stage of the harvesting process in
different harvesting systems:
Harvesting System Cutting Haling Threshing Cleaning
Manual
Harvest & Threshing
Threshing by frame
beating
1. Manual Threshing by
Pedal
pedal Sickle Winnower
System Thresher
thresher
Manual
Harvest & Animal
Threshing by Trampling
trampling
Collecting Winnower,
2. Manual Harvesting with Cutting with Feed-in
and hauling Thresher,
Machine Threshing sickle thresher
crop by hand Cleaner
Winnower,
3. Machine Reaping with Hauling crop Feed-in
Reaper thresher,
Machine Threshing by Hand Thresher
cleaner
4. Combine Harvester Combine
Choosing an Appropriate System for Harvesting
Choosing an appropriate system for harvesting depends on a number of factors:

• availability of labor: manual harvesting is labor intensive

• capital outlay available to the farm
• timeliness of harvesting: how much time is available to complete the harvest
• field layout and accessibility: combine harvesters require a certain field layout and access
• rice variety: varietal differences in lodging, maturing, shattering and thresh-ability
• demand for quality rice
• Demand for straw: certain threshers damage the straw making it less marketable.
To properly harvest your crops, make sure to:
1. Harvest at the right time with the right moisture content.
o Correct timing is crucial to prevent losses and ensure good grain quality and high market
value. Grain losses may be caused by rats, birds, insects, lodging, and shattering.
o Harvesting too early results in a larger percentage of unfilled or immature grains, which
lowers yield and causes higher grain breakage during milling.
o Harvesting too late leads to excessive losses and increased breakage in rice.
o Harvest time also affects the germination potential of seed.
2. Avoid delays in threshing after harvesting. Threshing should be done as soon as possible
after cutting to avoid rewetting and to reduce grain breakage.
3. Use proper machine settings when using a threshing machine.
4. Clean the grains properly after threshing.
5. Dry the grains immediately after threshing.

Date of Harvesting for Rice

Depending on the growth duration of the variety, harvesting time should be around 110−120
DAS for direct seeded rice, and 100−110 DAT for transplanted rice. To determine if the crop is
ready for harvest, check for the following indicators:
o Moisture content
Grain moisture content ideally is between 20 and 25% (wet basis). Grains should be firm
but not brittle when squeezed between the teeth. Harvest at minimal surface moisture (e.g.
from previous rainfall or early morning dew).
o Ripe grains per panicle
Harvesting should be done when 80−85% of the grains are straw colored (i.e., yellow-
colored).

o Number of days after sowing

Generally, the ideal harvest time lies between 130 and 136 days after sowing for late-
maturing variety, 113 and 125 for medium duration, and 110 days for early-maturing
varieties.

o Number of days after heading

For dry season harvesting, an optimum time is 28−35 days after heading (emergence of
panicle tip from leaf sheath). In wet season harvest, optimum time is 32−38 days after
heading.
Harvesting Operations

Cutting
The most common method for harvesting rice in Asia is the manual system. The rice crop
is cut by simple hand tools including sickles cutting 15-25 cm above ground level, and simple
hand-held knives to cut just below the panicle (e.g. ani ani in Indonesia). In Bangladesh and India,
the harvested crop is bundled to improve handling, and dried in the field. The manual system of
harvesting is very effective in lodged crop conditions, however it is labor intensive. Manual
harvesting requires 40 to 80 person-hours per ha. It will take additional labor to collect the
harvested crop.

Cutting can also be done mechanically by a reaper, although the use of reapers is not widespread
in Asia. In some countries, reapers are used that are mounted on the front of a tractor. Most reapers lay the
crop in a windrow, which allows for easy pick up of the harvested crop. A reaper with a cutting-width of
1.5m can operate at a rate of 2-4 ha per day. For proper operation of reapers, fields need to be leveled and
drained. It is difficult to reap crop that is lodged, lying on the ground.

Tips for good cutting practices

Drain the field 7-10 days before the expected harvest date or when the upper grains in most of the tillers are
in the hard dough stage turning from green to yellow. When laying the cut crop in the field make sure that the
panicles with the grains stay dry and are off the ground.
Rice Harvester
Harvesting rice consists of the basic operations which can be done in individual steps or in
combination using a combine harvester. These include:
• Reaping - cutting the mature panicles and straw above ground
• Threshing - separating the paddy grain from the rest of cut crop
• Cleaning - removing immature, unfilled, non-grain materials
• Hauling - moving the cut crop to the threshing location
• Field drying - leaving the cut crop in the field and exposing it to the sun for
drying (optional)
• Stacking/piling - temporarily storing the harvested crop in stacks or piles (optional)
• Bagging - putting the threshed grain in bags for transport and storage

There are a few related terms in connection with harvesting, which are as below:
Mower: It is a machine to cut herbage crops and leave them in swath.
Reaper: It is a machine to cut grain crops.
Reaper binder: It is a reaper, which cuts the crops and ties them into neat and uniform sheaves.
Swath: It is the material as left by the harvesting machine.
Sickle: It is a curved steel blade having a handgrip and used for harvesting by manually.
Windrow: It is a row of material formed by combining two or more swaths.
Windrower: It is a machine to cut crops and deliver them in a uniform manner in a row.
Sickle: Sickle is a simple harvesting tool. It is used for harvesting crops and cutting other
Vegetation: It essentially consists of a metallic blade and a wooden handle. Sickles are classified
into two classes:
1. Plain; and
2. Serrated – the blade is the main metallic part of the sickle. It is desirable to make the blade
made of carbon steel. The blade is made in a curved shape. The teeth of serrated sickle are
made sharp for efficient working in the field. The handle of the sickle is made of well-
seasoned wood. The forged end of the blade for fixing the handle is called tang. The plain
or serrated edge in the inner side of the blade is called cutting edge. Protective metallic
bush fitted at the junction of the blade and the handle to keep the tang tight in the handle is
called ferrule. Harvesting by sickle is a very slow and labor consuming device.
Mower: Mower is a machine to cut herbage crops and leave them in swath. There are different
types of mower used in different ways such as:
1. Cylinder mower
2. Reciprocating mower
3. Horizontal rotary mower
4. Gang mower; and
5. Flail mower

Cylinder mower: It has rotating helical blades arranged in horizontal cylindrical form. With the
rotation of blades, forage or grasses are cut continuously.
Reciprocating mower: It is a mower with a knife having sections that reciprocate against
stationary fingers. It is most common type of mower used everywhere.
Horizontal rotary mower: It is a mower with high speed knife rotating in the horizontal plane.
Due to rotation of knife, the grasses and forage are cut in uniform way.
Gang mower: It is an assembly of two or more ground driven cylinder mowers.
Flail mower: It is a mower with high speed swinging knives, operating either in a horizontal
plane or around a horizontal cylinder.

Conventional Type of Mower

The conventional mower mainly consists of:
1. Frame 6. Wearing plate
2. Power transmitting unit 7. Knife
3. Cutting bar 8. Grass board; and
4. Shoes 9. Pitman
5. Ledger plate

Frame: The frame provides space for gears, clutch and bearings. The lever for lifting the cutting
bar is attached to the frame. A flywheel is used to store energy to provide steady speed to the
cutting mechanism.

Power transmitting unit

The power-transmitting unit consists of axle, gears, crank wheel, crankshaft and pitman.
Tractor drawn semi-mounted or mounted type mowers are operated by P.T.O. shaft. In this case,
the cutting mechanism is driven independently of the forward speed of the mower. A shaft is
connected with the P.T.O. shaft which drives a pulley with the help of a universal joint. This V
pulley rotates another smaller pulley on the crankshaft of the machine and reciprocating motion is
transmitted to the cutter bar.

Reaping
Reaping or cutting is the first operation in harvesting. Depending on the crop's condition,
and availability of labor or machinery, it can be done either manually or mechanically.

Manual cutting
Manual system is the most common means of rice harvesting. The rice crop is cut by using
simple hand tools like sickle (best for cutting 15−25 cm above ground level), and simple hand-
held knives (best for cutting just below the panicle, e.g. ani ani in Indonesia).
When cutting crop with a sickle, always hold the stems with thumb pointing upwards, away
from the blade.
• Advantages: Very effective in lodged crop conditions
• Disadvantages: Labor-intensive; Manual harvesting requires 5−10 person days per
hectare. It will take additional labor to manually collect and haul the harvested crop.

Mechanical cutting
Mechanical cutting uses reapers (machine that cuts and gathers). Reapers are either hand-
driven or mounted on the front of a tractor. While the use of reapers has not been widespread, it is
gaining popularity where labor shortages have occurred.
Most reapers lay the crop in a windrow, which allows easy pick-up of the harvested crop.
A reaper with a cutting-width of 1.5 m can operate at a rate of 2−4 ha per day.
To efficiently use reapers, fields need to be leveled and water drained at least 10−20 days
before harvest.
• Advantages: Low labor requirements
• Disadvantages: Difficult to reap lodged crop; Availability of machine may be an issue
Cutter bar
It is an assembly comprising of fingers, knife guides, on wearing plates and shoes. It is
used for cutting grasses and forage. It is made of high-grade steel. It works like a knife. The knife
is a metal bar, on which triangular sections are mounted. The knife section makes reciprocating
motion and cuts the plants. There are knife guards, provided on the cutter bar. The knife stops at
the centre of the guard on each stroke. There are ledger plates provided with the knife guard, on
which the knife moves. Knife clips hold the sections down against the ledger plates. Knife clips
are placed with wearing plates spaced 20 to 30 cm apart.

Cutter Bar

Shoe - A shoe on each end of the cutter bar is always provided to regulate the height of cut above
the ground. The inner shoe is larger in section and is placed at the inner end of the cutter bar. The
outer shoe is placed at the outer end and is smaller in section.
Ledger plate - It is a hardened metal inserted in a guard (finger) over which knife sections move
to give a scissor like cutting action.
Wearing plate -It is a hardened steel plate attached to the finger bar to form a bearing surface for
the back of the knife.
Knife - It is the reciprocating part of the cutter bar, comprising of knife head, knife back and knife
sections.
Knife section - It is a flat steel plate (triangular shape) with two cutting edges.
Knife head - It is the portion of the knife which is connected to the pitman.
Knife back - It is the strip of steel to which knife sections are riveted and the knife head is attached.
Grass board - Grass board is provided at the cutter end of the mower which causes the cut plants
to fall towards the cut material. Shoes are provided for easy and smooth sliding of the cutter bar.
Pitman -Pitman is a type of connecting rod which is pinned to the crankshaft with the help of a
pin. It transmits reciprocating motion to a knife head. Wooden pitman is commonly used for the
mowers.
Breaking of knives
Breaking of knives is a common trouble in operation of a mower. It is caused due to play
in bearings and worn knife head holders. Non-alignment is an important cause for breaking the
knife because when the mower is out of alignment, it works on a certain angle which is always
harmful.
Alignment of mower
Under working condition of the mower, the standing crops exert pressure on the cutter bar
tending to push it backward. In correct operating position, the crankpin, knife head and the outer
end of the knife should be in a straight line. This line should be at right angle to the direction of
travel of the mower. For achieving this object, the cutter bar is set at about 88° to the direction of
motion i.e. inward lead of 2° is given to it in order to overcome the back-pushing action of the
crops. When the cutter bar is properly aligned, the knife and the pitman run in a straight line. This
gives better cutting in the field. Generally, 2cm lead per meter length of cutter bar is recommended.
Registration of mower
A mower knife is said to be in proper registration when the knife section stops in the center
of its guard on every stroke i.e. the center of the knife section is at the center of the guard, when it
is in operating condition. Adjustment is commonly made by moving the entire cutter bar in or out
with respect to the pitman. If mower is not well registered, there is unbalanced load, uneven
harvesting and excessive clogging of crops on the knife.
Vertical conveyer reaper (Self operated/Tractor mounted):
It is mostly used for harvesting paddy and wheat. The reaper is front mounted at the tractor,
which can be lowered and raised by the hydraulic control. It is powered by the PTO of the tractor.
Crop is guided by the star wheel to the cutter bar and held in vertical position by the springs. The
crop is conveyed to the side by the conveyer belt. Its capacity may be 0.4-0.6 ha/h.

Vertical conveyer reaper (Power tiller operated)

It can be used for harvesting wheat and paddy. The reaper is front mounted on the power
tiller. Power is transmitted from the engine fly wheel to the reaper either through V belt or by
providing gear box and propeller shafts. Crop is guided by the star wheels to the cutter bar and
held in vertical position by the springs. The crop is conveyed to the side by the conveyor belt
Cutter bar length may be 100-160 cm. The capacity may be 0.25-0.35 ha/h.
Reaper binder: It cuts and binds the crop simultaneously. It cuts the crop at the height of about
10 cm from the ground level. The harvesting capacity is 0.25-0.35 ha/h.
Groundnut digger shaker: It is used for digging of groundnut crop. It is a tractor mounted PTO
operated machine, suited for harvesting of both erect and spreading varieties of groundnut crop,
grown in all types of soil. It consists of digging blade and a spike tooth conveyor.
Potato digger elevator: It is used for digging and windrowing the potatoes. The equipment is a
PTO operated single row machine. The machine consists of cutting blade and elevator roller chain
of iron bars. The potatoes are dug by the blade and lifted to a conveyor which is under periodic
shaking. The potatoes are delivered at the rear of machine and collected manually. It is a tractor
rear mounted PTO driven machine. Its capacity may be 0.15-0.2 ha/h. It can be operated by a 20-
25 hp tractor.
Guidelines in proper harvesting

Regardless of the harvesting system used, it is important to ensure that good grain quality is
preserved during harvest operations and harvest losses are kept to minimum.

To properly harvest your crops, make sure to:

1. Harvest at the right time with the right moisture content.

• Correct timing is crucial to prevent losses and ensure good grain quality and high
market value. Grain losses may be caused by rats, birds, insects, lodging, and
shattering.

• Harvesting too early results in a larger percentage of unfilled or immature grains,

which lowers yield and causes higher grain breakage during milling.

• Harvesting too late leads to excessive losses and increased breakage in rice.

• Harvest time also affects the germination potential of seed.

 HARVESTING TOOLS AND MACHINERY/EQUIPMENT

Harvesting Hand tools

Sickle Yatab

Lingkao Digger

Reaper (Windrower) Reaper (Binder)

Corn Picker Combine

THRESHING
Thresher is a machine to separate grains from the harvested crop and provide clean grain
without much loss and damage. During threshing, grain loss in terms of broken grain, un-threshed
grain, blown grain, spilled grain etc. should be minimum.

Manual Threshing
The common method for threshing by hand is separating the grain from the panicle by impact.
This can be done by hand beating, treading, or by holding the crop against a rotating drum with
spikes or rasp bars. Hand beating methods are normally used for threshing rice that easily shatters.
Manual threshing methods include:

• Pedal thresher (recommended best practice): The pedal or treadle thresher consists of
threshing drum, base, transmission unit and a foot crank. When pedalled, the threshing
drum rotates and rice can be threshed when panicles are applied against the threshing drum.
Because small straws, chaff, and foreign matter drop along with the threshed grain, whole
grains must be separated using a flail, sieve or by winnowing (see section on cleaning).

• Trampling: This involves the use of bare feet or animals to thresh the crop. The crop is
spread over a mat or canvass and workers trample with their own feet or use their animals.
Animal treading or trampling is normally carried out at a designated location near the field
or in the village. In some regions, animals have been replaced by tractors. After animal
treading, the straw is separated from the grains and cleaning of the grain is done by
winnowing, with or without the aid of an electric fan. Losses are high from broken and
damaged grains.
 • Threshing rack: The crop is held by the sheaves and beats it against a slatted bamboo,
wooden platform, or any other hard object such as a steel oil drum. This is very labor
intensive.

Flail
The use of a flail or stick for threshing the crop is not popular for rice.

• Threshing with hand tractor: This is still practiced in Myanmar. The crop is spread on
compacted soil in the field or in the village. The operator steers his tractor in circles over
the crop until all grains are removed from the panicles. One problem is the contamination
of grains with spores of fungi from the soil.

• Beating against a threshing rack: the farmer holds the crop by the sheaves and thrashes
it against a slatted bamboo, wooden platform, or any other hard object such as a steel oil
drum. This is the predominantly used manual threshing method in SE Asia.

Tips for good manual threshing practices

For hand threshed crops, partial drying in the field for a couple of days may be necessary
to lower the moisture content and make threshing easier. The highest milling yield will be attained
for hand threshed, sun dried rice at a grain moisture content of 18-20%. Care must be taken not to
over-dry the crop if it is to be transported any distance before threshing as excessive shattering
will occur. While the crop may be dried before threshing, dried crop should not be subjected to re-
wetting. Re-wetting causes grain fissures which lead to a high amount of broken grain in milling.
In wet crop conditions, manual threshing is difficult if the crop is not sufficiently dried.
Machine Threshing
Given the high labor requirements of manual threshing, in many countries threshing of
paddy is now mechanized by use of small stationary machine threshers. Depending on farming
systems, post-harvest practices and infrastructure, threshers come in different sizes and range from
small portable units without cleaner (Iloilo, Philippines) to large, truck mounted units (Thailand).
Threshing is either done in the field, near the field or at the nearest road.
The use of small stationary machine threshers commonly replaces manual threshing given
the high labor requirements of manual threshing. Stationary threshing is generally done in the field,
or near the field.

Feed-in type threshers: Many stationary threshers for paddy have peg-toothed threshing drums,
however threshers fitted with wire-loop or rasp-bars are used as well. Most threshers are of the
feed-in type (e.g. entire crop is fed through the thresher) which ensure high throughput.
Hold-on threshers: (only panicle is fed into the machine) generally have a lower capacity than
feed-in threshers and are primarily used in areas where rice straw is bundled and stored for later
use.
Large stationary threshers are fitted with additional cleaning devices such as an oscillating
screen, centrifugal blower, and wind board, and threshed grain can be handled without further
cleaning. In many regions, machine threshers are owned by individuals who offer custom
operations to farmers. This requires that farmers schedule harvesting dates depending on the
availability of the thresher. Many threshers are mounted on trailers or trucks which enables the
operator to quickly move from field to field.

Throw-in Type Thresher Hold-in Type Thresher

 CLASSIFICATION OF THRESHERS

Criteria Type Description Advantage Disadvantage

Only the panicle is
Hold-on (or head Straw remains • Lower throughput
fed into the
feed)
machine
intact • Complex machine
Feeding
type • Clogging with very
The hole crop is
wet or long straw.
Feed-in fed into the Higher throughput
• Higher power
machine
requirement
• Low weight
• Does not need
straw separators
Whole crop moves
• Good Higher power
axially around the
performance requirement
drum periphery
with wet crop
Axial-flow • Can be used for
Basmati rice
Crop flow • Needs straw
walker for
Crop flows • Lower power separating grains
tangentially requirement from straw
through gap • Concave • Problems in wet
between drum and clearance easy to crop
Conventional concave set • Causes high
breakage in
Basmati rice
1. Rows of peg
• Grinds up the
teeth attached to straw
threshing drum
• Performs well
with wet straw
2. Typical axial
flow thresher • Simple design
Peg teeth • Cheap
drum
Rasp bars attached
Threshing to threshing drum,
Lower power Problems with wet
elements usually used in
requirement straw.
tangential flow
threshers
Rasp bar
• Lowest power
Typically used in requirement
hold-on threshers • Thin wire loops
Wears quicker
and head feed comb grain and
combines thresh through
Wire loop impact
 Major Parts of Common Threshers (PhilSCAT Thresher)

Threshing
Chamber

Transmission Feeding Tray

Assembly

Engine

Straw Thrower

Oscillating Fuel Tank

Screen

Blower Assembly
Discharge Chute

SPECIFICATION

ENGINE RPM ENGINE PULLEY RECOMMENDATION

SPECIFICATION STD MINI
1800 7–7½ 5 ½ - 6”
Name: ACT Multi- 2400 6–6½ 4 ½ - 5”
Crop Thresher
Model: ACT S1B 3000 5-5½ 4 ½ - 5”
Serial No: 04499 3600 4-4½ 3-3½
Principle of Operation of Feed-In Type Axial-Flow Thresher
Harvested crop is loaded onto the tray and fed into the opening between the cylinder and
the concave at one end of the machine. The pegs on the threshing cylinder hit the material
separating the grain from the straw, and at the same time accelerating them around the cylinder.
The majority of the grain is threshed during initial impact but further threshing is performed as the
material moves axially until the straw is discharged at the opposite end. Threshed grain, including
impurities such as leaves and short pieces of straw, pass through the openings in the concave and
fall on the oscillating screen where large impurities are separated.

In many regions, machine threshers are owned by individuals who offer custom operations
to farmers. This requires that farmers schedule harvesting dates depending on the availability of
the thresher. Many threshers are mounted on trailers or trucks which enables the operator to quickly
move from field to field.
Tips for machine threshing
• Timing: Thresh immediately after harvesting to prevent physical losses and quality
deterioration
• Location: Place the thresher as close as possible to the harvested crop to minimize
shattering loss during hauling.
• Placement: If the thresher has a cleaner make sure that it is leveled for best cleaner
performance. Turn the thresher with the straw and chaff outlets facing the leeward
direction to prevent the wind from blowing chaff at the operator. For very wet crop:
Reduce feed rate and clean the concave regularly from sticky straw and impurities.
• Cleaner adjustment: Since crop conditions vary adjust the cleaner for optimum
performance for each situation.

Guidelines on proper threshing

Threshing is the process of separating the grain from the straw. It can be either done by
hand, by using a treadle thresher or mechanized.
For manual threshing
• For hand threshed crops, partial drying in the field for a couple of days may be necessary
to lower the moisture content and make threshing easier.
• The highest milling yield will be attained for hand threshed, sun dried rice at grain moisture
content between 18–20%.
• Care must be taken not to over dry the crop if it is to be transported any distance before
threshing as excessive shattering will occur.
• While the crop may be dried before threshing, dried crop should not be subjected to
rewetting. Rewetting cause’s grain fissures which lead to high broken grain when milled.
For machine threshing
• Harvest the grain at optimum maturity to maximize yield and minimize losses. Axial-flow
threshers that are particularly designed for rice can handle very wet crop.
• Timing of threshing
Ideally, machine threshing should begin immediately after cutting and often these crops
can be threshed in the field.
 Immediate threshing reduces the exposure of crop to insects, birds and rodents, disease,
and molds. Crop that is piled over a period of time generates heat that will serve as an ideal
medium for growth of molds, disease and pests. Piling for several days will lead to grain
discoloration, germinated grains, and spoilage.

Machine adjustments
For minimum grain loss and maximum quality, always adjust the thresher correctly. For
peg-tooth drums the drum tip speed should be about 12-16 m/sec. higher speeds result in higher
grain damage and de-hulled grains. Lower speeds increase the amount of no threshed grain and
result in grain loss. Lower speeds also decrease the throughput of the thresher.

Tip speed (m/s) for drum diameters of

RPM
30 cm 40 cm 50 cm
400 6.3 8.4 10.42
450 7.07 9.4 11.78
500 7.85 10.5 13.09
550 8.64 11.5 14.4
600 9.42 12.6 15.7
650 10.21 13.6 17.02
700 11 14.7 18.3
750 11.8 15.7 19.64
800 12.6 16.8 21
850 13.4 17.8 22.25
900 14.14 18.85 23.6

Clearances between peg-teeth and concave should be about 25mm. smaller clearance
increases grain damage and might lead to clogging of straw. Larger concave clearances reduce
threshing efficiency.
Different parts of a thresher and their functions
A mechanical thresher consists of the following parts:
i. Feeding device (chute/tray/trough/hopper /conveyor)
ii. Threshing cylinder (hammers/spikes/rasp-bars/wire loops/syndicator)
iii. Concave (woven wire mesh/punched sheet/welded square bars)
iv. Blower/aspirator
v. Sieve-shaker/straw-walker.

Working principle of a thresher

During operation, the crop material is slightly pushed into the threshing cylinder through
the feeding chute, which gets into the working slit created between the circumference of the
revolving drum having attached spikes and the upper casing. The speed of the spikes is greater
than the plant mass due to which they strike the latter which results in part of the grain being
separated from straw. Simultaneously, the drum pulls the mass through the gap between the spikes
and the upper casing with a varying speed. The angle iron ribs on the other hand, restrain the speed
of the travelling of stalks clamped by the spikes. Due to this the spikes move in the working slit
with a varying speed in relation to the shifting mass of material, which is simultaneously shifted,
with a varying speed with respect to the upper casing. As a result, the material layer is struck
several times by the spikes against the ribs, causing threshing of the major amount of grains and
breaking stalks into pieces. As the material layer shifts towards the progressively converging slit
of lower concave, its size reduces. The vibration amplitudes, therefore, decrease whereas the speed
of the layer increases. This causes mutual rubbing of the ear stalks, as well as rubbing of the ears
against the edges of the concave bars and causes breaking of stalks depending on the concave
clearance. Since the system is closed, the thicker stalk, which cannot be sieved through the
concave, again joins the fresh stalk and the same process is repeated until the stalk size is reduced
to the extent that it can pass through the concave apertures. Thus, fine bruised straw is produced.
The effective threshing process means that the loss of un-threshed kernels ejected with the straw
through the concave and the loss of grain damage should be low and the amount of the material
passed through the concave should be high.
Adjustments
Various adjustments are required before starting threshing operation. The machine is to be
installed on clean level ground and is to be set according to crop and crop conditions. The
adjustments necessary to get best performance from the machine are
1. concave clearance 4. stroke length; and
2. sieve clearance 5. blower suction opening
3. sieve slope

Besides these, cylinder concave grate, top sieve hole size and cylinder speeds for threshing
different crops are important for a multi-crop thresher. Different type of thresher and their
suitability for crops the type of thresher is generally designed according to the type of threshing
cylinder fitted with the machine. The major type of threshers commercially available is as follows:
1. Drummy type: It consists of beaters mounted on a shaft which rotates inside a closed
casing and concave.
2. Hammer mill type: It is similar to dummy type but it is provided with aspirator type
blower and sieve shaker assembly for cleaning grains.
3. Spike-tooth type: Spikes are mounted on the periphery of a cylinder that rotates inside
a closed casing and concave. It is provided with cleaning sieves and aspirator type
blower.
4. Raspbar type: Corrugated bars are mounted axially on the periphery of the cylinder. It
is fitted with an upper casing and an open type concave at the bottom of the cylinder.
The cleaning system is provided with blower fan and straw walker.
 5. Wire-loop type: Wire-loops are fitted on the periphery of a closed type cylinder and
woven wire mesh type concave is provided at the bottom.
6. Axial flow type: It consists of spike tooth cylinder, woven-wire mesh concave and
upper casing provided with helical louvers.
7. Syndicator type: The cylinder consists of a flywheel with corrugation on its periphery
and sides, which rotates inside a closed easing and concave. The rims of the flywheel
are fitted with chopping blades.

Factors affecting thresher performance

The factors which affect the quality and efficiency of threshing are broadly classified in
three groups:
1. Crop factors: Variety of crop, Moisture in crop material
2. Machine factors: Feeding chute angle, Cylinder type, Cylinder diameter, Spike shape,
size, number Concave size, shape and clearance
6. Operational factors: Cylinder speed, Feed rate, method of feeding, Machine
adjustments
 SPECIFICATION AND METHOD OF TEST IN ACCORDANCE TO
PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING STANDARDS
FOR MECHANICAL PADDY THRESHER

Performance

Criteria Performance Data

Threshing Recovery, percent, minimum 97.0
Threshing Efficiency, percent, minimum 99.8
Losses, percent, maximum
a. Blower Loss 1.2
b. Separation Loss 1.3
c. Unthreshed Loss 0.2
d. Scattering Loss 0.3
Purity, percent, minimum
a. With Sifter and Fan 97.0
b. Without Sifter and With Fan 95.0
c. Without Cleaning Devices 80.0
Mechanically Damaged Grain, percent, 2.0
maximum
Net Cracked Grain, percent, maximum 5.0
Noise Level, [db(A)], maximum 95.0*

• Allowable noise level for six (6) hours of continuous exposure based on Occupational
Safety and Health Standards, Ministry of Labor, Philippines. 1983
• Sealed type bearings shall be used as protection against dust. There shall be provision for
lubrication of non-sealed type bearings and bushings.
• Belt cover or guard and provisions for belt tightening and adjustments shall be provided.
• Provisions for the safety of the operators in the feeding port and other moving parts shall
be included in the thresher.
• Threshing cylinder speed indicator should be provided.

Maintenance and Operation

Each mechanical rice thresher unit shall be provided with dust masks and the following basic tools:
three (3) pieces open wrenches; one (1) piece each of Philips and flat screw driver; and one (1)
piece adjustable wrench.
General Conditions for Test and Inspection

• Role of manufacturer
o the manufacturer shall submit to the official testing agency specifications and other
relevant information on the mechanical paddy thresher. He/She shall abide with the
terms and conditions set forth by an official testing agency.

• Role of the representative of the manufacturer

o an officially designated representative of the manufacturer shall operate, adjust,
repair, and shall decide on matters related to the operation of the machine.

• Test site conditions

o the thresher shall be installed on a stable level ground on a site with sufficient
working space, and shall be positioned in such a way that the wind will not blow
the straws and other impurities into the clean grain.

• Suspension of test
o If during the test run, the machine stops due to major component breakdown or
malfunctions so as to affect the machine’s performance, the test may be suspended
with the concurrence of the official testing agency and the manufacturer’s
representative.

Test Preparation

• Running-in and preliminary adjustment

o Before the start of the test, the thresher should have undergone a break-in period.
The thresher shall be operated at the test site by the official representative of the
manufacturer for sufficient duration with and without load. During the running-in
period, the various adjustments of the thresher shall be made according to the
manufacturer’s recommendations. (No other adjustments shall be permitted while
the test is on—going).
 • Test instruments and other materials
o the suggested list of minimum field and laboratory test equipment and materials
needed to carry out the thresher test is shown in Annex A of PAES 205:2000. These
instruments should be calibrated regularly. Before and after each test, these
instruments shall be physically checked for operation and shall be cleaned,
respectively. A checklist of instruments and materials shall be prepared to be used
before departure to and from the testing area.

• Test materials
o the harvested crop to be used in the test shall be prepared in sufficient quantity
using the procedure given below. However, if the test materials are beyond the
recommended characteristics, the manufacturer has the option to pursue the test.
Such that:
a) Sample Characteristics of Test Material
Test materials to be used shall have the following characteristics:
o Variety : commonly grown locally
o Grain moisture content : 24% maximum, wet basis
o Straw length : 45 - 50 cm
o Grain-straw ratio : 0.50 – 0.65

b) Quantity to be Supplied
The amount of test material to be supplied shall be sufficient for one hour of continuous
threshing operation in order to provide samples to be used for running-in prior to the actual conduct
of test trials. Approximately: 1-hour x threshing capacity (kg/h).

c) Quantity to be Supplied
The amount of test material to be supplied shall be sufficient for one hour of continuous
threshing operation in order to provide samples to be used for running-in prior to the actual conduct
of test trials. Approximately: 1-hour x threshing capacity (kg/h).
Pre-test Observation

a) Verification of specification
o The specifications claimed by the manufacturer and physical details given in Annex
C of PAES 205:2000 shall be verified by the official testing agency. A stable and
level surface shall be used as reference plane for verification of dimensional
machine specifications.
b) Test materials
➢ Harvested crop shall be collected from the test lot to determine the grain-straw ratio,
moisture content of grain, straw length and grain quality. Sampling procedures is
given in Annex D of PAES 205:2000.

Performance Test
➢ Operation of the thresher
The thresher shall be operated at the recommended speed and feed rate of the manufacturer.
The same feeding rate recommended by the manufacturer shall be maintained during the test run.
After the test run, the threshing area shall be cleaned and then prepared for the next trial. This
procedure shall be repeated for second and third trials.
➢ Two (2) Test Trials, with duration of at least 15 minutes per trial.
Formula for calculation and testing

Capacity
Losses

Blower loss (B1)

Separation loss (S1)

Unthreshed loss (U1)

Scattering loss (Sc 1), %

Threshing cylinder efficiency (Te), %

Threshing recovery (Tr), %

Cracked grains (Cg), %

Mechanically damaged grain (Dg), %

 COMMERCIAL PRICES FOR DIFFERENT
HARVESTING AND THRESHING MACHINERY

Sickle

➢ Price : PHP 100.00 - 150.00

Corn Combine Harvester

➢ Price : PHP 1,300,00.00 (Agrimac Price)

Rice Reaper

➢ Price: PHP 200,00.00 to 700,00.00

Rice Combine Harvester

➢ Price: PHP 800,000.00 to 2,200,000.00 (Kubota Phils. Price)

Briggs and Stratton Rice Combine

*(PhilRice)

➢ Price: PHP 550,000.00

Rice Thresher

➢ Price: -starts from PHP 75,000.00 (ACT Thresher)

Conclusions
Harvesting methods differ according to plant to be harvested. It is the operation of cutting,
picking, plucking and digging or a combination of these operations for removing the crop from
under the ground or above the ground or removing the useful part or fruits from plants. For forage
crops, the whole plant is cut, for fruit trees the fruit is picked, but for underground crops like
groundnuts, roots and tubers, the crop is lifted while the soil sticking to it is removed. With cereals,
the crop is first cut either as a whole or partially (ears), and then threshed and cleaned to separate
the grain from the ears and straw. In the latter case two main alternatives exist: separate harvesting
and threshing, or combined harvesting and threshing.
The majority of the grain is threshed during initial impact but further threshing is performed
as the material moves axially until the straw is discharged at the opposite end. Threshed grain,
including impurities such as leaves and short pieces of straw, pass through the openings in the
concave and fall on the oscillating screen where large impurities are separated. And then proceeds
to the discharge and the latter is made for bagging.
REFERENCES

Ali A, Majid A, Rehman H, Sagar MA. 1990. Milling recovery of Basmati as affected by threshing
methods and crop harvesting time. Pakistan J. Agric. Res. 11: 7-12.
Bora GC, Hansen GK. 2007. Low cost mechanical aid for rice harvesting. Journal of Applied
Sciences. 7(23): 3815-3818.
Hossain MF, Bhuiya MSU, Ahmed M, Mian MH. 2009. Effect of harvesting time on the milling
and physiochemical properties of aromatic rice. Thai Journal of Agricultural Science.
42(2): 91-96.
IRRI | Rice Knowledge Bank. (n.d.). Harvesting. PostProduction. Retrieved March 8, 2020, from
knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/postharvest/harvesting#harvesting-
processes
Siebenmorgen TJ, Perdon AA, Chen X, Mauromous A. 1998. Relating rice milling quality changes
during adsorption to individual kernel moisture content distribution. Cereal Chem. 75(1):
129-136.
Surek H, Beser N. 1998. A research to determine the suitable rice (Oryza sativa L.) harvesting
time. Tr. J. of Agricultural and Forestry. 22: 391-394.
PAES 204: 2000 Agricultural Machinery – Mechanical Rice Thresher – Specifications
PAES 205:2000 Agricultural Machinery – Mechanical Rice Thresher – Methods of Test
PAES 212: 2004 Agricultural Machinery – Rice Reaper – Specifications
PAES 213: 2004 Agricultural Machinery – Rice Reaper – Methods of Test
PAES 256:2011 Agricultural Machinery – Corn Picker – Specifications
PAES 257:2011 Agricultural Machinery – Corn Picker – Methods of Test
PAES 224: 2005 Agricultural Machinery – Rice Combine – Specifications