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Study of Engine Operations, Maintenance and Troubleshooting of Motor

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Thesis · May 2015

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 STUDY ON ENGINE OPERATIONS
MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING
OF MOTOR VEHICLE

1
 STUDY ON ENGINE OPERATIONS
MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING OF
MOTOR VEHICLE

A PRACTICUM REPORT PREPARED AS A PART OF THE FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE
DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY

MD. HASANUZZAMAN
ID NO: 11207201
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

IUBAT- INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF

BUSINESS AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
DATED: AUGUST 10, 2015
2
 REQUEST FOR THE REPORT

10th August, 2014

Coordinator
Department of Mechanical Engineering
International University of Business Agriculture and Technology
4 Embankment Drive Road, Sector 10, Uttara Model Town
Dhaka- 1230, Bangladesh

Subject: Request for the report.

Dear Sir,

With due respect, I would like to submit this report as partial fulfillment of the Bachelor of
Science in Mechanical Engineering program, on the topic of “A Study of Engine
Operations, Maintenance and Troubleshooting of Motor Vehicle” at Govt. Motor
Vehicle Workshop under Ministry of Public Administration. It was a great opportunity
for me to work on this topic to actualize our theoretical knowledge in the practical area and to
have an enormous experience. Now I am looking forward for your kind assessment regarding
this report.

It would be very kind to you, if you please take the trouble of going through the report and
evaluate my performance regarding this report.

Thanking you

Sincerely Yours
………………………………..

Md. Hasanuzzaman

ID No: 11207201

Department of Mechanical Engineering

3
 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

10th August, 2014

Coordinator
Department of Mechanical Engineering
International University of Business Agriculture and Technology
4 Embankment Drive Road, Sector 10, Uttara Model Town
Dhaka- 1230, Bangladesh

Subject: Submission of practicum report.

Dear Sir,

I am highly delighted to submit my practicum report on of “A Study of Engine Operations,

Maintenance and Troubleshooting of Motor Vehicle” at Govt. Motor Vehicle Workshop
under Ministry of Public Administration as partial fulfillment of the requirements of
Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering from IUBAT. It is an essential part of our
academic program, and it is a great achievement to work under your active supervision and
guidance. Thank you very much for giving me the opportunity and necessary guidance as
well as direction needed to prepare this report.

I express my gratitude to you to go through this report and make your valuable
comments.

Thanking you

Sincerely Yours
………………………………..

Md. Hasanuzzaman

ID No: 11207201

Department of Mechanical Engineering

4
 STUDENT DECLEARATION

We are Md. Hasanuzzaman student of the Department of Mechanical Engineering under

the College of Engineering and Technology would like to declare that the project paper on
“A Study of Engine Operations, Maintenance and Troubleshooting of Motor Vehicle” is
prepared for the fulfillment of MEC 490: Practicum, as the partial requirements of
academic purpose from my own concept and idea, after completion of four months
practicum in Government motor vehicle workshop.

We also confirm that the report is only prepared to fulfill the academic requirement and not
for any other purposes.

Faithfully Yours

………………………………..

Md. Hasanuzzaman

ID No: 11207201

Department of Mechanical Engineering

5
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Practicum Report which is entitled as “A Study of Engine Operations, Maintenance

and Troubleshooting of Motor Vehicle” is the concrete effort of a number of people.

In the process of conducting this research project, we would like to express mourgratitude
and respect to some generous persons for their immense help and enormous cooperation.

First of all we would like to pay my gratitude to Honorable Vice Chancellor Prof. Dr. M.
Alimullah Miyan for giving the chance to prepare the report about this splendid topic.

We are very much grateful to Prof. Dr. Engr. A.Z.A. Saifullah, Chair, Department of
Mechanical Engineering and Engr. Abdul Wadud, Coordinator, Department of Mechanical
Engineering of IUBAT for their guidance and inspiration to do this report.

After that we would like to pay my gratitude to Munshi Shahabuddin Ahmmed, Transport
Commissioner, at Department of Government Transport, Abul Kalam Azad Manager at
Government Motor Vehicle Workshop, and Md. Alomgir Sharker, Inspector at Government
Motor Vehicle Workshop.

Finally, we also feel it is an important thing to acknowledge and thanks to my faculties and
all the employees of Government Motor Vehicle Workshop who helped a lot to provide a
valuable forum for the exchange of ideas and information.

Faithfully Yours,

………………………………..

Md. Hasanuzzaman

ID No: 11207201

Department of Mechanical Engineering

6
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Govt. motor vehicle workshop is run by Ministry of Bangladesh where various cars of
ministers, member of the Parliament, Govt. officers are brought for checking troubles and
making provable solution.

During our practicum period, as Trainee Engineers, the responsibilities were maintenance and
trouble-shooting of Nissan cars. At first month, the concepts about working principles of
different components and systems of the vehicles had to be cleared. At second and third
months, the maintenance and trouble-shooting were done on the basis of the knowledge of
first month. Thus the report has been accomplished on the basis of a nice combination of
theoretical knowledge along with practical knowledge. Especially, our practicum has been
conducted in servicing department of Govt. motor vehicle workshop. The servicing
department consists of different sections, such as, EFI section, Engine overhauling section,
transmission system overhauling section, brake repairing and adjustment section, suspension
& steering section, denting section, painting section, electric section, general servicing
section and accident repairing section are mentionable in terms of view. During our
practicum period we were directly involved with tasks of these sections.
In our practicum report, all the systems of Nissan cars have been classified into a few
chapters. The systems have been classified as EFI system, engine transmission system,
vehicle control system, suspension system, electrical system and chassis & cabin. The
systems have been described including their working-principles, maintenance and trouble
diagnosis. The name of necessary components and their functions for every system have been
described also.

Now it is possible for us to find out the problems of the vehicles and give proper remedies.
What we learned during the practicum helps us to understand the technical operation of
various mechanical systems practically. We hope this report and practical knowledge will be
helpful for a bright future in mechanical engineering sectors. Moreover, we are determined to
do better in future.

7
 CONTENTS

1. Prefatory Part
A. Title Fly………………………………………………………………….I

B. Cover Page………………………………………………………………II

C. Request for Report……………………………………………………..III

D. Letter of Transmittal…………………………………………………...IV

E. To Whom May I Concern……………………………………………….V

F. Student Declaration…………………………………………………….VI

G. Acknowledgement……………………………………………………..VII

H. Executive Summary…………………………………………………..VIII

I. Table of Contents………………………………………………...…IX-XVI

J. List of Figures……………………………………………………XVII-XIX

2. Empirical Part:
Chapter -01. Introduction 20-21

1.1 Origin of the report ………………………………………………………….20

1.2 Objective …………………………………………………………..……….20

1.3 Scope ………………………………………………………………….……20
1.4 Background …………………………………………………………….…..21
1.5 Methodology ………………………………………………………….……21
1.6 Limitations ………………………………………………………….…….. 21

Chapter-02. Company Overview 22-25

2.1 Welcome ……………………………………………………….…………....22

2.2 The Group ………………………………………………………………..….23

2.3A Short brief on Govt. motor vehicle workshop……….………………........23

8
2.4Mission………………………………………………………………..….…23
2.5 Key to Success………………………………………………………………...23
2.6 Govt. motor vehicle workshop Management Structure………………..…...…24
2.7 Service Department of Runner Motors Limited……………………………….25

2.8 Technical Specification …………………………………………………….…25

Chapter-03. Engines 26-45

3.1 Petrol Engine………………………………………………………….……..26

3.1.1 Engine Specification……………………………………….………27

3.1.2 Engine Operation………………………………………….……….29

3.1.3 Terminology…………………………………………….……….33
3.1.4 Engine components………………………………………………..34
3.1.5 Block………………………………………………………………34

3.1.6 Cylinder head……………………………………………………...34

3.1.7 Head gasket………………………………………………….…..35

3.1.8 Cylinder……………………………………………………….…35

3.1.9 Cylinder sleeves…………………………………………………35

3.1.10 Oil pan…………………………………………………….……36

3.1.11 Piston…………………………………………………………..36
3.1.12 Piston rings…………………………………………………….37
3.1.13 Connecting rod………………………………………………...38
3.1.14 Crankshaft……………………………………………………..38
3.1.15 Camshaft…………………………………………………………39
3.1.16 Flywheel………………………………………………………….40

3.1.17 Valves………………………………………………….……….40

3.1.18 Valve trains…………………………………………………….41

3.1.19 Valve Timing Diagram………………………………….………42

3.2 Intake System………………………………………………………...43

9
 3.2.1 Components of Intake System……………………………………..43

3.2.2 Air cleaners………………………………………………….…...43

3.2.3 Intake manifold………………………………………………….44

3.2.4 Volumetric Efficiency……………………………………………...44

3.2.5 Forced Induction…………………………………………………...45

3.3 Electronic Fuel Injection System (EFI) (45-63)

3.3.1 EFI……………………………………………………….………..45

3.3.2 Engine control unit………………………………………………..46

3.3.3 Control of air/fuel ratio…………………………………..……….46

3.3.4 Control of ignition timing………………………………...………47

3.3.5 Control of ideal speed………………………………….…..……..47

3.3.6 Control of variable valve timing…………………………………47

3.3.7 Electronic valve control………………………………………….48

3.3.8 Programmable ECUs………………………………………...…..48

3.3.9 The Fuel Delivery System…………………………………...….48

3.3.10 Electronic Control System……………………………….……48

3.3.11 Advantages of EFI……………………………………….……49

3.3.12 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)…………………...………..49

3.3.13 Self Diagnosis System………………………………..……….49

3.3.14 Mass air flow sensor………………………………….……….49

3.3.15 Throttle body………………………………………...………..50

3.3.16 ISC valve………………………………………………...……51

10
 3.3.17 Throttle position sensor……………………………………..51

3.3.18 Crankshaft position sensor…………………………...……..52

3.3.19 Knock Sensor……………………………………………….53

3.3.20 Oxygen sensor………………………………………...……54

3.3.21 Vehicle Speed Sensor………………………………………54

3.3.22Fuel pump…………………………………………………..55

3.3.23Mechanical pump………………………………….………56

3.24 Electric pump……………………………………………….56

3.3.25 Injector……………………………………………………57

3.3.26 EFI Main Relay…………………………………..………57

3.3.27 Ignition coil……………………………………...……….58

3.3.28 Modern ignition systems…………………………….…..59

3.3.29 Electronic control module………………………….……60

3.3.30 Engine coolant temperature sensor………………...…….61

3.3.31 Air–fuel ratio meter…………………………………..….61

3.3.32 Dew warning……………………………………….……62

3.3.33 Air flow meter……………………………………..…….63

3.4 Lubrication System…………………………………………..63

3.4.1 Components of Lubrication System……………………..64

3.4.2 Oil sump………………………………………………….64

3.4.3 Oil strainer………………………………………………..65

11
 3.4.4 Oil pump………………………………………………….65

3.4.5 Oil pressure relief valve………………………………….66

3.4.6 Oil filter…………………………………………………..66

3.4.7 Oil indicators……………………………………………..67

3.4.8 Oil cooler…………………………………………………67

3.5 Cooling System…………………………………….…………68

3.5.1 Components of cooling system…………………………..69

3.5.2 Radiator…………………………………………………..69

3.5.3 Coolant hoses……………………………………………..70

3.5.4 Water pump……………………………………………….71

3.5.5 Thermostat valve………………………………………….71

3.5.6 Cooling fan………………………………………………..72

3.5.7 Temperature indicator…………………………………….72

3.5.8 Radiator pressure cap……………………………………..73

3.5.9 Recovery system………………………………………….73

3.6 Exhaust System……………………………………………………..74

3.6.1 Components of Exhaust System…………………………..75

3.6.2 Exhaust manifold………………………………………….75

3.6.3 Exhaust pipe…………………………………….……..….75

3.6.4 Muffler……………………………………………………76
3.6.5 Catalytic converter……………………………….……….76

3.6.6 Flexible connection……………………………………….77

12
 3.7 Maintenance…………………………………….……….….78

3.8 Trouble-shooting…………………………………..………..79

Chapter -04. Transmission System 83-88

4.1 Clutch…………………………………………….……….…83

4.1.1 Clutch Operating Mechanism……………………….….…84

4.2 Pressure Plate………………………………………........…..85

4.3 Gearbox……………………………………………….….…86

4.3.1 Gearbox Operation……………………...………..……..…87

4.6 Maintenance……………………………………...……….....88

4.7 Trouble-shooting………………………………………….....88

Chapter -05. Vehicle Control Systems 91-98

5.1 Steering Systems……………………………...……………….91

5.1.1 Principles of Steering….……………………………..92

5.1.2 Power Steering……..……………………..……….….92

5.2 Braking Systems……………….……………………..……......93

5.2.1 Service Brake…………….….…………………………......93

5.2.1.1 Hydraulic Brake...………………………………….….…94

5.2.1.2 Air Brake……………………………………………........95

5.2.2 Parking Brake……………………………………….……..96

5.2.3 Exhaust Brake………………….…………………..……....97

5.3 Maintenance……………………………….…………..……..98

13
 5.4 Trouble-shooting…………………………….…………….…98

Chapter -06. Suspension Systems 100-102

6.1 Types of Suspension System………………………….……..100

6.2 Shock Absorber………………………….……….……....…..101
6.2.1 Operation of Shock Absorber…………………..……….…101

6.3 Maintenance………………………………………...………..102

6.4 Trouble-shooting……………………………………………..102

Chapter -07. Electrical Systems 105-110

7.1 Battery…………………………………………………………105
7.1.1 Operation of battery………………………………………....105
7.1.2 Maintenance…….………………………………….………..106
7.1.3 Trouble-shooting………………………………...…....…..…106
7.2 Self-Starter……………………………………………….....…107
7.2.1 Operation of self- starter……………………………….……107
7.3 Alternator ……………………………………………….…….108
7.3.1 Operation of Alternator……………………………….……..109
7.4 Accessories…………………………………………….………110
7.4.1 Lights…………………………………………………….…..110
7.4.2 Horn………………………………………………….………110

3. Supplementary Part
Chapter -06. Conclusion 113-114

A. Recommendations…………………………………………………..113

B. Conclusion…………………………………………………….……..113

C. Bibliography……………………………………………………..…..114

D. Abbreviations.………………………………….……………….…...114

14
 List of Illustrations

List of Figures:

Figure2.1: NISSAN SUNNY…………………………………………………….27

Figure3.1: P-V Diagram for the Diesel cycle…………………………………….30
Figure3.2: Strokes of a petrol cycle………………………………………………31
Figure3.3: Swept volume of cylinder……………………………………………..34
Figure3.4: Cylinder block…………………………………………………………34
Figure3.5: Cylinder head………………………………………………………….35
Figure3.6: Cylinder head gasket…………………………………………………..35
Figure3.7: Cylinder sleeve…………………………………………………………36
Figure3.8: Oil sump………………………………………………………………..36
Figure3.9: Piston………………………………………………………………….37
Figure3.10: Piston rings……………………………………………………………37
Figure3.11: Connecting rod………………………………………………………..38
Figure3.12: Crankshaft…………………………………………………………….39
Figure3.13: Camshaft………………………………………………………………39
Figure3.14: Flywheel……………………………………………………………….40
Figure3.15: Valves………………………………………………………………….41
Figure3.16: Valve trains…………………………………………………………….41
Figure3.17: Valve-timing diagram………………………………………………….42
Figure3.18: Air cleaner……………………………………………………….....…..43
Figure3.19: Intake manifold………………………………………………….……..44
Figure 3.20: Engine control unit ………………………………………………..…..46
Figure 3.21: mass (air) flow sensor …………………………………………..….…50
Figure 3.22: Throttle body ………………………………………………...………..51
Figure 3.23: ISC valve …………………………..………………………………….51

Figure 3.24: Throttle position sensor……………………………………………….52

Figure 3.25: crank sensor ……………………………………………….………….53

Figure 3.26: Knock sensor ………………………………………………………....53

Figure 3.27: Oxygen sensor …………………………………………………….... 54

15
Figure 3.28: Vehicle Speed Sensor ………………….…………………………….54
Figure 3.29: fuel pump …………………………………………………………….55
Figure 3.30: Injector ………………………………………………….……………57
Figure 3.31: EFI Main Relay…………………………………...………………….58

Figure 3.32: Ignition coil ……………………………………………………..……59

Figure 3.33: Modern ignition system……………………………………..……..…60

Figure 3.34: Electronic control unit (ECU…………………………………...…….61

Figure 3.35: coolant temperature sensor…………………………………………...61

Figure 3.36: Air–fuel ratio meter …………………………………………………..62

Figure 3.37: An air flow meter………………………………………….………….63

Figure3.38: Lubrication system………………………………………………….…64

Figure3.39: Oil strainer…….………………………………………………….…...65

Figure3.40: Oil pump………………………………………………………………65

Figure3.41: Gear type oil pump……………………………………………………66

Figure3.42: Oil filter ……..…………………………………………...……………67

Figure3.43: Oil cooler……………………………………………………………....68

Figure3.44: Cooling system………….………….………………………….………68

Figure3.45: Radiator ………………………...…………………………………..….70

Figure3.46: Coolant hoses ………………………………….……………………….70

Figure3.47: Water pump………………………………………………………….....71

Figure3.48: Thermostat valve ………………………….……………………….…..72

Figure3.49: Cooling fan…………………………………...…………………………72

16
Figure3.50: Temperature indicator…………………………………………………..73

Figure3.51: Radiator pressure cap……………………………….…………………73

Figure3.52: Coolant reservoir or overflow container……………………..………..74

Figure3.53: Exhaust pipe………………………………………………..………….75

Figure3.54: Muffler………………………………………………………...……….76
Figure3.55: Catalytic converter………………………………………………..……77
Figure3.56: Flexible connection…………………………………………………….78
Figure4.1: Clutch plate……………………………………………………..……….83
Figure4.2: Clutch operating………………………………………………..……….84
Figure4.3: Pressure plate……………………………………………………...…….85
Figure4.4: Gear box……………………………………………………………...….86
Figure5.1: Steering wheel……………………………………………………………91
Figure5.2: Steering box main and cross shaft……………………………………….92
Figure5.3: Power steering………………………………………………………..….93
Figure5.4: Brake master cylinder……………………………………………….…...95
Figure5.5: Wheel cylinder assembly…………………………………………….….95
Figure5.6: Air brake system (with S-cam)……………………………………….…96
Figure5.7: Parking brake or hand brake……………………………………...….….96
Figure5.8: Exhaust brake……………………………………………………….…..97
Figure 6.1: Suspension System……………………………………………………100

Figure 6.2: Shock Absorber…………………………………………………….…101

Figure7.1: Battery………………………………………………………………….105

Figure7.2: Self-starter motor……………………………………………………….107

Figure7.3: Alternator………………………………………………………………109
Figure7.4: Lights……………………………………………………………………110
Figure7.5: Horn……………………………………………………………..………111

17
Chapter One
Introduction

18
1.1 Origin of the report

This report has been prepared as an integral part of the internship program for the Bachelor of
Science in Mechanical Engineering (BSME) Program at the Department of Mechanical
Engineering (ME) in IUBAT—International University of Business Agriculture and
Technology. As a partial fulfillment of the BSME program this practicum report has been
accomplished on “A Study on Operation, Maintenance and Trouble-shooting of Toyota
and Nissan Sunny cars” under the instruction of Engr. Md. Alamgir Hossain, Sr.
Executive (Training Dept.), Government Motor Vehicle Workshop . Government Motor
Vehicle Workshop was nominated as the organization for the practicum while honorable
faculty Engr. Abdul Wadud; Coordinator, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
rendered his kind consent to academically supervise the practicum period.

1.2 Objectives

The main objectives of the report has been done to show the total operation, maintenance and
trouble-shooting procedure and the related other aspects of Toyota and Nissan cars.

To study working principles of petrol engines

To study all other systems of petrol engine cars
To study maintenance of petrol engine cars
To study trouble-shooting of petrol engine

1.3 Scope

The report will cover the operation, maintenance activities and trouble-shooting of petrol
engine cars through a broad knowledge of different kinds of mechanical systems. Technical
operating systems, their routine maintenance and trouble diagnosis of different mechanical
systems were learned and it is the main scope of discussion in this report. Many of the
technical processes those can be utilized in petrol engine cars for improvement and
decreasing extra cost and difficulties will be also discussed. To apply this technical
knowledge, the scope is limited in Bangladesh. But hopefully, in near future the scope is
going to be widened.

19
1.4 Background

Today, more than ever, engineering applications are often interdisciplinary, involving the
interrelationship of several of the basic engineering science. Therefore the modern engineer
must have a fundamental knowledge in each of these theoretical and practical areas. To make
a bridge between theoretical knowledge to the practical knowledge by arranging this type of
industrial training results an engineer build up own criteria very much widely in practical life.

1.5 Methodology

A qualitative research method has been used to conduct this study of practicum in Toyota and
Nissan cars of Central Government Motor Vehicle Workshop. The information of this report
has been collected from the following sources:

Information source of the company

Official documents of the company
Industrial unit management handbook
Servicing manual handbook
Machinery maintenance handbook
Quality management handbook
Text books
Besides the above sources some of the information is collected through related reports,
publications, journals, articles, magazines and online resources.

1.6 Limitations

During practicum in Central Government Motor Vehicle Workshop, a huge amount of

information has been accumulated from this workshop. The employees were very much
cooperative. They helped us a lot, thus it was very much easy to understand most of the
technical terms. But as it is a commercial organization, sometimes the employees were busy
with their official work. Therefore at all time it was not convenient to communicate with
them because of their hard work. Yet they tried to help us as much as possible by them.
Moreover, during the practicum period we didn’t get all the possible troubles of the vehicles.

20
 Chapter Two
Company Overview

2.1 Welcome
Govt. motor vehicle workshop was constructed in order to repair and trouble
shouting of the cars of Ministers, Parliament members and high ranked
government employees. It was established by the Ministry of Bangladesh and it
has already achieved a good reputation in the field of public administration.

21
2.2 The Group
Govt. motor vehicle workshop is the run by the ministry of Bangladesh with
other branch. In every district has a workshop. It has 64 branches across the
country.

2.3 A Short brief on Govt. motor vehicle workshop

Govt. motor vehicle workshop run established by ministry of Bangladesh,
situated at 16, Abdul Gani road, Dhaka. Different cars of Ministers, Parliament
members and high ranked government employees including Toyota, Nissan,
Proton, Mitsubishi are brought here for repair and trouble shouting.

2.4 Mission

To repair and trouble shouting of the cars of Ministers, Parliament members and
high ranked government employees

2.5Key to success
Working hard with devotion and punctuality under a good supervision
Selling the cars those are not reparable or costly reparable

22
2.6 Government Motor Vehicle Workshop Management Structure:

General Manager

Inspector

Store officer

Higher assistant

Fore Fore Fore Fore

man 1 man 2 man 3 man 4

Engine EFI CNG AC Body Paint Electric Tyre Leather

Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section Section

Mecha Mecha Mecha Mecha Mecha Mecha Mecha Mecha Mecha

nic nic nic nic nic nic nic nic nic

23
2.7 Service department of Govt. motor vehicle workshop

The service departments are-

EFI section
Engine section
AC section
Body section
Paint section
Electric section
Leather section
CNG section
Tyre section

2.8 Administration

Technical specification

It has specification such as :

EFI
Engine
AC
Body
Paint
Electric
Leather
CNG
Tyre

24
 Chapter Three
Engine

3.1 Petrol Engine

Gasoline or petrol engines are also known as spark-ignition (S.I.) engines. Petrol engines take
in a flammable mixture of air and petrol which is ignited by a timed spark when the charge is
compressed. The first four stroke spark-ignition (S.I.) engine was built in 1876 by Nicolaus
August Otto, a self-taught German engineer at the Gas-motoreufabrik Deutz factory near
Cologne, for many years the largest manufacturer of internal-combustion engines in the
world.

25
 Figure2.1: EICHER Terra 25

3.1.1 Engine Specification

Sunny [2011-2014] XV Diesel Technical Specs

Dimensions & Weight

Length 4425 mm

Width 1695 mm

Height 1505 mm

Wheelbase 2600 mm

Kerb Weight 1097 kg

26
 Capacity

Seating Capacity 5 Person

Doors 4 Doors

No of Seating Rows 2 Rows

Bootspace 490 litres

Fuel Tank Capacity 41 litres

Engine & Transmission

Engine Type 4 cylinder inline diesel engine

Displacement 1461 cc

Fuel Type Diesel

Max Power 85 bhp @ 3750 RPM

Max Torque 200 Nm @ 2000 RPM

Mileage (ARAI) 22.7 kmpl

Alternate Fuel Not Applicable

Bore x Stroke 76 mm x 80.5 mm

Compression Ratio 17.9:1

Valve/Cylinder (Configuration) 4, SOHC

Cylinders 4, Inline

Transmission Type Manual

No of gears 5 Gears

Dual Clutch No

27
Sport Mode No

FWD
Drivetrain

Suspensions, Brakes, Steering &

Tyres

Suspension Front McPherson strut front axle

Suspension Rear Torsion beam rear axle

Front Brake Type Disc

Rear Brake Type Drum

Steering Type Electric power steering

Minimum Turning Radius 5.3 metres

Front Tyres 185 / 65 R15

3.1.2 Engine Operation

An Otto cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle that describes the functioning of a typical
spark ignition piston engine.[1] It is the thermodynamic cycle most commonly found in
automobile engines. The Otto cycle is a description of what happens to a mass of gas as it is
subjected to changes of pressure, temperature, volume, addition of heat, and removal of heat.
The mass of gas that is subjected to those changes is called the system. The system, in this
case, is defined to be the fluid (gas) within the cylinder. By describing the changes that take
place within the system, it will also describe in inverse, the system's effect on the
environment. In the case of the Otto cycle, the effect will be to produce enough net work
from the system so as to propel an automobile and its occupants in the environment.

28
 Figure3.1 (a): Pressure-Volume diagram

Figure3.1 (b): T-S Diagram for the Otto cycle

Induction Stroke

The induction stroke is generally considered to be the first stroke of the Otto 4-Stroke Cycle.
At this point in the cycle, the inlet valve is open and the exhaust valve is closed. As the piston
travels down the cylinder, a new charge of fuel/air mixture is drawn through the inlet port
into the cylinder.

The adjacent figure shows the engine crankshaft rotating in a clockwise direction. Fuel is
injected through a sequentially controlled port injector just behind the inlet valve.

29
From a theoretical perspective, each of the strokes in the cycle complete at Top Dead Centre
(TDC) or Bottom Dead Centre (BDC), but in practicality, in order to overcome mechanical
valve delays and the inertia of the new fuel/air mixture, and to take advantage of the
momentum of the exhaust gases, each of the strokes invariably begin and end outside the 0,
180, 360, 540 and 720 (0) degree crank positions.

Figure3.2: Strokes of a diesel cycle

Compression Stroke

The compression stroke begins as the inlet valve closes and the piston is driven upwards in
the cylinder bore by the momentum of the crankshaft and flywheel.

Compression in a spark ignition engine is used to force the oxygen and hydrocarbon
molecules of the fuel/air mixture into close proximity with each other. This not only raises
the temperature significantly (the work of compression is converted into heat), but the action
transforms the mixture from something that is extremely difficult to ignite under normal
atmospheric conditions into something that will burn rapidly after being ignited with just a
spark. Unfortunately, with lower (unleaded) octane fuels and high compression ratios, it is
possible to generate sufficient heat during compression for the mixture to auto-ignite, thereby
effectively limiting the practical volumetric efficiency of the Otto cycle. Solution:

30
Spark Ignition

Spark ignition is the point at which the spark is generated at the sparking plug and is an
essential difference between the Otto and Diesel cycles. It may also be considered as the
beginning of the power stroke. It is shown here to illustrate that due to flame propagation
delays, spark ignition timing commonly takes place 10 degrees before TDC during idle and
will advance to some 30 or so degrees under normal running conditions.

Power Stroke

The power stroke begins as the fuel/air mixture is ignited by the spark. The rapidly burning
mixture attempting to expand within the cylinder walls generates a high pressure which
forces the piston down the cylinder bore. The linear motion of the piston is converted into
rotary motion through the crankshaft. The rotational energy is imparted as momentum to the
flywheel which not only provides power for the end use, but also overcomes the work of
compression and mechanical losses incurred in the cycle (valve opening and closing,
alternator, fuel pump, water pump, etc.)

Exhaust Stroke

The exhaust stroke is as critical to the smooth and efficient operation of the engine as that of
induction. As the name suggests, it's the stroke during which the gases formed during
combustion are ejected from the cylinder. This needs to be as complete a process as possible,
as any remaining gases displace an equivalent volume of the new charge of fuel/air mixture
and leads to a reduction in the maximum possible power.

Tuned exhaust manifolds help to maintain the momentum of the gas during the stroke to
assist in the removal of the exhaust gases. They can also be tuned within the maximum power
rev range to create reflections or standing waves at the exhaust port to prevent some of the
new fuel/air mixture from disappearing through the exhaust port during valve overlap (see
below).

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Exhaust and Inlet Valve Overlap

Exhaust and inlet valve overlap is the transition between the exhaust and inlet strokes and is a
practical necessity for the efficient running of any internal combustion engine. Given the
constraints imposed by the operation of mechanical valves and the inertia of the air in the
inlet manifold, it is necessary to begin opening the inlet valve before the piston reaches Top
Dead Centre (TDC) on the exhaust stroke. Likewise, in order to effectively remove all of the
combustion gases, the exhaust valve remains open until after TDC. Thus, there is a point in
each full cycle when both exhaust and inlet valves are open. The number of degrees over
which this occurs and the proportional split across TDC is very much dependent on the
engine design and the speed at which it operates.

3.1.3 Terminology

Top-Dead-Center (TDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the furthest point away
from the crankshaft. Top because this position is at the top of most engines and dead because
the piston stops at this point.
Bottom-Dead-Center (BDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the point closest to the
crankshaft.
Cylinder Bore: Diameter of the cylinder or diameter of the piston face, which is the same
minus a very small clearance.
Stroke: Movement distance of the piston from one extreme position to the other, TDC to
BDC or BDC to TDC. We use 105 mm stroke length for EICHER engines.
Displacement or Swept Volume: Volume displaced by the piston as it travels through one
stroke. Displacement can be given for one cylinder or for the entire engine (one cylinder
time’s number of cylinders). Some literature calls this swept volume.
Clearance Volume: Minimum Volume in the combustion chamber with piston at TDC.
Total Volume: Total volume for a cylinder is the summation of displacement volume and
clearance volume. The total volume for each cylinder is 830cc.
Compression Ratio: It is the ratio between total volumes to clearance volume.

32
 Figure3.3: Swept volume of cylinder
Air Fuel Ratio: Ratio of mass of air to mass of fuel input into engine.

3.1.4 Engine components

The following is the list of major components found in the engines.

3.1.5 Block:
The cylinder block is the foundation of the engine. All other engine parts are attached to the
cylinder block. Blocks are cast from cast iron mixed with other metals such as nickel and
chromium. Block has large holes for cylinder bores. It also has water jackets and lubricating
oil passages.

Figure3.4: Cylinder block

3.1.6 Cylinder head:

The head is usually cast iron or aluminum, and bolts to the engine block. The head contains
fuel injectors and valves. Manufacturing the head is similar to manufacturing the block.

33
 Figure3.5: Cylinder head

3.1.7 Head gasket:

Gasket is served as a sealant between the engine block and the head where they bolt together.
The gaskets are made in sandwich construction of metal and composite materials.

Figure3.6: Cylinder head gasket

3.1.8 Cylinder:
The circular cylinders are served in the engine block in which the pistons reciprocate back
and forth. The walls of the cylinder have highly polished hard surfaces. Cylinders are
machined directly in the engine block or hard metal sleeve are pressed into the softer metal
block.

3.1.9 Cylinder sleeves:

Cylinder sleeves are used in engine blocks to provide a hard-wearing material for pistons and
piston rings. The block is made of one kind of iron that’s light and easy to cast, while the
sleeve uses another kind that is better able to stand up to wear and tear. There are three main
types of sleeves - dry, flanged dry and wet.

34
 Figure3.7: Cylinder sleeve

Dry sleeves are used in Toyota engines. The dry sleeve can be cast in or pressed into a new
block, or used to recondition badly-worn or damaged cylinders that can’t easily be re-bored.
It’s a pressed fit in its bore in the cylinder blocks. Its wall is about 2mm thick. Its outer
surface is in contact with the block for its full length. Its top finishes flush with the top of the
block and can hardly be seen. Once in place, dry sleeves become a permanent part of the
cylinder block.

3.1.10 Oil pan:

Oil reservoir is bolted to the bottom of the engine block, making up part of the crankcase.

Figure3.8: Oil sump

3.1.11 Piston:
The cylindrically shaped mass that reciprocates back and forth in the cylinder transmitting the
pressure forces in the combustion chamber rotating the crankshaft. The top of the piston is
called crown and the sides are called skirt. Pistons contain an indented bowl in the crown
which makes the clearance volume. Pistons are made of aluminum alloy.

35
 Figure3.9: Piston

3.1.12 Piston rings:

Pistons are fitted with piston rings. The two types of piston rings are compression rings and
oil control rings. Compression rings seal compression and combustion pressures in the
combustion chambers. Oil control rings scrape oil from the cylinder walls. Two compression
rings and an oil control ring are used in a piston.

Figure3.10: Piston rings

New rings and cylinders have minor irregularities and when these wear off, the rings will
make a better fit. To help this along, the rings can be given a phosphorous coating. It’s softer
and wears more quickly than the ring material which is usually cast iron. To prevent wear, the
face of the piston ring can be coated with a harder material like chromium that operates well
against cast iron without scuffing. They are split so they can be fitted into grooves in the
piston, and to expand against the cylinder walls. When they’re removed, their diameter’s
larger than the piston’s. So when they’re installed they’re compressed and the gap is almost
closed. Tension in the rings keeps them against the walls.

36
3.1.13 Connecting rod:
A connecting rod is a linkage to connect a piston with rotating crankshaft. The connecting rod
connects the piston to the crankshaft. It is fastened to the piston at its little end, by a piston
pin, also known as a gudgeon pin or wrist pin. Another method lets the pin float in both the
piston and connecting rod, and it is held with circlips.

Figure3.11: Connecting rod

There is a bearing in the small end of the connecting rod. The big end of the connecting rod
has a detachable cap, and carries 2 halves of the big end bearing. The big end is attached to
the crankshaft at the crankpin journal. Connecting rods must be very strong and rigid, and as
light as possible. They are subject to stretching, compressing and bending, so they are highly
stressed. To maintain engine balance, all the connecting rods in an engine are a matched set.

3.1.14 Crankshaft:
Rotating shaft through which engine work output is supplied to external systems. The
crankshaft is connected to the engine block with the main bearings. It is rotated by the
reciprocating pistons through connecting rods connected to the crankshaft. Crankshafts must
be strong enough to do this without bending or twisting.

37
 Figure3.12: Crankshaft
They are a one piece casting, or forging, of heat-treated alloy steel or cast iron of great
mechanical strength. Counterweights are formed to balance the throws, and also the big end
of the connecting rod. The crankshaft rotates in the engine on journals which run in bearings
called the main bearings. The connecting rod with its big end bearings are attached to the
crankshaft crank pins located on the throws. Drilled passages carry lubricant under pressure
from the main bearings to the adjacent big end bearings. The rear of the crankshaft is drilled
and tapped for flywheel attachment. Near the front of the crankshaft, a timing gear is attached
to drive the camshafts. A drive pulley is mounted on front of the crankshaft. It drives many
components including the alternator, the fan and water pump, and power steering. A
harmonic balancer is attached to the crankshaft. The harmonic balancer is more correctly
called the crankshaft torsional vibration damper. It prevents crankshaft vibration. In most
cases the harmonic balancer incorporates the drive pulley.
3.1.15 Camshaft:
A rotating shaft is used to open and close intake valves and exhaust valves at the proper time
in the engine cycle through mechanical linkage (push rods, rocker arms, and tappets).

Figure3.13: Camshaft

38
The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft gear and timing gear. The camshaft rotates at half of
the engine speed. The camshaft is made of cast iron and forged steel.

3.1.16 Flywheel:
Rotating mass with large moment of inertia connected to the crankshaft of the engine. The
purpose of the flywheel is to store energy and furnish a large angular momentum that keeps
the engine rotating between power strokes and smoothes out engine operation.

Figure3.14: Flywheel

3.1.17 Valves:

Engine valves control the intake and exhaust flow to and from the combustion chamber. It is
used to allow flow into and out of the cylinder at the proper time in the cycle. A valve must
not soften at high temperatures. It needs good hot strength to stand up to being forced against
the seat, and to prevent tensile failure in the stem. It needs good fatigue properties to
overcome cracking. Various surface treatments are used to help the valve resist wear, burning
and corrosion.

39
 Figure3.15: Valves

Inlet valves are made of steels mixed with chromium or silicon to make them more resistant
to corrosion, and manganese and nickel to improve their strength. Exhaust valves are made of
nickel-based alloys. Some high performance applications use especially hard-wearing
titanium alloys.

3.1.18 Valve trains:

The valve train includes all of the components that are driven from the camshaft. In an
overhead valve or pushrod system the valves are in the cylinder head, but the camshaft is in
the block near the crankshaft. A valve lifter or tappet rides on the cam. As the cam lobe
reaches the lifter, it rises, transfers the motion to the pushrod. This then moves a rocker which
in turn pushes the valve open.

Figure3.16: Valve trains

40
A hollow solid lifter made of cast iron is mounted in a bore in the crankcase. It is free to
rotate slowly, which distributes wear from the cam over the face of the lifter. The gap
between the valve tip and the valve train is called valve clearance or valve lash. This must be
maintained when the cam is not applying pressure to open the valve. It can be adjusted with a
screw and locknut built into the rocker arm. These adjustments are needed regularly.

3.1.19 Valve Timing Diagram

Figure3.17: Valve-timing diagram

To see how valve-timing works in a 4-stroke engine cycle, let’s show piston motion as a
circle. In this simple cycle, each stroke is shown as a semi-circle. This intake valve opens at
top dead center, and closes at bottom dead center. The blue line shows that period and it
matches the intake stroke. The exhaust valve opens at bottom dead center, and then closes at
top dead center before the fresh air enters the cylinder. In practice, the intake valve usually
opens earlier than top dead center, and stays open a little past bottom dead center. The
exhaust valve opens a little before bottom dead center, and stays open a little past top dead
center. When the valves actually open and close, it can be measured by angles. To make these
angles easier to read, let’s use a spiral instead of a circle. This intake valve opens 12° before
the piston reaches top dead center. And it closes 40° after bottom dead center. The exhaust
valve opens 47° before bottom dead center and stays open until 21° past top dead center. This
gives exhaust gases more time to leave. By the time the piston is at 47° before bottom dead
center on the power stroke, combustion pressures have dropped considerably and little power
is lost by letting the exhaust gases have more time to exit. When an intake valve opens before
top dead center and the exhaust valve opens before bottom dead center, it is called lead.
When an intake valve closes after bottom dead center, and the exhaust valve closes after top
dead center, it is called lag. On the exhaust stroke, the intake and exhaust valve are open at

41
the same time for a few degrees around top dead center. This is called valve overlap. On this
engine, it is 33°.

3.2 Intake System

The main components of the 4-stroke intake system are the air cleaner and the intake
manifold. Since the diesel engine doesn’t have a carburetor, it has no throttle. Some diesels
use a pneumatic governor with a butterfly valve at the entrance to the inlet manifold. The
intake system of the diesel engine can be used to increase engine output. This can be done by
increasing volumetric efficiency, that is, by increasing the amount of air-fuel mixture burned
in the cylinders. In diesel injection systems, this partly occurs automatically because of the
increased efficiency of fuel injection. Output can also be improved by using large, free-
flowing intake manifolds, and by increasing the number, or the size, of inlet valves per
cylinder to admit more charge into the combustion chamber. Another method is to use forced
induction or supercharging.

3.2.1 Components of Intake System

3.2.2 Air cleaners:

An air cleaner filters air that passes through it to stop harmful particles reaching the engine.
Air cleaners are connected by ducts. Diesel engines often have more than one air cleaner.
This may be due to their severe working conditions. They’re usually mounted away from the
engine to obtain cleaner, cooler air.

Figure3.18: Air cleaner

42
A lot of air passes through the intake system into the engine. By volume that’s 10,000 times
more air than fuel. Any abrasives that enter the engine can cause wear and damage. It also
has a silencing effect, muffling noise produced by the air entering the engine. Air cleaners
can be either dry type or wet type. In case of dry type air cleaner, there are two air cleaners
for EICHER vehicles. They are primary air cleaner and secondary air cleaner or safety
cartridge.

3.2.3 Intake manifold:

The intake manifold is usually a metal part with several tubular branches, though it can also
be made of a special plastic. The intake manifold carries the fresh air into the engine.

Figure3.19: Intake manifold

The cross-sectional area of each tube needs to be kept small to maintain the high air speeds
that improve vaporization. At the same time, it cannot be too small, since that restricts the
airflow to the engine at higher speeds. With multi-point injection, the intake manifolds carry
air only, so heating of the intake manifold is not needed, and the cross-sectional area of the
tubes can be larger. More air can flow and the engine can produce more power. Fuel is
injected into the intake ports of the cylinder head.

3.2.4 Volumetric Efficiency

Volumetric efficiency compares the volume of air entering a cylinder during intake, to the
internal volume of the cylinder when the piston is at bottom dead centre. It is usually
expressed as a percentage. In a naturally aspirated engine, one without forced induction,
volumetric efficiency can never be 100%. This is because of the resistance to the airflow that

43
occurs at the air cleaner, intake manifold and the intake valve. With forced induction, the
incoming air is compressed, so that a greater volume and mass of air is forced into the
cylinder during the intake stroke. That takes the volumetric efficiency to above 100%.

3.2.5 Forced Induction

Engine performance can be improved using an air pump to force air or mixture into the
cylinders. A pump driven by exhaust gases is called a turbocharger. One way to improve
engine output is to increase the amount of air that is burned in the cylinder. That means
increased volumetric efficiency, or how much air is delivered to the engine. This is done by
what is called forced induction. Forced induction increases air pressure in the intake manifold
above atmospheric pressure. An engine using forced induction can have a volumetric
efficiency above 100%. One way to achieve forced induction is by using a turbocharger

3.3.1 Electronic Fuel Injection System (EFI)

The Electronic Fuel Injection system consists of three basic subsystems.

The electronic control system determines basic injection quantity based upon electrical
signals from the air flow meter and engine rpm. The fuel delivery system maintains a
constant fuel pressure on the injector. This allows the ECU to control the fuel injection
duration and deliver the appropriate amount of fuel for engine operating conditions. The air
induction system delivers air to the engine based on driver demand. The air/fuel mixture is
formed in the intake manifold as air moves through the intake runners. The EFI system
allows for improved engine
Performance, better fuel economy, and improved emissions control. Although technologically
advanced, the EFI system is mechanically simpler than other fuel metering systems and
requires very little maintenance or periodic adjustment. The Conventional EFI system only
controls fuel delivery and injection quantity. 'Me introduction of EFI/TCCS added control Of
Electronic Spark Advance, idle speed, EGR, and other related engine systems. Most of
Toyota's late model EFI systems are equipped with some type of on board diagnosis system.

44
All TCCS systems are equipped with an advanced self diagnosis system capable of
monitoring many important engine electrical circuits. Only some of the later production
Conventional (P7) EFI engines are equipped with a self diagnosis system.

3.3.2 Engine control unit

An engine control unit (ECU), now called the power train control module (PCM),is a type
of electronic control unit that controls a series of actuators on an internal combustion engine
to ensure optimal engine performance. It does this by reading values from a multitude of
sensors within the engine bay, interpreting the data using multidimensional performance
maps (called lookup tables), and adjusting the engine actuators accordingly.

Figure 3.20: Engine control unit

3.3.3 Control of air/fuel ratio

For an engine with fuel injection, an engine control unit (ECU) will determine the quantity of
fuel to inject based on a number of parameters. If the throttle position sensor is showing the
throttle pedal is pressed further down, the mass flow sensor will measure the amount of
additional air being sucked into the engine and the ECU will inject fixed quantity of fuel into
the engine (most of the engine fuel inlet quantity is fixed). If the engine coolant temperature
sensor is showing the engine has not warmed up yet, more fuel will be injected (causing the
engine to run slightly 'rich' until the engine warms up). Mixture control on computer

45
controlled carburetors works similarly but with a mixture control solenoid or stepper motor
incorporated in the float bowl of the carburetor.

3.3.4 Control of ignition timing

A spark ignition engine requires a spark to initiate combustion in the combustion chamber.
An ECU can adjust the exact timing of the spark (called ignition timing) to provide better
power and economy. If the ECU detects knock, a condition which is potentially destructive to
engines, and determines it to be the result of the ignition timing occurring too early in the
compression stroke, it will delay (retard) the timing of the spark to prevent this. Since knock
tends to occur more easily at lower rpm, the ECU may send a signal for the automatic
transmission to downshift as a first attempt to alleviate knock.

3.3.5 Control of ideal speed

Most engine systems have idle speed control built into the ECU. The engine RPM is
monitored by the crankshaft position sensor which plays a primary role in the engine timing
functions for fuel injection, spark events, and valve timing. Idle speed is controlled by a
programmable throttle stop or an idle air bypass control stepper motor. Early carburetor-
based systems used a programmable throttle stop using a bidirectional DC motor. Early TBI
systems used an idle air control stepper motor. Effective idle speed control must anticipate
the engine load at idle.

3.3.6 Control of variable valve timing

Some engines have Variable Valve Timing. In such an engine, the ECU controls the time in
the engine cycle at which the valves open. The valves are usually opened sooner at higher
speed than at lower speed. This can optimize the flow of air into the cylinder, increasing
power and fuel economy.

46
3.3.7 Electronic valve control
Experimental engines have been made and tested that have no camshaft, but have full
electronic control of the intake and exhaust valve opening, valve closing and area of the valve
opening. Such engines can be started and run without a starter motor for certain multi-
cylinder engines equipped with precision timed electronic ignition and fuel injection. Such a
static-start engine would provide the efficiency and pollution-reduction improvements of a
mild hybrid-electric drive, but without the expense and complexity of an oversized starter
motor.

3.3.8 Programmable ECUs

Programmable ECUs are required where significant aftermarket modifications have been
made to a vehicle's engine. Examples include adding or changing of a turbocharger, adding or
changing of an intercooler, changing of the exhaust system or a conversion to run on
alternative fuel. As a consequence of these changes, the old ECU may not provide
appropriate control for the new configuration. In these situations, a programmable ECU can
be wired in. These can be programmed/mapped with a laptop connected using a serial or USB
cable, while the engine is running. The programmable ECU may control the amount of fuel to
be injected into each cylinder. This varies depending on the engine's RPM and the position of
the accelerator pedal (or the manifold air pressure).

3.3.9 The Fuel Delivery System

The fuel delivery system consists of the fuel tank, fuel pump, fuel filter, fuel delivery pipe
(fuel rail), fuel injector, fuel pressure regulator, and fuel return pipe. Fuel is delivered from
the tank to the injector by means of an electric fuel pump. The pump is typically located in or
near the fuel tank. Contaminants are filtered out by a high capacity in line fuel filter. Fuel is
maintained at a constant pressure by means of a fuel pressure regulator. Any fuel which is not
delivered to the intake manifold by the injector is returned to the tank through a fuel return
pipe. The Air Induction System The air induction system consists of the air cleaner, air flow
meter, throttle valve, air intake chamber, intake manifold runner, and intake valve.
When the throttle valve is opened, air flows through the air cleaner, through the air flow
meter (on L type systems), past the throttle valve, and through a well tuned intake manifold
runner to the intake valve. Air delivered to the engine is a function of driver demand. As the
throttle valve is opened further, more air is allowed to enter the engine cylinders.
Toyota engines use two different methods to measure intake air volume. The L type EFI
system measures air flow directly by using an air flow meter. The D type EFI system
measures air flow indirectly by monitoring the pressure in the intake manifold

3.3.10 Electronic Control System

The electronic control system consists of various engine sensors, Electronic Control Unit
(ECU), fuel injector assemblies, and related wiring. The ECU determines precisely how
much fuel needs to be delivered by the injector by monitoring the engine sensors. The ECU

47
turns the injectors on for a precise amount of time, referred to as injection pulse width or
injection duration, to deliver the proper air/fuel ratio to the engine.

3.3.11 Advantages of EFI

Uniform Air/Fuel Mixture Distribution Each cylinder has its own injector which delivers fuel
directly to the intake valve. This eliminates the need for fuel to travel through the intake
manifold, improving cylinder to cylinder distribution. Highly Accurate Air/Fuel Ratio
Control throughout All Engine Operating Conditions EFI supplies a continuously accurate
air/fuel ratio to the engine no matter what operating conditions are encountered. This
provides better drive ability, fuel economy, and emissions control. Superior Throttle
Response and Power By delivering fuel directly at the back of the
Intake valve, the intake manifold design can be optimized to improve air velocity at the
intake valve. This improves torque and throttle response.
Excellent Fuel Economy with Improved Emissions Control Cold engine and wide open
throttle enrichment can be reduced with an EFI engine because fuel pudding in the intake
manifold is not a problem. This results in better overall fuel economy and improved
emissions control. Improved Cold Engine Start ability and Operation the combination of
better fuel atomization and injection directly at the intake valve improves ability to start and
run a cold engine. Simpler Mechanics Reduced Adjustment Sensitivity.

3.3.12 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)

The EFI/TCCS system regulates the periods under which EGR can be introduced to the
engine. This control is accomplished through the use of an EGR Vacuum Switching Valve.
Other Engine Related Systems In addition to the major systems just described, the TCCS
ECU often operates an Electronically Controlled Transmission (ECT), a Variable Induction
System (T-VIS), the air conditioner compressor clutch, and the turbocharger/supercharger.
3.3.13 Self Diagnosis System
A self diagnosis system is incorporated into all TCCS Electronic Control Units (ECUs) and
into some Conventional EFI system ECUs. A Conventional EFI engine equipped with self
diagnostics is a P7/EFI system. This diagnostic system uses a check engine warning lamp in
the combination meter which is capable of warning the driver when specific faults are
detected in the engine control system. The check engine light is also capable of flashing a
series of diagnosis codes to assist the technician in troubleshooting these faults.

3.3.14 Mass air flow sensor

A mass (air) flow sensor (MAF) is used to find out the mass flow rate of air entering a fuel-
injected engine. The air mass information is necessary for the engine control unit (ECU) to
balance and deliver the correct fuel mass to the engine. Air changes its density as it expands
and contracts with temperature and pressure. In automotive applications, air density varies
48
with the ambient temperature, altitude and the use of forced induction, which means that
mass flow sensors are more appropriate than volumetric flow sensors for determining the
quantity of intake air in each cylinder.

Figure 3.21: mass (air) flow sensor

3.3.15 Throttle body

In fuel injected engines, the throttle body is the part of the air intake system that controls the
amount of air flowing into the engine, in response to driver accelerator pedal input in the
main. The throttle body is usually located between the air filter box and the intake manifold,
and it is usually attached to, or near, the mass airflow sensor.

The largest piece inside the throttle body is the throttle plate, which is a butterfly valve that
regulates the airflow.

On many cars, the accelerator pedal motion is communicated via the throttle cable, to activate
the throttle linkages, which move the throttle plate. In cars with electronic throttle control
(also known as "drive-by-wire"), an electric motor controls the throttle linkages and the
accelerator pedal connects not to the throttle body, but to a sensor, which sends the pedal
position to the Engine Control Unit (ECU). The ECU determines the throttle opening based
on accelerator pedal position and inputs from other engine sensors.

49
 Figure 3.22: Throttle body

3.3.16 ISC valve

The IAC, actuator is an electrically controlled valve, which gets its input from the vehicle's
ECU. The valve is fitted such that it bypasses the actual throttle valve. The actuator consists
of a solenoid that controls a plunger/valve which variably restricts air flow through the
device's body. Electric current through the solenoid determines how much (or less) the
plunger constricts air-flow which means that the amount by which the valve opens can be
controlled by an electric current. Thus, the ECU can control the amount of air that bypasses
the throttle when the throttle is fully closed

Figure 3.23: ISC valve

3.3.17 Throttle position sensor

A throttle position sensor (TPS) is a sensor used to monitor the throttle position of a car.
The sensor is usually located on the butterfly spindle/shaft so that it can directly monitor the

50
position of the throttle. More advanced forms of the sensor are also used, for example an
extra closed throttle position sensor (CTPS) may be employed to indicate that the throttle is
completely closed. Some engine control units (ECUs) also control the throttle position
electronic throttle control (ETC) or "drive by wire" systems and if that is done the position
sensor is used in a feedback loop to enable that control.

Figure 3.24: Throttle position sensor

3.3.18 Crankshaft position sensor

A crank sensor is an electronic device used in an internal combustion engine to monitor the
position or rotational speed of the crankshaft. This information is used by engine
management systems to control ignition system timing and other engine parameters. Before
electronic crank sensors were available, the distributor would have to be manually adjusted to
a timing mark on the engine. The crank sensor can be used in combination with a similar
camshaft position sensor to monitor the relationship between the pistons and valves in the
engine, which is particularly important in engines with variable valve timing. This method is
also used to "synchronize" a four stroke engine upon starting, allowing the management
system to know when to inject the fuel. It is also commonly used as the primary source for
the measurement of engine speed in revolutions per minute.

51
 Figure 3.25: crank sensor

3.3.19 Knock Sensor

The Knock Sensor detects engine knock and sends a voltage signal to the ECM. The ECM
uses the Knock Sensor signal to control timing. Engine knock occurs within a specific
frequency range. The Knock Sensor, located in the engine block, cylinder head, or intake
manifold is tuned to detect that frequency. Inside the knock sensor is a piezoelectric element.
Piezoelectric elements generate a voltage when pressure or a vibration is applied to them. The
piezoelectric element in the knock sensor is tuned to the engine knock frequency. The
vibrations from engine knocking vibrate the piezoelectric element generating a voltage. The
voltage output from the Knock Sensor is highest at this time.

Figure 3.26: Knock sensor

52
3.3.20 Oxygen sensor

An oxygen sensor (or lambda sensor) is an electronic device that measures the proportion of
oxygen (O2) in the gas or liquid being analyzed.

It was developed by the Robert Bosch GmbH company during the late 1960s under the
supervision of Dr. Günter Bauman. The original sensing element is made with a thimble-
shaped zirconium ceramic coated on both the exhaust and reference sides with a thin layer of
platinum and comes in both heated and unheated forms. The planar-style sensor entered the
market in 1990 (pioneered by NTK, used IN 1990 Honda Accord and Civic.) and
significantly reduced the mass of the ceramic sensing element as well as incorporating the
heater within the ceramic structure. This resulted in a sensor that started sooner and
responded faster.

Figure 3.27: Oxygen sensor

3.3.21 Vehicle Speed Sensor

To start there are a number of different types of sensors and most are used by multiple
vehicle systems. Modern vehicles use multiplexing to share vehicle speed information
between modules. For example, the Variable Assist
Power Steering (VAPS) system uses Vehicle Speed
Sensor (VSS) input to regulate power steering
pressures for higher assist at slow speeds, making

53
parking lot maneuvers easier to perform. The Anti-Lock Brake System (ABS) uses VSS
information to determine when a wheel is locked up and releases pressure to that wheel to
maintain directional stability. Some vehicles use separate sensors for the ABS, but it is
common that the computer uses the information from the wheel sensors to act as a VSS. For
example, many newer Ford vehicles use a rear axle mounted speed sensor for both ABS and
computer related vehicle speed functions. Instrument Cluster (IC) and Hybrid Electric Cluster
(HEC) modules use vehicle speed info for speedometer operation. Most new Vehicle Speed
Sensors are of the permanent magnet type, and function much the same as a camshaft or
crankshaft sensor. The sensors can be mounted either in the transmission case or rear
differential assembly. (Figure 3.28: Vehicle Speed Sensor)

3.3.22 Fuel pump

A fuel pump is a frequently (but not always) essential component on a car or other internal
combustion engine device. Many engines (older motorcycle engines in particular) do not
require any fuel pump at all, requiring only gravity to feed fuel from the fuel tank through a
line or hose to the engine. But in non-gravity feed designs, fuel has to be pumped from the
fuel tank to the engine and delivered under low pressure to the carburetor or under high
pressure to the fuel injection system. Often, carbureted engines use low pressure mechanical
pumps that are mounted outside the fuel tank, whereas fuel injected engines often use electric
fuel pumps that are mounted inside the fuel tank (and some fuel injected engines have two
fuel pumps: one low pressure/high volume supply pump in the tank and one high
pressure/low volume pump on or near the engine).

54
Figure 3.29: fuel pump

3.3.23Mechanical pump
Prior to the widespread adoption of electronic fuel injection, most carbureted automobile
engines used mechanical fuel pumps to transfer fuel from the fuel tank into the fuel bowls of
the carburetor. Most mechanical fuel pumps are diaphragm pumps, which are a type of
positive displacement pump. Diaphragm pumps contain a pump chamber whose volume is
increased or decreased by the flexing of a flexible diaphragm, similar to the action of a piston
pump. A check valve is located at both the inlet and outlet ports of the pump chamber to
force the fuel to flow in one direction only. Specific designs vary, but in the most common
configuration, these pumps are typically bolted onto the engine block or head, and the
engine's camshaft has an extra eccentric lobe that operates a lever on the pump, either directly
or via a pushrod, by pulling the diaphragm to bottom dead center. In doing so, the volume
inside the pump chamber increased, causing pressure to decrease. This allows fuel to be
pushed into the pump from the tank (caused by atmospheric pressure acting on the fuel in the
tank). The return motion of the diaphragm to top dead center is accomplished by a diaphragm
spring, during which the fuel in the pump chamber is squeezed through the outlet port and
into the carburetor. The pressure at which the fuel is expelled from the pump is thus limited
(and therefore regulated) by the force applied by the diaphragm spring.

3.24 Electric pump

A piston metering pump f.e. gasoline- or additive metering pumping many modern cars the
fuel pump is usually electric and located inside the fuel tank. The pump creates positive
pressure in the fuel lines, pushing the gasoline to the engine. The higher gasoline pressure
raises the boiling point. Placing the pump in the tank puts the component least likely to
handle gasoline vapor well (the pump itself) farthest from the engine, submersed in cool
liquid. Another benefit to placing the pump inside the tank is that it is less likely to start a
fire. Though electrical components (such as a fuel pump) can spark and ignite fuel vapors,
liquid fuel will not explode (see flammability limit) and therefore submerging the pump in
the tank is one of the safest places to put it. In most cars, the fuel pump delivers a constant
flow of gasoline to the engine; fuel not used is returned to the tank. This further reduces the
chance of the fuel boiling, since it is never kept close to the hot engine for too long. The
ignition switch does not carry the power to the fuel pump; instead, it activates a relay which
will handle the higher current load. It is common for the fuel pump relay to become oxidized
and cease functioning; this is much more common than the actual fuel pump failing. Modern
engines utilize solid-state control which allows the fuel pressure to be controlled via pulse-
width modulation of the pump voltage. This increases the life of the pump, allows a smaller
and lighter device to be used, and reduces electrical load.

55
The fuel sending unit assembly may be a combination of the electric fuel pump, the filter, the
strainer, and the electronic device used to measure the amount of fuel in the tank via a float
attached to a sensor which sends data to the dash-mounted fuel gauge. The fuel pump by
itself is a relatively inexpensive part. But a mechanic at a garage might have a preference to
install the entire unit assembly.

3.3.26 Injector

Fuel injection is a system for admitting fuel into an internal combustion engine. It has
become the primary fuel delivery system used in automotive engines, having replaced
carburetors during the 1980s and 1990s. A variety of injection systems have existed since the
earliest usage of the internal combustion engine.

The primary difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes
the fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor
relies on suction created by intake air accelerated through a Venturi tube to draw the fuel into
the airstream.

Modern fuel injection systems are designed specifically for the type of fuel being used. Some
systems are designed for multiple grades of fuel (using sensors to adapt the tuning for the fuel
currently used). Most fuel injection systems are for gasoline or diesel applications.

Figure 3.30: Injector

3.3.27 EFI Main Relay

It operates the fuel pump, AND supplies power to the injectors. Without this thing in proper
working order, your car is going nowhere. As stated elsewhere, this device is prone to failure
due to cracked solder, which results in intermittent/nonexistent current flow to the fuel pump
or the injectors.If you listen very carefully, or reaches around behind the dash and put your
fingers on the Main Relay, you'll hear/feel THREE CLICKS as you start the car. Check the
green text on the images to see when those clicks should appear. Most Main Relay problems

56
that cause starts issues result in one or more of those clicks being missing, making the clicks
a handy diagnostic tool.

Figure 3.31: EFI Main Relay

3.3.28 Ignition coil

An ignition coil (also called a spark coil) is an induction coil in an automobile's ignition
system which transforms the battery's low voltage to the thousands of volts needed to create
an electric spark in the spark plugs to ignite the fuel. Some coils have an internal resistor
while others rely on a resistor wire or an external resistor to limit the current flowing into the
coil from the car's 12-volt supply. The wire that goes from the ignition coil to the distributor
and the high voltage wires that go from the distributor to each of the spark plugs are called
spark plug wires or high tension leads.

Originally, every ignition coil system required mechanical contact breaker points, and a
capacitor (condenser). More recent electronic ignition systems use a power transistor to
provide pulses to the ignition coil. A modern passenger automobile may use one ignition coil
for each engine cylinder (or pair of cylinders), eliminating fault-prone spark plug cables and a
distributor to route the high voltage pulses.

57
 Figure 3.32: Ignition coil

3.3.29 Modern ignition systems

The simplest form of spark ignition is that using a magneto. The engine spins a magnet inside
a coil, or, in the earlier designs, a coil inside a fixed magnet, and also operates a contact
breaker, interrupting the current and causing the voltage to be increased sufficiently to jump a
small gap. The spark plugs are connected directly from the magneto output. Early magnetos
had one coil, with the contact breaker (sparking plug) inside the combustion chamber. In
about 1902, Bosch introduced a double-coil magneto, with a fixed sparking plug, and the
contact breaker outside the cylinder. Magnetos are not used in modern cars, but because they
generate their own electricity they are often found on piston-engine aircraft engines and small
engines such as those found in mopeds, lawnmowers, snow blowers, chainsaws, etc. where a
battery-based electrical system is not present for any combination of necessity, weight, cost,
and reliability reasons.

Magnetos were used on the small engine's ancestor, the stationary "hit and miss" engine
which was used in the early twentieth century, on older gasoline or distillate farm tractors
before battery starting and lighting became common, and on aircraft piston engines.
Magnetos were used in these engines because their simplicity and self-contained operation
was more reliable, and because magnetos weighed less than having a battery and dynamo or
alternator.

58
Figure 3.33: Modern ignition systems

3.3.30 Electronic control module

In automotive electronics, electronic control unit (ECU) is a generic term for any embedded
system that controls one or more of the electrical system or subsystems in a motor vehicle.

Types of ECU include electronic/engine control module (ECM), power train control module
(PCm), transmission control module (TCM), brake control module (BCM or EBCM), central
control module (CCM), central timing module (CTM), general electronic module (GEM),
body control module (BCM), suspension control module (SCM), control unit, or control
module. Taken together, these systems are sometimes referred to as the car's computer.
(Technically there is no single computer but multiple ones.) Sometimes one assembly
incorporates several of the individual control modules (PCM is often both engine and
transmission)

Some modern motor vehicles have up to 80 ECUs. Embedded software in ECUs continues to
increase in line count, complexity, and sophistication. Managing the increasing complexity
and number of ECUs in a vehicle has become a key challenge for original equipment
manufacturers (OEMs).

59
 Figure 3.34: Electronic control unit (ECU)

3.3.31 Engine coolant temperature sensor

The coolant temperature sensor is used to measure the temperature of the engine coolant of
an internal combustion engine. The readings from this sensor are then fed back to the Engine
control unit (ECU), which uses this data to adjust the fuel injection and ignition timing. On
some vehicles the sensor may also be used to switch on the electric cooling fan. The data may
also be used to provide readings for a coolant temperature gauge on the dashboard.

Figure 3.35: coolant temperature sensor

3.3.32 Air–fuel ratio meter

An air–fuel ratio meter monitors the air–fuel ratio of an engine. Also called air–fuel ratio
gauge, air–fuel meter, or air–fuel gauge. It reads the voltage output of an oxygen sensor,
sometimes also called lambda sensor, whether it be from a narrow band or wide band oxygen
60
sensor. The original narrow-band oxygen sensors became factory installed standard in the late
1970s and early 80s. In recent years, a newer and much more accurate wide-band sensor,
though more expensive, has become available. Most stand-alone narrow-band meters have 10
LEDs and some have more. Also common, narrow band meters in round housings with the
standard mounting 2 1/16" and 2 5/8" diameters, as other types of car 'gauges'. These usually
have 10 or 20 LEDs. Analogue 'needle' style gauges are also available. As stated above, there
is wide-band meters that stands alone or are mounted in housings. Nearly all of these show
the air–fuel ratio on a numeric display, since the wide-band sensors provide a much more
accurate reading. And since they use more accurate electronics, these meters are more
expensive.

Figure 3.36: Air–fuel ratio meter

3.3.34 Dew warning

A dew warning, also known as a dew alarm or dew signal, is an error indication on VCRs
and camcorders if the VCR/camcorder develops dew inside the unit from being exposed to
extreme temperature and/or humidity changes.

The presence of moisture between the tape and the rotating head drum increases friction
which prevents correct operation and can cause damage to both the recording device and the
tape. In extreme cases, if the dew sensor fails to function and stop the video recorder,
moisture can cause the tape to stick to the spinning video head. This can pull a large amount
of tape from the cassette before the head drum stops spinning. The tape will be extensively
damaged, the video heads will often become clogged, and the mechanism may be unable to
eject the cassette.

61
The dew sensor itself is mounted very close to the video head drum. Contrary to how one
might expect this to behave, the sensor increases its resistance when moisture is present. Poor
contacts on the sensor can therefore be a cause of random dew sensor warnings.

Usually, a "DEW" indicator or error code lights up on the display of most VCRs/camcorders,
and on some, a buzzer may sound.

3.3.35 Air flow meter

An air flow meter is a device that measures air flow, i.e. how much air is flowing through a
tube. It does not measure the volume of the air passing through the tube; it measures the mass
of air flowing through the device per unit time. Thus air flow meters are simply an
application of mass flow meters for a special medium. Typically, mass air flow
measurements are expressed in the units of kilograms per second (kg/s)

Figure 3.37: An air flow meter

3.4 Lubrication System

One function of a lubrication system is to reduce friction. Friction occurs between all surfaces
in contact. When moving surfaces come together, friction tends to slow them down.
Lubrication reduces unwanted friction and controls it where it is useful. It reduces wear on

62
moving parts. Clearances fill with oil so that engine parts move or float on layers of oil
instead of directly on each other. It helps cool an engine. It collects heat from the engine and
then returns to the sump. It helps absorb shock loads. A power stroke can suddenly put as
much as 2 tones force on main bearings. Layers of oil cushion this loading. Oil is also a
cleaning agent. It collects particles of metal and carbon and carries them back to the sump.
Larger pieces fall to the bottom. In EICHER engines SAE 20W50 engine oil is used for
lubrication purpose.

Figure3.38: Lubrication system

3.4.1 Components of Lubrication System

3.4.2 Oil sump:

The sump is formed as a thin sheet metal pressing, and shaped to ensure that oil will return to
its deepest section. The oil pickup tube and strainer are located in this deep section to ensure
they stay submerged in oil and to prevent air being drawn into the oil pump.

63
 Figure3.39: Oil sump

3.4.3 Oil strainer:

It is on the bottom of the pick-up pipe that prevents foreign matter (such as lost washers, nuts
and bolts) from entering the Oil pump.

Figure3.39: Oil strainer

It is attached to the inlet of the oil pump, so that the oil going in the oil pump is free from
impurities.

3.4.4 Oil pump:

Oil pumps are used to deliver the lubricating oil from oil pan to oil galleries.

Figure3.40: Oil pump

The different types of the oil pump are

 Gear pump
64
  Rotor pump
 Vane pump

Geared type oil pumps are used in EICHER trucks.

Figure3.41: Gear type oil pump

An oil pump is driven from the camshaft. The pump is driven by skew gear of camshaft. The
driving gear meshes with a second gear. As both gears turn, their teeth separate, creating a
low pressure area. Higher atmospheric pressure outside forces oil up into the inlet. The spaces
between the teeth fill with oil. The gears rotate, and carry oil around the chamber. The teeth
mesh again, and oil is forced from the outlet toward the oil filter.

3.4.5 Oil pressure relief valve:

A normal pump is capable of delivering more oil than an engine needs. It’s a safety measure
to ensure the engine is never starved for oil. As the pump rotates, and engine speed increases,
the volume of oil delivered also increases. The fixed clearances between the moving parts of
the engine prevent oil escaping back to the sump, and pressure builds up in the system. An oil
pressure relief valve stops excess pressure developing. It’s like a controlled leak, releasing
just enough oil back to the sump to regulate the pressure of the whole system.

3.4.6 Oil filter:

There are two types of oil filtering systems are full-flow and by-pass. The full-flow type
filters all of the oil before delivering it to the engine. The by-pass type only filters some of
the oil. The full-flow type is the more common. Its filter uses pleated filtering paper in a
metal housing, to collect harmful particles.

65
 Figure3.42: Oil filter

Normally all oil goes through the filter before it gets to the engine, but if the filter clogs up, it
can starve an engine of oil. As a safety measure, full-flow filters have a bypass valve. If the
filter clogs, this valve opens and directs unfiltered oil to the engine. Dirty oil is better than
none at all. In a by-pass system, the bypass element filters only some of the oil from the
pump by tapping an oil line into an oil passage. It collects finer particles than a full-flow
filter. After this oil is filtered, it goes back to the sump.

3.4.7 Oil indicators:

If a lubrication system fails it’s serious, so it’s crucial to know it’s working. If oil pressure
falls too low, a pressure sensor in a gallery can light up a warning light, or register on a
gauge. Low oil pressure can mean a lack of oil. It may have leaked away, or it may have been
burned. This can be caused by worn piston rings which let oil into the combustion chamber.
Of course, the simplest indicator of oil level is still the dip stick.

3.4.8 Oil cooler:

Engines which operate under severe conditions may use an oil cooler to cool the oil in the
engine. The oil cooler is a heat exchanger. It transfers heat from the oil to coolant from the
cooling system.

66
 Figure3.43: Oil cooler

Coolant circulates through tubes in the cooler, and oil fed from the lubrication system
surrounds the tubes. As the coolant circulates, heat is removed from the oil.

3.5 Cooling System

Combustion of the air-fuel mixture in the cylinders generates heat which produces high
pressure to force the piston down in the power stroke. Not all of this heat can be converted
into useful work on the piston and it must be removed to prevent seizure of moving parts.
This is the role of the cooling system. EICHER engines are liquid-cooled.

Figure3.44: Cooling system

A liquid-cooled system uses coolant that contains special chemicals mixed with water.
Coolant flows through passages in the engine, and through a radiator. The radiator accepts

67
hot coolant from the engine and lowers its temperature. Air flowing through the radiator takes
heat from the coolant. The lower-temperature coolant is returned to the engine through a
pump.

Coolant prevents an engine from overheating in use and from freezing when idle. When an
engine stands idle in cold weather, water in the cooling system will expand as it freezes and
this can have sufficient force to crack the engine block or radiator. An effective coolant must
therefore contain good heat transfer properties, have a higher boiling point and lower freezing
point than water, prevent corrosion and erosion, resist foaming, be compatible with cooling
system component materials, be compatible with hard water, resist sedimentation, and be as
chemically stable as possible. A concentrate, usually made of Ethylene Glycol together with
some protective additives, is mixed with water to produce coolant. Non toxic Propylene
Glycol also can be used instead of the more toxic Ethylene Glycol. Glycol does not absorb
heat as effectively as water, but when added to water it has the ability to lower the fluid’s
freezing point as well as raise its boiling point. A common Glycol to water ratio used is
50:50. This will lower the freezing point of the fluid to minus 39°C or minus 38°F, and raise
the boiling point to 108°C or 226°F. A fully formulated coolant is comprised of a careful
balance of ethylene or propylene glycol with rust inhibitors, corrosion inhibitors, scale
inhibitors, pH buffers for the acid to alkali balance, anti foaming agents, and reserve
alkalinity additives.

3.5.1 Components of cooling system

3.5.2 Radiator:

Radiators are mounted at the front of the vehicle in the path of greatest airflow. The air
carries heat away, cooling the liquid before it returns to absorb more heat from the engine.
Where a radiator is mounted also depends on space how the engine is mounted. A header
tank can be mounted away from the radiator, where it provides a coolant supply, stored above
the engine. It is made of hardened plastic.

68
 Figure3.45: Radiator

The radiator has 2 tanks and a core. The materials used in the radiator must be good heat
conductors like brass or copper. Brass and copper are often used for tanks, combined with a
copper core. Some vehicles often use plastic tanks combined with an aluminum core. This
saves weight but still provides good heat transfer. The core consists of a number of tubes that
carry coolant between the 2 tanks. The tubes are in a vertical down flow pattern. In the core,
small and thin cooling fins are in contact with the tubes. The shape of the fins increases the
surface area exposed to the air. Where coolant touches tube walls, and where the tubes touch
the fins, heat is removed from the coolant by conduction, then by radiation and convection at
the surface of the fins. Air rushing by carries the heat away. Liquid emerges cooler at the
bottom of the radiator. It travels through the lower radiator hose to the water pump inlet, then
through the engine again.

3.5.3 Coolant hoses:

Coolant is transferred throughout the cooling system by hoses. The engines are mounted on
flexible mountings to reduce noise and vibration. Since the radiator is mounted to the vehicle
body, flexible hoses are needed. Coolant is also carried to the heating system which is usually
inside the cabin of the vehicle.

69
 Figure3.46: Coolant hoses

Coolant hoses vary in diameter depending on the volume of coolant that passes through them.
Most hoses are made of rubber, and since they are subject to pressure, they are reinforced
with a layer of fabric. They are molded to a special shape to suit the model and make of
vehicle.

3.5.4 Water pump:

The water pump is usually in front of the cylinder block, belt-driven from a pulley, on the
front of the crankshaft. A hose connects it to the bottom of the radiator where the cooler
liquid emerges. It has fan-like blades on a rotor or impeller. Coolant enters the center of the
pump. The rotor spins and centrifugal force moves the liquid outward. It is driven through the
outlet into the cooling passages called water jackets. Water jackets are passages in the engine
block and cylinder head that surround the cylinders, valves and ports.

Figure3.47: Water pump

3.5.5 Thermostat valve:

The thermostat helps an engine to warm up. It’s found in different positions on different
engines. It is a valve that operates according to coolant temperature. When coolant is cold, a
spring holds the valve closed. When a cold engine starts, coolant circulates within the engine
block and cylinder head and through a coolant bypass to the water pump inlet. It can’t get to
the radiator. As the engine warms up, the coolant in the engine gets hotter and hotter.

70
 Figure3.48: Thermostat valve

This thermostat has a wax-like substance that expands as the engine nears its operating
temperature (82°c to 90°c). This starts to open the valve. Coolant starts to flow to the
radiator. Heated coolant is pumped from an outlet in the cylinder head. It goes into the upper
radiator hose, then to the radiator.

3.5.6 Cooling fan:

In a vehicle moving at high speed, airflow through the radiator cools the coolant, but at low
speed or when the engine is idling, extra airflow comes from a fan. A fan is usually mounted
on the water pump shaft. The drive belt then turns the water pump and fan.

Figure3.49: Cooling fan

3.5.7 Temperature indicator:

71
 Figure3.50: Temperature indicator

Overheating can seriously damage an engine, so having warning of trouble is obviously

useful. A device that’s sensitive to engine temperature sends readings to a temperature gauge
or a warning lamp. To give an accurate reading this sensor must always be immersed in
liquid.

3.5.8 Radiator pressure cap:

The cooling system on engines are sealed and pressurized by a radiator pressure cap. There
are two advantages to sealing and pressurizing the cooling system. Radiator pressure cap has
a built in pressure relief valve to prevent excessive pressure build-up. It has a vacuum vent
valve to reduce the coolant volume when the engine is stop or cold.

Figure3.51: Radiator pressure cap

3.5.9 Recovery system:

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A recovery system maintains coolant in the system at all times. As engine temperature rises,
coolant expands. Pressure builds against a valve in the radiator pressure cap until, at a preset
pressure, the valve opens. Hot coolant flows out into an overflow container. As the engine
cools, coolant contracts and pressure in the radiator drops.

Figure3.52: Coolant reservoir or overflow container

Atmospheric pressure in the overflow container opens a second valve, and overflow coolant
flows back into the radiator. No coolant is lost and excess air is kept out of the system.

3.6 Exhaust System

An exhaust system must reduce engine noise and discharge exhaust gases safely away from
the vehicle. An efficient exhaust system can improve engine performance. During engine
operation, each time the exhaust valve opens pulses of hot exhaust gases are forced into the
exhaust manifold. These hot, rapidly expanding gases produce a lot of noise, some of it at
very high frequency.

The exhaust system does several jobs. It has to reduce the noise of the exhausting gases to
acceptable levels. It has to discharge the gases safely, far enough away to prevent them re-
entering the vehicle. Some of these gases are highly poisonous. In an enclosed space, carbon
monoxide can cause death in minutes. It is odorless and colorless, which makes it difficult to
detect, and removing it is especially important.

The exhaust system is designed to enhance engine operation. A well-designed system can
improve drivability and performance. In this simplified model, burned gases exit the cylinder

73
through the exhaust port and pass into the exhaust manifold. The first pipe is usually called
the engine pipe. It is connected to the outlet of the manifold which carries the exhaust gases
to the muffler, which reduces exhaust noise. Exhaust gases are then discharged through a tail
pipe at the rear.

3.6.1 Components of Exhaust System

There are many components are involved with exhaust system. The components of the
exhaust system are described below.

3.6.2 Exhaust manifold:

The exhaust manifold collects exhaust gases as they leave each cylinder and directs them into
the exhaust system. The exhaust manifold is bolted to the cylinder head or onto the exhaust
ports. The exhaust manifold is usually made of cast iron. The length of the passages in the
exhaust manifold should be designed so that pulses of exhaust gases from one cylinder assist
the flow of gases from another. It has large tubular sections, to improve gas flow, and no
sharp bends to slow the gases down.

3.6.3 Exhaust pipe:

The exhaust pipe carries the hot exhaust gases to where they can be discharged into the
atmosphere.

Figure3.53: Exhaust pipe

74
The engine pipe is attached to the outlet of the exhaust manifold. It can be designed to branch
in various ways. On this engine, the exhaust gas from 4 cylinders is fed into each engine pipe.
The system needs flexible mountings to allow for engine movement, and prevent noise and
vibration being transmitted into the vehicle body.

3.6.4Muffler:
The muffler reduces exhaust noise by dampening the pulsations in the exhaust gases and
allowing them to expand slowly.

Figure3.54: Muffler

The muffler is located in the exhaust system between the exhaust manifold and the exhaust
outlet. It is usually made of sheet steel, coated with aluminum to reduce corrosion. Some are
made of stainless steel. A muffler contains perforated pipes, baffles and resonance chambers.
Many also contain sound-absorbing material such as fiberglass or wire wool. The muffler
slows down the gases and breaks up the pulsating sound waves and so reduces the noise. It
must cause as little restriction as possible. Poor design can cause excessive back-pressure that
will slow down the escape of the exhaust gases and reduce engine performance.

3.6.5 Catalytic converter:

The catalytic converter provides a chemical reaction with the exhaust gases to reduce the
level of exhaust pollutants entering the atmosphere.

75
 Figure3.55: Catalytic converter
A catalytic converter is used to convert unacceptable exhaust pollutants, such as carbon
monoxide, certain hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen into less dangerous substances. In 3-
way converters convert hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide to water and carbon dioxide.
They convert the oxides of nitrogen back into nitrogen and oxygen.

A catalytic converter fits into an exhaust system like a muffler. It is located close to the
exhaust manifold so that it can reach its operating temperature as soon as possible. Leaded
fuel must not be used in an engine with a catalytic converter because lead will contaminate
the catalyst and prevent it doing its job. It operates by starting and then maintaining a
chemical reaction in the exhaust gases. It usually operates at higher temperatures than a
muffler. It has a heat shield to prevent heat radiating to bodywork and other parts.

3.6.6 Flexible connection:

There is a flexible connection between an engine pipe and an intermediate pipe. It is used
close to the engine. Its main functions are to allow engine movement and reduce vibration
without passing it. It also helps with the alignment of the pipes.

76
 Figure3.56: Flexible connection

3.7 Maintenance

Description Check interval / Cleaning Replacement interval

Air cleaner element and 5000 Kms 25000 Kms

safety cartridge

Oil filter element 20000 Kms

Fuel filter element 25000 Kms

Engine oil 10000 Kms

Coolant 50000 Kms

Oil hose 2 years

Fuel hose 3 years

Radiator hose 5000 Kms

Radiator cap 15000 Kms

77
Fuel injection 15000 Kms

Injection timing 15000 Kms

Valve clearance 50000 Kms

Compression pressure 50000 Kms

Retightening head bolt 50000 Kms

V- belt tension 5000 Kms

3.8 Trouble-shooting

Probable Cause Remedy

Engine Misses on One or More Cylinders

Insufficient air to engine ----------- Remove and clean air cleaner

Defective injectors ----------- Replace with serviceable unit

Air lock in the injection pump or fuel filter ----------- Vent air from system and check all
fuel connections for leaks

Poor fuel quality ----------- Use good grade of fuel.

Air leaks around intake manifold ----------- Remove and install new gasket

Injections pump not operating properly ----------- Remove injection pump and test it

Injections pump not properly timed to the engine -----------Check and adjust timing

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Excessive Oil Consumption

Piston rings worn or broken ----------- Install new rings

Oil level in crankcase too high ----------- Maintain proper oil level

Crankcase oil pan gasket leaking ----------- Install new gasket

Worn valve guides ----------- Install new valve guides

Cylinder sleeves worn ----------- Install new sleeves

Front and rear crankshaft oil seal leaking ----------- Install new oil seals

Piston rings not seating ----------- Install new rings

Clogged oil ring ----------- Remove and inspect, replace if

necessary

Oil pan drain plug loose or worn ----------- Install new drain plug and gasket
tighten plug

Wrong specification oil used ----------- Use correct grade of Oil

Air cleaner clogged ----------- Disassemble & clean air cleaner

Engine Knocks

One or more cylinders misfiring ----------- Locate and correct cause.

Disconnect the injection lines at the
valve housing one at a time and
check for rpm drop of each cylinder

Improper valve settings ----------- Reset as necessary. If out of

adjustment an excessive amount,
check for bent push rods

Lack of compression ----------- Refer to "Poor Compression"

Poor Compression

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Piston rings worn, broken or cracked ----------- Install new rings.

Cylinder sleeve worn ----------- Install new sleeves

Valves damaged or worn ----------- Install new valves

Broken valve spring ----------- Install new springs

Worn cylinder head gasket ----------- Install new gasket

Valve seats worn or cracked ----------- Grind valve seats

Worn pistons ----------- Install new pistons

Excessive valve guide wear ----------- Install new valve guides

Sticking valves or bent valves stems ----------- Free stem and correct cause

Engine Overheats

Water pump air bound ----------- Vent air from water pump and
thermostat housing

Insufficient coolant in cooling system ----------- Check level and add if necessary

Dirt & trash on outside of Radiator ----------- Clean between the tube fins with

Air pressure

Cooling system clogged ----------- Drain and flush cooling system

Hose connection leaking or collapsed ----------- Change hose

Insufficient oil ----------- Maintain proper oil level

Radiator cap not sealing or defective ----------- Replace

Defective thermostat ----------- Remove and test thermostat

Excessive Smoke

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Air cleaner clogged ----------- Service air cleaner as described in
the operator's manual

Too much oil in Air cleaner ----------- Remove air cleaner and remove
excess oil.

Engine overloaded ----------- Reduce load

Improper fuel ----------- Use good grade of fuel

Defective injection nozzle ----------- Install new injection nozzle

Worn pistons, rings and sleeves ----------- Install new parts

Incorrect valve adjustment ----------- Adjust valves properly

Leaking manifold gaskets ----------- Install new gaskets

Incorrect lubricating oil ----------- Use specified grade of oil

Bearing Failure

Low oil level ----------- Maintain proper oil level

Lack of oil ---------- Maintain proper oil level

Engine runs too hot ----------- Keep engine at normal operating

temperature

Loose bearings ----------- Install new bearings

Use of improper lubricating oil ----------- Use correct grade of oil

Oil lines clogged ----------- Clean all oil passages

Connecting rod bent ----------- Align rod or install new

Crankshaft out of alignment ----------- Install new crankshaft

Valves Sticking

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Valve springs weak ------------ Install new springs

Valve springs broken ----------- Install new springs

Transmission System

The term transmission refers to the whole drive train. It includes gearbox, clutch, propeller
shaft, differential and final drive shafts (rear axles).

4.1 Clutch

A clutch connects and disconnects one rotating mechanical component from another. An
automobile clutch transmits torque from the engine to the transmission, and the driver uses a
release mechanism to control the flow of the torque between them. Most light vehicles use a
single-plate, friction-type disc, with two friction facings attached to a central hub, splined to
accept the transmission input shaft.

Figure4.1: Clutch plate

The friction facings are clamped between the flat surface of the engine flywheel and a spring-
loaded pressure-plate, bolted to its outer edge. The input shaft passes through the centre of
the pressure plate to engage the splines of the friction disc hub. With engine rotation, the
flywheel and clutch assembly rotate as one unit. Engine torque is transferred from the
flywheel through the friction facings to the splined hub and into the transmission. Moving a
clutch pedal operates the release mechanism to control the flow of torque between the two

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units. Depressing the pedal retracts the pressure plate against the force of its springs and frees
the friction disc from its clamping action. Releasing the pedal re-applies the clamping force
and re-connects the two units.

This control is necessary:

 When placing the transmission into gear, the transmission input shaft must be
disconnected from the engine.
 When moving the vehicle from rest, slowly releasing the pedal, gives a gradual
engagement of the drive, as the friction facings slip and allow torque to be applied
progressively until both units are rigidly connected.
 When selecting an alternative ratio, that is, changing gears, when the vehicle is in
motion the transmission of engine torque must again be interrupted for this to occur.
 When bringing the vehicle to a halt, the transmission must be disengaged to leave the
engine running at its idling speed.

The amount of torque a clutch can transmit depends on the co-efficient of friction between
the friction facings and their mating surfaces, the mean radius of the facings, the number of
facings in contact, and the total spring force. Increasing the diameter of a clutch increases its
torque capacity, as does increasing the spring force.

4.1.1 Clutch Operating Mechanism

Movement at the pedal pad is transferred through an operating mechanism, to the clutch
assembly on the rear of the flywheel. This mechanism may be mechanical or hydraulic.
Hydraulic system is used for EICHER trucks.

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 Figure4.2: Clutch operating

In hydraulic clutch control, the pedal acts on a master cylinder, connected by a hydraulic pipe
and flexible hose, to a slave cylinder (clutch power cylinder), mounted on the clutch housing.
The slave cylinder operates the clutch release fork. This vehicle uses a centre valve master
cylinder. With the pedal in the off position, the centre valve is clear of the inlet port and fluid
can flow to or from the reservoir, into the cylinder.

When the pedal is initially depressed, the piston is moved forward, taking the valve assembly
with it. The centre valve closes off the inlet port from the reservoir, trapping fluid in the
cylinder bore. Further piston movement displaces fluid through the outlet port, and into the
connecting lines to act on the slave cylinder piston. The movement of the slave cylinder
piston is transferred through a push-rod to the clutch release fork, to operate the clutch.

When the pedal is released, displaced fluid returns to the master cylinder, and the centre
valve returns to being slightly clear of the inlet port.

4.2 Pressure Plate

A diaphragm type pressure plate consists of a pressed steel cover, a pressure plate with a
machined flat surface, a number of spring steel drive straps, and the diaphragm spring. This
diaphragm is located inside the clutch cover on 2 fulcrum rings, held by a number of rivets
passing through the diaphragm.

Figure4.3: Pressure plate

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The pressure plate is connected to the cover by the spring steel drive straps, riveted to the
cover at one end, and to projecting lugs on the plate, at the other. Retraction clips hold the
pressure plate in contact with the outer edge of the diaphragm. During clutch operation, they
move the plate away from the flywheel.

4.3 Gearbox

The gear train is built up on three shafts. The input shaft extends from the front of the
transmission. An external parallel-splined section engages with internal splines on the clutch-
driven plate. A main-drive gear is an integral part of the shaft. It meshes constantly with a
mating gear on a counter-shaft which has a number of gears formed on it. These gears mesh
with mating gears on the main shaft, or output. These main shaft gears are supported on
bearings on the shaft. They can rotate without turning the output. Each main shaft gear has an
external toothed section on one side. The teeth face an internally-toothed engagement sleeve
located on a central hub, which is itself splined to the main shaft.

Figure4.4: Gear box

The engagement sleeve can slide in either direction to engage the external teeth on the
appropriate gear. This locks the gear through the sleeve and hub, to the main shaft. Before
engagement of the components occurs, a synchromesh device between the sleeve and gear
synchronizes them. The gears constantly in mesh have their teeth cut on a helix, at an angle to
the gear center line. This reduces gear noise and distributes load more evenly, as several teeth
are in contact at any one time. The engagement sleeve moves to engage the dog teeth of the
relevant gear when a gear is selected. This locks the gear to the shaft, so drive can be
transmitted. Teeth on the reverse idler are normally straight cut or spur gears, cut parallel to

85
the gear center line. When reverse is selected, this connects the reverse idler with mating
gears on the countershaft and main shaft. The reverse idler rotates on a plain shaft fixed in the
casing. It transfers the drive from one shaft to the other, and reverses the direction of rotation
of the main shaft.

4.3.1 Gearbox Operation

In a rear-wheel drive manual transmission, the splines on the input shaft engage with the
splines of the clutch-driven plate. With engine rotation and the clutch engaged, the input shaft
transfers its motion through the counter-shaft, to rotate the gears on the main shaft. In this
neutral condition, the engagement sleeves and hubs splined to the output shaft are stationary.
No drive is transmitted to the output.

Depressing the clutch pedal removes the engine load from the input. This allows an
engagement sleeve to be moved into engagement with the external teeth on the gear selected.
This locks the gear to the main shaft. When the clutch is released, the drive is transmitted to
the input gears, along the counter-shaft to the gear selected. Since this gear is now locked to
the main shaft, the main shaft rotates and transfers the drive to the final drive unit. The speed
ratio and the torque transferred depend on which gear is selected.

In this 5-speed transmission, first gear, the smallest on the countershaft, meshes with the
largest gear on the main shaft to give first gear. This is the lowest forward ratio. The greatest
number of turns of the input is required to achieve one turn of the output. This also gives the
greatest torque multiplication.

In 2nd gear, power flow is through the next adjacent gear. The difference in speed between
input and output shafts is reduced. Fewer turns of the input are required to give one turn of
the output, but there is less torque multiplication.

When the 3rd gear and the 4th gear are selected and moved into place, drive is transmitted
through the meshing gears at an even higher ratio.

In 5th gear, the input and output shafts are locked together. This provides a direct drive with a
1:1 ratio, with no reduction through the countershaft gears. The input and output shafts turn at
the same speed and therefore there is no torque multiplication.

86
When the reverse gear is selected and moved into place, the rotation of main shaft is reversed
due to the idler gear. It gives approximately same ratio as 1st gear.

4.6 Maintenance

Description Check interval / Cleaning Replacement interval

Transmission oil 10000 Kms 20000 Kms
Differential oil 10000 Kms 20000 Kms
Propeller shaft centre bearing 50000 Kms
greasing
Tightening wheel nuts 5000 Kms
Tightening propeller shaft 15000 Kms
bolts
Front wheel alignment 15000 Kms
Tyre rotation 15000 Kms

4.7 Trouble-shooting

Probable Cause Remedy

Poor clutch

Air trapped in oil line ----------- Bleed the system

Leakage in oil line ----------- Rectify

Clutch pedal play not correct ----------- Adjust

Damaged pressure plate ----------- Replace

Flywheel friction surface distorted ----------- Replace

Clutch slipping

Master cylinder piston sticky ----------- Replace

Flywheel friction surface distorted ----------- Replace

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Clutch pedal play not correct ----------- Adjust

Power cylinder piston sticky ----------- Replace

Damaged pressure plate ----------- Replace

Vehicle overloaded ----------- Correct

Transmission slips out of gear

Shift rail poppet pin worn ----------- Replace

Poppet spring damaged ----------- Replace

Main shaft lock nut loose ----------- Adjust

Main shaft bearing worn ----------- Replace

Synchronizer ring worn ----------- Replace

Hard shifting into gear

Shift rail binding ----------- Replace

Shift fork worn ----------- Replace

Main shaft thrust washer worn ----------- Replace

Main shaft bearing worn ----------- Replace

Synchronizer ring worn ----------- Replace

Vibration from propeller shaft

Incorrect yoke installation direction ----------- Adjust

Twisted propeller shaft ----------- Replace/Repair

Worn centre bearing ----------- Replace

Excessive play in slip joint spline ----------- Replace spider

88
 Chapter Five
Vehicle Control Systems

89
Vehicle Control Systems

Vehicle control system can be divided into two segments. They are

 Steering systems
 Braking systems

5.1 Steering Systems

Steering systems are designed according to the use requirements of the vehicle. The direction
of motion of a motor vehicle is controlled by a steering system. The steering system provides
control over direction of travel, good maneuverability, smooth recovery from turns, and
minimum transmission of road shocks.

Figure5.1: Steering wheel

A basic steering system has 3 main parts:

 A steering box connected to the steering wheel

 The linkage connecting the steering box to the wheel assemblies at the front wheels
 Front suspension parts to let the wheel assemblies’ pivot

When the driver turns the steering wheel, a shaft from the steering column turns a steering
gear. The steering gear moves tie rods that connect to the front wheels. The tie rods move the
front wheels to turn the vehicle right or left.

There are 2 basic types of steering boxes - those with rack-and-pinion gearing, and those with
worm gearing. In both cases, the gearing in the steering box makes it easier for the driver to
turn the steering wheel as well as wheels.

90
A rack-and-pinion steering system has a steering wheel, a main-shaft, universal joints, and an
intermediate shaft. When the steering is turned, movement is transferred by the shafts to the
pinion. The pinion is meshed with the teeth of the rack, so pinion rotation moves the rack
from side to side.

Figure5.2: Steering box main and cross shaft

5.1.1 Principles of Steering

The effort by the driver is transferred from the steering wheel, down the steering column to a
steering box. The steering box converts the rotary motion of the steering wheel to the linear
motion needed to steer the vehicle. It also gives the driver a mechanical advantage.

The linear motion from the steering box is then transferred by tie-rods to the steering arms at
the front wheels. The tie rods have ball joints that allow steering movement and movement of
the suspension. The steering-arm ball-joints are arranged so that movement in the suspension
does not affect steering operation.

5.1.2 Power Steering

Power steering systems produce assistance that reduces the driver's effort. They are of most
benefit during slow cornering and when parking. Power steering helps to reduce the
additional effort needed. Assistance is provided as soon as the steering wheel is rotated in
either direction, and it’s designed so that even if system failure occurs the vehicle can still be
steered.

91
 Figure5.3: Power steering

An engine-driven hydraulic pump delivers hydraulic fluid to the power unit at the steering
box or rack-and-pinion through connecting hoses and pipes. The fluid reservoir can be
mounted on the pump or it can be separated. With the engine running, fluid flows
continuously from the power steering pump to the steering gear and back to the pump. With
the steering wheel in the neutral position, little pressure is needed to maintain fluid flow and
little engine power is needed to operate the system.

5.2 Braking Systems

Braking system of EICHER trucks can be divided into three ways. They are

 Service brake or wheel brake

 Parking brake
 Exhaust brake

5.2.1 Service Brake

There is a brake for:

 A foot brake when the vehicle is in motion, for slowing or stopping the vehicle
 A parking brake for when it’s stationary, usually operated by hand but sometimes
foot activated

There are two type of service brake. They are drum brake and disc brake. Drum brake is used
for EICHER trucks as service brake. Drum brake can be hydraulic system or air system.
Friction between braking surfaces converts kinetic energy into heat. In drum brakes, wheel

92
cylinders force brake linings against the inside of the drum. In disc brakes, pads are forced
against a brake disc.

Several factors can influence vehicle braking:

 Road surface
 Road conditions
 Weight of the vehicle
 Load on the wheel during stopping
 How the vehicle is being driven
 The tires on the vehicle

An effective braking system takes all these factors into account.

5.2.1.1 Hydraulic Brake

A basic hydraulic braking system has 2 main sections -

 The brake assemblies at the wheels

 The hydraulic system that applies them

A hydraulic braking system has

 Brake pedal
 Master cylinder to provide hydraulic pressure
 Brake lines and hoses to connect the master cylinder to the brake assemblies
 Fluid to transmit force from the master cylinder to the wheel cylinders of the
brake assemblies
 Brake assemblies as drum that stop the wheels.

The driver pushes the brake pedal. It applies mechanical force to the piston in the master
cylinder. The piston applies hydraulic pressure to the fluid in the cylinder, the lines transfer
the pressure which is undiminished in all directions within the confines of the brake lines to
the wheel cylinders, and the wheel cylinders at the wheel assemblies apply the brakes.

93
 Figure5.4: Brake master cylinder

Force is transmitted through the fluid. For cylinders the same size, the force transmitted from
one is the same value as the force applied to the other. By using cylinders of different sizes,
forces can be increased or reduced.

Figure5.5: Wheel cylinder assembly

In an actual braking system, the master cylinder is smaller than the wheel cylinders. So the
force at all of the wheel cylinders is increased. When brakes are applied to a moving vehicle,
they absorb the vehicle’s kinetic energy. Friction between the braking surfaces converts this
energy into heat. In some vehicles this basic system has some refinements, such as a power
booster. This helps the driver apply the brakes.

5.2.1.2 Air Brake

Air brakes are used on heavy vehicles and use compressed air to provide the large braking
forces required. An air compressor pumps air to storage tanks. Driver-controlled valves then

94
direct the compressed air to different wheel units, to operate the friction brakes. A dry and
distribution unit is used to dry and distribute the air for proper functioning.

Figure5.6: Air brake system (with S-cam)

On articulated vehicles, any delays in applying the trailer brakes should be minimized. This is
achieved using a relay valve and a separate reservoir on the trailer. This arrangement also
applies the brakes if the trailer becomes disconnected from the prime-mover.

5.2.2 Parking Brake

Vehicles use a foot brake that operates through a hydraulic system on all wheels, and a hand
operated park brake that acts mechanically on the rear wheels only.

Figure5.7: Parking brake or hand brake

The hand brake system holds the vehicle when it is parked. Some vehicles incorporate a drum
brake for the hand brake in the center of the rear disc brake. Others use a mechanical linkage

95
to operate the disc brake from the hand brake system or separate hand brake calipers with
their own pads.

Some vehicles have the hand brake operating on the front wheels. Some vehicles use a single
drum brake on the rear of the gearbox as a hand brake. That's sometimes called a
transmission brake.

On a duo-servo drum brake, the cable for the hand brake lever pulls on an actuating lever
inside the brake drum assembly. The actuating lever is connected to the secondary brake shoe
by a pin and to the primary shoe by a strut. Movement of the lever forces both shoes against
the drum.

5.2.3 Exhaust Brake

An exhaust brake works by restricting the flow of exhaust gases through the engine which
slows engine rotation.

Figure5.8: Exhaust brake

Heavy goods vehicles can often require increased braking, in situations where friction brakes
could overheat and fail. This is achieved by using an exhaust brake.

An exhaust brake works by restricting the flow of exhaust gases through the engine. It
achieves this by closing a butterfly valve located in the exhaust manifold. This maintains high
pressure in the exhaust manifold and the engine cylinders which in turn acts as a brake
against the engine rotating. This then slows the road wheels through the transmission or
power train.

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5.3 Maintenance

Description Check interval / Cleaning Replacement interval

Steering oil 25000 Kms
Brake oil 25000 Kms
Steering column greasing 15000 Kms
Brake drum 15000 Kms
Brake master cylinder kit 1 year
Wheel cylinder kit 1 year

5.4 Trouble-shooting

Probable Cause Remedy

Hard steering

Ball bearing damaged ----------- Replace

Universal joint worn ----------- Replace/Lubricate

Front tyre pressure low ----------- Adjust

Kingpin poorly lubricated ----------- Lubricate

Vehicle pulls to one side during driving

Improper wheel alignment ----------- Correct

Front axle deformed ----------- Replace/Adjust

Kingpin worn ----------- Replace

Tyre worn ----------- Replace

Rear axle housing bend ----------- Replace

Poor steering

Improper wheeling alignment ----------- Adjust

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Ball joint binding ----------- Replace

Drag link over tightened ----------- Adjust

Poor braking force

Brake pedal stroke not correct ----------- Re-set

Poor lining contact ----------- Correct

Faulty master cylinder ----------- Replace

Faulty wheel cylinder ----------- Replace

Drum overheated

Blocked master cylinder return port ----------- Adjust

Poor brake pedal return ----------- Replace/Repair

Incorrect shoe clearance ----------- Correct

Defective master cylinder ----------- Rectify

Brake dragging

Broken shoe spring ----------- Replace

Pedal play too small ----------- Adjust

Incorrect shoe clearance ----------- Correct

Defective master cylinder check valve ----------- Rectify

98
 Chapter Six
Suspension

Figure 6.1: Suspension System

SUSPENSION

Suspension is the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages that
connects a vehicle to its wheels and allows relative motion between the two. Suspension
systems serve a dual purpose contributing to the vehicle's road holding/handling and braking
for good active safety and driving pleasure, and keeping vehicle occupants comfortable and
reasonably well isolated from road noise, bumps, and vibrations, etc. These goals are
generally at odds, so the tuning of suspensions involves finding the right compromise. It is
important for the suspension to keep the road wheel in contact with the road surface as much
as possible, because all the forces acting on the vehicle do so through the contact patches of
the tires. The suspension also protects the vehicle itself and any cargo or luggage from
damage and wear. The design of front and rear suspension of a car may be different.

6.1 Types of Suspension System

In Nissan /Toyota cars basically one type of suspension equipments are used:
 Shock Absorber

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6.2.1 Operation of Shock Absorber

Fluid friction is the flow of fluid through a narrow orifice (hydraulics), constitute the vast
majority of automotive shock absorbers. An advantage of this type is that using special
internal valuing the absorber may be made relatively soft to compression (allowing a soft
response to a bump) and relatively stiff to extension, controlling "rebound", which is the
vehicle response to energy stored in the springs. Similarly, a series of valves controlled by
springs can change the degree of stiffness according to the velocity of the impact or
rebound. Specialized shock absorbers for racing purposes may allow the front end of a
dragster to rise with minimal resistance under acceleration, then strongly resist letting it
settle, thereby maintaining a desirable rearward weight distribution for enhanced traction.
Some shock absorbers allow tuning of the ride via control of the valve by a manual
adjustment provided at the shock absorber. In more expensive vehicles the valves may be
remotely adjustable, offering the driver control of the ride at will while the vehicle is
operated. The ultimate control is provided by dynamic valve control via computer in
response to sensors, giving both a smooth ride and a firm suspension when needed. Many
shock absorbers are pressurized with compressed nitrogen, to reduce the tendency for the
oil to cavities under heavy use. This causes foaming which temporarily reduces the
damping ability of the unit. In very heavy duty units used for racing or off-road use, there
may even be a secondary cylinder connected to the shock absorber to act as a reservoir for
the oil and pressurized gas.

Figure 6.2: Shock Absorber

100
6.3 Maintenance
Well a very important, but lesser known preventative maintenance procedure is the
replacement of shock absorbers on a preventative rather than a corrective maintenance basis.
Shock absorbers have become one of the major causes of unnecessary tire wear, as well as
the cause of jarring and vibration damage to many other components. The reason for this
phenomenal increase in worn shock related damage is the advent of soft air suspensions on
trailers coupled with the deteriorating condition of the nation's roadways have made shock
replacement an important step in extending tire life.

6.4 Trouble-shooting

Probable Cause Remedy

Cyclic bump from road surface

Unevenly worn tyres ----------- Replace

Unbalanced wheels and tyres ----------- Correct

Road surface irregularity felt as shocks

Improper wheeling alignment ----------- Adjust

Tyre over inflated ----------- Correct

Broken leaf spring ----------- Replace

Abnormal noise

Broken spring ----------- Replace

Worn spring bushing ----------- Replace

Worn shock absorber bushing ----------- Replace

Loose shock absorber ----------- Replace

101
Broken spring bracket ----------- Repair

102
 Chapter Seven
Electrical System

103
Electrical System

Electrical System contains some components. These are as follows:

 Battery
 Self-Starter Motor
 Alternator
 Accessories

7.1 Battery
An electrical is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into
electrical energy. Automotive SLI batteries are usually lead-acid type, and are made of six
galvanic cells in series to provide a 12 volt system. Each cell provides 2.1 volts for a total of
12.6 volt at full charge. Heavy vehicles such as highway trucks or tractors, often equipped
with diesel engines, may have two batteries in series for a 24 volt system, or may have
parallel strings of batteries.

7.1.1 Operation of Battery

Figure7.1: Battery

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  Battery supplies current to ignition system, starter, lamps & other electrical
equipment.
 Battery gets charged through alternator.
 Battery will discharge, if the current used is more than charging current.
 Battery electrolyte level reduces due to charging / discharging cycle & also due to
vaporization.
 Thus Battery electrolyte level & specific gravity are to be checked periodically. The
electrolyte is to be topped up with distilled water only. Alternator belt tension is to be
adjusted periodically for maintaining charging efficiency.

7.1.2 Maintenance
 Inspect battery Mounting Bracket for proper placement and tightness.
 Make sure the connections are free from corrosion.
 Inspect cables for proper length, chafing and proper routing.
 Check terminals for tightness and cracks.
 Remove any corrosion from cable ends and battery terminals.
 Ensure that the battery ground connections from the engine to the frame are secure
and free from corrosion.
 Apply petroleum jelly or Vaseline to the terminals. Never apply grease.
 Check electrolyte level. It should be between minimum & maximum level.
 Ensure that the plates are around 8 to 10mm under electrolyte.
 In case of electrolyte level being lower, top it with distilled water. Never use acid or
tap or unclean water.
 Always keep the battery top cover dry.

7.1.3 Trouble-shooting
 Shorted cell due to failure of the separator between the positive and negative plates
 Shorted cell or cells due to build up of shed plate material below the plates of the cell
 Broken internal connections due to corrosion
 Broken plates due to vibration and corrosion
 Low electrolyte level
105
  Cracked or broken case
 Broken terminals
 Sulfating after prolonged disuse in a low or zero charged state

7.2 Self-Starter

This is a device which rotates the crank-shaft through the flywheel ring gear to start the
engine. When the starter is activated by the starter switch, the magnetic switch operates and
meshes the pinion with the outer ring gear of the flywheel lever action. The engine is then
rotated by the motor and starts.

Figure7.2: Self-starter motor

7.2.1 Operation of self- starter

The electric starter motor or starting motor is the most common type. The modern starter
motor is either a permanent-magnet or a series-parallel wound direct current electric motor
with a starter solenoid mounted on it. When current from the starting battery is applied to the
solenoid, usually through a key-operated switch, the solenoid engages a lever that pushes out
the drive pinion on the starter driveshaft and meshes the pinion with the starter ring gear on
the flywheel of the engine.

106
The solenoid also closes high-current contacts for the starter motor, which begins to turn.
Once the engine starts, the key-operated switch is opened; a spring in the solenoid assembly
pulls the pinion gear away from the ring gear, and the starter motor stops. The starter's pinion
is clutched to its driveshaft through an overrunning spark clutch which permits the pinion to
transmit drive in only one direction. In this manner, drive is transmitted through the pinion to
the flywheel ring gear, but if the pinion remains engaged (as for example because the
operator fails to release the key as soon as the engine starts, or if there is a short and the
solenoid remains engaged), the pinion will spin independently of its driveshaft. This prevents
the engine driving the starter, for such back drive would cause the starter to spin so fast as to
fly apart. However, this spark clutch arrangement would preclude the use of the starter as a
generator if employed in hybrid scheme mentioned above, unless modifications were made.
Also, a standard starter motor is only designed for intermittent use which would preclude its
use as a generator; the electrical components are designed only to operate for typically under
30 seconds before overheating (by too-slow dissipation of heat from ohmic losses), to save
weight and cost. This is the same reason why most automobile owner's manuals instruct the
operator to pause for at least ten seconds after each ten or fifteen seconds of cranking the
engine, when trying to start an engine that does not start immediately.

7.3 Alternator

This is a device which generates electricity driven by V-belt acting to charge the battery and
supply power to other electrical equipments.
It mainly consists of a rotor to generate a magnetic field, a stator to generate power, a rectifier
to convert AC to DC and a regulator to stabilize the generated voltage as per the system
requirement.

107
 Figure7.3: Alternator

7.3.1 Operation of Alternator

Alternators generate electricity by the same principle as DC generators, namely, when the
magnetic field around a conductor changes, a current is induced in the conductor. Typically, a
rotating magnet called the rotor turns within a stationary set of conductors wound in coils on
an iron core, called the stator. The field cuts across the conductors, generating an electrical
current, as the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn.
The rotor magnetic field may be produced by induction (in a "brushless" alternator), by
permanent magnets (in very small machines), or by a rotor winding energized with direct
current through slip rings and brushes. The rotor magnetic field may even be provided by
stationary field winding, with moving poles in the rotor. Automotive alternators invariably
use a rotor winding, which allows control of the alternator generated voltage by varying the
current in the rotor field winding. Permanent magnet machines avoid the loss due to
magnetizing current in the rotor, but are restricted in size, owing to the cost of the magnet
material. Since the permanent magnet field is constant, the terminal voltage varies directly
with the speed of the generator. Brushless AC generators are usually larger machines than
those used in automotive applications.

108
7.4 Accessories
Besides the above mentioned equipments there are some accessories in SUNNY cars.

7.4.1 Lights
The lighting system of a motor vehicle consists of lighting and signaling devices mounted or
integrated to the front, sides, rear, and in some cases the top of the motor vehicle.

Figure7.4: Lights
The purpose of this system is to provide illumination for the driver to operate the vehicle
safely after dark, to increase the conspicuity of the vehicle, and to display information about
the vehicle's presence, position, size, direction of travel, and driver's intentions regarding
direction and speed of travel.

7.4.2 Horn
A vehicle horn is a sound-making device used to warn others of the approach of the vehicle
or of its presence. Automobiles, trucks, ships, and trains are all required by law to have horns.
Bicycles are also legally required to have an audible warning device in many jurisdictions,
but not universally, and not always a horn.
cars horns may be electrically operated, designed similarly to those of automobiles, but are
often air horns, driven by air from an air compressor which many trucks already have on
board to operate the air brakes. The compressor forces air past a diaphragm in the horn's

109
throat, causing it to vibrate. Such air horns are often used as trim items, with chromed straight
horns mounted on top of the cab.

Figure7.5: Horn

This design may also be installed on customized automobiles, using a small electrical
compressor. Usually two or more are used; some drivers go so far as to install train horns.
The frequencies vary in order to produce a variety of different chords, but in general are
lower than those of automobile horns.

110
Chapter Nine
Conclusions

111
Recommendations

During the practicum period it was seemed to us that some necessary steps can be taken to
develop the working procedures, customer’s satisfaction as well as reputations of the
company.

 The number of free check-up camp can be increased.

 More training program can be arranged for the mechanics.
 Make conscious the drivers about vehicle maintenance.
 More special tools can be installed.
 Number of free service can be increased for costumer’s satisfaction.
 More analysis is needed to find out the manufacturing problems.

Conclusion
Government motor vehicle workshop is one of the very few government organizations which
are working properly with the devotion to take in the prosperity of our country. Engineers,
staffs, workers work there properly with honesty to finish their jobs within a short time. As a
result, this workshop has been able to get a great reputation around the country.

Getting an opportunity to learn about automobiles there was a thing for us not only for
learning about automobiles but also for meeting nice people like them. We are also thankful
to them because we have learnt a lot of things staying with them and they also helped us a lot
so that we can learn as much as we can.

112
Bibliography

1. Willim H. Crouse & Donald L. Anglin:‖Automotive Mechanics‖, Third Edition.

2. Edward F. Obert:‖Internal Combustion Engines‖, Third Edition.
3. R.S. Kurmi & J.K. Gupta: ―A Text Book of Thermal Engineering‖, Reprint 2002.
4. Allan Bonnic: ―Automotive Science and Mathematics‖, First Edition.
5. Tom Denton: ―Automobile Electrical and Electronic System‖, First Edition.
6. J.L. Meriam:‖Engineering Mechanics, Vol-2, Dynamics‖, Fifth Edition.

1) Abbreviations
1. 2V
i. Two (Venturi) Valve (two barrel carburetor)
2. 2v
i. Two Valve (cylinder head)
3. 2WS
i. Two Wheel Steer
4. 4EAT
i. Four speed Electronic Automatic Transmission
5. 4V
i. Four (Venturi) Valve (four barrel carburetor)
6. 4v
i. Four Valve (cylinder head)
7. 4WAS
i. Four Wheel Air Suspension
8. 4WD
i. Four Wheel Drive
9. 4WS
i. Four Wheel Steer
10. 16v
i. Sixteen valve (cylinder head)
11. AAT
i. Ambient Air Temperature

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12. ABC
i. Active Body Control
13. ABS
i. Antilock Brake System
14. A/C
i. Air Conditioning
15. ACC
i. Adaptive Cruise Control
16. ACC
i. Automatic Climate Control
17. accel
i. Acceleration
18. accum
i. Accumulator
19. accy
i. Accessory
20. ACE
i. Active Cornering Enhancement
21. ACL
i. Air cleaner
22. ACM
i. Airbag Control Module
23. ACM
i. Audio Control Module
24. ACT
i. Air Charge Temperature
25. ADAS
i. Advanced Driver Assistance System
26. ADC
i. Automatic Distance Control
27. ADL
i. Automatic Door Lock
28. AECM
i. Airbag Electronic Control Module
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29. A/F
i. Air Fuel Ratio (see also AFR)
30. AFC
i. Air Flow Control
31. AFC
i. Air Fuel Control
32. AFR
i. Air Fuel Ratio (see also A/F)
33. AGVS
i. Automated Guided Vehicle System
34. AHLD
i. Automatic Headlamp Levelling Device
35. AHR
i. Active Head Restraint
36. AHS
i. Active Handling System
37. AIS
i. Automatic Idle Speed
38. ALC
i. Automatic Level Control
39. ALT
i. Alternator (see also GEN)
40. AMM
i. Air Mass Meter
41. AMT
i. Automated Manual Transmission
42. AOD
i. Automatic Overdrive
43. AOS
i. Automatic Occupant Sensing
44. API
i. American Petroleum Institute
45. APO
i. Accessory Power Outlets
115
46. APP
i. Accelerator Pedal Position
47. ARC
i. Active Roll Control
48. ARC
i. Automatic Ride Control
49. ARS
i. Automatic Restraint System
50. ASARC
i. Air Suspension Automatic Ride Control
51. ASCD
i. Auto Speed Control Device
52. ASF
i. Audi Space Frame
53. ASG
i. Automatic-Shift Gearbox
54. ASR
i. Acceleration Slip Regulation
55. ASTC
i. Automatic Stability and Traction Control
56. A/T
i. Automatic Transmission
57. ATC
i. Automatic Temperature Control
58. ATDC
i. After Top Dead Center
59. ATF
i. Active Transfer Case
60. ATF
i. Automatic Transfer Case
61. ATF
i. Automatic Transmission Fluid
62. ATSLC
i. Automatic Transmission Shift Lock Control
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 63. ATTS
i. Advanced Torque Transfer System
64. AWD
i. All Wheel Drive

117

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