Acta Materialia 51 (2003) 3233–3242

www.actamat-journals.com

Deformation behaviour of iron-rich iron-aluminium alloys at

high temperatures
J. Herrmann 1, G. Inden, G. Sauthoff ∗
Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH, Max-Planck-Str.1, 40237 Düsseldorf, Germany

Received 8 January 2003; received in revised form 21 February 2003; accepted 10 March 2003

Abstract

The deformation behaviour of binary monocrystalline and polycrystalline Fe-Al alloys with Al contents up to 18
at.% and only low unavoidable impurity contents—in particular less than 100 wt.ppm C—has been studied above room
temperature up to 800 °C. The effects of quenching and annealing treatments on the behaviour of as-cast materials
were investigated in order to clarify the dependence of strength and ductility on Al content and possible short-range
ordering. Besides solid-solution hardening by Al, serrated yielding and deformation twinning were observed at high
temperatures. Yielding is affected by quenched-in excess vacancies.
 2003 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Metal & Alloys (iron alloys); Ordering (short range); Mechanical properties (brittle-to-ductile transition, Portevin-Le Chat-
elier effect, twinning)

1. Introduction and ductility [12–14]. Strength and ductility are

Fe-Al alloys are of high interest because of
reduced density and high hot-corrosion resistance
[1–3] and have been chosen as a base for
developing new steels for automotive applications
[4,5]. Fe-Al alloys have been studied for a long
time and it is known that the alloying with Al pro-
duces hardening [6,7] and reduces ductility [2,6–
9]. At higher Al contents atomic ordering occurs
affecting the elastic behaviour [10,11] and strength
∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-211-6792-313; fax: +49-
211-6792-537.
E-mail address: sauthoff@mpie.de (G. Sauthoff).
1
Now at Sulzer Innotec, PB Box 65, 8404 Winterthur,
Switzerland
further affected by vacancies [15–19], which are
readily produced by quenching and which show a
low mobility [20–24]. The atomic ordering pro-
duces the intermetallic iron-aluminides Fe3Al and
FeAl which are used for developing new intermet-
allic alloys for structural high-temperature appli-
cations [9,18,25,26].
Alloys with Al contents in the range of 10–18
at.% Al are of particular interest since complex
short-range ordering may occur leading to the so-
called K-state [27]. Recent work has concentrated
on the deformation behaviour of such binary Fe-
Al alloys at room temperature as a function of Al
content and prior heat treatment [28]. It was found
that the deformation behaviour of such Fe-Al
alloys is controlled primarily by solid-solution

1359-6454/03/$30.00  2003 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S1359-6454(03)00144-7
3234 J. Herrmann et al. / Acta Materialia 51 (2003) 3233–3242

hardening with negligible effects of possible short-

range ordering. The present work extends this
work to higher temperatures above room tempera-
ture. The effects of ternary alloying additions,
which are transition metals or C and Si, are
reported separately [29,30]. Preliminary results
have been presented previously [31]. Further
details are available in ref. [32].

2. Experimental

Binary Fe-Al alloys and monocrystals with Al

contents in the range 4–18% Al (always at.%) were
prepared, heat-treated, analysed and studied by
optical light-microscopy and transmission electron
microscopy (TEM) as described before [28]. In
addition to the cast alloys with coarse-grained
microstructures, a hot-rolled Fe-Al alloy with 15%
Al and 39 ppm C (always wt.ppm) from Thyssen
Krupp Stahl AG was used, which was recrystal-
lised at 900 °C to establish a fine-grained micro-
structure.
The alloys were subjected to compressive stress-
strain testing as described before [28]. Toughness
was studied by Charpy impact testing using speci-
mens of dimensions 3 × 4 × 27 mm3 with notch
according to German standard DIN EN 10045. The
used impact tester allowed for recording of the
impact force (as given by the hammer strain) and
specimen flexure (as given by the integrated ham-
mer velocity) as a function of time [33]. The
brittle-to-ductile transition temperature BDTT was
determined as mean temperature in the transition
range between low and high impact energy values.
Fig. 1. Compressive stress-strain curves (10⫺4 s⫺1 com-
pression rate) at various temperatures for polycrystalline as-cast
Fe-17Al with 20 ppm C (—) and 50 ppm C (- - -).
by the accidentally microalloyed carbon of 20 and
50 ppm, respectively. Obviously, the higher C level
leads to higher yield stresses and hardening rates.
This different behaviour is most pronounced at 500
°C. In addition the alloy with the higher C content
shows serrated yielding at 300 and 400 °C for plas-
tic strains above 5%. The other alloy with only 20
ppm C shows much finer serrations at higher
strains and furthermore serrations of quite different
character at 500 and 590 °C.
Fig. 2 summarises the data for 4 alloys with dif-

3. Results

3.1. Strength and ductility

The stress-strain behaviour at higher tempera-

tures above room temperature is illustrated by Fig.
1 for as-cast Fe-17%Al. Clearly both the yield
stress and the strain-hardening rate decrease with
increasing temperature as is expected. In addition,
a yield stress drop is visible at 590 °C. The two
alloys in Fig. 1 differ by the impurity content, i.e.
Fig. 2. Compressive yield stress (쎲) and upper yield stress
(䊏) at 10⫺4 s⫺1 compression rate as a function of temperature
for various polycrystalline as-cast Fe-Al alloys with 50–60 ppm
C with concurrent twinning at low [28] and intermediate tem-
peratures and serrated yielding at intermediate and higher tem-
peratures.
 J. Herrmann et al. / Acta Materialia 51 (2003) 3233–3242
ferent Al contents and C contents of 50–60 ppm.
Deformation twinning, which was observed at
lower temperatures below 0 °C for the higher Al
content of 14% [28,32], was found at 200 °C for
Fe-17%Al. The range of serrated yielding at inter-
mediate temperatures with a yield stress plateau for
Fe-8%Al and reduced yield stress decrease for
higher Al contents is centred on the temperature of
300 °C. At 600 °C and higher temperatures yield
stress drops were observed for the higher Al con-
tents.
The specifics of yield stress, serrated yielding
and deformation twinning in the intermediate tem-
perature range do not depend only on Al content,
but also on prior heat treatment and possibly on
the presence of carbon as is exemplified by Fig.
3. Obviously the quench from 1100 °C leads to
increased yield stresses in the intermediate tem-
perature range of 200–400 °C, which enhances the
plateau-like appearance of the curves, and the
yielding is characterized by rather fine serrations.
Furnace cooling from 1100 °C lowers the yield
Fig. 3. Compressive yield stress (10⫺4 s⫺1 compression rate)
as a function of temperature for various polycrystalline Fe-
12%Al with 50 ppm C and Fe-17%Al with less than 20 ppm C
with concurrent twinning and serrated yielding (with qualitative
stress-strain curves in the insets) after various treatments (Q:
quench from 1100 °C, FC: furnace cooling from 1100 °C).
3235
stress, and it is even lower than for the as-cast state
in the case of the Fe-17%Al alloy in Fig. 3. Yield-
ing occurs with coarse serrations and additional
deformation twinning was found occasionally as
revealed by metallographic observations (Fig.
4(a)). This high-temperature deformation twinning
was mostly observed in furnace-cooled specimens
(Fig. 4(a)) whereas quenched specimens (Fig. 4(b))
showed deformation twinning only rarely.
3.2. Impact toughness
The toughness of the polycrystalline alloys was
studied as a function of temperature by Charpy
impact tests which allowed the recording of impact
hammer force and displacement as a function of
time. Fig. 5 shows typical force-displacement
curves which reveal the characteristics of the
observed fracture. Brittle fracture occurs below the
brittle-to-ductile transition temperature (BDTT) as
is exemplified by Fig. 5(a). Another specimen with
the same nominal composition at the same tem-
perature, for which an experimental error of 2 K
has to be considered, did not fracture (Fig. 5(b)).
This is believed to be due to small deviations in
composition and temperature, which indicates the
obviously rather sensitive dependence of BDTT on
composition and a rather narrow BDTT range. The
ductile fracture above the BDTT is exemplified by
Fig. 5(c). A similar behaviour was found for the
hot-rolled Fe-15%Al alloy which was recrystal-
lised at 900 °C to obtain a smaller grain size.
The observed variation of impact toughness (as
given by the impact fracture energy) with tempera-
ture is shown in Fig. 6 for various alloys. There is
indeed a sudden transition from brittle behaviour
with low toughness to ductile behaviour with high
toughness within a narrow temperature interval.
The fracture surfaces indicated transcrystalline
cleavage below the BDTT and ductile fracture
above the BDTT. This transition is shifted to
higher temperatures with increasing Al content.
The effects of prior heat treatment on toughness
are illustrated by Fig. 7(a)–(b) for polycrystalline
and monocrystalline Fe-16%Al. There is a pro-
nounced gap between the BDTTs of the alloys with
and without initial quench from 1100 °C, i.e. the
quench shifts the BDTT to significantly higher
3236 J. Herrmann et al. / Acta Materialia 51 (2003) 3233–3242

Fig. 4. Light-optical micrograph of the microstructure of the polycrystalline Fe-17%Al alloy with less than 20 ppm C of Fig. 3,
which was deformed at 350 °C in compression after furnace cool (a) or quench (b) from 1100 °C.

temperatures which is not relaxed by subsequent
anneals below the quench temperature. Only re-
heating to the quench temperature of 1100 °C and
subsequent furnace cooling restores the state
before quenching and results in BDTTs in the
range of those obtained without quenching. How-
ever, the latter BDTT (quench, re-heating, furnace
cooling) is still higher than that for furnace cooling
without any quenching, and other treatments with-
out quenching are in between. Deformation twins
were found near the crack surfaces by metallo-
graphic observation in all cases, i.e. for all heat
treatments and fracture at room temperature and
above the BDTT.
The effect of annealing and quenching tempera-
ture on the BDTT is shown in Fig. 8 for as-cast
Fe-16%Al with 40 ppm C. Clearly the higher the
BDTT is the higher the temperature of isochronal
annealing with subsequent quench is. The lowest
BDTT observed for this alloy is 70 °C which was
produced by annealing at 550 °C with subsequent
quench. There is a steep increase of BDTT with
increasing anneal and quench temperature in the
range 550–700 °C and a distinctly reduced increase
above this quench temperature range.
The increase of the BDTT with increasing Al
content is shown in Fig. 9. The monotonous
increase of the data for the as-cast alloys with
increasing temperature is interrupted by apparent
relative minima at 8 and 13% Al (Fig. 9(a)), which
more or less correspond to the relative maxima of
the variation of ductility with increasing Al content
at room temperature [28]. Furnace cooling obvi-
ously leads to higher BDTT values and the effect
seems to be more pronounced at higher Al contents
above 12% Al (Fig. 9(a)). However, the high
BDTT of 200 °C for the furnace-cooled alloy with
16.5% Al and the relatively low BDTT of 75 °C
 J. Herrmann et al. / Acta Materialia 51 (2003) 3233–3242
Fig. 5. Impact force-displacement curves for Charpy impact
tests of polycrystalline as-cast Fe-17%Al with brittle fracture
at 100 °C (a), bending without fracture at 100 °C (b) and ductile
fracture at 150 °C (c).
for furnace-cooled Fe-16%Al indicate the appreci-
able variation of data, which may be related to the
different C contents of the various alloys—see the
respective data in Fig. 9(a). An isothermal anneal
3237
Fig. 6. Impact toughness (energy absorbed in Charpy impact
test) as a function of temperature for various polycrystalline as-
cast Fe-Al alloys.
at 320 °C produced inconclusive data. Fig. 9(b)
compares the BDTT data for as-cast alloys with
the data for quenched alloys. In contrast to the as-
cast alloys, the BDTT of the alloys with quench
from 1100 °C increases monotonously with
increasing Al content. In particular, the relative
maxima for the as-cast alloys with Al contents
below 15% Al in Fig. 9(a) and (b) are avoided,
and the minima are only slightly lower than the
respective data for the quenched alloys in Fig. 9(b).
The quench from 1100 °C produces a drastic
increase of BDTT only at high Al contents above
15% Al. However, this latter increase is still within
the range of the data in Fig. 9(a).
4. Discussion
4.1. Effects of ordering
The toughness data in Fig. 7 do not indicate any
major impact of short-range ordering on the mech-
anical behaviour. This agrees with yield stress
behaviour at low temperatures [28]. The BDTT of
monocrystalline Fe-16%Al in Fig. 7(b) is slightly
lower than 70 °C after furnace cooling from 1100
to 600 °C with subsequent quench to room tem-
perature and slightly higher than 70 °C after fur-
nace cooling from 1100 °C to room temperature
whereas the BDTT of polycrystalline Fe-16%Al in
3238 J. Herrmann et al. / Acta Materialia 51 (2003) 3233–3242

Fig. 7. Impact toughness (energy absorbed in Charpy impact test) as a function of temperature for polycrystalline Fe-16%Al with
less than 20 ppm C (a) and monocrystalline Fe-16%Al with 45 ppm C after various treatments (Q: quench, FC: furnace cooling,
AC: air cooling).

Fig. 7(a) is about 80 °C after furnace cooling from
1100 to 600 °C with subsequent quench to room
temperature and about 70 °C after furnace cooling
from 1100 °C to room temperature. However, the
prior quench from 1100 °C to room temperature
without and with various subsequent anneals at and
below 600 °C produces BDTTs above 150 °C. It is
concluded that only heat treatments at temperatures
above 600 °C affect the mechanical behaviour of
Fe-Al alloys significantly. This again agrees with
the analogous conclusion with respect to the low-
temperature yield stress [28].
4.2. Effects of quenched-in excess vacancies
Quenching from high temperatures produces
excess vacancies which act as obstacles to dislo-
cation movement and contribute to hardening [28].
Correspondingly the highest BDTT with only a
gradual transition to ductile behaviour is shown in
 J. Herrmann et al. / Acta Materialia 51 (2003) 3233–3242 3239

Fig. 8. Brittle-to-ductile transition temperature BDTT as a

function of the quench temperature for polycrystalline as-cast
Fe-16%Al with 40 ppm C after anneal of 2 h at the quench
temperature and subsequent water quench (BDTTmin: minimum
BDTT observed for this alloy).

Fig. 7(a) by the quenched specimen. This quench-

ing effect on BDTT increases with increasing
quench temperature as is demonstrated by Fig. 8.
The effect becomes prevalent at Al contents above
about 13% and increases with increasing Al con-
tent as is visible in Fig. 9(b). This corresponds to
the increase of the vacancy concentration with
increasing temperature and increasing Al content.
It is concluded that the observed effects of quench-
ing on the mechanical behaviour are due to
quenched-in excess vacancies. It is emphasised that
these effects are revealed most clearly only with
the high deformation rates of impact testing.
The excess vacancies get healed out only slowly
by annealings below the quench temperature with
only small effects on hardness [28]. Indeed the
BDTT is slightly reduced by anneals after quench-
ing, the largest reductions resulting from the longer
anneals at 300 °C and from anneals at the higher
annealing temperatures (Fig. 7(a)). These effects
are only small in view of the data for the specimens
without quench, which confirms the slow kinetics
of the healing out of excess vacancies. Indeed the
equilibration of the vacancy concentration was
reported to be very slow and complete healing out
was reached only by cyclic annealing treatments
[34]. This would mean that the annealing at 300
°C of the alloy in Fig. 7(a) even for 14 days may
Fig. 9. Brittle-to-ductile transition temperature BDTT as a
function of Al content for polycrystalline as-cast Fe-Al alloys:
(a) comparison with furnace cooled and isothermally annealed
alloys (the impurity carbon contents are given by the numbers
in ppm at the symbols; the C contents of the as-cast alloys
correspond to those of the heat-treated alloys if not specified
otherwise); (b) comparison with as-cast alloys which are
quenched from 1100 °C.
not have been sufficient for the complete elimin-
ation of the excess vacancies.
4.3. Effects of Al content
A linear increase of the yield stress with increas-
ing Al content was found for Fe-Al alloys at low
temperatures, which is produced exclusively by
solid solution hardening [28] and which is
described by Suzuki’s theory [35,36]. This harden-
ing effect was found to be accompanied by a linear
decrease of the elongation before necking with
3240 J. Herrmann et al. / Acta Materialia 51 (2003) 3233–3242
increasing Al content, which is overlayered by few
small deviations to higher and lower strains.
The toughness as characterised by the BDTT in
Fig. 9(a)–(b) shows a corresponding behaviour.
There is a linear increase, which is overlayered by
few small deviations to higher and lower BDTT
for the as-cast alloys, with increasing Al content
only up to about 13% Al and a noticeably steeper
increase at higher Al contents. It is noticed that the
effects of annealing at temperatures above 600 °C
and subsequent quenching, which have been dis-
cussed in the preceding section, occur in this Al
content range above 13%. The deviations from lin-
earity for the as-cast alloys correspond to those of
the room-temperature ductility [28], i.e. the
enhanced elongation before necking and fracture
strain at room temperature corresponds to a
reduced BDTT at about 8–9% Al and likewise at
about 12% Al. It is concluded that both strength
and ductility are controlled by solid solution hard-
ening with additional effects by heat treatments
above 600 °C.
The increasing Al content was found to reduce
the dislocation mobility [28]. A further evidence
for this is provided by the occurrence of defor-
mation twinning, which was observed at high tem-
peratures profusely for the Fe-17%Al alloy, but
only exceptionally for the Fe-12%Al alloy (Fig. 3).
4.4. Yield stress drop and stress-strain serrations
Various types of yield stress drop and stress-
strain serrations have been observed at high tem-
peratures as is indicated in Figs. 1–3. Serrations
are visible in Fig. 1 for the Fe-17%Al alloy (with
two different impurity contents) at high tempera-
tures in the range 300–600 °C. Yield stress drops
were produced by Fe-17%Al at 590 °C (Fig. 1).
Such discontinuous yielding phenomena indicate
the Portevin-Le Châtelier (PLC) effect which
results from a negative strain rate sensitivity
because of dynamic interactions between mobile
dislocations and diffusing solutes [37].
The observed yield stress drop at 590 °C (Fig.
1) for Fe-17%Al is paralleled by similar phenom-
ena in partially B2-ordered Fe-Al with 25% Al at
temperatures at or above 550 °C [38,39]. The latter
were attributed to dislocation multiplication effects
which are specific for the B2 structure and may
not apply to the present Fe-17%Al alloy. Serrations
at high temperatures were reported for partially
D03-ordered Fe-Al with 25% Al at 520 °C for two
deformation rates 4.8 × 10⫺5 and 2.4 × 10⫺4 s⫺1
[38]. Again these effects were discussed with
respect to the particular dislocation configurations
which are characteristic only for the D03 structure.
In view of the high temperatures up to 590 °C for
the serrations in Fig. 1 and the high Al content of
17%, which is in the range of beginning short-
range ordering below 600 °C, it is concluded that
the observed high-temperature serrations as well as
the yield stress drop is related to interactions
between mobile dislocations and dynamic short-
range ordering, i.e. moving dislocations cut
dynamically formed short-range order which pro-
duces disorder and competes with thermal resto-
ration of order. Such a mechanism was designated
as pseudo-PLC effect and was modelled previously
for long-range ordered alloys with possible appli-
cation also to short-range ordered alloys [40].
The data in Fig. 1 reveal a hardening effect of
the accidentally dissolved small amounts of C
which may also give rise to a Portevin-Le Châtelier
effect. However, a previous study of serrated flow
of a low-carbon steel, i.e. Fe with various microal-
loying additions and 1300 ppm C revealed a tem-
perature range of 70–200 °C for the PLC effect at
the used deformation rate [41]. Likewise a study
of internal friction in Fe-Al-C alloys with 0–30%
Al and about 100 ppm C revealed relaxation peaks
only in the temperature range of 40–250 °C (at
about 1 cycle/s) [42]. A Snoek peak was reported
for Fe3Al at about 230 °C [43]. Thus it is con-
cluded that the presently observed discontinuous
flow at higher temperatures is not related to dis-
solved carbon. The present low carbon contents of
50 ppm C leads to carbide formation during slow
cooling from high temperatures or annealings at
320 °C which indicates a carbon solubility in the
studied Fe-Al alloys of less than 50 ppm C at 320
°C [28].
In addition to the PLC effect with fine stress-
strain serrations, deformation twinning occurs at
high temperatures as is indicated by the large load
drops in Fig. 3 with audible clicks and by metallo-
graphic evidence (Fig. 4). This was expected only
 J. Herrmann et al. / Acta Materialia 51 (2003) 3233–3242
for low temperatures [28]. Deformation twinning
at high temperatures has not yet been reported for
disordered and ordered Fe-Al alloys [44,45]. The
observations in Fig. 3, which rely on metallo-
graphic evidence, indicate enhanced deformation
twinning with increasing Al content in a tempera-
ture range which is characteristic for the occur-
rence of the high-temperature PLC effect. The
interaction between mobile dislocations and
dynamic short range ordering contributes to
strengthening as is indicated by the yield stress pla-
teau in this temperature range (Figs. 2 and 3). This
reduces the availability of mobile dislocations thus
promoting deformation twinning. However, this
effect is primarily produced by the furnace-cooled
alloys and only rarely by the quenched alloys
which also show the PLC effect. Quenching pro-
duces excess vacancies which reduce the dislo-
cation mobility at room temperature as was dis-
cussed recently [28]. Obviously the effects of prior
heat treatment on microstructure, dislocation distri-
bution and short range order are also decisive for
the occurrence of deformation twinning at high
temperatures. However, the details are not clear
and need more detailed studying.
5. Conclusions
The deformation behaviour of variously treated
binary Fe-Al alloys with Al contents up to 18 at.%
and only low unavoidable impurity contents—in
particular less than 100 ppm C—has been studied
above room temperature up to 800 °C. The follow-
ing conclusions are drawn from the results.
앫 Short-range ordering in the studied alloys,
which is controlled by heat treatments at tem-
peratures below 600 °C, has no major impact
on the deformation behaviour. Only heat treat-
ments at temperatures above 600 °C affect the
mechanical behaviour of Fe-Al alloys signifi-
cantly.
앫 Quenching from high temperatures produces
excess vacancies which increase the brittle-to-
ductile transition temperature BDTT. Softening
by subsequent anneals to eliminate the excess
vacancies is a slow process.
3241
앫 The brittle-to-ductile transition temperature
BDTT increases with increasing Al content up
to 18 at.%. The BDTT is further increased by
quenching from high temperatures above 600
°C only for Al contents above 13 at.% Al. This
is attributed to the presence of excess vacancies
which reduce the dislocation mobility at lower
temperatures.
앫 The serrated yielding at high temperatures
below 600 °C is attributed to the interaction of
mobile dislocations and short-range ordering
and disordering reactions.
앫 The accidentally contained small amounts of
carbon with contents below 100 ppm, which
contribute to hardening, do not produce ser-
rated yielding.
앫 Deformation twinning at high temperatures,
which has not been reported before for Fe-Al
alloys, occurs in the temperature range of high-
temperature serrated yielding and is attributed
to the negative effects of short-range ordering
reactions on dislocation mobility.
Acknowledgements
The financial support by the German Bundesmi-
nisterium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF grant
no. 03N3013D) is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Klöwer J. Mater Corros 1996;47:685.
[2] Sykes C, Bampfylde JW. JISI 1934;130:389.
[3] Ziegler N. Trans AIME 1932;100:267.
[4] Drewes EJ, Engl B, Hofmann H, Kruse J, Menne M, Reip
C-P, Frommeyer G, Herrmann J, Inden G, Klaus S, Sau-
thoff G, Wildau M, Dannenfeldt M, Stratmann M. Höherf-
ester Leichtbauwerkstoff auf der Basis von Eisen-Alu-
minium-Legierungen. Abschlussbericht: BMBF, 2000.
[5] Drewes EJ, Frommeyer G, Stratmann M. In: For-
schungszentrum Jülich GmbH - NMT, editor. MaTech -
Neue Materialien für Schlüsseltechnologien des 21. Jahr-
hunderts: Jahresbericht 1999/2000, Bonn: BMBF; 2000,
p. 03 N 3013.
[6] Justusson W, Zackay VF, Morgan ER. Trans ASM
1957;49:905.
[7] Morgand P, Mouturat P, Sainfort G. Acta Metall
1968;16:867.
[8] Bannykh OA, Sudin IF, Kashin WI, Prokoshkin DA, Sam-
3242 J. Herrmann et al. / Acta Materialia 51 (2003) 3233–3242
arin AN. Proc Symp Metallurgy, Metallography and Phys-
ico-Chemical Methods of Investigations, Moscow: 1963.
p. 68.
[9] McKamey CG. In: Stoloff NS, Sikka VK, editors. Physical
metallurgy and processing of intermetallic compounds.
London: Chapman & Hall; 1996. p. 351.
[10] Köster W, Gödecke T. Z Metallk 1982;1973:111.
[11] Leamy HJ, Gibson ED, Kayser FX. Acta Metall
1967;15:1827.
[12] Davies RG. J Phys Chem Solids 1963;24:985.
[13] Marcinkowski MJ, Taylor ME. J Mater Sci 1975;10:406.
[14] Morris DG, Munoz-Morris MA. Rev Metalurgia
2001;37:230.
[15] Baker I, Nagpal P. In: Darolia R, Lewandowski JJ, Liu
CT, Martin PL, Miracle DB, Nathal MV, editors. Struc-
tural intermetallics. Warrendale/PA: TMS; 1993. p. 463.
[16] Munroe PR. In: Deevi SC, Maziasz PJ, Sikka VK, Cahn
RW, editors. International Symposium on Nickel and Iron
Aluminides: Processing, Properties and Applications.
Materials Park: ASM Interntl; 1997. p. 95.
[17] George EP, Baker I. Intermetallics 1998;6:759.
[18] Liu CT, George EP, Maziasz PJ, Schneibel JH. Mater Sci
Eng A-Struct Mater 1998;258:84.
[19] Morris DG, Morris-Munoz MA. Intermetallics
1999;7:1121.
[20] Wolff J, Franz M, Broska A, Köhler B, Hehenkamp T.
In: Nathal MV, Darolia R, Liu CT, Martin PL, Miracle
DB, Wagner R, Yamaguchi M, editors. Structural Inter-
metallics 1997 (Proc. ISSI-2). Warrendale: TMS; 1997.
p. 721.
[21] Würschum R, Schaefer HE. Positron Annihilation—
ICPA-11—Proceedings of the 11th International Confer-
ence on Positron Annihilation 1997;255:81.
[22] Kim SM, Morris DG. Acta Mater 1998;46:2587.
[23] Wolff J, Franz M, Broska A, Kerl R, Weinhagen M,
Köhler B, Brauer M, Faupel F, Hehenkamp T. Intermet-
allics 1999;7:289.
[24] Sprengel W, Müller MA, Schaefer H-E. In: Westbrook JH,
Fleischer RL, editors. Intermetallic compounds. Progress,
Vol. 3. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 2002. p. 275.
[25] Stoloff NS, Liu CT, Deevi SC. Intermetallics
2000;8:1313.
[26] Baker I, George EP. In: Deevi SC, Maziasz PJ, Sikka VK,
Cahn RW, editors. International Symposium on Nickel
and Iron Aluminides: Processing, Properties and Appli-
cations, Materials Park: ASM Interntl; 1997. p. 145.
[27] Herrmann J, Inden G, Sauthoff G, Schweika W. Acta
Mater. 2003 (in preparation).
[28] Herrmann J, Inden G, Sauthoff G. Acta Mater. 2003; 51
(in press).
[29] Herrmann J, Inden G, Sauthoff G. Acta Mater. 2003 (in
preparation).
[30] Herrmann J, Inden G, Sauthoff G. Acta Mater. 2003 (in
preparation).
[31] Herrmann J, Inden G, Sauthoff G, Schweika W. In: Kopp
R, Beiss P, Herfurth K, Böhme D, Bormann R, Arzt E,
Riedel H, editors. Werkstoffwoche 98—Band VI: Sym-
posium 8: Metalle, Symposium 14: Simulation Metalle.
Weinheim: Wiley-VCH; 1999. p. 389.
[32] Herrmann J. Untersuchungen zur Struktur und zum mech-
anischen Verhalten von Fe-reichen Fe-Al-Legierungen.
Düsseldorf: VDI Verlag, 2000.
[33] Michels C. Dr. Ing. Dissertation, RWTH Aachen, 1994.
[34] Broska A. Dr. rer. nat. Dissertation, Universität Göt-
tingen, 1998.
[35] Neuhäuser H, Schwink C. In: Cahn RW, Haasen P,
Kramer EJ, Mughrabi H, editors. Materials science and
technology. Plastic deformation and fracture of materials,
Vol. 6. Weinheim: VCH; 1993. p. 191.
[36] Suzuki H. In: Nabarro F, editor. Dislocations in solids,
Vol. 4. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publ. Co; 1979. p. 193.
[37] Estrin Y, Kubin LP. J Mech Behav Mater 1990;2:255.
[38] Kettner U, Rehfeld H, Engelke C, Neuhäuser H. Intermet-
allics 1999;7:405.
[39] Schmatz DJ, Bush RH. Acta Metall 1968;16:207.
[40] Brechet Y, Estrin Y. Scr Metall Mater 1994;31:185.
[41] Pink E, Kumar S. Mater Sci Eng A-Struct Mater
1995;201:58.
[42] Tanaka K. J Phys Soc Jpn 1971;30:404.
[43] Nagy A, Harms U, Neuhäuser H. Defects and Diffusion
in Metals: An Annual Retrospective IV 2002;203-2:257.
[44] Christian JW, Mahajan S. Prog Mater Sci 1995;39:1.
[45] Yoo MH. In: Westbrook JH, Fleischer RL, editors. Inter-
metallic compounds—principles and practice. Progress,
Vol. 3. John Wiley & Sons; 2002. p. 403.