Moscow Aviation Institute

(National Research University)

Department of «Aerospace Heat Engineering»

Sergei Mesnyankin, Alexey Ezhov

///////

THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

///////
RECOMMENDED BY THE EDITORIAL AND PUBLISHING BOARD OF THE MOSCOW
AVIATION UNIVERSITY (NATIONAL RESEARCH UNIVERSITY) AS A STUDY GUIDE

Москва
2022
UDC 536(075.8)
M60

Reviewers:
Kuzma-Kichta Yu.A. - D.Sc. in Engineering, Professor of the Department of Engineering Thermal
Physics, National Research University "Moscow Power Engineering Institute", Moscow;
Department of Physics, “National University of Science and Technology “MISIS””; (Acting head
of the department, D.Sc. in Engineering, Prof., corresponding member of the Russian Academy of
Natural Sciences Ushakov I. V.)

Mesnyankin, Sergei.
M60 Thermodynamic Properties, Processes and Cycles / Sergei Mesnyankin,
Alexey Ezhov. — Moscow : Znanie-M, 2022. — 60 p.

ISBN 978-5-00187-100-2
DOI 10.38006/00187-100-2.2022.1.60

The book contains basic and additional theoretical information, a description of five lab-
oratory works on the most important sections of "Thermodynamics", covering the tasks of
thermodynamic analysis of cycles and determining the thermodynamic properties of working
fluids. Particular attention is paid to the setting of the experiment and the analysis of the data
obtained, in particular, the determination of the main thermodynamic properties of air at atmo-
spheric pressure, the study of the thermodynamic process of air compression and the determi-
nation of the measurement of pressures and volumes of the polytropic process index, compres-
sion work, heat capacity, amount of heat, the study of the principle of operation the selected
engine and the study of the influence of the main characteristics of the cycle on its resulting
work and thermal efficiency, the study of the thermodynamic characteristics of a moving gas
flow in a converging nozzle.

Designed for students studying in the direction 24.03.05 - "Aircraft engines".

 UDC 536(075.8)

© Mesnyankin S. Yu., Ezhov A. D., 2022

ISBN 978-5-00187-100-2
© Znanie-M, 2022
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

Contents

Preface............................................................................................................................ 4
1. DETERMINATION OF BASIC THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
OF AIR........................................................................................................................... 5
2. RESEARCH OF THERMODYNAMIC POLYTROPIC PROCESS
WITH GAS.................................................................................................................. 25
3. THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF CYCLES
OF THERMAL ENGINES......................................................................................... 34
4. ADIABATE AIR DEPLETION THROUGH A SUBSONIC NOZZLE............. 41
5. ADIABATIC EXPIRATION OF VARIOUS GASES MATHEMATICAL
MODELING METHODS.......................................................................................... 52
Reference..................................................................................................................... 59

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 3
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

Preface

A detailed study of thermodynamics is unthinkable without a practical check of the

basic provisions. Therefore, the state educational standards always provide for hours for
laboratory classes. This is especially true for future specialists in the field of aviation
and rocket and space technology, where almost all calculations are based on one of the
basic disciplines of our time — thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics is the science of energy, its properties and the laws governing the
interconversion of various types of energy.
Along with the basic laws of thermodynamics, the most important sections of the
discipline are: thermodynamic properties of matter, polytropic processes, thermody-
namic cycles, thermodynamics of moving streams. This section is devoted to the five
laboratory works presented in this textbook, which, in one combination or another, are
included in the programs of almost all areas and profiles of student training at the Mos-
cow Aviation Institute and other technical universities of Russia.
The purpose of the manual is to promote the skills of setting up an experiment,
conducting it, processing experimental data and performing their analysis. In order to
understand the phenomena under study, theoretical information is briefly and concisely
presented in each work.
The manual is written in simple language, accessible to everyone, without complex
narration and special terms. All the material presented is structured according to a single
scheme: the purpose of the work, theory, description of the installation, the procedure
for conducting the study, the method of processing the results, the form of presentation
of the material, control questions.
All works have been tested for a long time in the educational process at the De-
partment of Aerospace Heating Engineering of the Moscow Aviation Institute (National
Research University), descriptions for laboratory work were published in the form of
separate brochures, the names of which are given in the bibliography.

4 – ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

1. DETERMINATION OF BASIC THERMODYNAMIC

PROPERTIES OF AIR
The purpose of the work is to determine the basic thermodynamic properties of
air at atmospheric pressure.

Theoretical information

It is customary to refer to the main thermodynamic properties of a particular sub-

stance: heat capacity, gas constant, thermal coefficients. They are found from the caloric
and thermal equations of state, established empirically or from the provisions of statis-
tical physics.
Caloric equations of state include expressions for the functional dependence of
several variable quantities, in which at least one variable is expressed in energy units.
Thermal equations of state include expressions containing thermodynamic param-
eters in an explicit form that are not associated with the concept of energy. For a simple
in an explicit form that are not associated with the concept of energy. For a simple
thermodynamic system (thermal deformation), when only normal pressure forces act —
thermodynamic system (thermal deformation), when only normal pressure forces act -
р and temperature
р and temperature—Т,-Т,thermal
thermalequations
equationsofofstate
stateare
arewritten
writtenininthe
theform:
form:

𝑓𝑓(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉, 𝑇𝑇) = 0 , (1.1)

where
whereV-Vthermodynamic
— thermodynamic system
systemvolume.
volume.
TheThespecific
specificform
formofofthis
this equation depends on
equation depends onthe
theproperties
propertiesofofthethe substance
substance andand
is is
different for a substance in solid, liquid and gaseous states. The main factor
different for a substance in solid, liquid and gaseous states. The main factor influencing
influencing the equation of state is the intensity of interaction of the particles of the
theworking
equationfluid.
of state is the intensity of interaction of the particles of the working fluid.
TheThe form
form of of
thethe equation
equation of of state
state is well
is well studied
studied onlyonly
for for an ideal
an ideal gas,gas, for gases
for gases with a
low
with density,
a low and and
density, to ato
lesser extent
a lesser for dense
extent gases.
for dense In this
gases. case,case,
In this the word "ideal"
the word means
“ideal”
"imaginary, not really existing."
means “imaginary, not really existing.”
AnAnideal gasisis aa theoretical
idealgas model of
theoretical model of aagas:
gas:chaotically
chaoticallymoving
movingmolecules
molecules do do
notnot
interact with each other at a distance; the total intrinsic volume of molecules is
interact with each
negligible other to
compared at athe
distance;
volumethe totalvessel
of the intrinsic volume
in which theofgas
molecules is negligi-
is located.
bleAn
compared to the
ideal gas obeysvolume
the ofMendeleev-Clapeyron
the vessel in which theequation,
gas is located.
which, depending on the
amount of substance, have the following notation forms:

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 – for 1 kg,

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 5
(1.2)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚- for m kg, (1.3)
(1.4)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉� = 𝑅𝑅� 𝑇𝑇 – for 1 mole, (1.5)
 low
low density, density, and
and to
to aa lesser extent for dense gases. In this case, the word "ideal" means
Thelow form density,
of
"imaginary, the and
equation
not a lesser
toreally lesser
of state
existing."
extent
extent is
for
for dense
well dense
studied
gases.
gases.
only
In
In
for
this
this
an
case,
case,
ideal
the
the
gas,
word
word
for
"ideal"
"ideal"
gases
means
means
with a
"imaginary,
"imaginary, not
not really
really existing."
existing."
"imaginary, not really existing."
low density, and to a lesser extent for dense gases. In this case, the word "ideal" means
An Anidealidealgas gas is a theoretical
aais theoretical model model of of a gas:
aa gas: chaotically
chaotically moving
moving molecules
molecules do do
not not
An
"imaginary,
Aninteract ideal
ideal not gas
gas is
really
is a theoretical
existing." model
theoretical model of
of a gas:
gas: chaotically
chaotically moving
moving molecules
molecules do
do not
not
interact with with each each other other at atYu.
S.a
a Mesnyankin,
distance; thethe total intrinsic volume of of molecules is is
interact
interact with
with each
each other
other at
at aa distance;
distance;
distance; the
the
total
total
total
intrinsic
intrinsic
intrinsic
volume
volume
volume of
of
molecules
molecules
molecules is
is
Annegligible ideal a theoretical
gas compared
negligible is compared to to the
the model
volume volume of
of a gas:
of
the the chaotically
vessel
vessel in in which
which moving
thethe
gas molecules
gas
is is located.do not
located.
negligible
negligible compared
compared to
to the
the volume
volume A.D. of
of the
Ezhov
the vessel
vessel in
in which
which the
the gas
gas is
is located.
located.
interact with each other at a distance; the total intrinsic volume of molecules is
An An idealidealgas gas obeys obeys the the Mendeleev-Clapeyron
Mendeleev-Clapeyron equation,
equation, which,
which, depending
depending on on
the the
An
negligible
Anamount ideal
ideal gas
compared
gas obeys
obeys to the the
the volume Mendeleev-Clapeyron
of the vessel in which
Mendeleev-Clapeyron equation,
the gas
equation, which, depending
is located.
which, depending on
on the
the
amount of of substance,
substance, have have the the
followingfollowing notation
notation forms:
forms:
amount of substance, thehave the
the following
following notation forms:
AnAn amount ideal idealgasofgas obeys the
substance,
obeys have Mendeleev-Clapeyron
Mendeleev-Clapeyron notationequation,
forms: which,
equation, which,depending
dependingonon thethe
amount
amount of ofsubstance,
substance, have have thethe following 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
following
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = notation
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 – for
–notation
for 1 forms:
1 kg, kg,
forms: (1.2)
(1.2)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 – – for
for 1 1 kg,
kg, (1.2)
(1.2)
for m kg, (1.3)
(1.3)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚- for m kg, (1.3)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
= =
=𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚-
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚-
– for
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚- for m kg, for
1 m
kg, kg, (1.3)
(1.2) (1.4)
(1.4)
� � � � – for 1 mole, (1.4)
(1.4)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
�� = =
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
𝑇𝑇 – 𝑇𝑇for 1kg,
mole, (1.3) (1.5)
(1.5)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
=
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 =
= 𝑅𝑅�� 𝑇𝑇
𝑅𝑅
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚- 𝑇𝑇 – for
form1
–for 1 mole,
mole, (1.5)
(1.5)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =��𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 � 𝑇𝑇for
– for n mole (1.4)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉�𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
==
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅� 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅
=
= 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅 for–
–� 𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇 –
– 1for
n
n
mole,
for
mole
n mole
mole (1.5)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑅𝑅� 𝑇𝑇 – for n mole
where where
where
where
where р - absolute pressure in Pa;
рр -- absolute pressure in Pa;
where рр — - absolute
absolute
absolute
pressure
pressure
pressure 3
in
ininPa;Pa;Pa;
V - - volume
Vvolume in min333;m ;
р -VV -- volume
Vabsolute volume in mm;;3;in Pa; 3
ininm
pressure
— volume
𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 -specific
-specific 3volume
volume in m m /kg;
in333/kg;
𝑣𝑣
V -𝑣𝑣volume —-specific
-specific
specific volume
;
in volume
mvolume in
in in m
m m /kg;
/kg;
3
/kg;
ν Т- thermodynamic temperature in К;
Т- thermodynamic
thermodynamic temperature in К;
ТТ-
𝑣𝑣 -specific
Т-— volume in temperature
thermodynamic
thermodynamic
3
/kg;
mtemperature
temperature in
inin К;
К;К;
т - weight
--тweight in kg;
in kg;
Т- т т
т — - weight
thermodynamic weightin
weight ininkg;
kg;
kg;temperature in К;
п— п — amount
amount of of substance
substance in in moles;
moles;
т -пппweight ——
— amount amount
amountin kg; of substance
of substance
of substance 3in in moles;
in moles;
moles;
� -𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉�molar - molar volume
volume in in3/mole;
m /mole;
п— 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉�� amount
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 molar
--—molar volume
of
molarvolume substance
volume ininm
in mm33in
m /mole;
3 moles;
/mole;
/mole;
� =8,31441 𝑅𝑅� =8,31441 J/mole∙К
J/mole∙К --— - molar
molar (universal)
(universal) gas gas constant;
constant;
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉� -𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅��molar
𝑅𝑅 =8,31441
=8,31441
=8,31441 volume in m3/mole;
J/mole∙К
J/mole·К
J/mole∙К - molar
molar molar (universal)
(universal)
(universal) gas
gasgasconstant;
constant;
constant;
� 𝑅𝑅�
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅=
𝑅𝑅� =8,31441
𝑅𝑅 = �� -— - specific
specific
specific
� J/mole∙К
gas -gas
gas constant
constant
constant
molar in inJ/kg·К,
in J/kg∙К,
J/kg∙К,
(universal) and
gas and
and
𝑚𝑚
� --𝑚𝑚 -—molar
�molar
constant; molar
massmass
mass
in ininkg/mole.
kg/mole.
kg/mole.
𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅 == 𝑚𝑚 � -- 𝑚𝑚 specific
specific gas
gas constant
constant in
in J/kg∙К,
J/kg∙К, and
and 𝑚𝑚
�
𝑚𝑚
� - molar
molar mass
mass in
in kg/mole.
kg/mole.
�
𝑚𝑚
�
A
A real
real
𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅�A real gas
gas differs
gas
differs from
differs
from an
froman ideal
an
ideal one
ideal
one by
oneby the
by
the presence
the presence
presence of
of molecular
of molecular
molecular interaction. At
interaction.
interaction. At At
lowlow
𝑅𝑅 =A real-
A 𝑚𝑚�real specificgas
gas gas
differs
differsconstant
from
from an
an in J/kg∙К,
ideal
ideal one
one and
by
by 𝑚𝑚
�
the
the - molar
presence
presence massof
of in kg/mole.
molecular
molecular interaction.
interaction. At
At low
low
densities,
low densities,
densities, attractive
attractive
attractive forcesforces
forces prevail
prevail
prevail inin inwhich
it,it, it, which
which leads leads
leadsto to to additional
additional
additional pressure:
pressure: thethe
pressure: the
gas, gas,
gas, as as
densities,
densities, attractive
attractive forces
forces prevail
prevail in
in it,
it, which
which leads
leads to
to additional
additional pressure:
pressure: the
the gas,
gas, as
as
A real gas differs from an ideal one by the presence of molecular interaction. At low
as it were, compresses itself. At high densities, repulsive forces act, as a result of which
densities, attractive forces prevail in it, which leads to additional pressure: the gas, as
the molecule does not allow the penetration of other molecules into the volume it occu-
it pies.
were,Itcompresses
is impossible itself. At high
to neglect thedensities,
intrinsic repulsive
volume offorces real gasact,molecules.
as a result of which
the molecule does not allow the penetration of other molecules into the volume it
occupies. At not
It istoo high pressure
impossible (for example,
to neglect the intrinsicat atmospheric)
volume of real andgasnotmolecules.
too low temperature
At(for
notexample,
too highatpressure room temperature),
(for example, a real gas obeys the and
at atmospheric) lawsnotof an
tooideal
low gas with a suf-
temperature
ficient
(for degreeatofroom
example, accuracy.
temperature), a real gas obeys the laws of an ideal gas with a
sufficient degree of
Therefore, foraccuracy.
air, equations (1.2) ÷ (1.5) are valid, and taking into account the fact
Therefore, for air,
that air mainly equations
consists (1.2) ÷ oxygen
of nitrogen, (1.5) areand
valid,
argonand taking
with intofractions
volume account of
the0.7811;
fact
that air mainly consists of nitrogen, oxygen and argon with volume fractions of
0.2096 and 0.0093, respectively, the molar mass of air is taken to be 28,96·103 kg/mole,
0.7811; 0.2096 and 0.0093, respectively, the molar mass of air is taken to be 28,96∙103
and the and
kg/mole, specific gas constant
the specific will be: will be:
gas constant
𝑅𝑅� 8,31441
R= = =287,1 J/kg∙К
�
𝑚𝑚 28,96∙10−3

If we consider the equations of state for an ideal gas (1.2) for two states of the working
fluid at constant pressure:
6 – ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇1 (1.6)

 At not
At not too too high
high pressure
pressure (for (for example,
example, at at atmospheric)
atmospheric) and and not not too too lowlow temperature
temperature
the
it molecule
were,
occupies.
sufficient
(for compresses
example, It is
degreedoes
impossible not allow
itself.
of accuracy.
at room
room to At the
high
neglect
temperature), aa real penetration
densities,
the intrinsic
real gas of
repulsive
gas obeys other
volume
obeys the molecules
forces
of real
the laws act,
laws of gas as
of an into
a the
result
molecules.
an ideal
ideal gas volume
gas withitaa
of which
(for
the example,
occupies.
molecule Itdegree at
is does
impossible not temperature),
allowto neglect the the intrinsicofvolume
penetration of real gas into
other molecules molecules. with
thetemperature
volume it
sufficient
At not
sufficient
Therefore, toodegree
high
for ofequations
of
air, accuracy.
pressure
accuracy. (for (1.2) example, ÷ (1.5) at atmospheric)
are valid, and andtakingnot too into low
account the fact
occupies.
At not too It high
is impossible
pressure to
(for neglect
example, the intrinsic at atmospheric) volume of and realnot gastoo molecules.
low temperature
(for example,
that air mainly
Therefore, at
for air, room
consists
air, temperature),
equations of nitrogen,
(1.2) ÷ a
÷ (1.5) real
(1.5) oxygen gas
are obeys
and argon
valid, the laws
and taking of
with into
taking an
volume
into ideal
account gas withfact
fractions
the a
of
Therefore,
(for example, for atandroom equations THERMODYNAMIC
temperature), (1.2) a real are valid,
PROPERTIES,
gas obeys and
theand account the fact
At not
0.7811;
that airtoo
sufficient
that air
high
degree
mainly
0.2096
mainly
pressure
of accuracy.
consists
0.0093,
consists
(for
of
example,
ofPROCESSES
nitrogen,
respectively,
nitrogen,
atthe
oxygen
oxygen
AND
atmospheric)
molar
CYCLESandmass
and argon
argon oflaws not
with
air
with isoftooan low
volume
taken
volume
ideal
to be gas with of
temperature
fractions
28,96∙10
fractions
a3
of
sufficient
(for example, degree atair,of
room accuracy.
temperature), ÷ a(1.5) real gas obeys theof laws isofinto
an account
ideal begas withfacta3
3
kg/mole,
0.7811;
Therefore,
0.7811; andforthe
0.2096
0.2096 and
andspecific
0.0093,
equations
0.0093, gasrespectively,
constant
respectively,
(1.2) will the
the be:
are molar
valid,
molar mass
massand air is
taking
of air taken
taken to be
to 28,96∙10
the
28,96∙10
sufficient
kg/mole,
Therefore, degree
and the
fortheair, of accuracy.
specific
equations gas constant
(1.2) will be: valid,
that air mainly
kg/mole, and consists
specific of nitrogen,
gas constant𝑅𝑅� ÷ (1.5) oxygen
will
8,31441 are
be: and argon and takingwith into volume account the fact
fractions of
thatIf we
air
Therefore, consider
mainly
for air, the
consists equations of R =
nitrogen,of =state for
oxygen an =287,1
ideal
and J/kg∙К
gas
argon (1.2)
with for two
volume states of
fractionsthe of3
0.7811; 0.2096 andequations
0.0093, respectively,(1.2) 𝑚𝑚� ÷28,96∙10
�
𝑅𝑅 (1.5)
8,31441 theare −3
molarvalid, mass andoftaking into account
air is taken the fact
to be 28,96∙10
0.7811; 0.2096 and 0.0093, R = 𝑅𝑅� = 8,31441 =287,1 J/kg∙К
respectively, the −3molar
3
that
If weairfluid
kg/mole,
working mainly
and
consider at the consists
specific
constant
the equations ofR
gas
pressure: = state
nitrogen,
constant
of 𝑚𝑚
�
𝑚𝑚
� = 28,96∙10 for oxygen
will
28,96∙10 an be:
ideal
−3
=287,1 gasmass
and J/kg∙К
argon
(1.2) offorair
with is taken
two statestoofbe
volume the28,96∙10
fractions
working of
kg/mole,
0.7811;
fluid
If we at and thethe
0.2096
constant
consider andspecific
0.0093,
pressure:
equations gasrespectively,
constant
of state
𝑅𝑅� forwill
8,31441 an the be: molar
ideal gas mass(1.2) offorairtwois taken
states toofbethe28,96∙10
working
3
If we consider
kg/mole, and the thespecific
equations gas Rof = state
constant = for will anbe: ideal
=287,1 gas J/kg∙К
(1.2) for two states of the working
fluid at constant pressure:
fluid at constant pressure: R = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣= = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 −3=287,1 J/kg∙К ��
𝑅𝑅
𝑚𝑚 8,31441
28,96∙10 −3

� 128,96∙10
𝑚𝑚 (1.6)
If we consider the equationsRof= state 𝑅𝑅
= for
8,31441 an1ideal =287,1 gas (1.2)J/kg∙К for two states of the working
If we at consider = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣1 28,96∙10 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 (1.6)
fluid constantthe equations of state
pressure: �
𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣 1= for
= 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
an11−3 ideal gas (1.2) for two states of the working (1.6)
(1.7)
2 2
fluid
If we at constantthe
consider pressure:
equations of state for an ideal gas (1.2) for two states of the working
and subtract expression (1.6) from 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣2equation
= 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇2 (1.7)
(1.7)
fluid at constant pressure: 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣 21 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇21 (1.7), then we will have, (1.6)
and subtract expression (1.6) from 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣 equation = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇(1.7), then we will have, (1.6)
and subtract
and subtract expression
expression (1.6) (1.6) from from1equation equation 1 (1.7),(1.7), then then we we will
will have,
have,
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝(𝑣𝑣2 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣21 )===𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣 𝑅𝑅(𝑇𝑇
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 21 2 − 𝑇𝑇1 ) (1.8)
(1.7)
(1.6)
1
Taking into expression
account that 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ((𝑣𝑣
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝the −𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑣𝑣2 left-hand
− 𝑣𝑣21))== =𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅(𝑇𝑇
side
𝑅𝑅(𝑇𝑇 2 2of − the
− 𝑇𝑇1)) last equation is the specific (1.7)
𝑇𝑇 (1.8) of
(1.8)
work
and subtract (1.6) 2from 1equation 2(1.7), 1 then we will have,
and subtract expression (1.6) from𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣2equation=we𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 2 (1.7), (1.7)
expansion
Taking
Taking
Taking into l in
into
into the isobaric
account
account
account that
that
that the
the process,
the left-hand
left-hand
left-hand can
side
sidesidewrite: ofofthe
of thethen
the lastwe
last
last will have,
equation
equation
equation is the specific
is the
is specific workwork of of
expansion
and subtractll in in the isobaric
expression isobaric 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝(𝑣𝑣process,
(1.6) − 𝑣𝑣1 )equation
2 from we= 𝑅𝑅(𝑇𝑇 can2write: − 𝑇𝑇1 )then we will have,
write:
(1.7), (1.8)
expansion
of expansion the
l in the isobaric 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝(𝑣𝑣 process,
process,
− 𝑣𝑣 )
𝑝𝑝(𝑣𝑣 we
we
2=
can
can
−𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅(𝑇𝑇 ) write: −𝑙𝑙 𝑇𝑇 ) (1.8)
Taking into account that the2𝑅𝑅left-hand = 1 1
side = 2of the 1
last equation is the specific (1.9)of
work
𝑇𝑇 −𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 −𝑇𝑇
Taking intol in account 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
that the ( 𝑣𝑣 − 𝑣𝑣
𝑅𝑅left-hand
= we can
𝑝𝑝(𝑣𝑣
)
𝑝𝑝(𝑣𝑣
−𝑣𝑣
22= 1𝑅𝑅(𝑇𝑇
−𝑣𝑣 1)
side
)
= write: of
𝑙𝑙
2 − 1𝑇𝑇 )
𝑙𝑙 the last equation is the specific work (1.8)
(1.9)of
expansion the isobaric process,
2
𝑅𝑅 = 1
𝑇𝑇2 −𝑇𝑇1 =
2 1 2 1
−𝑇𝑇1work done by 1 kg of gas in the (1.9)
Consequently,
expansion
Taking intol in the
account specific
the isobaricthat the gas
process, constant
left-hand 𝑇𝑇we can
2 −𝑇𝑇 1 is
sidewrite:
𝑇𝑇the
𝑇𝑇 2−𝑇𝑇
of the last equation is the specific work
2 1 processof
at constant
Consequently,
Consequently, pressure
the and
specific
theisobaric temperature
specificprocess, gas constant
gas=constant 𝑝𝑝(𝑣𝑣2 −𝑣𝑣 change
1 ) is the 𝑙𝑙 bywork one Kelvin.
done by 1 kg of gas in the process
expansion
Consequently,
l in the
the and specific 𝑅𝑅 gas𝑝𝑝(𝑣𝑣
we can =is write:
the work done by 1 kg of gas in the (1.9) process
at constant pressure temperature 𝑇𝑇constant
−𝑣𝑣
22−𝑇𝑇 11 ) 𝑇𝑇2is
change 𝑙𝑙 by
−𝑇𝑇 theone work Kelvin.done by 1 kg of gas in the
at
Theconstant
recordspressureof the and thermal temperature
𝑅𝑅 equations
= change = state
of by one
1
for Kelvin.
real gases are more complex (1.9)and
𝑇𝑇22−𝑇𝑇
−𝑣𝑣11 ) 𝑇𝑇change 2 −𝑇𝑇
process at
Consequently,
therefore
The constant
records useof the pressure
ofa the specific
differential
the and gas
thermal𝑅𝑅 equations temperature
𝑝𝑝(𝑣𝑣
constant
form. From
equations
= is
of
= statethe 𝑙𝑙 1
work
equation
state by
for real one
done(1.1)
real Kelvin.
by
gases 1 kg
it follows of
are more gas
more in
that the
complexprocess
there
(1.9)isand
anda
The records
Consequently, the thermal
specific gas constant 𝑇𝑇2 −𝑇𝑇1 of is 𝑇𝑇the
2 −𝑇𝑇 1work
for done gases
by 1 kgare of gas incomplex
the process
attherefore
constant
relationship pressure
use between and temperature
the stateequations parameters, change whichby one
forcan Kelvin.
be represented in the
thatform:
at
The records
therefore
constant
Consequently, use aa the
of
pressure
the
differential
thermal
differential
and
specific temperature
gas
form.
form.
constant
From
From
change
of state
is the
equation
equation
by one
work
real (1.1)
Kelvin.
done
gases
(1.1) by
it are
it
1
follows
kg
more
followsof gas
complex
that
in
thereandis
there
the
is aa
process
relationship
The records between
of the thermal the state
stateequations
parameters, of state whichfor canreal be represented
represented
gases in the
thecomplex
form: and
relationship
therefore
at constant between
use apressure
differential andtheform.
temperature parameters,
From 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = equation
change
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝(𝑇𝑇, which
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉) (1.1)
by one can
it be
follows
Kelvin. that are
theremore in form:
is a relationship
(1.10)
The records
therefore useofa the thermal equations
differential form. From of state equation for real (1.1) gases are more
it follows thatcomplex
there isanda
between
therefore the state
Let'srecords
The use
differentiateofaparameters,
differential
the this expression:
thermal which form.𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = can𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝(𝑇𝑇,
= Frombeofrepresented
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝(𝑇𝑇, 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉) equation in the
(1.1) form:
it follows that (1.10)
there isanda
(1.10)
relationship between the stateequations 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
parameters, state
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉)
which for
canreal be gases
represented are more in the complex
form:
relationship
Let's differentiate
therefore
Let's between
differentiate
use thisthe
a differential
this state form.
expression:
expression: parameters, From which equation can be represented
(1.1) it follows in the
thatform:
there is a
relationship between the𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑state 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝(𝑇𝑇, 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (1.10)
= �parameters,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 +
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝(𝑇𝑇, 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
which
� �
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑇𝑇
can
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 be represented in the form: (1.11)
(1.10)
Let's differentiate thisthisexpression:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑expression: 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= �� �� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (1.11)
Let’s differentiate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =𝑉𝑉 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝(𝑇𝑇,+𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉)�𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕� 𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (1.11)
(1.10)
Let's differentiate this
For p=const relation (1.11) takes expression: 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 the 𝑉𝑉 form: 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑇𝑇
Let's differentiate
For p=const
p=const relation this
relation (1.11) expression:
(1.11) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
takes the form: 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
For = takes
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 �the 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑form:+ �
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (1.11)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =��𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (1.11)
�𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� +𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑉𝑉 +�� 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
�𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� =𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇 0 (1.12)
For p=const relation (1.11) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
=takes� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�the
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
+𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
form:
+�� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� =𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
(1.11)
(1.12)
For p=const relation ��𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕takes
(1.11) ��𝑉𝑉𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑the + ��form:
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑇𝑇𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇= 0 0 (1.12)
whence
For p=constit follows that: (1.11)
relation 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑉𝑉takes the𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑉𝑉
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕form:
𝑇𝑇
For p=const
whence it relation
follows (1.11)
that: 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 takes the form:
whence it follows that: �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 (1.12)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
�𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑇𝑇 (1.12)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑉𝑉 𝑇𝑇
whence it follows that: � � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 (1.12)
whence it follows that: 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑇𝑇
whence it follows that:
whence it follows that:

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

� � � � = −� � (1.13)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑝𝑝 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑉𝑉
or
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 7

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

� � � � � � = −1 (1.14)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑃𝑃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 S.𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 Yu. Mesnyankin, 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
�𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕A.D. � =Ezhov − �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � (1.13)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 �𝑝𝑝 �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑇𝑇 = − �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕�𝑉𝑉
�𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (1.13)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑝𝑝𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
� �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � ��𝑝𝑝 �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � �= 𝑇𝑇 = − �
� �𝑉𝑉 (1.13)
𝑉𝑉
or or 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 − � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (1.13)
or � 𝑝𝑝� 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑇𝑇� 𝑇𝑇 = −𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑉𝑉� (1.13)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
or or
𝑝𝑝 𝑇𝑇 𝑉𝑉
�𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕� = −1 (1.14)
or 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 �𝑃𝑃 �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑇𝑇 �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 �𝑉𝑉 = −1
�𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (1.14)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 �𝑃𝑃𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Equation (1.14) was� �named � �𝑃𝑃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � the �
� � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � � �=
𝑇𝑇differential 𝑉𝑉 = −1
−1 equation of state, and the (1.14)
(1.14)partial
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Equation
derivatives (1.14)
Equation (1.14) included was named
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
wasinnamed
� it𝑃𝑃�were 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 the 𝑇𝑇differential
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
�called
� 𝑇𝑇differential
the � 𝑉𝑉�the= 𝑉𝑉 equation
thermodynamic
−1 of state, and
equation of state, and
characteristicsthe
the partial deriv-partial
of the
(1.14)
derivatives
Equation included
(1.14)was in
wasnamed 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
it were
namedthethedifferential𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 called 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑇𝑇differential the thermodynamic
equationof ofstate, characteristics
state,and of
andthethepartial
partial the
working(1.14)
Equation fluid. 𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑉
equation
atives
workingincluded
derivatives fluid. in it
includedwere called
initnamed
itwere the
were thermodynamic
called characteristics of the working fluid.
Equation
derivatives (1.14)
included
Each thermodynamic wasin characteristic the
called included thethethermodynamic
differential thermodynamic
equation (1.14)
in equation
characteristics
of characteristics
state,
has itsandowntheof ofthethe
partial
physical
working
Each
derivatives
Each
working fluid.
thermodynamic incharacteristic
included characteristic
thermodynamic
fluid. it were called included
included inequation
equation(1.14)
the inthermodynamic (1.14)characteristics
has its
has its own
own physi-of the
physical
meaning.
calworking
meaning.
meaning.
Each fluid.
thermodynamic characteristic included
Each thermodynamic
In practice, the mostcharacteristic
often used values included in in
are obtained
equation
equation (1.14)
(1.14)
by dividing hashas
eachitsits
ownown physical
physical
characteristic by
meaning.
Each
In In thermodynamic
practice,
practice, the
theare most
most characteristic
often
often used values included are in
obtained equation
by (1.14)
dividing has
each its own physical
characteristic
meaning.
V or р, which called used values
thermal coefficients, are obtained namely:by dividing each characteristic by
meaning.
V V or
or р,р, which are called thermal coefficients, namely:
In In
by •V
practice,
practice, thethe
which
coefficient most
of
most
are often
called
often
thermal
used
thermal
used
(volumetric) values values
coefficients,
are are obtained
obtained
expansion namely: byby dividing
dividing each
each characteristic
characteristic byby
•or or
V In р, which
practice,
–coefficient
р, coefficient
which the
are are
of called
most
thermal
called
of often thermal
used
(volumetric)
thermal
thermal
coefficients,
values
coefficients,
(volumetric) are
expansion
expansion
namely:by dividing each characteristic by
obtained
namely:
V or р, which of
coefficient arethermal
called thermal
(volumetric) coefficients, expansion namely:
• •coefficient of thermal (volumetric) expansion
• coefficient of thermal (volumetric) 1 expansion
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 = 1 �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � (1.15)
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 �𝑝𝑝
1𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (1.15)
1 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑝𝑝
• –coefficient of ofthermal elasticity
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 = 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 = � � � � (1.15)
(1.15)
coefficient thermal elasticity 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑝𝑝
• coefficient of thermal elasticity 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑝𝑝� (1.15)
coefficient 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
• •coefficient of of thermal elasticity 𝑝𝑝
thermal elasticity 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = 1 �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � (1.16)
• coefficient of thermal elasticity 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕�𝑉𝑉 (1.16)
1 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑉𝑉
1𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
• • coefficient of isothermal𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾compressibility =𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = � � � � (1.16)
(1.16)
• • coefficient of isothermal compressibility 1
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑉𝑉
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑉𝑉� (1.16)
– coefficient of isothermal compressibility 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 1𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉
• • coefficient of isothermal
• • coefficient of isothermal compressibility compressibility
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇 = − 1 �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � (1.17)
• • coefficient of isothermal 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽compressibility 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑇𝑇 = − 1 �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑇𝑇 (1.17)
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽= 1 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (1.17)
The minus sign in the last𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇expression 𝑇𝑇 = − − �𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 � � introduced
� 𝑇𝑇
1 is 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑇𝑇 to provide a positive (1.17) value 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇 ,
The minus sign in the
since when compressed dV <𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽0. last expression
𝑇𝑇 = − � 𝑇𝑇�
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 is
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 introduced to provide a positive value
(1.17) 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇 ,
since
The when
minus compressed
sign dV 0.
<expression 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
The The
minus minus
Substitution sign ofin in
sign inthe
the lastlast
the
expressions last expression
expression (1.15) ÷ is is is introduced
𝑇𝑇
introduced
introduced
(1.17) toto provide
provide
into toequation
provide apositive
positive
aa positive
(1.14)
value
value
shows that𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
,all𝑇𝑇 ,
since
The when
minus compressed
sign in the dV < 0.
since when
Substitution
coefficients
since when compressed
areof related
compressed dV tolast
expressions
dV <each
< 0.expression
0. (1.15)
other by ÷ the is(1.17)
introduced
ratio:into equation to provide a positive
(1.14) showsvaluethat 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽all 𝑇𝑇 ,
since when compressed
Substitution
coefficients ofexpressions todVeach
expressions < 0. (1.15) ÷(1.17)(1.17) intoequation
equation(1.14)(1.14)showsshowsthat thatallall
Substitution
Substitution ofare related
of expressions (1.15) other÷by
(1.15) ÷
the
(1.17)
ratio:into
into equation (1.14) shows that all
coefficients
Substitution
coefficients areare of related to to
expressions
related each each other other
(1.15) byby
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼=𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾∙𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 ÷T the
the
∙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
(1.17) ratio:into equation (1.14) shows (1.18)
ratio: that all
coefficients
coefficients are related to each other 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼=𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾∙𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
by the T ∙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
ratio: (1.18)
As applied are to an related
idealto gas, each expressions
other by the ratio: T
(1.15) ÷ (1.17) have a simpler notation,
As applied to an ideal gas, 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼=𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾∙𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
expressions T ∙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (1.15) ÷ (1.17) have a simpler notation, (1.18)
(1.18)
obtained from considering partial 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼=𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾∙𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 T ∙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
derivatives with the corresponding fixed parameters
obtained from considering partial 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼=𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾∙𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
derivatives T ∙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (1.15) with the corresponding fixed (1.18)
parameters
AsAs
For
applied
applied
p=const to to ananideal
equation
idealgas, gas,
(1.3) can
expressions
expressions
be written(1.15) as ÷ ÷(1.17)
(1.17) havea asimpler
have simpler notation,
notation,
obtained
As from considering partial derivatives with the corresponding a fixed parameters
ForAsapplied
obtained from
p=const
applied
to an ideal
considering
equation
to an (1.3)
ideal
gas,
partial
can
gas,
expressions
derivatives
be written
expressions as (1.15)
with
(1.15) the ÷
÷corresponding
(1.17)
(1.17)
have fixed
have a
simpler
simpler
notation,
parameters
notation,
obtained
For fromequation
p=const considering (1.3) partial
can be derivatives
written as with the corresponding fixed parameters
For p=const equation (1.3) can be written
obtained from considering partial derivatives with the corresponding fixed parameters as
For p=const equation (1.3) can be written as
For p=const equation (1.3) can be written as

8 – ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

V = const∙Т, а
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐V∙ =𝑇𝑇)const∙Т, а 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
� � = = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑝𝑝
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕V
𝜕𝜕(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐V∙ = =𝑇𝑇)const∙Т,
const∙Т, аа 𝑇𝑇
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
� � = = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
Therefore, the coefficient 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑝𝑝 of 𝜕𝜕(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 thermal VV
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐V
=𝑇𝑇)const∙Т,
=expansion
∙∙ const∙Т,
=𝑇𝑇) const∙Т, аofааan ideal 𝑇𝑇 gas will be equal to:
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
Therefore, the coefficient
�� �� = = of thermal expansion =
= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 of
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 an
=
=ideal ideal gas will be equal to:
Therefore, the coefficient 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 of thermal 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝜕𝜕(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 V
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕∙ 𝑇𝑇)1 ∙ =
expansion
𝑇𝑇) const∙Т, of а an 𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇 gas will be equal to:
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
� 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
� �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � �=� = 𝜕𝜕(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 =expansion∙ 𝑇𝑇) = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
= =𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
= =ideal (1.19)
Therefore,
Therefore, the the coefficient
coefficient
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑝𝑝 = of
of thermal
thermal 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 expansion
∙ 𝑇𝑇)
𝑇𝑇
1 of
of an
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
an ideal
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 gas
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 gas will
will be
be equal
equal to:
to:
�𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 �𝑝𝑝 = 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑇𝑇
𝑝𝑝
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 =expansion (1.19)
Therefore,
For
Therefore, V=const the
thethe coefficient
equation
coefficient 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (1.3)
ofof
𝑝𝑝 of is thermal
thermal transformed𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 expansion 𝑇𝑇
1 to the
ofof ofanan an
form: ideal ideal𝑇𝑇 gas gas will will
bebebe equal
equal to:
to:to:
Therefore, coefficient thermal 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 = expansion 1 ideal gas will equal (1.19)
For
р =For V=const
const∙Т,
Therefore, theаequation
coefficient (1.3)ofisthermal transformed 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 = expansion𝑇𝑇 to theofform: an ideal gas will be equal to:(1.19)
V=const equation (1.3) is transformed 1 1
𝑇𝑇 to the form:
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼
= = 1 to the form: (1.19)
(1.19)
рFor =р V=const
For const∙Т,
V=const
= const∙Т, а а equation
equation (1.3)
(1.3) is
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
is transformed
transformed ∂(const
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 = 𝑇𝑇 to∙ 𝑇𝑇)
the form: 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (1.19)
� � = 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 1 = const = .
ррFor
= V=const
const∙Т, ааequation (1.3) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕is
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑣𝑣transformed𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼∂(const
= ∂𝑇𝑇 to ∙ 𝑇𝑇) the form: 𝑇𝑇
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (1.19)
For = const∙Т,
V=const equation
For V=const equation (1.3) (1.3) is transformed
� is� transformed = 𝑇𝑇 to the
to the=form: form: const = .
р= Therefore,
р =
For const∙Т,
V=const
const∙Т, а theа coefficient
equation (1.3) of
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
is
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 thermal
transformed
𝑣𝑣 ∂(const
∂(const elasticity
∂𝑇𝑇 to∙
∙ 𝑇𝑇)
the
𝑇𝑇) of
form: an ideal 𝑇𝑇 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝gas
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 is determined by the
р = const∙Т,
expression: а �
�𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � = = const = .
Therefore,
р = const∙Т,the а coefficient of�𝑣𝑣thermal
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= ∂(const elasticity
∂𝑇𝑇
∂𝑇𝑇∙ 𝑇𝑇) ∙ 𝑇𝑇) =ofconst an ideal = 𝑇𝑇 . is determined by the
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝gas
𝑇𝑇
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑣𝑣 ∂(const 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
expression: the coefficient
Therefore, � ��𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 �of��=
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = ∂(const ∙ 𝑇𝑇)
thermal elasticity == const
of
const= = .𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 .
an ideal
Therefore,
Therefore, thethecoefficient
coefficient 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕of
𝑣𝑣ofthermal
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑣𝑣 =
thermal ∂(const
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = ∂𝑇𝑇 1∂𝑇𝑇
elasticity
elasticity
∂𝑇𝑇 ∙ 𝑇𝑇) ofconst = an ideal
an ideal = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝gas
𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇 gas
𝑇𝑇gas. isis determined
isdetermined
determinedby by
thethe
by
(1.20) the
expression:
expression:
Therefore, � � 𝑣𝑣 =
𝑇𝑇 = const = .
Therefore,
expression:
Therefore, thethe
the
coefficientof
coefficient
coefficient
ofthermal
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
of
thermalelasticity
𝑣𝑣thermal 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 =
elasticity
1∂𝑇𝑇
elasticity ofof of anan an ideal idealgas
ideal
𝑇𝑇gasis isdetermined
gas is
determinedbybythethe
determined(1.20) by the
expression:
From
expression: equations (1.19) and (1.20) it follows 𝑇𝑇
1 that for an ideal gas
Therefore,
expression: the coefficient of thermal 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = elasticity
1 of an ideal gas is determined by the
(1.20)
From equations
expression: (1.19) and (1.20) 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
it =
follows 𝑇𝑇 that for an ideal gas (1.20)
1= 1 1
𝑇𝑇
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 =𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 1 that for an ideal gas (1.20)
(1.21)
(1.20)
From equations
From equations (1.19) (1.19) and and (1.20)
(1.20)𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 it it𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 follows
=follows
= 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
1 that for an ideal gas (1.20)
From equations (1.19) and (1.20) 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 = it𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝑇𝑇follows
=1
𝑇𝑇 that for an ideal gas (1.21)
From equations (1.19) and (1.20) 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
it form=
follows that for an ideal gas 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (1.20)
For
From T=const
equations equation
(1.19) and(1.3)(1.20)has the
it follows 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
р∙𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉=𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
that
1 for an , consequently,
ideal gas 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉=
From equations (1.19) and (1.20) 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 =
𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼
it follows
= 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 =
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = 1 that for an ideal gas 𝑝𝑝 (1.21)
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (1.21)
For T=const equation (1.3)
From equations (1.19) and (1.20) it follows has the form р∙𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉=𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑇𝑇
1
𝑇𝑇 that for ,
an consequently,
ideal gas 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉=
Differentiating by pressure, we 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼get: =𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 =1 1 𝑝𝑝 (1.21)
For T=const equation (1.3) has 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 =
the =
form р∙𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉=𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑇𝑇 , consequently, 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉=
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (1.21)
(1.21)
For T=const equation
Differentiating by pressure, (1.3) has we𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼
the = 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 =
get:form𝑇𝑇р∙𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉=𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
1
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 , consequently,
1 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉= 𝑝𝑝
� 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼 � = =𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 =
− 𝑇𝑇 = − 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉. 𝑝𝑝
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (1.21)
ForFor T=const
For T=const
T=const
Differentiating equation
equation
equationby (1.3)
(1.3)
(1.3) has has
has the the
the form form
form р∙𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉=𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑇𝑇 2
р∙𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉=𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 , consequently,
consequently,
, ,consequently,
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉= 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉=
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
by pressure, we get:
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 р∙𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Differentiating
For T=const equationpressure,(1.3) we
has� the get:� 𝑇𝑇form = −р∙𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉=𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = −, consequently,
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉.
𝑝𝑝
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉= 𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑝𝑝
For Differentiating
T=const this
Differentiating
Substituting equation
by by
pressure,
expression (1.3) has
pressure, we
into we the
get:
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 get:
relation form р∙𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉=𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 we have:
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
(1.17)
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 , consequently,
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
1
1 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉=
Differentiating
Differentiating byby pressure,
pressure, wewe ��get: get:�� =
𝑇𝑇
− = − 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉. 𝑝𝑝
Substituting thisbyexpression into 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 relation = − (1.17) 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 2 = − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉.
Differentiating pressure, 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 we 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
get: 𝑇𝑇 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 we have:
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
2
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
1 1 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1
�
� into 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑇𝑇 = −
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽=
� relation = − − (1.17) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
2 = − 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉.
= − 1 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉. (1.22)
Substituting this expression � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑇𝑇 = 2 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 we = have:
− 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉.
Substituting this expression 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 into 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 relation
𝑇𝑇 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
1 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
(1.17) 2 we 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
have: 1
� 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 �𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 = − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉.
𝑇𝑇
(1.22)
Substituting
Thus, the coefficient
Substituting thisthis expression
expression of isothermal
intointo 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 relation
relation 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
compressibility
(1.17)
1 (1.17) 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 wewe have: have:
of 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝an ideal gas is the reciprocal of
Substituting thisthisexpression into relation
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
𝑇𝑇
= 1(1.17) we have: (1.22)
the
Thus, Substituting
gas pressure.
the coefficient The expression
compressibility
of isothermal into 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 𝑇𝑇relation
= of
compressibility a(1.17)gas (1.17) decreases weofhave: anwith ideal increasing
gas is thepressure. (1.22)of
reciprocal
Substituting this expression into relation 𝑇𝑇
1
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
1
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 we have:
the
The gas pressure.
properties ofThebodiescompressibility
to emit 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽=
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 𝑇𝑇or=of 1a gas heat
absorb decreases with with
a ideal
changeincreasing pressure.
inis temperature (1.22)
(1.22) in ofa
Thus, the coefficient of isothermal
Thus, the coefficient of isothermal𝑇𝑇 compressibility compressibility
= 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
1 of
of an
an ideal gas
gas is the
the reciprocal
(1.22)
reciprocal of
thermodynamic
the
The gas pressure.
properties process
ofThebodies is tocharacterized
compressibility emit or of 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝abygas
absorb heat heat capacity.
decreases with with
a changeincreasingin pressure.
temperature (1.22)
in
the gas
Thus,
Thus, the pressure.
the coefficient
coefficient The of compressibility
of isothermal
isothermal
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 𝑇𝑇 = of𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝a gas decreases
compressibility
compressibility of of an an with
ideal ideal increasing
gasgasis is
the the pressure.
reciprocal
reciprocal of ofa
thermodynamic
Thus,
The the
heat coefficient
capacity process of
isbodies is
numerically characterized
isothermal equal compressibility abygas
to theheat amount capacity. of of anwith ideal
aaheat gasin
that is temperature
must thepressure.
bereciprocal
supplied of
toa
thethe
The
The
Thus,
the
gas
gas
gas
pressure.
properties
properties
pressure.
the coefficient
pressure.
working
of
of
The
fluid
The
Thebodiescompressibility
compressibility
of
to
to
isothermal
compressibility
innumerically
order
emit
emit
to increase
or
orof ofabsorb
absorb
a
compressibility
of to gas
abygas its
decreases
heat
heat
decreases
decreases
temperature
with
with
of with
an with
change
changeincreasing
increasing
ideal gas
byincreasing
inis
1 Kelvin
temperature
pressure.
the reciprocal
pressure.
under
in
in
given ofa
thermodynamic
The heat
thermodynamic capacity process
is
process is
is characterized
characterized equal theheat amount capacity. of heat that must be supplied to
TheThe properties
theproperties
gas
conditions. pressure.
Atof of
theThebodies
bodies
same to to
compressibility
time,emit emittheor orabsorb
true ofabsorbabygas
heat
heat
heat heat capacity.
decreases
capacity with with isa with adistinguished,
change
change increasingintemperature
inKelvin temperature
pressure.in
obtained as inathea
the
The working
properties
thermodynamic
The heat capacity fluid
of
process
is in
bodies order
is
numerically to to
emit
characterized increase
equalor absorb
to by its
theheat temperature
heat
amount with
capacity. of a heat by
change 1
that in
must under
temperature
be suppliedgiven
in toa
The heat
thermodynamic
ratio of an
The properties
conditions. capacity process
infinitely
Atfluidof
the is numerically
bodies
same is
small characterized
amount
to
istime, emit equal
theincrease of
or absorb
true by
heat to
heat heatthe
reported amount
capacity.
heat
capacity in
with of
the heat
process
is adistinguished, thatto must
an
change in temperature be supplied
infinitely
obtained small
as in toa
thermodynamic
the working processin order characterized
to
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– byits heat capacity.
temperature by 1 Kelvin under 9the
given
Thethe
The
change
ratio working
heat
heat ancapacity
in
thermodynamic fluid
temperature.
of capacity
infinitelyis is
processinsmall
order
numerically
numerically toequal
is characterized
amount increase
equalof heat
toheatto its
the
byreported
the heat
amount temperature
amount capacity. inofis of
the heat heat by
processthat 1 must
that Kelvin
to must
anbe be under
supplied
infinitely
supplied given
small to
tothe
conditions.
The heat
conditions. At
capacity
At the same
is
theinsame time,
numerically
time, the
tothe equaltrue
true heat to the capacity
amount
capacity of distinguished,
heat
is distinguished, that must obtained
be
obtained as
supplied
as to
the
thethe
change
The
ratio
working
in
working
heat
of capacity
fluid
temperature.
fluid is
inorder
order
numerically to increase
increaseequal to its itstemperature
the
temperature
amount of by
heat
by1 1Kelvin
that
Kelvin
must under
be
undergiven
supplied
given
to
the of an
ratioworking
conditions.
conditions. anAt infinitely
fluid
infinitely
Atthe thesame insmall
same order
small
time,
amount
amount
time, the
totheincrease
true
of
trueheat
of heat
heat heat reported
itscapacity
reported
capacity
temperature in
in
is
the
the
is process
by 1 to
process
distinguished,
distinguished, to an
Kelvin
an infinitely
under as
infinitely
obtained
obtained as
small
given
small
the the
the working
change
conditions. Atfluid
in temperature.
the same in order time,totheincrease true heatitscapacity temperature is distinguished,by 1 Kelvin under as
obtained giventhe
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

Thus, the coefficient of isothermal compressibility of an ideal gas is the reciprocal

of the gas pressure. The compressibility of a gas decreases with increasing pressure.
The properties of bodies to emit or absorb heat with a change in temperature in a
thermodynamic process is characterized by heat capacity.
The heat capacity is numerically equal to the amount of heat that must be supplied
to the working fluid in order to increase its temperature by 1 Kelvin under given condi-
tions. At the same time, the true heat capacity is distinguished, obtained as the ratio of
an infinitely small amount of heat reported in the process to an infinitely small change
in temperature.

𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
𝐶𝐶 = (1.23)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
𝐶𝐶 = (1.23)
and the average heat capacity, obtained as the ratio of a specific amount of heat at at
and the average heat capacity, obtained as
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 the ratio of a specific amount of heat thethe
final stage
andstage
the of theheat
average process to the obtained
capacity, corresponding
as the change ina temperature
ratioinoftemperature
specific amount of heat at the
final of the process to the corresponding change
final stage of the process to the corresponding
𝑄𝑄 change in temperature
𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚 = (1.24)
𝑇𝑇2 −
𝑄𝑄 𝑇𝑇1
𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚 = (1.24)
The concept of true and average 𝑇𝑇heat 2 − 𝑇𝑇capacity
1 can be illustrated graphically in
coordinates
The Q, T (рис. 1.1.).
Theconcept
conceptofof true and average
true and averageheatheat capacity
capacity cancan be illustrated
be illustrated graphically
graphically in co- in
coordinates Q, T (рис. 1.1.).
ordinates Q, T (рис. 1.1.).

Рис. 1.1

The true heat capacity corresponds to Рис. 1.1

the tangent of the angle of inclination of the
Рис. 1.1
tangent
The trueinheat
an infinitely
capacity small section of
corresponds to the
the process
tangent of the angle of inclination of the
10 tangent in an infinitely small section of𝐶𝐶the
≡ process
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡.
– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
The average heat capacity corresponds𝐶𝐶to≡the tangent of the angle of inclination of the
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡.
secant
The passing
average through
heat the corresponds
capacity end points oftothe
theprocess
tangent1 of
andthe
2 angle of inclination of the
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

Рис. 1.1
The true heat capacity corresponds to the tangent of the angle of inclination of the
The true heat
tangent in an capacity
infinitelycorresponds
small sectiontoofРис.
the 1.1
thetangent
processof the angle of inclination of the
tangent in an infinitely small section of the process
The true heat capacity corresponds to the tangent of the angle of inclination of the
tangent in an infinitely small section of𝐶𝐶the ≡ process
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡.
Рис. 1.1
The average heat capacity corresponds𝐶𝐶to≡the tangent of the angle of inclination of the
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡.
The average heat capacity corresponds to the tangent of the angle of inclination of
The
secant true heat
passing capacity
through the endcorresponds
points of theto process
the tangent 1 andof2 the angle of inclination of the
The average
thetangent
secant inheat
passingcapacity
through corresponds
the end
an infinitely small section to
pointsofthe
ofthe tangent
the processof the
process angle
1 and 2 of inclination of the
𝐶𝐶 ≡ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
secant passing through the end points of𝑚𝑚the process 1 and 2 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡.
Depending on external conditions, the𝐶𝐶nature 𝐶𝐶 ≡ of𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡.𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡the
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡.process and the physical properties
𝑚𝑚 ≡ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
The
of the averagefluid,
working heatthe
capacity corresponds
functions Q=f(T) can to the be very tangent of the angle
different. of inclination of the
Each thermodynamic
Depending
secant
process on
Depending external
passing on
corresponds conditions,
toexternal
through the
the value
its own end nature
conditions,
points
of heatofthe of
thenature
capacity the process
process and
of1therefore
and the the
and process physical
2 the heat properties
and capacity
the physical
is
of the working
a function of of fluid,
thethe the functions
thermodynamic Q=f(T) can
process,functions
the formbe very
of different. Each thermodynamic
properties working Q=fwhich is fixed by a different.
subscript. Each
process corresponds to its ownfluid,
value the
of heat ≡ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡.
𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚capacity (T) therefore
and can be very
the heat capacity is
The most
a function commonly
thermodynamic
of theon
Depending used
process in
thermodynamic thermodynamics
externalcorresponds to
process,
conditions, theits
the own
nature is
formvalue heat
ofofthecapacity
ofprocess
which heat at constant
is capacity
fixed volume
by aand
and the therefore
subscript.
physical the
properties
The of
heat thecommonly
most working
capacity fluid,
usedthe
is a functioninoffunctions Q=f(T)iscan
the thermodynamic
thermodynamics
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 becapacity
very the
process,
heat different.
atform ofEach
constant thermodynamic
which is fixed by
volume
process corresponds to its own � �of heat capacity and therefore the heat(1.25)
𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 =value capacity is
a subscript. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
a function of the thermodynamic process, 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝑉𝑉 the form of which is fixed by a subscript.
which, The most
taking intocommonly 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉in=law
used
account the first � of�thermodynamics:
thermodynamics
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉 is heat capacity at constant(1.25)
volume
The most commonly used in thermodynamics is heat capacity at constant volume
which, taking into account the first law of thermodynamics:
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 = � � (1.25)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉
which, taking into account the first law of thermodynamics:
which, taking into account the first law of thermodynamics:

𝛿𝛿𝑄𝑄 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (1.26)

𝛿𝛿𝑄𝑄 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (1.26)
written
written in in
thethe form
form
written in the form 𝛿𝛿𝑄𝑄 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (1.26)
written in the form 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 = �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕� (1.27)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 = �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕�𝑉𝑉 (1.27)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑉𝑉 (1.27)
𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 = � �
and heat capacity at constant pressure
and heat capacity at constant pressure 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑉𝑉
and heat capacity at constant pressure 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
and heat capacity at constant pressure
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 = �𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 � (1.28)
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 �𝑝𝑝
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 = �𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 (1.28)
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝑝𝑝
which, taking into account the𝐶𝐶writing𝑝𝑝 = � of�the first law of thermodynamics in terms (1.28)of
which, taking into account 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
the writing of the first law of thermodynamics in terms of
𝑝𝑝
the thermal function, enthalpy
the thermal
which,
which, taking function,
taking
intointo enthalpy
account
account the the writing
writing of theof first
the law
firstof
law of thermodynamics
thermodynamics in terms
in terms of the of
the thermal function, enthalpy 𝛿𝛿Q = dH-Vdp (1.29)
thermal function, enthalpy 𝛿𝛿Q = dH-Vdp (1.29)
can be represented as:
can be represented as: 𝛿𝛿Q = dH-Vdp (1.29)
can be represented as: 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 = �𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 � (1.30)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �𝑝𝑝
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 = �𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 11
(1.30)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 = �and�enthalpy
For an ideal gas, the internal energy is a function of temperature(1.30)
only,
For an ideal gas, the internal energy 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and enthalpy
𝑝𝑝 is a function of temperature only,
and in this case the partial derivatives coincide with the total derivative
 𝛿𝛿𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉= = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�+ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
� (1.26)
(1.27)
and heat capacity at constant pressure 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑉𝑉
written in the form 𝐶𝐶 = � 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 � (1.27)
and heat capacity at constant pressure 𝑉𝑉
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 = �𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕� 𝑉𝑉 (1.28)
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 = � 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕�𝑝𝑝 (1.28)
and heat capacity at constant pressure 𝐶𝐶S.𝑉𝑉 Yu. = � 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 �
Mesnyankin,𝑝𝑝 (1.27)
which, taking into account the𝐶𝐶writing 𝑝𝑝 = � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
A.D.
of �the
Ezhov𝑉𝑉
first law of thermodynamics in terms (1.28)of
which, taking
the thermal into account
function, enthalpythe writing𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 of the
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝑝𝑝 first law of thermodynamics in terms of
and heat capacity at constant
the thermal function, enthalpy 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 = � � pressure (1.28)
which, taking into account the writing𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 of the first law of thermodynamics in terms of
𝛿𝛿Q = dH-Vdp 𝑝𝑝 (1.29)
the thermal function, enthalpy 𝛿𝛿Q = dH-Vdp 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 (1.29)
which, taking into as: account the𝐶𝐶writing𝑝𝑝 = � of�the first law of thermodynamics in terms (1.28)of
cancan
be be represented
represented
the thermal as:
function, 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
can be represented as:enthalpy 𝛿𝛿Q = dH-Vdp 𝑝𝑝
(1.29)
which, taking into account the writing𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 of the first law of thermodynamics in terms of
can be represented as: 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 ==dH-Vdp �𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 � (1.30)
(1.29)
the thermal function, enthalpy 𝛿𝛿Q 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �𝑝𝑝 (1.30)
can be represented as: 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
For an ideal gas, the internal 𝛿𝛿Q energy
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 ==dH-Vdp � �enthalpy is a function of temperature
and only,
(1.29)
(1.30)
For an
andFor
in anideal
thisidealgas,
casegas, the
the the internal
partial energy
derivatives
internal energy coincide and
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and enthalpy
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 enthalpy
𝑝𝑝 is
withisthe a function of
total derivative
a function temperature
of temperature only, only,
can
and be represented
in this case the as: partial derivatives
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 = �coincide � with the total derivative (1.30)
andFor an ideal
in this case gas, the internal
the partial energy
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
derivatives and
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 enthalpy
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
coincide 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 theistotal
𝑝𝑝 with a𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
function
derivativeof temperature only,
�𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕� = coincide
and in this case the partial derivatives 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ; �𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 � =
with the𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
total derivative
For an ideal gas, the internal � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
energy
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝�𝑉𝑉==�and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑�;enthalpy
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �𝑝𝑝 =is a𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
function of temperature only,
(1.30)
and in this case the partial 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
derivatives 𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
coincide 𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
with to
𝑝𝑝 thean𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
total derivative
Therefore, equations (1.27) �and �(1.30) = as; applied � � = ideal gas are written in the
Therefore, equations (1.27)
For an ideal gas, the internal𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
form: and
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
energy (1.30)
𝑉𝑉 as
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and applied
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 enthalpy 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 to anfunctiongas
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝑝𝑝 is a𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ideal of are written inonly,
temperature the
form:
and in this case the partial � � = coincide
derivatives ; � with � = thean total derivative
Therefore, equations (1.27) and
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (1.30) as
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 applied
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 to 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ideal gas are written in the
Therefore, equations (1.27) and𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉(1.30) as 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 applied 𝑝𝑝 to an ideal gas are written in the
form: = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (1.31)
Therefore, equations (1.27)𝐶𝐶�and
form: = � (1.30)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑝𝑝 as
; applied
�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � to
= an ideal gas are written in the
(1.31)
𝑉𝑉𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
form:amount of heat supplied to𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉
the working 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 fluid
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝
or removed from it is (1.31) always
The amountequations
of the
heatamount 𝐶𝐶
supplied = to(1.30) the 𝐶𝐶 =
working
Therefore,
proportional to (1.27) ofandthe
𝑉𝑉
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 working𝑝𝑝
fluid.fluid
as applied
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
or
an removed
Intoorder ideal
to begas from
able it is always
aretowritten
compare in the
proportional
of heatto
form:amount the amount 𝐶𝐶of the working = fluid. In order atounit be mass
able to or compare ofthea
values
The ofcapacities, the
heat supplied 𝑉𝑉amount
= to𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of𝑝𝑝working
the𝐶𝐶 heat
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
is referred
fluid ortoremoved from is (1.31)
itamountalways
values
substanceof heat capacities,definitions
in moles, the amount of of heat isand referred to a unit mass or amount of a
proportional to the andamount of the𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 specific
working fluid. molar
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 In order heattocapacity
be able are introduced.
to compare the
The amount
substance of heatandsupplied
in moles, definitions
𝐶𝐶 = to the working
of 𝐶𝐶specific
= andfluid
molar or heat
removed
capacityfromare itintroduced.
is (1.31)
always
The amount
values
Specific ofheat ofthe
heat supplied
heatiscapacities, toper
the𝑉𝑉amount the unit
working
of𝑝𝑝 heat fluid
is or removed
ofreferred to a unitfrom it isoralways
mass amount pro-
of a
proportional
Specific heat to
is the heat
the amount
heat
capacity
of the
capacity
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
per working
unit
mass
mass fluid.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
of
the
In working
the order to fluid.
working be able to compare the
fluid.
substance
portional in moles, and
to the definitions of specific and molar heat capacity are the
introduced.
values
The of
amount heatamountheat of
ofcapacities, the
theworking
supplied to thefluid.
amount of𝐶𝐶working
heat In isorder to be
referred
fluid able
orto to compare
a unit
removed mass
from isvalues
or itamount of a
always
Specific
substance heat
of proportional
heat capacities, is the
in moles,
to the heat
and
the amount
amountcapacity
definitions
ofofheat per
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
the isworkingunit
ofreferred
𝐶𝐶 mass
specific of
toand the working
molar
a unit
fluid. mass
In order heat fluid.
tocapacity
or amount
be ableof are (1.32)
introduced.
toa compare
substance the
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚 (1.32)
values
Specific ofheat
heatiscapacities,
the heat the amount
ofcapacity per of𝐶𝐶 heat is referred toare
a unit mass or amount of a
in The
moles,
unitandof definitions
specific heat specific
capacity is Junit
and 𝑚𝑚
/molar
kg mass
⋅K.heatofcapacity
the working fluid.
introduced.
(1.32)
substance
The unit ofinheat
moles, and
specific heat definitions
capacity 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 of
is J /specific
= kg ⋅K. and molar heat capacity are introduced.
Specific is the heat capacity
The molar heat capacity is the heat capacity per unit
𝑚𝑚
𝐶𝐶 mass of the working fluid.
referred to the amount of the working
Specific
molar
The unit heat is
of heat the
specific heat
capacity capacity
is the heat
heat capacity per
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =unit
is J /capacity mass
kg ⋅K. referred of the workingto the fluid.
amount of the working (1.32)
fluid in moles. 𝑚𝑚
fluid in moles. 𝐶𝐶 ⋅K. referred to the amount of the working
The unit
molar of heat
specificcapacity is the heat
heat capacity is J /capacity
kg (1.32)
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
fluid in moles. 𝑚𝑚
The molar heat capacity is the heat capacity referred to the amount of the working
The
fluidunit
Theinunitof of
specific
moles. specific heat capacity
heat capacity is Jis/ Jkg / kg⋅K.⋅K.
The molar
The molarheat
heatcapacity
capacityisisthe
the heat
heat capacity referred to
capacity referred tothe
theamount
amountofofthethe working
working
fluid in moles.
fluid in moles.

𝐶𝐶
𝐶𝐶̂ = (1.33)
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
TheThe
unit of of
unit molar heat
molar capacity
heat is J/mol⋅K.
capacity is J/mol⋅K.
Specific andand
Specific molar heat
molar capacity
heat areare
capacity related byby
related thethe
ratio:
ratio:
𝐶𝐶̂
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
12 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
𝑚𝑚
�
or
 𝐶𝐶
𝐶𝐶̂ = 𝐶𝐶 (1.33)
𝐶𝐶 ̂ =𝐶𝐶 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 (1.33)
𝐶𝐶̂ = 𝐶𝐶 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 (1.33)
The unit of molar heat capacity THERMODYNAMIC is J/mol⋅K.
𝐶𝐶̂ = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 PROPERTIES, (1.33)
The unit of molar heat capacity PROCESSES is J/mol⋅K. 𝐶𝐶
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝐶
AND CYCLES
The unit ofand
Specific molar molar heatheat capacity capacity is J/mol⋅K. are ̂
𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶= ̂ =𝐶𝐶
related by the ratio: (1.33)
(1.33)
The unit ofmolar
molar heat capacity isare 𝐶𝐶 ̂
J/mol⋅K.= 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐶𝐶 (1.33)
Specific
Specific and and molar heatheat capacity
capacity are ̂=
𝐶𝐶relatedrelated 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛byby thethe ratio:
ratio: (1.33)
The unit The of
unit molar
of heatheat
molar capacity
capacity is 𝐶𝐶J/mol⋅K.
is J/mol⋅K. 𝐶𝐶 ̂
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
Specific
The unit and of molarmolarheat heatcapacitycapacity ̂= isare J/mol⋅K. related by the ratio:
The unit of molar heat capacity 𝐶𝐶 isare 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
J/mol⋅K. ̂ 𝐶𝐶 ̂ (1.33)
Specific and
Specific molar
and heatheat
molar capacity capacity 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐶𝐶 ̂are
==related
𝐶𝐶 𝑚𝑚 �
related bybythe the ratio:
ratio: (1.33)
Specific and molar heat capacity𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 are = related 𝑚𝑚
𝐶𝐶�̂
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 by the ratio:
or
Specific
Theorunit of molar and heatmolarcapacity
heat capacity is J/mol⋅K. are𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚
�
related ̂ ̂ by the ratio:
or
The unit of molar heat capacity is J/mol⋅K. 𝐶𝐶
𝑚𝑚 �̂ 𝐶𝐶
or
Specific and molar heat capacity are related 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐶𝐶by the ratio:
or
Specific and molar heat capacity𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶̂are 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑚𝑚
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐==related ⋅�
𝐶𝐶 ̂𝑚𝑚 �
𝑚𝑚
� by the ratio: (1.34)
̂ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �⋅ 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 � � (1.34)
or or𝑚𝑚
where � - the molar mass of the𝐶𝐶̂ = ̂𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚
substance.
𝐶𝐶 𝑚𝑚 � (1.34)
or
where 𝑚𝑚
� - the
the molar mass of the
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐the ̂ = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶
=𝐶𝐶substance.
substance. ⋅̂𝑚𝑚 � (1.34)
or 𝑚𝑚
where
Heat -— the
�capacity molar
molar и mass massare of ofthe
related substance. to each other, and for an ideal gas this relationship
С р С v ̂𝑚𝑚�
𝐶𝐶 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐= 𝐶𝐶̂== 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ⋅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑚𝑚�
⋅ 𝑚𝑚
� (1.34) is
(1.34)
where
Heat
obtained
Heat 𝑚𝑚
�
capacity- the
from molar и Сare
СрСconsidering
capacity mass
v are of
related the
therelated substance.
̂
𝐶𝐶to
equation =each 𝑚𝑚 �
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ⋅other,𝑚𝑚 other,
�of the and
first for
law an ofideal gas this
anthermodynamics relationship (1.34)
(1.26) is
is or
or Heat capacity ир Ср
С v и Сv are
related to ̂ each to each other,
and forand anfor ideal ideal
gas gas
this this
relationship relation-
(1.34)
where
obtained 𝑚𝑚
� - the molar mass of the substance.
𝐶𝐶 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ⋅ 𝑚𝑚
�
or where
from
Heat
obtained
where
ship is the
capacity
from
𝑚𝑚
�
obtained -from
𝑚𝑚
the -С considering
the
�considering
definitionmolar
from
molar
of
Сmassv the
р и considering
are mass
the ofthe
enthalpy.
related of equation
equation
the the
thesubstance.substance.
toequation
each of of other,
theof the first
the
first
and law
first
law
for of
law anof thermodynamics
ideal
of gas this relationship
thermodynamics
thermodynamics
(1.26)
(1.26)
(1.26) or or
is
from
where
Heat
obtained the
capacity
𝑚𝑚
� definition
- the
from Сmolar и of
С
considering the
massare enthalpy.
of ̂
related
the the substance.
equationto each other,
ofother, the first and for
law an ideal gas this relationship
(1.34) is
from theHeatdefinition
capacity р ofСрthe Сenthalpy.
иv are v are
𝐶𝐶 =
related 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ⋅
̂to=to
𝑚𝑚
� each andfor for an anofideal thermodynamics
ideal gas
gasthis
thisrelationship
(1.26)is or
or Heat
from
obtained
from
capacity
the
the definition
from
definition р и С
Сconsidering
of
of the
related
v the enthalpy. the
enthalpy. 𝐻𝐻 𝐶𝐶
=
equation each
𝑈𝑈 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ⋅
+ 𝑚𝑚
� other,
of 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝the and
first law of thermodynamics relationship (1.34)
(1.35)or
(1.26) is
whereHeat
𝑚𝑚
�
obtained- obtained
capacity
the molar from
С и
mass
from considering
р considering
С vofarethe related the
substance.
the𝐻𝐻=equation equation
to each
=𝑈𝑈 𝑈𝑈+ +𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 of of
other, the first
and for law an
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝the first law of thermodynamics(1.35) of thermodynamics
ideal gas this (1.26)
relationship or
(1.35)or
(1.26) is
from
where
For the
obtained the𝑚𝑚
from� definition
- the
process molar
p
the definition
from = of
const,
considering the
mass of the enthalpy.
of
we 𝐻𝐻
the theget:
enthalpy. substance.
equation of the first law of thermodynamics (1.26) or
Heat from
capacity theprocess
definition
Ср и Сpv are of the
related enthalpy.
toget: each other, and for an ideal gas this relationship(1.35) is
For
ForHeat the
the capacity
from process
the pС=р и
definition = const,
const,
of the
are
we
weenthalpy.get: =to 𝑈𝑈
related
𝐻𝐻
each
+ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
other, and for an ideal gas this relationship
obtained from considering the equation С v
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐻𝐻 =
==
𝐻𝐻 𝐶𝐶of
𝑈𝑈 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑈𝑈 the++first
+ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝law of thermodynamics (1.26)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 or is
(1.35)
(1.36)
(1.35)
For the process p = const, we get: 𝑉𝑉 (1.35)or
from obtained
theFor the
definition from
processofconsidering
pconst,
the =enthalpy.
const, the
𝑝𝑝we
𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐻𝐻equation
= 𝐶𝐶𝑈𝑈 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
get:
= + of + the first law of thermodynamics (1.26)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (1.36)
For the process p = 𝐶𝐶 we get:
=
𝐻𝐻 𝐶𝐶
= state (1.3) for 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 follows that 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = (1.35)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑈𝑈 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (1.36)
𝑉𝑉 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
Based
from
For the For
theon the
theprocess
thermal
definition
process p = ofpconst,
=equation
const,
the enthalpy.
𝑝𝑝
we we ofget:
get:
𝑉𝑉 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
Based
For the on the
process thermal
p = equationequation
const,
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑of=state
we get:
𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (1.3) + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
for 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 follows that 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = (1.36)
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
Based
Thus, onequation
the thermal (1.36) can𝐻𝐻be 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝=of 𝑈𝑈state
written
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = +𝐶𝐶(1.3) 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
as 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + for𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 follows that 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝(1.35) = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
(1.36)
Based
Thus, on the
equation thermal
(1.36) equation
can be 𝐶𝐶𝐻𝐻𝑝𝑝of
written
𝐶𝐶written 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑=state = 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 +
𝐶𝐶𝑈𝑈𝑉𝑉as 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑+
𝑉𝑉(1.3) +𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝for 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 follows that 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = (1.35)
(1.36)
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
(1.36)
ForThus,
the equation
process p =(1.36)
const, canwe beget: 𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = as 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Based
ForBased
the on the
process thermal
p thermal
= const, equation 𝐶𝐶
we
𝐶𝐶be 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of
get: = state 𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(1.3) + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
for 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 follows that 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = (1.36)
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
Based on the
on thethermal equation𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
equation =ofof𝐶𝐶state 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉state +
(1.3)
(1.3) 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚for
for𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝==𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 follows that
𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 follows
Thus,
Based equation
on the (1.36)
thermal can
equation𝐶𝐶
written
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of = state
𝐶𝐶
as(1.3)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + for
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 that𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝==𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
Based
Thus,
or Thus, on
Thus, the
equation
equation thermal
equation (1.36)
(1.36)
(1.36)equation
𝐶𝐶can
𝐶𝐶
𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
can
𝑝𝑝canbe
𝑝𝑝=written
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 be= 𝐶𝐶of 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
written
written
𝑉𝑉 state
𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉+ as + (1.3) 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
asas+ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 for 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 follows that (1.36)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
Thus,
oron the equation (1.36) can be
𝐶𝐶 written
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶 as 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (1.36)
or Thus,
Based equation
thermal(1.36) equation can𝐶𝐶of be𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 written
state =−(1.3) 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 as for
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 +𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 follows that 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Based
or on the thermal equation 𝑝𝑝 𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of
𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝= 𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉 state
= 𝑉𝑉 𝐶𝐶 =(1.3)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + for
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 follows that 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = (1.37) 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉 + 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Thus,orequation (1.36) can be written 𝐶𝐶 as − 𝐶𝐶 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (1.37)
can𝐶𝐶be 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑− 𝑝𝑝=𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉=
is𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝written 𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
differentiating expression (1.35)(1.37)
𝑉𝑉 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Thus,
Exactly
or orequation
the same (1.36)
formula 𝑝𝑝 obtained asafter under the
or Exactly
assumption
or the same
of constant formula
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑pressure is 𝐶𝐶
obtained
𝑝𝑝 − 𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉 =
after 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 differentiating expression (1.35) (1.37)the
under
Exactly the same formula is = 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 +after
obtained 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝=𝐶𝐶−𝐶𝐶−
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =+ differentiating
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 expression (1.35) under the
(1.37)
assumption of constant
Exactly the same formula 𝑝𝑝is obtained pressure
𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝑉 after = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (1.37)
or assumption of constant pressure 𝐶𝐶 𝑝𝑝 −𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑝𝑝 𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝑉 =
𝑉𝑉 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
= 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑differentiating
+ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 expression (1.35) under (1.37)the
Exactly
assumption
or Exactly the of same
theconstant
sameformula pressure
formula is obtained𝐶𝐶
is𝑝𝑝obtained
− 𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉 after=
= after
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 differentiating
differentiating
+ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 expression (1.35)under
expression (1.35) (1.37)
under thethe
Exactly
since
assumption the
opening same
of the formula
differentials
constant pressure is obtained
of 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
energy = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
after +
quantities 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
differentiating we come expression
to the (1.35)
expression under
(1.36). the
Exactly
since assumption
the
opening same theof constant
formula
differentials 𝐶𝐶 pressure
is −
𝑝𝑝 isof obtained
𝐶𝐶 =
𝑉𝑉 energy 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 after
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 quantities
=after differentiating
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 +differentiating
quantities 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 expression (1.35) (1.37) under the
assumption
since
With
Exactly
opening
assumption regardof
of
the
the constant
same formula
1differentials
to constant
kg of the
pressure
pressure
obtained
of𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝energy
working −𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉 =
fluid, 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
the equation wewe come come
is written
to
thethe
to expressionexpression
expression
as
(1.35) (1.36).
under
(1.36).
(1.37)
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑differentiating
= +
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑equation 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
Exactly
thesince
With
With
theregard
assumption
regard
same to
opening formula
1ofthe
tosame 1constant
kg kg
of of is obtained
differentials
thethe working
pressure
working of fluid,after
energy fluid,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = the quantities
the
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 equation ++𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
we is
expression
come
is
writtenwritten as(1.35)
toasthe under (1.36).
expression the
Exactly
sincesince the
opening formula
the differentials is obtained
of energy after differentiating expression (1.35) under the
assumption
With
of constant
regard opening
to 1 kg
pressure
theof differentials
the working 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝of −𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 =
energy
fluid, =quantities
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑅𝑅quantities
the
+ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝we
equation we come
iscome written
to the
to theexpression
as
expression(1.36). (1.36).
(1.38)
since opening the differentials
assumption of constant pressure𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 = 𝑅𝑅 of energy quantities we come to the expression (1.36).
(1.38)
since
With
and is opening
regard
called
With to
the
regard the
1 tokgdifferentials
Mayer
1 ofkg the working
equation.
of the 𝑝𝑝of −energy
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐working
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣fluid,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑=fluid, +quantities
𝑅𝑅 the𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
the equation
equation we is come
is written
written to the
as expression(1.38)
as (1.36).
With
and is regard
called to
the 1 Mayer
kg of the working
equation. 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 −𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 fluid,
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 = = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑the
𝑅𝑅 equation + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 is written as (1.38)
and
since With
If is
opening
both regard
called the
sides theto
of 1
Mayerkg
differentials
the of
last the
equation.of working
expression energy fluid,
quantities
are the
multiplied equation
we come
by istowritten
the the
molar as
expression
mass, then (1.36).
it takes
since
since opening
opening thethe differentials
differentials of of 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
energy −
𝑝𝑝 energy
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐− −𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
𝑣𝑣quantities
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐= 𝑅𝑅
=𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 weby
quantities we come come to theto theexpression
expression (1.38)the
(1.36).
(1.38)
(1.36).
and
If both
If form:
both is called
sidessides the
of Mayer
the last equation.
expression 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑝𝑝 are𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣multiplied the molar mass, then it takes thethe
(1.38)
With regard
and With
is called 1of
toregard kg the
the of
to last
the
1
Mayerkg expression
working
of the
equation. fluid,
working𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑝𝑝 arethe
− 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐multiplied
𝑣𝑣 equationby
fluid,= 𝑅𝑅 the equation the molar
is written is as mass,asthen it takes
written (1.38)
form:
With
If
andboth
form: regard
isand sides
called to
of1the
is called
the kg
Mayer of
the last
Mayer the working
equation.equation.
expression
𝑝𝑝 fluid, 𝑣𝑣
are multiplied the equation by the is written molar mass, as then it takes the
and
If bothisIfcalled
sidessidesthe
of the Mayer lastlast equation.
expression 𝐶𝐶̂
− 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣 =are − 𝐶𝐶 ̂ =
𝑅𝑅𝑉𝑉aremultiplied 𝑅𝑅� by (1.39)
form:
If both both
sides of theof the
last
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝expression
expression ̂𝑝𝑝 −̂ are
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐶𝐶 ̂𝑣𝑣𝑉𝑉 =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐶𝐶 multiplied
multiplied
= 𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅� byby the the molar
the molar mass,
molar
mass,then
mass,
then
then it it
(1.38)
it
takes
takes
takes thethe
(1.39)
(1.38) the
form: ̂
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 − 𝐶𝐶 = multiplied�
𝑅𝑅 that for an (1.39)
If
and isFromboth
called
form: form:sides
equations
the of
Mayer the
(1.37)last
equation. - expression
(1.39) it is are
𝑉𝑉 seen by the
ideal molar gas mass,
the then
difference it takes
between the
and
From is equations
called the Mayer
(1.37) -equation.
(1.39) 𝐶𝐶̂ it is − 𝐶𝐶 ̂
seen = 𝑅𝑅�
that for an ideal gas (1.39)
andform:
From
If both equations
issides
called of the (1.37)
the Mayer -equation.
last expression (1.39) itare
𝐶𝐶̂is
𝑝𝑝
seen 𝑉𝑉
̂𝑉𝑉 ̂=
multiplied that � �for by an
the ideal
molar gas thethe
mass,
difference
difference
then it takes
between
between
the
(1.39)
𝑝𝑝𝐶𝐶̂− −𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶multiplied 𝑅𝑅
=that 𝑅𝑅 for an (1.39)
From
If both equations
sides of (1.37)
the last - (1.39)
expression 𝐶𝐶̂it − is
𝑝𝑝 are𝐶𝐶 ̂
seen 𝑉𝑉= 𝑅𝑅� by ideal
the molar gas the
mass,difference
then it between
(1.39)the
takes
form: 𝐶𝐶̂it𝑝𝑝
− 𝐶𝐶 ̂𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = that 𝑅𝑅� for an ideal gas the difference between (1.39)
From
form: equations (1.37) - (1.39) is seen
FromFrom equations (1.37) - (1.39) it isseen seenthat thatfor foran an ideal ideal gas gas the
the difference
differencebetween
𝑝𝑝
equations (1.37) - (1.39) it is between
From equations (1.37) - (1.39) 𝐶𝐶̂𝑝𝑝 − 𝐶𝐶̂it𝑉𝑉 is
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
= seen 𝑅𝑅� that for an ideal gas the difference (1.39)between 13
𝐶𝐶̂𝑝𝑝 − 𝐶𝐶̂𝑉𝑉 = 𝑅𝑅� (1.39)
From equations (1.37) - (1.39) it is seen that for an ideal gas the difference between
From equations (1.37) - (1.39) it is seen that for an ideal gas the difference between
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
since opening the differentials of energy quantities we come to the expression (1.36).
With regard to 1 kg of the working fluid, the equation is written as
S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −A.D.
𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =Ezhov
𝑅𝑅 𝑣𝑣 (1.38)
and is called the Mayer equation.
If both sides of the last expression are multiplied by the molar mass, then it takes
If both sides of the last expression are multiplied by the molar mass, then it takes the
theform:
form:

𝐶𝐶̂𝑝𝑝 − 𝐶𝐶̂𝑉𝑉 = 𝑅𝑅� (1.39)

From equations (1.37) - (1.39) it is seen that for an ideal gas the difference between
From equations (1.37) — (1.39) it is seen that for an ideal gas the difference be-
the tween the heat
the heat capacities
heat capacities capacities atpressure
at constantat constantand
constant pressure
pressure
volumeand
and volume
is volume is the
is
the same, the same,
and same, and
. с𝑝𝑝 > с𝑣𝑣 .
с > сand 𝑝𝑝 𝑣𝑣
theThe Thelast
heat lastposition
capacities position atmeans constant that in order
pressure andtotoincrease
volume the
is thegas same,temperature
and с >by с𝑣𝑣the
.thesame
The last position means thatmeans in order that toinincrease order the increase
gas temperature the gas temperature
by the𝑝𝑝same by value same value
value
at constant the at
The atpressure,
heat
last constant
constant capacities
position morepressure,
pressure, meansatheat more
constant that more
must inheatheat
pressure
order
be must
supplied must
to be and be
supplied
increase supplied
volume
to thethe gas toisgasto
thethe
the
than gasatgas
same, than
temperature
constantthan
at constant
and сat
by constant
theс𝑣𝑣same
volume.
> .volume. volume.
value
𝑝𝑝
the
at heat
constant capacities
Theexperimental experimental
pressure, at
at more constantdetermination heat pressure
must be and
of the
supplied volume heat to capacitiesis
the the gas same,
than atandatconstant
constant .. is moreis more
> сс𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣volume
is volume.
The determination ссvolume
the
The experimental
The heat
last capacities
position determination
means constant that of the of
inpressure
order heattothe
and heat volume
capacities
increase capacities
the is
at the
gas at
same,
constant constant
temperature and
volume 𝑝𝑝 >the
by
𝑝𝑝 more
same value
complicatedThe complicated
experimental
and less and determination
accurate, less therefore, accurate,oftherefore, the
equations heat equations
capacities
(1.37) - (1.37)
(1.39) at constant
are - (1.39)
used are
volume
to find used is to
more find 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉
complicated
The last position
at constant
last position
andpressure,
lessmeans means more
accurate, thatheat
that in order
order
must be
therefore,
in toequations
to increase
supplied(1.37)–(1.39)
increase the
theto the gasgas
gas temperature
than
temperature areatused constant by the
by the findsame
volume.
same 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 value
by
𝑉𝑉 value
complicated
at by experimental
constant and less
pressure, values
accurate, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 . therefore, equations (1.37) - (1.39) arevolume usedvolume. to isfind
by experimental
at
experimental
The constant
experimental values
pressure,
values ..more
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝determination
more heat
heat must must of be thesupplied
be supplied
heat to
to the
capacities the gas
gasatthanthan constantat
at constant
constant volume. more 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉
by experimental
When carrying values out 𝑝𝑝 .
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐thermodynamic calculations, approximate dependences ofmore
the 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉 true
WhenThe complicated
Thecarrying
When experimental
experimental out
carrying and less
thermodynamic determination
determination
out accurate,
thermodynamic therefore,
calculations, of
of the the heat
heatequations
calculations, approximatecapacities
capacities (1.37)
approximate at
at- constant
(1.39)
dependences
constant arevolume
dependences ofused
volume the truetoofis
isfind more
the
complicatedspecific heat
and capacity
less 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 .on temperature
accurate, therefore, are
equations usually used
(1.37) in the
-- (1.39) form: are
specific
true
byheat
When experimental
complicated
specific
carrying
capacity
heat and values
out
onless
capacity
thermodynamic
temperature accurate,
on temperature
are usually
therefore, calculations,
are
used
equations
usually
inapproximatethe(1.37)
used
form:
in the
dependences
(1.39)
form: are used used of to
to the find
findtrue 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
by
specific
by experimental
experimental heat capacity values
values .. 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑎𝑎 +are
on𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝temperature usually 2 used3 in the form: (1.40)
When carrying out 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 2calculations,
thermodynamic +𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡+3 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 +approximate 𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 dependences (1.40) of the true
When
specific
When carrying
heat
carrying capacity out thermodynamic
outexperimental
thermodynamic on 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐temperature calculations,
+are
calculations, usually
2 true3used
𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 approximate
approximate in the form: dependences
dependences of
of (1.40) the
theof true
true
wherespecific a is where
the heat a is
experimental the
capacity value
on temperature
=of𝑎𝑎 the +value 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 true are
of
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡the
heat usually
+ capacity heatatcapacity
used in a temperature
the form:
at a temperature of 0 ° C; b, 0 ° C; b,
specific heat
d, aeis- coefficients, capacity
constant on
coefficients, temperature which are usually
depend used
on the in the form:
d, ewhere-whereconstant
adetermined
is the the experimental
experimental which 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 value=value +ofof
𝑎𝑎 depend 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏the the
+ on true
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
true
2the
+ heat
heat
3 capacity
nature
𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 capacity of nature at aaworking
the
at
of the fluid,
temperature
temperature
working of
of 0(1.40)
are0
fluid,
C; b, are
°°C;
d, e -on constant on ofthe
coefficients, basis ofwhich experimental depend data,
on andnature
3theboth
can beofboth the positive
working and fluid, negative.
determined thethe basis experimental data, and can be positive and negative. (1.40) C;are
2 3
where a is experimental 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = = 𝑎𝑎
𝑎𝑎
value +
+ 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
of +
+
the 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 2+
true + 𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
heat capacity at a temperature of 0(1.40) °are b,
b, determined
d, e For — constant diatomic on the coefficients,
gases,
basis of they which
are
experimental often depend
limited
data, on to
and thethe
can nature
first
be two
both of the
terms
positive working
of equation
and fluid,
negative. (1.40).
For diatomic
where
d, e - aaconstant
where gases,
is
isonthethe they
experimental are often value
coefficients,
experimental limited
valuewhich ofto
of the thetrue
depend
the true first ontwo
heat
heat capacity
the
capacity termsnature ofat equation
aa temperature
of
atpositive the working
temperature (1.40).of 0
0 °° C;
offluid, C;are b,
b,
determined
For
d, e diatomic
determined - constant the
ongases,
the basis they
coefficients,
basis of experimental
are
of often
which
experimental limited data,
depend to
data, and the on
and can
first
the can betwo both
nature
be terms
both of of
the
positiveequation and
working andnegative.
(1.40).
fluid,
negative. are
d, e - constant coefficients, which 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐depend = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 on the nature of the working fluid, (1.41) are
For
determined diatomic on the gases,
basis theyof 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐experimental
= 𝑎𝑎often
are + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏limited data, to the
and can first be two both terms positive of equation
and (1.41) (1.40).
negative.
determined
For diatomic ongases,
the basis theythe ofare experimental
often limited data, to the andfirst cantwo be both termspositive ofofequation and negative.
(1.40).
With regard With to regard
air, the to
most air, often mostgiven𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = often +given
𝑎𝑎 the
is 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏dependence is the dependence
of the molar the
heat molar
capacity heat
(1.41) capacity
For diatomic
For diatomic
̂ gases,
gases, they
they are
are often
often limited
limited to
to the
the first
first two
two terms
terms of
of equation
equation (1.40).
(1.40).
𝐶𝐶̂𝑝𝑝 in JWith / mol⋅K 𝑝𝑝 in as
𝐶𝐶regard J /atomol⋅K air, the
function as aof most function the often 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 of
empirical =given the empirical
is the dependence
𝑎𝑎 +temperature
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 temperature
t in °C asofatthe in °C molar
dependency as aheat dependency
capacity
(1.41)
̂𝑝𝑝 in Jregard / mol⋅K as a the function (1.41)
𝐶𝐶With
With regard toto air,
air,
̂ the most most 𝐶𝐶̂of
often
=
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐the=
often
=
29.09
empirical
𝑎𝑎
𝑎𝑎 +
given
given
++ 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
isis0.002412
the
the
temperature
dependence
dependence ∙ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
t inof°Cthe
of the
asmolar
molar
a dependency heatcapac-
heat
(1.41)
capacity (1.42)
̂
With regard to air, 𝐶𝐶 the = 29.09
most
𝑝𝑝
+
often 0.002412 given is ∙ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
the dependence of the molar (1.42)
heat capacity
𝐶𝐶
With in J / mol⋅K as a 𝑝𝑝 function of the empirical temperature t in °C as a dependency
̂
𝑝𝑝
ity𝐶𝐶Taking in Jregard
in J // into mol⋅K
mol⋅K
to air,into
Taking
account as aathe
as function
function
most
𝐶𝐶
relation
̂𝑝𝑝 = often
account of
29.09
of relation
the
(1.34)
the
given
empirical
+ 0.002412
and
empirical
is the and
(1.34)
the
dependence
temperature
numerical
temperature
∙ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 the numerical inof°C
t in
value
t °Cof
the value
as
the
as
molar of
a molar
a
heat
dependency
dependency the
mass
capacity
(1.42) molar mass
𝐶𝐶̂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 in J / mol⋅K as a function of the empirical temperature t in °C as a dependency
Taking into canaccount 𝐶𝐶̂𝑝𝑝 = relation
29.09 (1.34) + 0.002412 and the∙ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡numerical value of the molar (1.42) mass
for air, onefor canair, obtainone obtain
for air,Taking one caninto obtain account 𝐶𝐶̂̂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝐶𝐶 29.09
29.09 +
=relation + 0.002412
0.002412
(1.34) and the
∙∙ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
numerical value of the molar
(1.42)
(1.42) mass
Taking into =account 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
relation
1.0045
(1.34)
+ 0.00008329 ∙ t (1.43)
for air,Taking one into
Taking 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝account
caninto obtain account 1.0045 relation 𝑝𝑝 + (1.34)
relation 0.00008329 (1.34)and and and the
the ∙numericalt numerical
the numerical valuevalue of theof
value ofmolar the
the molar
(1.43) mass for
molar mass
mass
Having an analytical expression forspecific the trueheat ∙specific (1.43)
in theheat in of theaform linearof a linear
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 = 1.0045 + 0.00008329 t
Havingair,for
for oneanair,
air, cananalytical
one
one obtain
can
can expression
obtain
obtain for the true form
dependence Having dependence an analytical
(1.41), one(1.41), can 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝expression
obtain
= one1.0045 can
an expression obtain for+ the an true
0.00008329 expression
for specific the average ∙ t forheat theheat inaverage
the
capacity formheatin ofcapacity
a(1.43)
the linear in the
dependence temperature (1.41), range 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 of=
one can interest.obtainfor an 0.00008329
expression for ∙∙ tt the average heat capacity (1.43)
temperature range of interest. a in the
1.0045 +
Having an analytical expression = 1.0045 + 0.00008329
the true specific heat in the form of (1.43) linear
temperature
By definition By (1.23) definition rangefor the (1.23)
ofone interest.
final for the final ofansection of the process 1-2 we will have
Having
dependence
Having an analytical
an analytical
(1.41), cansection
expression
expression obtainfor for thethe process
expression
the true specific
true 1-2
specific forwe thewillheat
heat have
average in the
in the heat form
form capacityof aa linear
of linear
in the
𝑡𝑡2 𝑡𝑡2
By 2 definition
dependence
𝑡𝑡temperature
dependence (1.23)ofone
(1.41),
range
𝑡𝑡2 (1.41), for
one the
interest. canfinal
can obtain
obtain section of the process
an expression
an expression for the 1-2averagewe will heat havecapacity
heat capacity in in the
the
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏for 2the average 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
temperature 2= � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐range of interest.
(𝑎𝑎 the ) section 𝑎𝑎(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 of 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 ) process ( 1-2𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1we 2 ) will (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 )� (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 )
𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡= )�𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡 =of
𝑞𝑞 = � temperature
By𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
definition � (𝑎𝑎 range
(1.23)
+2𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 for =+𝑎𝑎(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
interest. 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
final − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡= 1 ) + (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 −
− 2the
𝑏𝑏
+𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡12 )2 =𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2�𝑎𝑎− + (= 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 �𝑎𝑎
+𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡+
have
1 )2� (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 )
By definition (1.23)
�𝑡𝑡2(𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡1+ for𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏the the )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑final final (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡21of
section of)+ the (processprocess
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡22 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡121-2 1-2
) =we 2�𝑎𝑎 will
we + (have have𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 )� (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 )
𝑡𝑡1By
𝑞𝑞 =definition 𝑡𝑡11 =(1.23)
�𝑡𝑡2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 for = 𝑎𝑎section the will
𝑡𝑡
14 – ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 2𝑏𝑏 2
𝑏𝑏
= Taking 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 into
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 account (1.24), the average specific heat depending 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 on
+ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡the coefficients a
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 2 2
2 (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑎𝑎 (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ) + (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡depending (coefficients
2 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 ) = �𝑎𝑎 1 )� (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2a − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 )
Taking𝑞𝑞 into 𝑡𝑡�1 account = 𝑡𝑡� (1.24),
1 the average 2specific heat on + the
1 𝑏𝑏
𝑏𝑏
2 𝑏𝑏
𝑏𝑏
2
and b Taking𝑞𝑞
will
𝑞𝑞 = and
= �
have1 into
𝑡𝑡�
b the will
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
=
have
𝑡𝑡�
account
form
� (𝑎𝑎 +
1 (𝑎𝑎 +
the
(1.24), formthe
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏))𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = = 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎average((𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 ))specific
2 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 + 2 ((𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡222heat
+ 2
− 2 )) =
− 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡112depending= �𝑎𝑎 �𝑎𝑎 + + 2on ((𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2the+ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡11 ))�� ((𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡22 −
2 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡coefficients − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡11 ))a
and b𝑡𝑡 will have𝑡𝑡 the form 2 2
𝐶𝐶̂𝑝𝑝 in J / mol⋅K as a function of the empirical temperature t in °C as a dependency
With regard to air, the most often given is the dependence of the molar heat capacity
𝐶𝐶̂𝑝𝑝 in J / mol⋅K as a function of the+empirical
𝐶𝐶̂𝑝𝑝 = 29.09 0.002412temperature
∙ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 t in °C as a dependency
(1.42)
THERMODYNAMIC
Taking into account𝐶𝐶̂𝑝𝑝relation
= 29.09(1.34) and PROPERTIES,
the numerical
+ 0.002412 ∙ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 value of the molar(1.42)
mass
PROCESSES AND CYCLES
for air, one can obtain
Taking into account relation (1.34) and the numerical value of the molar mass
forHaving
air, one an
cananalytical
obtain
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 = expression
1.0045 + for the true specific
0.00008329 ∙t heat in the form of (1.43)
a linear
dependence
Having (1.41), one𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐expression
an analytical can obtainforan+the
expression for ∙the
true specific average
t heat heat
in the capacity
form in the
of a (1.43)
linear
𝑝𝑝 = 1.0045 0.00008329
dependence
temperature (1.41),
range ofone can obtain an expression for the average heat capacity in the
interest.
Having an analytical expression for the true specific heat in the form of a linear
temperature range of
By definition interest.
(1.23)
dependence (1.41), oneforcantheobtain
final section of the process
an expression for the 1-2 we will
average have
heat capacity in the
Bytemperature
definition (1.23) for the
range of interest.final section of the process 1-2 we will have
𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
By definition
2
(1.23)
2
for the final section of 𝑏𝑏the process 1-2 we will 𝑏𝑏 have
2 2
𝑡𝑡2 = � (𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎
𝑞𝑞 = � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑎𝑎 (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 ) + (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 ) = �𝑎𝑎 + (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 )� (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 )
2 𝑏𝑏 2 2 𝑏𝑏
𝑡𝑡1 𝑡𝑡1 2 2
𝑞𝑞 = � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = � (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑎𝑎(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 ) + (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 ) = �𝑎𝑎 + (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 )� (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 )
Taking𝑡𝑡into account (1.24), the average specific 2 heat depending on2 the coefficients a
Taking
1 into 𝑡𝑡account
1 (1.24), the average specific heat depending on the coefficients
and b will have the form
Taking
a and b will into
haveaccount
the form (1.24), the average specific heat depending on the coefficients a
and b will have the form 𝑏𝑏
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚 = 𝑎𝑎 + (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 ) (1.44)
2 𝑏𝑏
Sometimes in the reference 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐literature, 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑎𝑎 + numerical(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 ) values of the average specific(1.44) heat
𝑡𝑡
2
capacities are given 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐|𝑜𝑜 from zero to fixed temperature t.
Sometimes
Sometimes in in thethereference
reference literature,
literature, numerical
numerical values
values of the
of theaverage
averagespecific
specificheat heat
In capacities
this case, are the given
average 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐|𝑜𝑜 specific
𝑡𝑡
from zero heat to capacity
fixed temperaturein the temperature
t. range from 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 to t2
capacities are given from zero to fixed temperature t.
In this case, the average specific heat capacity in the temperature range from 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 to t2
In this case, the average specific heat capacity in the temperature range from to
will be
t2 will be defined
defined as
as
𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
will be defined as 𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐|02 ⋅ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐|01 ⋅ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐|𝑡𝑡21
= (1.45)
𝑡𝑡2 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 𝑡𝑡1
𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐|0 ⋅ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐|0 ⋅ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1
The easiest way to obtain 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐|𝑡𝑡21the= listed thermodynamic properties in the course (1.45)
of an
The easiest way to obtain the listed𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2thermodynamic − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 properties in the course of an
experiment is when all the supplied amount of heat is Q associated with an increase in
The easiest
experiment
temperature. way to
is when all obtain
the supplied the listed amount thermodynamic propertieswith
of heat is Q associated in the
an course
increaseofinan
experiment is when all the supplied amount of heat is Q associated with an increase in
temperature.
The experiment usually determines the average specific isobaric heat capacity:
temperature.
The experiment usually determines the average specific isobaric heat capacity:
The experiment usually determines the average 𝑄𝑄 specific isobaric heat capacity:
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚 = (1.46)
𝑚𝑚(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 )
𝑄𝑄
and later on, the isochoric heat 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚capacity.
= (1.46)
𝑚𝑚(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 )
In addition, by measuring the thermodynamic parameters of the state at certain points
and later
and on,on,
thethe isochoric heat capacity.
oflater
the working isochoric
section, heat
the thermalcapacity. coefficients are determined by expressions (1.21)
In In
andaddition,
(1.22). by by
addition, measuring
measuring the the thermodynamic
thermodynamic parameters of the
parameters of state at certain
the state points
at certain
of the working section, the thermal coefficients are determined by expressions (1.21)
The of
points main
the difficulty when using
working section, equationcoefficients
the thermal (1.46) is the arerelease of thebyamount
determined of heat
expressions
and (1.22).
fromand
(1.21) the(1.22).
total supplied thermal energy, which goes only to heating the investigated
The main difficulty
working fluid, that is,when
it isusing necessary equation (1.46) is
to exclude in the
somerelease
way of the associated
losses amount of with
heat
from thethetotal
heating partssupplied thermal
of the device itselfenergy, which goes
and inevitable only leaks.
thermal to heating the investigated
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
working fluid, that is, it is necessary to exclude in some way losses associated 15 with
One of the ways to solve this problem is to use a flow-through calorimeter, through
heating the parts of the device itself and inevitable thermal leaks.
which it is possible to pass very large amounts of matter, increasing the pumping rate
One
of theofinvestigated
the ways toworking
solve this fluid, problem is to usethe
and therefore a flow-through
share of heat calorimeter, through
going to heating the
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

The main difficulty when using equation (1.46) is the release of the amount of
heat from the total supplied thermal energy, which goes only to heating the investigat-
ed working fluid, that is, it is necessary to exclude in some way losses associated with
heating the parts of the device itself and inevitable thermal leaks.
One of the ways to solve this problem is to use a flow-through calorimeter, through
which it is possible to pass very large amounts of matter, increasing the pumping rate
of the investigated working fluid, and therefore the share of heat going to heating the
calorimeter and the losses will be small.
Despite the fact that it is beneficial to increase the flow rate of the working fluid,
the limit of the increase should be certain maximum velocities of movement of the
substance through the calorimeter. If the speeds are too high, there will be a difference
between the flow temperature and the so-called stagnation temperature.
Another problem in the experimental determination of the heat capacity by formula
(1.46) is the measurement of the mass of the working fluid passing through the working
section. If the working fluid was a liquid, then the mass could be determined by simply
weighing the liquid flowing out of the calorimeter. In gas research, accurate gas flow
measurement is more challenging.

Description of the experimental setup

The installation is a modernized version of a serially produced stand designed to

study the isobaric heat capacity of air [1].
The modernized version measures the thermodynamic parameters at the inlet and
outlet of the working section and the amount of heat that must be supplied to a certain
amount of air in order to increase its temperature by a fixed value.
These measurements are required to be able to use the dependencies (1.21), (1.22),
(1.46). The schematic diagram of the installation is shown in Fig. 1.2.
The working section of the installation is a glass flow-through calorimeter 2, in-
side which an electric heater 3 is placed, with the help of which heat is supplied to the
pumped air. In order to reduce heat losses from the heater to the structural elements of
the calorimeter and into the environment, the flow-through calorimeter 2 is made on the

16 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

principle of self-trapping of heat losses. The scheme of such a calorimeter provides for
the initial passage of air through the external channel 4 of the calorimeter, while heat is
taken from the inner casing of the calorimeter 5, and then the outside air flows around the
glass tube in which the electric heater 3 is located, and only then enters the channel with
the heating device, on the outlet from which the temperature of the heated air t2 is mea-
sured using a differential chromel-copel thermocouple 8, which records the temperature
difference in a given section and the environment using a digital voltmeter 11. With such
an experiment, it is assumed that all the thermal energy supplied to the calorimeter by
means of an electric heater coil 3 is taken by air passing through the calorimeter, and the
temperature of the calorimeter body is equal to the ambient temperature, which does not
differ in any way from the air temperature at the entrance to the calorimeter t1.

Fig. 1.2

The heater is powered by an electric current, the value of which is regulated by a

rheostat 10. The voltage drop across the heater is recorded by a digital voltmeter 9.
Air pumping through the calorimeter is provided by a centrifugal air pump 7 and
is regulated by a valve 6. The air flow rate is measured using a measuring washer 1 by
measuring the pressure drop on a differential water manometer 12.
The working area with control and management systems is mounted on a laboratory
bench, the general view of which is shown in Fig. 1.3.

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 17
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

Fig. 1.3

Experimental procedure

Before turning on the unit, make sure that the heating current regulator 10 (Fig.
1.3) on block 1 is in the initial position. Then, using the switch 11, power is supplied to
the installation and measuring units. The control valve 5 opens slightly and the “Start”
button on block 6 turns on the centrifugal pump. After visual monitoring of changes in
the differential pressure on the differential water pressure gauge 9, the regulator 10 sets
the initial voltage value on the heater.
By controlling the readings of the differential thermocouple Δt and when a steady-
state value is reached (the thermocouple reading does not change for 2-3 minutes), the
value of the voltage supplied to the heater by device 2 is entered in the experiment pro-
tocol (table 1.1), the pressure drop that determines the air flow through the measuring
washer 3 of the working section 4, according to the differential pressure gauge 9 and the
temperature difference Δt at the inlet (t1), and outlet (t2) of the working section accord-
ing to the device 8 on unit 7.
In the same mode, it is necessary to repeat the measurements two more times ev-
ery two minutes. In the future, set a new mode with the adjusting valve and repeat all
measurements.
After the end of all measurements, it is necessary to transfer the heater current
regulator 10 to its original initial position, and after 2-3 minutes, turn off all measuring
devices and de-energize the installation with switch 11.

18 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

At the end of the experiments, the atmospheric air pressure in the room is measured
using a barometer and the ambient temperature.

Processing of research results

1. The temperature of the heated air is determined according to the indication of

the differential chromel-copel thermocouple Δt, the values of which according to the
calibration table are converted from millivolts to degrees Celsius, and then the ambient
temperature is added to the obtained value.

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 = 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

2. According to the to
indications 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2differential
of theof = 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 water manometer, the mass second
2. According the indications the differential water manometer, the mass second
air flow
2.air rate
According is determined by the formula
flow rate to the indications
is determined of the
by the formuladifferential water manometer, the mass second
air flow rate is determined by the 𝑚𝑚 formula
̇ = 𝜇𝜇 ⋅ 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡⋅2�=2𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
where 2.μ According
- coefficient to the indications
of consumption, 𝑚𝑚̇ = of ⋅the
𝜇𝜇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2determined
= differential
𝐹𝐹 ⋅𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
�2𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
+ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 empirically,water manometer, the mass second
F — cross-sectional
area ofairtheflowhole rate of is determined
the measuring by thewasher formulaindicated in the passport data of the
where
2. μ
According- coefficient
where μ —Δpcoefficient to the of consumption,
indications
of consumption, of the determined
differential
determined empirically,
water manometer,
empirically, F F——cross-sectional
thecross-sectional
mass second
installation;
area of the
air flow ratehole – differential
of the measuring
is determined pressure
by the formula across
washer the
𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝜇𝜇 indicated graduated
⋅ 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ �2𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 washer in
in the passport data of Pascals, ρ - the
air
area ofdetermined
density
installation; the hole
Δp –ofdifferential thefrommeasuring
the pressure
equationwasher ofindicated
across state the(1.2) in the
graduated passport
under the data
washer inofPascals,
assumption the installation;
that
ρ - pair-
where
corresponds
Δp — differential - coefficient
toμ atmospheric pressure ofacross
pressureconsumption,
𝑚𝑚̇in=Pascals,
the 𝐹𝐹 ⋅ determined
𝜇𝜇graduated
⋅ state �2𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 washer empirically, ρF —— aircross-sectional
density determined from the equation of (1.2) underinthe Pascals,
assumption thatdensity
p -
area of the hole of the measuring washer indicated in the passport data of the
corresponds
where μ - to
determined from atmospheric
coefficient of pressure
the –equation consumption,
of state in 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝Pascals,
(1.2) determined
under empirically, that F —p — cross-sectional
installation; Δp differential 𝜌𝜌 = pressure acrossthe theassumption
graduated washer incorresponds
Pascals, ρ - air
area of the hole of the measuring𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝washer indicated in the passport data of the
to density determined
atmospheric infrom the equation of state (1.2) under the assumption that p -
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
installation; Δppressure
– differential Pascals,
pressure
𝜌𝜌pressure
= across the graduated washer in Pascals, ρ - air
and Т -corresponds
ambient to atmospheric
temperature in Kelvin. 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 in Pascals,
density determined from the equation of state (1.2) under the assumption that p -
and
To Т - ambient
convert
corresponds totemperature
pressure readingsin
atmospheric to Kelvin.
Pascal,inyou
pressure must
Pascals, 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 use the ratio:
𝜌𝜌 =
To convert pressure 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 readings to Pascal, you 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 must
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 use the ratio:
1𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1 2 = 9,81 ⋅ 104 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝜌𝜌 0,981 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 104 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 = 735,6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
=
and Т -𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ambient
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 temperature in Kelvin. 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
and Т—
1𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = ambient
1 2 =temperature 9,81 ⋅ 104 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 in Kelvin.
= 0,981 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 104 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 = 735,6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
3.and
TheТTo value
convert of the pressureamount ofinheat per unit you of time supplied from the heater with a
To- ambient 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
convert pressure readings
temperature readings to
to Pascal,
Kelvin. Pascal, you must must use use the the ratio:
ratio:
given
3.ToThe value of
value pressure electrical
of the 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 amount resistance
of toheat is calculated
per unit of time 𝑅𝑅 to moving air the
perheater
unit ofwithtimea
convert readings Pascal,
4 you must usesupplied
эл
the ratio: 4
from
according
given value to of
1𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴the=electrical
formula:
1 2 =resistance 9,81 ⋅ 10 is𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃calculated = 0,981 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑅𝑅эл = to 10moving 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 air𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂per
= unit
735,6 of𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
time𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
according
1𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 to
= the1value formula: = 9,81 ⋅ 104 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃of=heat 0,9812 per𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 =of10time 4
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚supplied
𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 = from
735,6the 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 with a
3. The 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 of the amount 𝑈𝑈 unit heater
given value of electrical resistance 𝑄𝑄 = 2 is calculated 𝑅𝑅 to moving air per unit of time (1.47)
3. The value of the amount of 𝑄𝑄heat 𝑈𝑈per
𝑅𝑅 эл unit of time supplied эл from the heater with a
3. The value
according to the of the amount of=heat per unit of time supplied from the heater
formula: (1.47)with
givenUvalue
where is the of voltageelectrical on the resistance
heating device 𝑅𝑅isэлcalculated in volts.𝑅𝑅эл to moving air per unit of time
aaccording
given value to the of electrical
formula: resistance is calculated to moving air per unit of time
where
4. By U theisformula
the voltage on the
(1.46), theheating
average device specific in2volts.
𝑈𝑈 isobaric heat capacity is determined,
according to the formula: 𝑄𝑄 = (1.47)
taking
4. By the into formula
account that in the
(1.46), thecalculations
average specific 𝑈𝑈 2Q𝑅𝑅and 𝑚𝑚̇ referred
эл isobaric heatto capacity
a unit of time.
is determined,
taking into account 𝑄𝑄the= average (1.47)
thethat incalculates
theon calculations 𝑅𝑅элQdevice
5.––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Thewhereformula U is (1.44) voltage the heating and 𝑚𝑚 ̇ inreferred
value of the
volts. to aspecific
unit of time.isobaric heat19
capacity
5. in the range
The4. formula (1.44) of measured
calculates temperature
the average values ÷ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡the
value𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1isobaric
of 2 . The numerical
specific values
isobaric of
heat
where UByis the voltage formula on(1.46), the
the heating averagedevice specific
in volts. heat capacity is determined,
the coefficients
capacity in the
taking into a account
range and of b are taken
measured
that in the from the dependence
temperature
calculations Q and𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(1.43).
values 1𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 . The numerical
÷̇ referred to a unit ofvaluestime. of
4. By
theTaking the
coefficients formula (1.46),
a and b arevalue the
takenoffromaverage specific isobaric heat capacity is determined,
6. the calculated the the averagedependence specific (1.43).
isobaric heat capacity in the
 and Т pressure
To convert - ambientreadings temperature to Pascal, in Kelvin. you must use the ratio:
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
and Т -
To convert ambient
1𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 =1 pressure temperature
= readings
9,81 ⋅ 10to𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 in 4Kelvin.
= 0,981 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 =use 10the4
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 = 735,6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
1𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1 =𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐9,81 ⋅ 104 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0,981 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 104 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻 ratio:
2 Pascal, you must
𝑂𝑂 = 735,6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
To convert 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 pressure
2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 readings to Pascal, you must use the 2ratio:
3. The
1𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴value = 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 of the = amount
9,81 ⋅ 10of4 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 heat = per 0,981 unit𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 of =time 104supplied𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 from the heater
= 735,6 with a
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
3. Thegiven
valuevalue of the𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐amount2 of heat4 per unit S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
of time supplied from theair heater with a time
1𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1 of electrical
= 9,81 ⋅resistance10 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =A.D. is
0,981calculated
Ezhov 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑅𝑅10 эл4 to 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 moving 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 = 735,6 per unit
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 of𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
given3. value
The of
according value electrical
to the
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2
the resistance
of formula: amount of isheat calculatedper unit 𝑅𝑅of to moving
эл time supplied airfrom
per unit of timewith a
the heater
according
3. The
given tovalue
the formula:
value ofof electrical
the amount of heat is
resistance percalculated
unit of time 𝑅𝑅элsuppliedto moving from airtheperheater
unit of with
timea
2
according
given valueto of theelectrical
formula: resistance 𝑈𝑈
𝑄𝑄2=is calculated 𝑅𝑅эл to moving air per unit (1.47)
𝑈𝑈
of time
according to the formula: 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑅𝑅эл (1.47)
2
𝑅𝑅 𝑈𝑈
where U is the voltage on the heating = device
𝑄𝑄элdevice 2 in in volts. (1.47)
where U is the voltage
where U is the voltage on the heating device on the heating 𝑈𝑈in
𝑅𝑅 volts. volts.
4. By the formula (1.46), the average
эл
𝑄𝑄 = specific isobaric heat capacity is determined, (1.47)
4.
where By U the formula
is account
the(1.46),
voltage (1.46),
on the the average 𝑅𝑅 specific isobaric heat capacity is determined,
the heating device in volts.
эл
4. Bytaking
the formula
into the
that inaverage calculations specific Qisobaric
and heat capacity
𝑚𝑚̇ referred to a unit is determined,
of time.
where
taking
taking4.into intoU
accountis the
account voltage
that in
that in(1.46),on thethe
the calculations heating
calculations device
Q andin
Q and 𝑚𝑚̇ referred volts.
referred to a
to a unitcapacityunit of time.
of time. determined,
5. By
Thethe formula
formula (1.44) calculates the average the specific
average isobaric value ofheat the specific isisobaric heat
5. The 4. 5.
By
taking Thethe
formulainto formula
formula
account
(1.44) (1.44)
(1.46),
that in
calculates calculates
the
the average
calculations
the the
average average
specific
capacity in the range of measured temperature values 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 ÷ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2 . The numerical values of Q and
valuevalue
isobaric
𝑚𝑚 ̇ of
referred
of the theheat specific
to
specific capacity
a unit isobaric
of is
time.
isobaric heat
heat ca-
determined,
taking
capacity
pacity in
the The
5. into
inthe
the
coefficients account
range
range
formula aof that
measured
ofand
(1.44)b are incalculates
thetaken calculations
temperature from thethe Q and 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚
values
dependence
average ̇ ÷referred
value
1 .ofThethe
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2(1.43). tonumerical
a specific
unit of values
time.
values
isobaric of the
of heat
thecoefficients
coefficients
5. The formula inaathe
andrangebb(1.44)
aretaken
taken fromthe
calculates thethe dependence
averagevalues (1.43).
value 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 of 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡the specific isobaric
capacity
6. Taking the
and are
calculated of measured
from
value oftemperature
thedependence
average (1.43).
specific ÷isobaric 2 . The numerical
heat capacity inheat
values of
the
the
6. Taking coefficients
capacitythe inparagraph
the range
calculated a andas b the
of
value are
measuredtaken
of
truethevalue, from
temperature the dependence 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1(1.43).
valuesisobaric ÷ . Thecapacity
numerical
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2experimental in values of
previous
6. Taking the calculated value ofaverage
thethe average specific
deviation
specific of the
isobaric heat heat capacity value the
inofthethe
the
previous coefficients
paragraph
specific
6. Taking heat a and
as
thecapacity the btrue
calculated isare takenof
value,
estimated
value from
the
inthe the the
deviationdependence
form
average ofof the (1.43).
absolute
specific experimental
and relative
isobaric heatvalue
errors ofaccording
capacity thein the
previous
specific
to paragraph
heatdependencies:
the capacity as the
is estimated true value,
in the theformthe deviation
of deviation of
absolute the and experimental
relative value
errors of
accordingthe spe-
previous
6. Taking paragraph
the calculated as thevalue true value,
of the average specific of the isobaric experimental
heat capacityvalue in of the
the
cific
to the heat capacity
dependencies:
specific heat
previous capacity
paragraph is estimated
asisthe estimated in
true value, the form
in the of
theform absolute
of absolute
deviation and
of theand relative errors according
relative errors
experimental to
according
value of the
todependencies:
the dependencies: 𝛥𝛥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (1.48)
thespecific heat capacity is estimated 𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚 in the
𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚 form 𝑝𝑝 of absolute and relative errors according
𝑚𝑚 ист

to the dependencies: 𝛥𝛥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 (1.48)

and 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 ист
𝛥𝛥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚 (1.48)
and ист
𝛥𝛥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚 =𝛥𝛥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚 (1.48)
and 𝛿𝛿 = 𝑚𝑚
⋅ 100% ист
(1.49)
and 𝛥𝛥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
and 𝛿𝛿 = 𝑝𝑝⋅𝑚𝑚100%
ист (1.49)
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚 𝛥𝛥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚
7. With a small deviation (<20%) 𝛿𝛿 = 𝛥𝛥𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐of the
ист ⋅ 100%
experimental value of the heat capacity, (1.49)the
7. With a small deviation (<20%) 𝛿𝛿 = of the 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚
experimental
⋅ 100% value of the heat capacity, the
𝑚𝑚 ист (1.49)
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚
7. With a small deviation (<20%) of the experimental value of the heat capacity, the
ист
7. With
7. With a small
a smalldeviation
deviation(<20%) (<20%)ofofthe the experimental
experimental value value of ofthetheheat
heatcapacity,
capacity,thethe
specific isochoric heat capacity is determined by the Mayer equation (1.38).
specific isochoric
8. According heatequation
to the capacityofisstate
determined by the
of an ideal gasMayer
(1.3), equation (1.38).
the volumes of air per
unit 8.
timeAccording
specifictoisochoric
correspondingthe to
equation
theheat of
temperatures state ofisatan
capacity theideal
inletgas
determined and (1.3),
by the the
outlet of volumes
Mayer of air
theequation
calorimeter per
are unit
(1.38).
time corresponding to the temperatures at the inlet and outlet of the calorimeter are
determined: 8. According to the equation of state of an ideal gas (1.3), the volumes of air per uni
determined:
time corresponding to the temperatures at the inlet and outlet of the calorimeter ar
determined: 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑇𝑇1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑇𝑇2
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2 =
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑇𝑇 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑇𝑇
1 2
9.9.The work of gas expansion in 1 =isobaric 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉this 2 =
process
The work of gas expansion in this isobaric 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 process𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 isdetermined.
is determined.
9. The work of gas 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝(𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉in
expansion 1) this isobaric process (1.50)
is determined.
10. By the formula (1.21) the values 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝(𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉of2 the coefficients of volumetric
− 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1) (1.50) expansion
(1.50) and
thermal elasticity are determined by the average temperature at the inlet and outlet of
10. By the
the calorimeter, as formula
well as the(1.21) the values
coefficient of the coefficients
of isothermal of volumetric
compressibility expansion and
by the formula
(1.22). thermal elasticity are determined by the average temperature at the inlet and outlet o
the calorimeter, as well as the coefficient of isothermal compressibility by the formul
11. The(1.22).
calculation results are recorded in table 1.1.
20 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Table 1.1.
11. The calculation results are recorded in table 1.1.
Experimental protocol and experimental data processing results.
Table 1.1.
 8. According to the equation of state of an ideal gas (1.3), the volumes of air per unit
time corresponding to the temperatures at the inlet and outlet of the calorimeter are
determined:
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑇𝑇1 AND CYCLES
PROCESSES 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑇𝑇2
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2 =
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
9. The
10. By work of gas expansion
the formula (1.21) the in this isobaric
values process is determined.
of the coefficients of volumetric expansion
and thermal elasticity are determined
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝(𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉by
2 −the
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1)average temperature at the inlet and outlet
(1.50)
of the10.
calorimeter, as well (1.21)
By the formula as the coefficient
the values of
ofisothermal compressibility
the coefficients by theexpansion
of volumetric formula and
thermal elasticity are determined by the average temperature at the inlet and outlet of
(1.22).
the calorimeter, as well as the coefficient of isothermal compressibility by the formula
11. The calculation results are recorded in table 1.1.
(1.22).
11. The calculation results are recorded in table 1.1.
Table 1.1
Table 1.1.
Experimental protocol and experimental data processing results
Experimental protocol and experimental data processing results.
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡1 =

Measurements Calculations
Measurements Calculations
№ regime

U U Δρ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
Δt 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
t2 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡ṁ2 Q̇ Qcρm
𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐c𝑝𝑝νm
𝑚𝑚
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐V𝑣𝑣1𝑚𝑚 VV12 V2L LТcp Тcp
а аγ γ βT βT
№ regime

mmmm � kg
J/ J/ J/ J/ 3 1� 1� 1�
V V mV mV kg/S J/s𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 J/s
°C °C m m m33 mJ3 J К К1/K 1/KК 1/Pa
К 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
H2OH2O kg·K kg⋅
kg·K
K kg⋅ K
1
1
2
2
3
3

it TestTest
questions
questions
re
1. What is the average heat capacity?
1. What is the average heat capacity?
2. What heat capacity - true or average is easier to determine in an experiment?
2. What heat capacity — true or average is easier to determine in an experiment?
3. What isobaric or isochoric heat capacity is greater and why?
3. What isobaric or isochoric heat capacity is greater and why?
4. How is heat loss to the environment taken into account in this work?
4. How is heat loss to the environment taken into account in this work?
5. Why is air considered an ideal gas?
d 6. What are the main thermodynamic properties of working bodies subject to ex-
of perimental determination?
la
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 21
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

7. How will the temperature reading at the outlet of the calorimeter change with an
increase in the gas flow rate?
8. How can the accuracy of determining the heat capacity be improved?

22 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

LABORATORY PROTOCOL
LABWORK № 1
DETERMINATION OF BASIC THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
OF AIR

Date:______________Student_________________________Group___________
1. Figure of experimental device
1—
2—
3—
4—
5—
6—
7—
8—
9—
10 —
11 —
12 —
2. Calculation

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 23
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

3. Experiment table and data processing results

Measurements Calculations
№ regime

U Δp Δt t2 ṁ Q cpm cνm V1 V2 L Тcp а γ βT

mm J/ J/
V mV °C kg/S J/s m3 m3 J К 1/K 1/K 1/pa
H2O kg·K kg·K
1
2
3

4. Charts

5. Conclusion _____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Date of labwork ____________________
Date of defender ________________________
Professor ______________________

24 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

2. RESEARCH OF THERMODYNAMIC POLYTROPIC

PROCESS WITH GAS
The purpose of the work is to study the thermodynamic process of air compres-
sion and calculate the indicator of the polytropic process, the work of compression, heat
capacity, and the amount of heat based on the results of measurements of pressure and
volumes.

Theoretical information
and calculate the indicator of the polytropic process, the work of compression, heat
capacity,
and calculate and the theamount
indicator of ofheatthebased on the results
polytropic process,ofthe measurements of pressure heat
work of compression, and
volumes.The
capacity, actual
and thethe course
amount of the
of heat processes,
based during
on the results which there is
of measurements a variable redistribution
of pressure and
and calculate indicator of the polytropic process, the work of compression, heat
of various
volumes.
capacity, and
Theoretical types of energy among themselves, makes
the amount of heat based on the results of measurements of pressure and
information it difficult to analyze the process
volumes.
under consideration in order to establish the features of the energy balance.
Theoretical
The actual course information
of the processes, during which there is a variable redistribution of
The Totypes
actualsimplify
Theoretical
various of
course the
of solution
information
energy theamong ofthemselves,
processes, practical
duringproblems makesthere
which itindifficult
thermodynamics,
to analyze
is a variable the
theprocesses
process
redistribution of
under
various consideration
associated with
typescourse
The actual the
of energy in order
transformation
of the amongto establish
of
themselves,
processes, the
energy
during makesfeatures
and
which it its of
there the
transfer energy
difficult in balance.
various
to analyze
is a variable forms of work
the processof
redistribution
under
To
and consideration
various
simplify
heat, types
obeying in order
theofsolution
energy
quite oftopractical
among
definite establish
laws,themselves,the
areproblems features
analyzed. makes in ofthermodynamics,
itthe energytobalance.
difficult analyze the process
the processes
Tounder
associated consideration
simplify with
According thethe
tosolution
in order
the first law of to
transformation establish
of energy
practical theand
problems
of thermodynamics,
features itsintransfer of the energy
thethermodynamics,
in various balance.
forms of work
the processes
external heat Q, imparted to the
andToheat,
associated obeying
simplify withthe thequite
solutiondefinite
transformation of laws, of are
practical energyanalyzed.
problems and its in transfer in various forms
thermodynamics, the of work
processes
working fluid in the thermodynamic process, in the general case, goes to change the
and heat, obeying
associated
According towith
the the quite
first definite
transformation
law laws,ofareenergy
of thermodynamics, analyzed. and theitsexternal transferheat in various forms of
Q, imparted to work
the
internal
and
working heat,energy
fluidobeying ∆
in theU and
quite to perform
definite
thermodynamic external
laws, are mechanical
analyzed.
process, in the the general work L .
According to the first law of thermodynamics, external case, heat goes to change
Q, imparted to the
the
internal
working
Accordingenergy ∆U
fluidtointhe and
thefirst to perform
thermodynamic external mechanical
process, in the
law of thermodynamics, thegeneral work
external L.
case,heatgoes to changetothe
Q, imparted the
internal
working energy
fluid ∆U in theandthermodynamic
to perform external 𝑄𝑄 process,
= ∆𝑈𝑈 mechanical
+ in 𝐿𝐿(2.1) the general work L.case, goes to change the
(2.1)
internal energy ∆U and toprocess performcorresponds
external
𝑄𝑄 = ∆𝑈𝑈mechanical work L. defined law of trans-
Each Each thermodynamic
thermodynamic process corresponds +toto𝐿𝐿(2.1)
its own, own,strictly
strictly defined law of
transformation
formation
Each and distribution
and distribution
thermodynamic of energy.
process If𝑄𝑄in=aIf∆𝑈𝑈
ofcorresponds
energy. into+a 𝐿𝐿(2.1)
specific itsspecific own, thermodynamic
thermodynamic processprocess
strictly defined alaw a
certain
of
certain
Each constant
transformation
thermodynamicandshare of process
external
distribution heat
of corresponds
energy. goesIf to inthechange
to a specific
its own, the thermodynamic
internal
strictly energy process а theaof
𝜓𝜓, law
constant share of external heat goes to change internal energy ψ, аdefined
the remainder
remainder
certain 1 − 𝜓𝜓 share
constant
transformation is
and spent of on performing
external
distribution ofheat external
goes
energy. mechanical
Ifto inchange a specific work,
the internal then, according
energy
thermodynamic to a
а the
process
𝜓𝜓,
1 –
(2.1) ψ
remainderis spent on performing
1 − 𝜓𝜓 isshare external
spentofonexternal
performing mechanical work, then, according to (2.1)
certain constant heatexternal
goes tomechanical change thework, then,
internal according
energy 𝜓𝜓, а to
the
(2.1)
remainder 1 − 𝜓𝜓 is spent on performing ∆𝑈𝑈 =external𝜓𝜓. 𝑄𝑄, (2.2) mechanical work, then, according to
(2.1) (2.2)
𝐿𝐿 =∆𝑈𝑈 (1 = − 𝜓𝜓.𝜓𝜓)𝑄𝑄, (2.2) (2.3)
where 𝜓𝜓 - heat distribution coefficient 𝐿𝐿 =in(∆𝑈𝑈1a − =𝜓𝜓𝜓𝜓.)𝑄𝑄,𝑄𝑄, (2.2)
thermodynamic (2.3) process.
where 𝜓𝜓 -𝜓𝜓heat distribution coefficient 𝐿𝐿 = (a1thermodynamic
− 𝜓𝜓)𝑄𝑄, (2.3) (2.3)
Wherein remains constant during inthe process and inprocess. any of its infinitesimal
where
whereψ𝜓𝜓—
elementary
Wherein 𝜓𝜓-sections
heat
remainsdistribution
constant coefficient
during the in a thermodynamic
process and in process. any of its infinitesimal
elementary
Wherein 𝜓𝜓 sections
remains constant𝜓𝜓 during =
Δ𝑈𝑈
=the =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 process
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.and
(2.4)in any of its infinitesimal
elementary sections 𝑄𝑄
Δ𝑈𝑈 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜓𝜓 = = = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐. (2.4)
The process in which the same share of external
𝑄𝑄Δ𝑈𝑈 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 heat is converted into internal energy
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 25
𝜓𝜓 = = = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐. (2.4)
is
Thecalled polytropic.
process in which the same share of𝑄𝑄external 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 heat is converted into internal energy
isThe
called
Because polytropic.
process
the, =in which
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
, а 𝐶𝐶 the = same
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 share
, then of external
expression (2.4) heat canisbeconverted
rewritteninto as internal energy
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 transformation and distribution of energy. If in a specific thermodynamic process a
Each constant
certain thermodynamic shareshare of process
external corresponds
heat heat goes goes to to change its own, strictlyenergy
the internal defined𝜓𝜓, lawtheаofthe
а 𝜓𝜓,
Each certain constant
thermodynamic processof external
corresponds to itsto change own, the internal
strictly energy
defined law of a
transformation
remainder 1 − 𝜓𝜓 andspent
is distribution
on performingof energy. external If inmechanical a specific work, thermodynamic
then, process
according toa to
remainder and
transformation 1 − 𝜓𝜓 is spent onofperforming
distribution energy. If external in a specific mechanical work, then,process
thermodynamic according
certain constant share of external heat goes to change the internal energy 𝜓𝜓, а the
(2.1) (2.1)
certain constant share of external S.heat goes to change the internal energy 𝜓𝜓, а the
remainder 1 − 𝜓𝜓 is spent on performing external mechanical work, then, according to
Yu. Mesnyankin,
remainder 1 − 𝜓𝜓 is spent on performing ∆𝑈𝑈 external
=∆𝑈𝑈 𝜓𝜓.= 𝑄𝑄,𝜓𝜓. (2.2)
mechanical
𝑄𝑄, (2.2) work, then, according to
(2.1) A.D. Ezhov
(2.1) 𝐿𝐿 = (𝐿𝐿1=−(𝜓𝜓 )−𝑄𝑄,𝜓𝜓)𝑄𝑄,(2.3)(2.3)
∆𝑈𝑈 =1𝜓𝜓. 𝑄𝑄, (2.2)
where - heat distribution coefficient ∆𝑈𝑈in a 𝜓𝜓. 𝑄𝑄, (2.2)
=thermodynamic
𝜓𝜓
Wherein
where 𝜓𝜓 -ψheatremains constant
distribution during
𝐿𝐿 = (the
coefficient 1in−process )𝑄𝑄, and
a𝜓𝜓thermodynamic (2.3) inprocess.
anyprocess.
of its infinitesimal ele-
Wherein 𝜓𝜓 remains constant 𝐿𝐿
during = ( 1 − 𝜓𝜓
the process ) 𝑄𝑄, (2.3)
and and in any of itsof infinitesimal
mentary
where 𝜓𝜓sections
Wherein - heat remains
𝜓𝜓 distribution constant
coefficient during in a the process
thermodynamic in any
process. its infinitesimal
elementary
where 𝜓𝜓 - sections
heat distribution
elementary sections coefficient in a thermodynamic process.
Wherein 𝜓𝜓 remains constant during Δ𝑈𝑈 the 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 process and in any of its infinitesimal
Wherein 𝜓𝜓 remains constant during
𝜓𝜓 = the Δ𝑈𝑈process and(2.4) in any of its infinitesimal
𝜓𝜓𝑄𝑄 = 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿== 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
= (2.4)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
elementary sections = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐. (2.4)
elementary sections 𝑄𝑄 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
The process
The process in which in which
the same the share
same of share
Δ𝑈𝑈 of 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑external heat is converted into internal
The process in which the same Δ𝑈𝑈 external
𝜓𝜓 share
= =
of
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑external =heat is converted
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
heat (2.4) into internal
is converted energy
into internal energy
isenergy
calledis polytropic.
called polytropic. 𝜓𝜓 = 𝑄𝑄= =
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐. (2.4)
is called polytropic. 𝑄𝑄 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
The process in𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿which the same 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 share of external heat is converted into internal energy
The process
Because the, in which , а the same , share
then of external(2.4)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 expression heatcan is converted intoasinternal energy
= 𝐶𝐶 = (2.4)be canrewritten
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
is called
Because polytropic.
the,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑= 𝑉𝑉, а 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑= , then expression be rewritten as
is called polytropic. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶
Because the, = 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 , а 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , then 𝜓𝜓 = 𝜓𝜓𝑉𝑉 ,= 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉(2.4)
expression , (2.5) can be rewritten as
Because the, = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , а 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , then expression 𝐶𝐶 (2.4)
𝐶𝐶 can(2.5) be rewritten as
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
whence it follows
whence it followsthat the thatheatthe heatcapacity capacityof =
𝜓𝜓 the 𝐶𝐶 polytropic
𝐶𝐶 of,the polytropic
𝑉𝑉
(2.5) process process (2.5)
𝜓𝜓 = 𝑉𝑉 ,𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 (2.5)
whence
whenceit itfollows
followsthat thatthe theheat
heatcapacity
capacity𝐶𝐶 ofof=the
𝐶𝐶 polytropic
the
𝐶𝐶𝜓𝜓 = (2.6) 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉
polytropic (2.6) process process
whence it follows that the heat capacity of the polytropic 𝜓𝜓 process
𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉
Therefore,
Therefore,we can wegive can give one moreone more definition 𝐶𝐶 of
definition =𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉the polytropic
of(2.6) the polytropic process:
process:
𝐶𝐶 = 𝜓𝜓(2.6) (2.6)
A polytropic
A polytropic process is a process
process is a that takes
process that placeplace
takes
𝜓𝜓 at a constant at a heat heat
constant capacity.
capacity.
Therefore,
Therefore, we canwegive givegive
can oneone more moredefinition
definition of the the polytropic process:
Therefore,
For aFor we can
polytropic process, one the more definition
following equation of theisofpolytropicvalid
polytropic process:
process:
a polytropic
A polytropic
A polytropic process process,
process a the
is aisprocess following
process thatthat takes equation
takes place atisaat valid
constant heatheat
capacity.
A polytropic process is a process that takes placeplace at a constant a constant capacity.
heat capacity.
For a polytropic process, the the following equation is valid
For a For a polytropic
polytropic process, process,
the following following equation equation is valid is valid

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝛾𝛾 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, (2.7) (2.7)

where
whereg γ(sometimes
(sometimesit itis isdenoteddenotedby by
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 n)𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 — the indicator of the polytropic process is
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 n) –𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,
the indicator
==𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, (2.7)
(2.7)of the polytropic process is
𝛾𝛾
determined
determined bybythe
theratio
ratio through 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
thespecificspecific = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,
heat capacities (2.7)
itthrough the heat thecapacities
𝛾𝛾
where
whereγγ(sometimes
(sometimes itis isdenoted
denoted 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
by byn) =n)–𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,
–the indicator
indicator (2.7)ofofthe thepolytropic
polytropicprocess
processisis
where
determinedγ
determined (sometimes
bybythe
theratio it
ratio is denoted by n) – 𝑐𝑐−𝑐𝑐 the indicator of the polytropic process is
it through
isthrough the
theby specific
specific
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾n)=– heat heatindicator
capacities
capacities
𝑝𝑝
where γ (sometimes denoted the (2.8) of the polytropic process is
determined by the ratio through the specific 𝑐𝑐−𝑐𝑐
𝑐𝑐−𝑐𝑐 heat
𝑐𝑐−𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑉 capacities
determined by the ratio through the specific 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾= = heat𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝 capacities
(2.8)
(2.8) (2.8)
For any thermodynamic process 1-2, the𝑐𝑐−𝑐𝑐 work
𝑐𝑐−𝑐𝑐
𝑐𝑐−𝑐𝑐 𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉 associated with a change in volume
Forofany thermodynamic process is1-2, 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = 𝑐𝑐−𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉
the𝑐𝑐−𝑐𝑐 work
𝑝𝑝 (2.8)
associated with a change in volume
(work
For
Forany expansion
anythermodynamic
thermodynamic or contraction)
process
process1-2, 1-2, 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾found
=
thethe𝑐𝑐−𝑐𝑐 work from
work𝑉𝑉 (2.8)
the
associated expression
associated with
withaachange
changeininvolume
volume
𝑉𝑉
(work
For
(work
(workof
any expansion
thermodynamic
ofofthermodynamic
expansion or contraction)
process
expansionororcontraction)
contraction) is
1-2, found
𝐿𝐿isis= found the
found 𝑉𝑉2from work
from the
fromassociated
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 the expression
associated
theexpression
expression
(2.9) with a change in volume
For any process 1-2, the
∫𝑉𝑉 work with a change in volume
(work of expansion or contraction) is found 1 from the expression
(work of expansion or contraction)𝐿𝐿is 𝐿𝐿=found
=this
𝑉𝑉 2 2 from the expression
𝑉𝑉
∫𝑉𝑉∫𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (2.9)
(2.9)
Substituting p from formula (2.7) into 121 expression, we can obtain
𝐿𝐿 = ∫𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (2.9) (2.9)
Substituting
Substitutingppfrom fromformula
formula(2.7) (2.7) 𝐿𝐿into
into =1 ∫ 1 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
thisthis expression,
expression, (2.9)
we
we can
can obtain
obtain
Substituting p from formula 𝐿𝐿(2.7)
= into (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 this
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2 ) (2.10)
expression,
Substituting p from formula (2.7) into 𝛾𝛾−1this1 expression, we wecancan obtain
obtain
Substituting p from formula (2.7) into
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿== 1 (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
11this expression, we
(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1−−𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2𝑐𝑐2𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 can
)) (2.10)
(2.10) obtain
From formula (2.8), taking into 𝛾𝛾−1 11 1that
account 22
- the index of the adiabatic
𝐿𝐿 = 1 ((𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐2𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2)) 𝑘𝑘 (2.10) =
𝛾𝛾−1
𝐿𝐿 = 𝛾𝛾−1 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐2𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝2 (2.10) (2.10)
process,
From one can(2.8),
From formula
formula obtain
(2.8), an expression
taking
taking into
into account account
𝛾𝛾−1 for thethat heat𝑐𝑐 capacity
that of
thethe
==𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 - - the process
index
index ofof the
the adiabatic
adiabatic
𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉
From formula
From formula (2.8),
(2.8), taking into
takinginto account
intoaccountaccount that that 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 = 𝑘𝑘 — - the index
theindex
index ofof the
of theadiabatic
adiabatic
From
process, formula
process, one
onecan (2.8),
can obtain
obtain taking
ananexpression
expression for for
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉 the the heat
heat
𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘 - of
𝑐𝑐capacity
capacity
(2.11)
𝑉𝑉 the
ofthe processthe adiabatic
theprocess
𝑐𝑐
process,
process,one onecancanobtain
obtainananexpression
expressionfor forthe theheat heatcapacity
𝛾𝛾−1 𝑉𝑉
capacityofofthe theprocess
process
process, one can obtain an expression𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐for 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐= = the
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 heat
𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘
𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘 capacity
(2.11)
(2.11) of the process
Comparing this expression with formula (2.6), 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝛾𝛾−1 𝛾𝛾−1one can associate the heat distribution
𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉 𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘 (2.11)
26coefficient with the indicator of the polytropic
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(2.6),
– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Comparing
Comparing this
thisexpression
expression with
with formula
formula (2.6),𝛾𝛾−1 process (2.11)
𝑉𝑉 𝛾𝛾−1one one can
canassociate
associatethe theheat
heatdistribution
distribution
Comparing
coefficient
coefficientwith this the
with expression
theindicator
indicator with formula
ofofthe
the polytropic
polytropic𝜓𝜓 (2.6),
=(2.6),process
𝛾𝛾−1 one
process
(2.12) can associate the heat distribution
Comparing this expression with formula one can associate the heat distribution
coefficient with the indicator of the polytropic 𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘 process
coefficient with the indicator of the polytropic 𝜓𝜓𝜓𝜓== process
𝛾𝛾−1
𝛾𝛾−1
(2.12)
(2.12)
 𝐿𝐿 = ∫𝑉𝑉 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉2𝑉𝑉1 (2.9)
Substituting p from formula (2.7)𝐿𝐿 into = 1∫𝑉𝑉this 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
expression, (2.9)we can obtain
Substituting p from formula (2.7) into
Substituting p from formula (2.7) into this1 expression, we can obtain this
1
expression, we can obtain
Substituting p from formula (2.7)𝐿𝐿into = this 1 (expression,
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2we ) can(2.10)obtain
𝐿𝐿 1= 𝛾𝛾−1(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 ) (2.10)
𝐿𝐿THERMODYNAMIC
= 1(𝛾𝛾−1
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
1 1 )𝑐𝑐 (2.10)
2 2
2𝑝𝑝) (2.10)
𝐿𝐿 =𝛾𝛾−1 ( 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
PROPERTIES,
From formula (2.8), taking into 𝛾𝛾−1
PROCESSES
accountAND 1 1 thatCYCLES
2
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 = 𝑘𝑘 - the index of the adiabatic
FromFrom formula (2.8), taking into account that
𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑘𝑘 - the index of the adiabatic
formula (2.8), taking into account that 𝑐𝑐= - the index
𝑘𝑘capacity of the adiabatic
From formula (2.8), taking into account that𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉 = 𝑘𝑘 - theofindex
process, one can obtain an expression for the heat the process
𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉
of the adiabatic
process,
process, one obtain
one can can obtain an expression
an expression for the forheat the 𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘 heat 𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉 capacity of the process
capacity of the process
process, one can obtain an expression for 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = the𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉heat 𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘 capacity(2.11) of the process (2.11)
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =formula𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘
𝑉𝑉
𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘
𝛾𝛾−1
(2.11) (2.11)
Comparing
Comparing this this expression
expression with with 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =𝑉𝑉 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝛾𝛾−1
formula 𝑉𝑉 (2.6),
(2.6),
𝛾𝛾−1
(2.11) one can associate the heat distribution
𝛾𝛾−1 one can associate the heat distribution
Comparing
coefficient
coefficient
Comparing this
thiswith
with expression
the
expression withwith
theindicator
indicator ofofthe
formula formula
the (2.6),(2.6),
polytropic
polytropic oneprocess one
can can
process associate
associate the heat the heat distribution distribution
Comparing
coefficient this expression with formula (2.6), one can associate the heat distribution
coefficient withwith the indicator
the indicator of the ofpolytropic
the polytropic process
𝛾𝛾−1
process
coefficient with the indicator of the polytropic 𝜓𝜓 = 𝛾𝛾−1 process (2.12)
𝜓𝜓 𝛾𝛾−1= 𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘 (2.12)
𝜓𝜓 = 𝛾𝛾−1 (2.12)
𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘 (2.12)
The experimental determination of the 𝜓𝜓 = indicator
𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘 (2.12) of a polytropic process is based on
𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘
The The experimental
experimental determination
determination of of the
the indicator
indicator of ofa apolytropic
polytropicprocess processisis based on
The equation
experimental(2.7),determination
from which itoffollows the indicator that to of find a polytropic
γ it is enough process to know is based the pressureon
The experimental
equation (2.7),
(2.7), determination
from which it of
follows the indicator
that to find of γa itpolytropic
is enough process
to know is the based on
pressure
and volume
equation (2.7), of from
from the which
working
which itfluid
it followsfollows inthat twothat to
tostatesfind findfor γ gititwhich isisenough
enough to know
it is true
to know the
𝛾𝛾
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1𝛾𝛾the = pressure
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2𝛾𝛾 and
pressure 𝛾𝛾
equation
and volume(2.7),offrom which itfluid
the working follows in two thatstates to find forγwhich it is enough
it is true to know the 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝛾𝛾 pressure
and volume
Whence ofit the working
follows that fluid in
fluid in twotwo states
states for which
for which it is
it is true
true 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝛾𝛾1=𝛾𝛾 2 2 2 𝛾𝛾2
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
and volume of the working fluid in two states for which it is true 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2
Whence
Whence it follows
itWhence
follows itthat that that
follows 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
Whence it follows that 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝22
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = 2𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 2𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉11
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙1𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉12
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉1𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
Description of the experimental setup. 2𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2
Description
Description of the of experimental
the experimental setup. setup.
The installation is made
Description of the experimental setup. in a tabletop design Fig.2.1. and consists of a base plate 5 on
The installation
which a working
The installation is made is made
cylinder in a tabletop
2 with design
in a tabletop a movable design Fig.2.1. Fig.2.1.
piston and4and andconsists
consists of a of
an adjusting base a base plateplate
and 5 on5 on
measuring
The installation
which is made in a tabletop design Fig.2.1. and consists of a base plate 5 on
whichunit area mounted.
working
Description
a working cylinder
of
cylinder The
the2piston 2 withis
experimental
with moved
a movable a movable manually
piston piston
setup 4using and 4 and
an an adjusting
a screw
adjusting pair and 1. and measuring measuring
which area working cylinder 2 with a movable pistonusing 4 anda screwan adjusting and measuring
unit unit mounted.
are mounted. The The pistonpiston
is moved is moved manually manually using a screw pair pair1. 1.
unit are mounted. The piston is moved manually using a screw pair 1.
The installation is made in a tabletop design Fig.2.1. and consists of a base plate 5 on
which a working cylinder 2 with a movable piston 4 and an adjusting and measuring
unit are mounted. The piston is moved manually using a screw pair 1.

Fig. 2.1.

On the walls of the cylinder there are marks corresponding to the capacity of the
cylinder in milliliters (1 ml=1 cm3=10-6 m3). The capacity of the supply lines is indicated
in the unit's passport data. Excessive pressure in the cylinder and supply lines is mea-

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 27
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

sured by a pressure gauge with an upper measurement limit 2,5 kg/cm2 (2,5∙9,81∙104 Pa).
Through valve 3, the working volume (working capacity) is communicated with the
environment. The capacity of the installation (full volume) consists of two parts: 1 —
working volume (variable volume of gas in the cylinder), 2 — additional, unchanged
volume (part of the volume of the cylinder, the capacity of the pressure gauge, the line
leading to the pressure gauge and the tap).

Experimental procedure

When the valve (3) is open, the piston is moved to the extreme position correspond-
ing to the maximum volume. Then the valve is closed and the compression process is
carried out, while the pressure is measured by the pressure gauge (pman) at preselected
values of the cylinder volume Vраб.
Compressing the air, you must be careful when approaching the pressure gauge
readings to the limit values in order to avoid squeezing it and stop the experiment in
time.
Having realized the maximum compression, the valve (3) is opened, and the com-
pressed air is released into the environment, and the piston is transferred to its original
position when the valve is open.
Since absolute pressure appears in all equations of thermodynamics, during the
experiment, the ambient pressure is determined using the barometer p0 in mmHg which
is further translated into Pascal (1 mmHg = 133,3 Pa).
Variable cylinder volume values Vраб in ml and measured overpressure in divisions
are entered into the experiment protocol. (Table 2.1)

Processing of research results

1. The total volume is calculated:

V=Vраб+Vдоп

28 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

2. Determines the absolute pressure in Pascals

V=V
p=p +V+p
рабман доп0

2. Determines the absolute pressure in Pascals

V=V
V=V
V=Vраб
раб+V
+V
раб +Vдоп
доп
доп

2. For each pair

2.2.Determines
Determines
Determinesthe
theofabsolute
the neighboring
absolute
absolute points
pressure
pressure
pressureinin(for
p=p
in +peach
Pascals
Pascals
Pascals
ман 0 section of the process) from the equa-
3.tion
For ofeach
the pair
polytropic process with
of neighboring pointsrespect (for
p=p
p=p
p=p to
манeach
ман
ман
p-V
+p +p+p000section variablesof the process) thefrom calculated the
𝛾𝛾
equationofofthe
indicator thepolytropic
polytropicprocessprocess with respect to p-V variables 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 the
3.
3.3.For
For
For each
each
each pair
pair
pair of
of neighboringispoints
of neighboring
neighboring determined
points
points (for (for
(for each eacheach section section
section of of
of the
the
the process)
process)
process) from from
fromthe the
the
calculated indicator of the polytropic process is determined 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
equation
equation
equationofof
ofthe
the
thepolytropic
polytropic
polytropicprocess
process
processwith with
withrespectrespect
respectto totop-V
p-Vvariables
p-V variables
variables𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐the
==𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 the
the
calculated
calculated
calculatedindicator
indicator
indicatorof of
ofthe
the
thepolytropic
polytropic
polytropic𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
process
process
processis
𝑖𝑖+1 isisdetermined
determined
determined
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾рас = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖+1
𝑖𝑖+1𝑖𝑖+1
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾рас
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾рас
рас===𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖+1 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖
where the subscript i corresponds to the current 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
point and
where the subscript i corresponds to the current point 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑖𝑖+1
𝑖𝑖+1 𝑖𝑖+1 andi +i +1 1totothethenext.
next.
Thewhere
calculation
where
where
Thethe
the
the results results
subscript
subscript
subscript
calculation are placed
ii icorresponds
correspondsin table
corresponds
are placed to
totothe
the inthe2.1.
current
current
current
table 2.1.point point
pointand and
andii i+++111to
totothe
the
thenext.
next.
next.
Table
The
The
The 2.1.
calculation
calculation
calculationresults
results
resultsare
are
areplaced
placed
placedin inintable
table table2.1. 2.1.
2.1.
Table
Table
TableMeasurements
2.1.
2.1.
2.1.
Measurement number

Calculations Table 2.1.

Measurements 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖+1
Calculations 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
numbernumber
Measurement number

VрабMeasurements
Measurements
Measurements
pман V Calculations
Calculations
Calculations
pман p 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾рас
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖+1
𝑖𝑖+1
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑖𝑖+1 𝑖𝑖+1 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖
VV
VVраб
раб
раб ppppман
ман
ман VVVV ppppман
ман
ман pppp 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾рас
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾рас
рас
раб ман ман 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
Measurement

𝑖𝑖+1
𝑖𝑖+1
𝑖𝑖+1
ml scale cm3 kg/cm2 Pa - - -
ml
ml
ml
ml scale
scale
scale
scale cm3333
cm
cm
cm kg/cm
kg/cm
kg/cm
kg/cm 2
222
Pa
Pa
Pa
Pa --- - --- - --- -

1
1
111
2
2
222
3
3
333
4
4
444

4. Since the experimental values of pressure and volume are measured with low
accuracy, the values of the indicator of the polytropic process will have an error, the
4.
4.4. Since
Since
Since the
the
the experimental
experimental
experimental values values
values of ofof pressure
pressure
pressure and
and
and volume
volume
volume areare
are measured
measured
measured with with
with low
low
low
magnitude of which increases if the experimental points do not differ much in volume.
accuracy,
accuracy,
accuracy,the the
thevalues
values
valuesof of
ofthe
the
theindicator
indicator
indicatorof of
ofthe
the
thepolytropic
polytropic
polytropicprocess
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– process
processwill
will
willhave
have
haveanan
anerror,
error,
error,29
the
the
the
Formagnitude
this reason,
magnitude
magnitude of
of it is increases
ofwhich
which
which necessary
increasesifififto
increases thereject
the
the the readings
experimental
experimental
experimental points
points
pointsdothat
do
donot
notdodiffer
not not much
differ
differ fall
muchinto
much in the
ininvolume.
volume.
volume.
appropriate confidence interval, and in the future, all actions should be carried out
For
For
For this
this
this reason,
reason,
reason, ititit is
isis necessary
necessary
necessary to toto reject
reject
reject the
the
the readings
readings
readings that
that
that do
do
do not
not
not fall
fall
fall into
into
into the
the
the
with the average value of the indicator of the polytropic process, found as the sum of
appropriate
appropriate
appropriateconfidence
confidence
confidenceinterval,
interval,
interval,and and
andinininthe
the
thefuture,
future,
future,all
all
allactions
actions
actionsshould
should
shouldbebebecarried
carried
carriedoutout
out
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

4. Since the experimental values of pressure and volume are measured with low
accuracy, the values of the indicator of the polytropic process will have an error, the
magnitude of which increases if the experimental points do not differ much in volume.
For this reason, it is necessary to reject the readings that do not fall into the appro-
priate confidence interval, and in the future, all actions should be carried out with the
average value of the indicator of the polytropic process, found as the sum of slightly
different values divided by their number z.

∑𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖=1 𝛾𝛾рас
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = ∑𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖=1𝑧𝑧𝛾𝛾рас
.
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = .
5. The work of compression in the process 𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧under study is determined by the initial
𝑧𝑧
The5.work The work of compression in thein𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 the = process
∑𝑖𝑖=1
𝑖𝑖=1 𝛾𝛾рас рас under study is determined by the initial
5.
(beginning) of final
and compression
(final) parameters process ∑𝑧𝑧𝑖𝑖=1 under𝛾𝛾рас . study is determined by the initial
(beginning) and final (final)
(beginning) and final (final) parameters parameters 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = 𝑧𝑧 .
1 𝑧𝑧
5. The work of compression𝐿𝐿 in = the process
(p нач V нач under
- pкон study
Vкон). is determined by the initial
5. The work of compression
(beginning) and final (final) 𝐿𝐿parameters in
= the
1 process under
𝛾𝛾−1
(pнач Vнач - pкон Vкон). is determined by the initial
study
(beginning)
It should be and final (final)
remembered thatparameters
𝛾𝛾−1
work 1 in the SI system is defined in Joules, and for this
It should
the volume bemust
remembered 𝐿𝐿 =
that work
be substituted 1 3,in (p VSI
thethe - pкон
system кон Vis ).Pascals.in Joules, and for this
indefined
𝐿𝐿 =inthatм and нач
нач начpressure
нач кон
кон
It should be remembered 𝛾𝛾−1 (p
work V in -
the p SI V кон). is defined in Joules, and for
system
the volume must be substituted in𝛾𝛾−1 м3, and нач
theначpressure кон
in Pascals.
6. Thethe
It this
should heat be capacity
remembered
volume of the process
that
must be substituted work is indetermined
inthe the 3 SI system
м , SI andsystem by theis
the pressure formula
defined in Joules, and for this
in Pascals.
It
6. should
theThe be remembered
heat capacity
volume that
of the process
must be substituted work 33 in
in мis3, determined
and the𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘 pressure is defined
Pascals.in Joules, and for this
by theinformula
the volume 6. The heatbecapacity
must of the
substituted м , 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐and
in process = is𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣determined
the ,
pressure
𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘 inby the formula
Pascals.
𝛾𝛾−1
6. The heat capacity of the process is determined 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 , by the formula
6. The cheat
where capacity of the process is determined
V – the specific isochoric heat capacity
𝛾𝛾−1 by the formula
𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘of air at room temperature is taken from
where c
the reference – the specific isochoric heat
data and can be approximately 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
capacity 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 of, air at room temperature is taken from
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾−1,taken equal to 718 J/kg∙K, k – the
V 𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘
the reference
indicator data and can be approximately taken equal to 718
for aJ/kg∙K, – from
k gas the
cVVcV–of—the adiabatic process for air is taken 𝛾𝛾−1 equal to its value diatomic (k
where
where thethe specific
specific isochoric
isochoric heat
heat capacity
capacity ofof airairat at room
room temperature
temperature is istaken
taken from
indicator
≈1,4).
where of the
cV – the data adiabatic
specific process for air is taken equal to its value for a diatomic gas (k
thethe reference
reference data andisochoric
and canbebe
can
heat
approximately
capacity oftaken
approximately taken
air at room
equal equal
to
temperature
718toJ/kg∙K, is taken
718 J/kg∙K,
— the –from
the
kindicator
≈1,4).
theThe reference
k
7.
indicator heat thedata and coefficient
of distribution
adiabatic can
process be approximately
is air
for found is taken equal taken toequal to 718
its value for aJ/kg∙K,
diatomic – the
k gas (k
of the
indicator adiabatic
of the process
adiabatic for
process
7. The heat distribution coefficient is found
≈1,4). air is taken
for air equal
is taken to its
equal value
to itsfor a diatomic
value for a gas
diatomic (k ≈1,4).
gas (k
Δ𝑈𝑈 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 𝛾𝛾−1
≈1,4). 7. The heat distribution coefficient 𝜓𝜓 = Δ𝑈𝑈 = = 𝛾𝛾−1.
𝑄𝑄 is found 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘
7. The heat distribution coefficient 𝜓𝜓 is=found = 𝑉𝑉 = .
7. The heat distribution coefficient
8. The amount of heat of the investigated is found𝑄𝑄
Δ𝑈𝑈 process
𝐶𝐶
𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉
𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘
is determined
𝛾𝛾−1
8. The amount of heat of the investigated 𝜓𝜓 = Δ𝑈𝑈 = process𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝑉
= .
is determined
𝛾𝛾−1
𝐿𝐿
𝜓𝜓 = 𝑄𝑄 𝑄𝑄 = 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 = 𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘 .
𝑄𝑄 = 1−𝜓𝜓 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 . 𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘
8. The 8. amount of heatof
The amount ofheat
the investigated
of the investigated 𝑄𝑄 = process is determined
. process is determined
8. The amount of heat of the
9. There is a change in internal energy investigated process
1−𝜓𝜓 is determined
𝐿𝐿
9. There is a change in internal energy 𝑄𝑄 = 1−𝜓𝜓 𝐿𝐿 .
𝑄𝑄 == 𝜓𝜓𝜓𝜓.
Δ𝑈𝑈 1−𝜓𝜓
9. There is a change in internal energy Δ𝑈𝑈 = 𝜓𝜓𝜓𝜓
10.There
9. In 9.coordinates
There
is is a p-V
a change the in
change investigated
in internal internal
energyenergy process is constructed, and further, relative to
10. initial
the In coordinates
point, thep-V the investigated
numerical values of Δ𝑈𝑈 process
the
= energy 𝜓𝜓𝜓𝜓 is constructed, and further,
quantities included in therelative to
first law
the initial point, the are
of thermodynamics numerical
analyzed. Δ𝑈𝑈 = 𝜓𝜓𝜓𝜓
values of the energy quantities included in the first law
10.
of In coordinates
thermodynamics p-V the
are the investigated
analyzed. process is constructed, and further, relative to
10.
the In coordinates
point, the numerical values ofprocess
p-V investigated is constructed, and further,
in therelative to
Testinitial
questions the energy quantities included first law
thethermodynamics
Test
of initial
questionspoint, the arenumerical
analyzed. values of the energy quantities included in the first law
1.
of30How will
thermodynamics the indicator
are analyzed.polytropic process change if the compression process
of the
– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
1. How
is carried
Test will
outthe
questions veryindicator
quickly?of the polytropic process change if the compression process
Test questions
is carried out very quickly?
2. How
1. Can the will indicator
the indicatorof the polytropic
of the polytropic processprocess be change
less than 1 in
if the the processprocess
compression of air
1.
2. How
Can
compression
is will
the
carried out on the
veryindicator
indicator
this of of
the the polytropic
polytropic
experimental setup?
quickly? processprocess be change
less if
than the
1 compression
in the process process
of air
 𝜓𝜓 = = = .
𝑄𝑄 𝐶𝐶 𝛾𝛾−𝑘𝑘

8. The amount of heat of the investigated process is determined

𝐿𝐿
𝑄𝑄 =
THERMODYNAMIC . PROPERTIES,
1−𝜓𝜓
PROCESSES AND CYCLES
9. There is a change in internal energy
Δ𝑈𝑈 = 𝜓𝜓𝜓𝜓
10. In 10.
coordinates p-V the
In coordinates investigated
p-V process
the investigated is constructed,
process and further,
is constructed, relative
and further, to
relative
the initial point, the numerical values of the energy quantities included in the first law
oftothermodynamics
the initial point,are
the analyzed.
numerical values of the energy quantities included in the first law
of thermodynamics are analyzed.
Test questions
1. How will the indicator of the polytropic process change if the compression process
Test questions
is carried out very quickly?
2. Can the indicator of the polytropic process be less than 1 in the process of air
compression
1. Howonwill
thisthe
experimental
indicator ofsetup?
the polytropic process change if the compression pro-
3.cess
Whyisiscarried outcapacity
the heat very quickly?
of the process on this experimental setup negative?
4. How2.would
Can the
theindicator
numericalof value
the polytropic
change ifprocess be less
the working thanwas
fluid 1 inheated
the process
during of
theair
compression
compressionprocess?
on this experimental setup?
5. What3.will
Whythe
is investigated polytropic
the heat capacity of the process
process look likeexperimental
on this in T-S coordinates?
setup negative?
6. What4. value of the indicator
How would of thevalue
the numerical polytropic
changeprocess would have
if the working fluid been obtained
was heated in
during
the experiment with the tap open?
the compression process?
7. What5.measures
What willshould be taken topolytropic
the investigated improve the accuracy
process lookof theinstudy?
like T-S coordinates?
6. What value of the indicator of the polytropic process would have been obtained
in the experiment with the tap open?
7. What measures should be taken to improve the accuracy of the study?

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 31
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

LABORATORY PROTOCOL
LABWORK № 2
RESEARCH OF THERMODYNAMIC POLYTROPIC PROCESS
WITH GAS

Date:______________Student_____________________________Group_______
LABORATORY
LABORATORY PROTOCOL
PROTOCOL
1. Figure
LABWORK
LABWORK №of22experimental device
№
1—
RESEARCH
RESEARCH OF OF THERMODYNAMIC
THERMODYNAMIC POLYTROPIC
POLYTROPIC PROCESS
PROCESS WITH
WITH GAS
GAS
2—
Date:______________Student_________________________________Group_______
Date:______________Student_________________________________Group_______
3—
1.
1. Figure
Figure of
of experimental
experimental device
device
4—
5 1—
1——
22 —
—
33 —
—
44 —
—
55 —
—
2. Calculation

2.
2. Calculation
Calculation
3.
3. Experiment
Experiment table
table and
3. Experiment and data
tabledata
andprocessing
processing results
results
data processing results
Measurements Calculations
number

Measurements
Measurements Calculations
Calculations
number
ment number
Measure-

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖+1
𝑖𝑖+1 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
VVVраб
раб
раб pppман
ман
ман VVV pppман
ман
ман pp p 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑖+1 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑖 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾рас
рас
рас
раб ман ман 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖+1
Measurement

𝑖𝑖+1
Measurement

𝑖𝑖+1

ml scale cm3 kg/cm2 Pa - - -

333 222
1 ml
ml scale
scale cm
cm kg/cm
kg/cm Pa
Pa -- -- --
2
3
11
4

32 –22
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

33
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

4. Charts

5. Conclusion _____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Date of labwork ____________________
Date of defender ________________________
Professor ______________________

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 33
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

3. THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF CYCLES OF

THERMAL ENGINES
The purpose of the work is to study the principle of operation of the selected
engine and study the influence of the main characteristics of the cycle on its resulting
operation and thermal efficiency (efficiency).

Theoretical information

Finding the optimal work value and thermal efficiency various heat engines is of
great scientific and practical importance. When analyzing engine cycles, it is generally
accepted that a direct reversible thermodynamic cycle occurs, consisting of reversible
thermodynamic processes. The processes of compression and expansion of the working
fluid are assumed to be polytropic, and the heat capacity of the working fluid during the
analysis is considered to be independent of temperature. The calculation of the thermo-
dynamic parameters of the cycle is carried out under the assumption that the working
fluid is an ideal gas.
In this paper, two groups of heat engine cycles are considered: cycles of internal
combustion piston engines and cycles of air-breathing engines.
Due to the complexity of full-scale experiments, the study is carried out on appro-
priate models. The working processes occurring in the considered engines and the main
characteristics of the cycles are shown in the diagram at the time of the experiments.

Experimental procedure

After running the skb. the cycle of the forthcoming research is selected, and you
enter into a dialogue with the computer. After selecting the main operating parameters
of this engine, a sequential survey of the state parameters (pressure — p; specific vol-
ume — υ; temperature — T) is carried out at the given points of the cycle. The experi-
ment continues for two more values of any one parameter with the rest unchanged.
1. According to the research results for the selected cycle:

34 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

2. The sum of the supplied specific heats is calculated q1, rejected heat q2, specific
cycle work lц thermal efficiency ηt.
3. Changes in the specific entropy for each process and the absolute values of
entropy at characteristic points of the cycle are determined under the assumption that
s0 = 0 at Т0 = 0 К.
4. The efficiency of the obtained cycle is compared with the efficiency. cycle for
the case if the contraction and expansion were adiabatic.
5. The efficiency of the obtained cycle is compared with the efficiency. a Carnot
cycle operating in the same temperature range as the cycle under consideration.
3. The influence of any of the selected characteristics (compression ratio — ε,
pressure rise — π, indicator of the adiabatic process — k) by three different values for
cycle efficiency.
6. In addition, for an in-depth understanding of the influence of the main
thermodynamic parameters on the cycle efficiency, it is proposed to perform one of the
points:
Estimate the influence of the indicator of the polytropic compression process γ1 on
parameters, cycle operation and thermal efficiency. when fixing the initial temperature
Т1, the adiabatic process index k and molar mass .
Assess the influence of the indicator of the polytropic expansion process γ2 on pa-
rameters, cycle operation and thermal efficiency. when fixing the initial data.
Comparability of efficiency two cycles for the same initial data at point 1 and fixed
values ε, π,k, .

For a jet engine, evaluate the effect π for cycle operation and thermal efficiency
when fixing Т3.
Estimate the impact of the reduction Т1 for cycle operation and thermal efficiency
all other things being equal.

Processing of research results.

For each of the processes, the specific heat is determined by the formula:

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 35
 efficiency all other things being equal. S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
efficiency
efficiency of all other
all research things
other things being equal.
being equal. A.D. Ezhov
Processing results.
efficiency of
Processing all research
other things being equal.
Processing
For each of the research results.
of processes, results.
the specific heat is determined by the formula:
Processing
For of research results.
For each
each of of the
the processes,
processes, the the specific
specific 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾heat heat is determined by the formula:
− 𝑘𝑘is determined by the formula:
For each of the processes, the specific 𝑞𝑞 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾heat is∆𝑇𝑇
determined by the formula: (3.1)
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 −
− 𝑘𝑘
1
𝑘𝑘
𝑞𝑞
𝑞𝑞 == 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 − 𝑘𝑘 ∆𝑇𝑇
∆𝑇𝑇 (3.1)
(3.1)
where 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 - specific isochoric heat capacity 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 − 1
1 is found according to the selected values k k
where — specific isochoric heat
𝑉𝑉 𝑞𝑞 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∆𝑇𝑇
𝑉𝑉 capacity is found according to the selected values (3.1)
where 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉 -- specific isochoric R theheat capacity 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 − 1 is
and specific
where
and specific
gas constant
𝑉𝑉 specific gas isochoric
constant
selected
heat
the selected capacity working is found
workingfound fluidaccording
of a givento
according
fluid of a given
the
tomolar
the selected
mass 𝑚𝑚
selected
molar mass
�values
.
values
.
kk
and
and specific
where gas
gas constant
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉 - specific
specific isochoric
constant R the
R R
theheatselected
selected capacity working
working is found fluid of
of aa given
fluidaccording giventomolar mass
mass 𝑚𝑚
the selected
molar � ..
�values
𝑚𝑚 k
𝑅𝑅
and specific gas constant R the selected 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉 = working fluid of a given molar mass 𝑚𝑚 �. (3.2)
𝑘𝑘 𝑅𝑅
−
𝑅𝑅 1
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉 = (3.2)
(3.2)
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑘𝑘 − 𝑅𝑅 1
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉 = 𝑘𝑘 − 1 (3.2)
𝑘𝑘 − 1
𝑅𝑅�
𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅� (3.3)
𝑚𝑚
��
𝑅𝑅 (3.3)
𝑅𝑅 =
𝑅𝑅 = � (3.3)
𝑅𝑅
𝑚𝑚
�
𝑅𝑅 = 𝑚𝑚 � (3.3)
𝑚𝑚
�
where
where𝑅𝑅� – molar – molar gasgas
constant;
constant;
where �� – molar gas constant;
𝑅𝑅
where 𝑅𝑅 – molar gas constant; 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
where 𝑅𝑅� – molar gas constant; 𝑅𝑅� = 8,314 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 К
� = 8,314
𝑅𝑅 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
�
𝑅𝑅 = 8,314 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 К process will correspond to:
The numerical values of the indicators 𝑅𝑅� = 8,314 of the 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
polytropic К
The numerical
Thethe
for numerical
compression values of
valuesprocess the indicators
of the indicators
γ = γ of the polytropic
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
of the polytropic process will
К process will correspond
correspond to: to:
The numerical The numerical ofvalues
valuesprocess of the indicators
the indicators
1 of the polytropic
of the polytropic processprocess will correspond
will correspond to: to:
for the
for the compression
compression
expansion process
process γ =processγ
γ =
=
γ2; 1γ
γ 1
for the for the compression
compression process γγ=2;γ1 γ = γ1
for the expansion
the expansion
for isochoric processprocess
process
γ = ∞; γ =
γ = γ2; γ = γ ;
for the expansion process
for
for the expansion
isochoric processprocess
γ = γ = γ2;
∞; 2
for isobaric
isochoric process γ
process γ process
for isochoric =
= 0. ∞; γ = ∞;
for
for isochoric
isobaric process
process γ γ
= =0.∞;
for isobaric
It should for process
beisobaric γ =mind
borne inprocess 0. that γ = 0. if γ ≠ k, heat is supplied in processes 1-2, 2-3 and 3-4,
for
It isobaric
should process
be borne γ =
in mind 0.4-1.thatTheif γγ ≠
and
It removed
should Itbe
in process
borne
should beinborne
mind that
in mind if sum ≠ k,
that k,ofifheat
the is
heat supplied
absolute
γ ≠isk,supplied
heat
heat is supplied
in processes
in supplied
processes is1-2,
1-2,
in processes
2-3
indicated and
2-31-2,
and by3-4,
q1,
3-4,
2-3 and
and
It
and removed
the
should
removed heat in
in process
be removed
borne in mind
process 4-1.
through
4-1.thatThe
q2if. sum
The sum γ ≠ k,of ofheatthe
the is absolute
supplied
absolute heat
heat in supplied
processesis
supplied indicated
is1-2, 2-3 and
indicated by qq1,,
by3-4, 1
and 3-4,
the
removed and
heat removed
removed
in processinthrough
process
4-1. q
The 4-1.
. sum The of sum
the of the absolute
absolute heat heat supplied
supplied is is indicated
indicated by q 1,
by
and theThe
16. heat removed
specific work through 2.
of theqcycle
2
is determined: lц = q1 –q2
andqthe
16. , and heattheremoved
heat removed through q2. qis2. determined: lц = q1 –q2
through
17. 1 The
16. The specific specific work
work of
thermal efficiency of the
theiscycle
cycle
determined is determined: cycle: ηtl=l ц= q1 –q2
ц /q
16.
17. The 4.
The thermal The
specific specific
work
efficiencywork
of the of
is the
cycle cycle
is is determined:
determined: l = ql11ц –q
= 2q1 –q2
is determined cycle: ηηt=lц ц /q
17. The
18. thermal
change in efficiency
specific entropy determined for each cycle:
process t=lцis/qdetermined:
1
17. The
18. 5. thermal
The thermalefficiencyefficiency
is determined is determined cycle: cycle:
ηt=lцisη/qtdetermined:
=l
1 ц /q1
18. The The change change in in specific
specific entropy
entropy𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾for for each
each
− 𝑘𝑘 for𝑇𝑇each
process
process is determined:
18. The 7. change
The change in specific
in specific = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐entropy
entropy
∆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 for each 𝑖𝑖+1 process
process is determined:
is determined: (3.4)
𝑉𝑉 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 − 𝑘𝑘 ln 𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖+1
∆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 − 1
𝑘𝑘 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 (3.4)
∆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 − 𝑘𝑘 ln 𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖+1
1 ln 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑖𝑖+1
(3.4)
∆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑉𝑉 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 − 1 ln 𝑖𝑖 𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖
(3.4)
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 − 1 𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖
where the subscript i corresponds to the considered state parameter, and i +1 to the
where
next
where one.the
thethe subscript
subscript ii corresponds
corresponds to
totothe the considered
considered state
state parameter,
parameter, and
and i ii+1
+1
+1toto the
tothe
thenext
nextwhere
one. subscript i corresponds the considered state parameter, and
where
next
Sinceone. the subscript i corresponds to the
the above formula allows one to determine the change in entropy, and not its considered state parameter, and i +1 to the
nextone.
Since one.
Since the
absolutethevalue, above
aboveweformula
can useallows
formula one
one to
the assumption
allows to determinethat for Тthe
determine 0=0 change
the К, s0 =0,in
change entropy,
entropy, and
inthen and notnot itsits
absolute
Since thevalue,
absolute value, we can
aboveweformula use
can useallows the assumption
one to determine
the assumption that for
that for Тthe Т =0 К, s =0, then
change in entropy, and not its
0=0 К, s0 =0, then
0 0
36 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
absolute value, we can use the assumption that for Т0=0 К, s0 =0, then
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

Since the above formula allows one to determine the change in entropy, and not its
absolute value, we can use the assumption that for Т0=0 К, s0 =0, then

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 ln 𝑇𝑇1 + 𝑅𝑅 ln 𝑣𝑣1 (3.5)

and each subsequent value𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠11 of
=
=
=the 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐the ln
lnspecific
𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇111 +
𝑇𝑇 + 𝑅𝑅
+ 𝑅𝑅 lnentropy
ln
ln 𝑣𝑣111 willwill
𝑣𝑣
𝑣𝑣 be found by adding the (3.5)
(3.5)
(3.5)
𝑣𝑣 ln 𝑅𝑅entropy
𝑣𝑣
and each subsequent value1of 𝑣𝑣 specific be found by adding the calculated
calculated
and each value
subsequentof the change
value in
of the entropy
specific to the absolute
entropy value
will be of the
found specific
by addingentropy
the
and each
andvalue
each ofsubsequent
subsequent
the change value
value of
of the
in entropy theto specific specific
the absolute entropy
valuewill
entropy will be found
found by
be specific
of the by adding
adding
entropy the
thethe
from
from the
calculated previous
value ofpoint.
the change in entropy to the absolute value of the specific entropy
calculated
calculated value
value of the change in entropy to the absolute
of the change in entropy to the absolute value of the specific entropy value of the specific entropy
from
19. previous
the
from theTo point.
previous
previous point.
compare
the previous the efficiency of the obtained cycle with the thermal efficiency for
point.
from point.
19.the cases,
To8. To if compare
the compression and
the efficiency expansion
of obtained
the obtainedwere adiabatic,
cycle withit is
the necessary
thermal to use the
efficiency for
19.
19.knownTo compare
To compare
compare
regularities
the
the
the efficiency
efficiency
efficiency of
of
of the
the
the obtained
obtained cycle
cycle
cycle with
with
with the
the
the thermal
thermal
thermal efficiency
efficiency
efficiency for
for
for
the
the cases,
the
the cases,
cases,
cases, if
ififthe
if thecompression
the
the compressionand
compression
compression and
and andexpansion expansionwere
expansion
expansion wereadiabatic,
were
were adiabatic,
adiabatic, it
it is
adiabatic,
it it necessary
is
is is necessary
necessary
necessary to
to use
to use
use the
to use
thethe
the
known
known regularities
known
known regularities
regularities
regularities 1
𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡 = 1 − 𝑘𝑘−1 (3.6)
𝜀𝜀 11
𝜂𝜂 = 1 − 1 (3.6)
(3.6)
or 𝜂𝜂
𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = =1 1−− 𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀 𝑘𝑘−1
𝑘𝑘−1 (3.6)
𝜀𝜀 𝑘𝑘−1
or
or
or or 1
𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡 = 1 − 𝑘𝑘−1 (3.7)
1
1
𝜋𝜋 1𝑘𝑘
𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 =
𝜂𝜂
𝜂𝜂 =1
= 1−
1 −
− 𝑘𝑘−1 (3.7)
(3.7)
𝑘𝑘−1
𝑘𝑘−1 (3.7)
𝜋𝜋
𝜋𝜋
𝜋𝜋
𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘
depending on the type of engine.
depending
depending on on
the the
type type
of of engine.
engine.
20. Comparing
depending
depending on
on the the efficiency
the type
type of engine.of the studied cycle and the Carnot cycle, it should be
of engine.
9. Comparing
remembered the efficiency of the studied cycle and the Carnot cycle, it should be
thatthe efficiency
20.
20. Comparing the efficiency of
20. Comparing
Comparing the efficiency of the
of the studied
the studied cycle
studied cycle and
cycle and the
and the Carnot
the Carnot cycle,
Carnot cycle, it
cycle, it should
it should be
should be
be
remembered
remembered
remembered that
that
that
remembered that 𝑇𝑇 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑘𝑘 = 1 − (3.8)
𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜂𝜂 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
(3.8)
𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = =1 1−
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜂𝜂 = 1 −
− 𝑇𝑇 (3.8)
(3.8)
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
wherein Tmin will be observed for point 1, and Tmax – for point 3.
wherein Tmin will be observed for point 1, and Tmax — for point 3.
wherein
21. The
wherein
wherein T
Tmin will
will be
research be observed
results are
observed for point
point 1,
forrecorded 1, and T
in the
and Tmax –
– for
for point
point 3.
experiment protocol table. 3.1, and
3.
T min will be observed for point 1, and Tmax
min max – for point 3.
based 10. The
onresearch research
the results results
of one are recorded
ofrecorded
the pointsinofthein the experiment
an experiment
independently protocol study
selected table.(items
3.1, and
21.
21. The
The
21.6-10), research
Theaoncycle
research results
results
results are
are
are recorded
recorded in the
in an experiment
theindependently protocol
protocol
experiment protocol table.
table. 3.1,
3.1, and
3.1,
table.(items and
and
based
based on the
the is built
results
results ofin
of pυ
one
one and
of the
of Тs
the coordinates.
points
pointsof of an independentlyselected study
selected study 6-10),
(items
based on the results of one of the points of an independently selected
based on the results of one of the points of an independently selected study (items study (items
6-10),
Based onaaathe
a cycle
6-10),
6-10), cycle
is built
cycle
cycle is
isinbuilt
results
is ofand
built
pυ
built in
in pυ
the
in pυ
Тs
pυ and
work,
and Тs coordinates.
Тs
and conclusions
coordinates.
Тs coordinates.
coordinates.are formulated and wishes and proposals
are givenBased
Based for improving the dialogue the with computers.
Based on
Based on the
on the results
the on theof
results
results of the
the work,
of results
the of conclusions
work,
work, work,
conclusions
conclusions are
are formulated
conclusions
are are and
formulated
formulated and
and wishes
wishes and
formulated
wishes andproposals
and
and wishes and
proposals
proposals
are given
Table
are 3.1.
given
areproposals
given for
for improving
improving
for are given for
improving the
the dialogue
dialogue with
dialogue
theimproving with computers.
computers.
the dialogue
with computers. with computers.
Table
Table 3.1.
Thermodynamic
Table 3.1.
3.1. parameters at characteristic points.
Thermodynamic
Thermodynamic
Thermodynamic parameters
parameters at
parameters at characteristic
at characteristic points.
characteristic points.
points. Calculation
Measurements
sCalculation
№ Measurements Calculation
Calculation
pMeasurements
MeasurementsT T T T sss s s s
Measurement
№ v1 p2 v2 p3 v3 p4 v4
№
№ 1p 1T 2T 3T
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– T
4 1s 2s 3s 4s 37
sMeasurement p p v T
T p v T
T p v T
T p v T
T s
s s
s s
s ss
Measurement
Measurement P 11
v
v
m11
1
3
/k 11 Pp
p 22 v
2 v
m22
2
3
/k 22 Pp
p 33 v
3 v
m33
3
3
/k 33 Pp
p 44 v
4 v
m44
4
3
/k 44 11 22 33 44
sss 1 K1 K2 K3 K4 J/(kg∙K)
1 2 3 4
aP gm333/k aP gm333/k aP gm333/k aP g m 33
/k
P
P mm /k /k K P m /k P m /k P m /k 3
K P m /k K K P m /k K K P m /k K K J/(kg∙K)
J/(kg∙K)
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

Table 3.1
Thermodynamic parameters at characteristic points
Measurements Calculations
№ Mea-
p1 v1 T1 p2 v2 T2 p3 v3 T3 p4 v4 T4 s1 s2 s3 s4
sure-
ments m3/ m3/ m3/
Pa K Pa m3/kg K Pa K Pa K J/(kg∙K)
kg kg kg

experimental conditions =k=

experimental conditions =k=

experimental conditions =k=

Test questions

1. How will the thermal efficiency increase? with an increase in the compression
ratio ε or the pressure increase ratio?
2. Comparison with which cycle should be performed to assess the perfection of
the investigated heat engine?
3. By what numerical values of the indicators of the polytropic process can the sign
of the heats be determined?
4. Will the work of the cycle change if the heat removed is realized with a large
value of the indicator of the polytropic process?
5. What effect does the type of working fluid have on the efficiency of the engine?
6. Why in real conditions they strive to increase the temperature in the combustion
chamber and how does this affect the efficiency of the cycle?

38 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

LABORATORY PROTOCOL
LABWORK № 3
THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF CYCLES OF THERMAL ENGINES

Date:______________Student_________________________Group__________
1. Experiment table and data processing results
Measurements Calculations
№ Mea-
p1 v1 T1 p2 v2 T2 p3 v3 T3 p4 v4 T4 s1 s2 s3 s4
sure-
ments m3/ m3/ m3/
Pa K Pa m3/kg K Pa K Pa K J/(kg∙K)
kg kg kg

experimental conditions =k=

experimental conditions =k=

experimental conditions =k=

2. Calculation

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 39
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

3. Charts

4. Conclusion
_________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Date of labwork ____________________
Date of defender ________________________
Professor ______________________

40 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

4._____________________________________________________________________
ADIABATE AIR DEPLETION THROUGH A SUBSONIC
_____________________________________________________________________
NOZZLE
_____________________________________________________________________
The
Date ofpurpose
labwork of this work is to investigate the thermodynamic characteristics of a
____________________
moving flow
Date of in a converging
defender nozzle.
________________________
Professor ______________________
Theoretical information
4. ADIABATE AIR DEPLETION THROUGH A SUBSONIC NOZZLE.
The purpose of this work is to investigate the thermodynamic characteristics of a
The study
moving flow of in the processes nozzle.
a converging of gas movement through channels is of great practical
importance in the design of jet engines, gas turbines, compressors and other technolog-
Theoretical information
ical devices. In the course of thermodynamics, it is generally accepted that the flow is
The study of the processes of gas movement through channels is of great practical
one-dimensional,
importance in that the is,design
all parameters change depending
of jet engines, on onecompressors
gas turbines, coordinate, which is
and other
technological
achieved devices. In choice
by the appropriate the course
of theofcoordinate
thermodynamics,
system and it isimplies
generally
the accepted
absence ofthat
the flow
friction against is the
one-dimensional,
channel walls. Inthat is, all
addition, it isparameters change
considered that depending
the flow is steady,onthatone
coordinate, which is achieved by the appropriate choice of the coordinate system and
is, implies
the flowtheparameters
absence at ofeach pointagainst
friction in space
theare unchanged
channel walls.inIntime. In a similar
addition, setting,
it is considered
forthat
any the
channel
flowsection,
is steady,the second
that is,flow
the rate
flow(ṁ) will be unchanged
parameters and described
at each point in spacebyare
theunchanged
flow equation:in time. In a similar setting, for any channel section, the second flow rate
(𝑚𝑚̇) will be unchanged and described by the flow equation:
𝐹𝐹 ∙ 𝑊𝑊
𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝐹𝐹 ∙ 𝑊𝑊 ∙ 𝜌𝜌 = (4.1)
𝑣𝑣
where F - is the channel cross-sectional area; W- flow rate; 𝜌𝜌 - density; v – specific
where F — is the channel cross-sectional area; W- flow rate; — density; v — specific
volume.
volume.
Additionally, it is considered that the flow is adiabatic, that is, it occurs without heat
Additionally,
exchange it isenvironment,
with the considered that the flow
technical work is adiabatic, that is,
by the channel is itnotoccurs withoutand
performed,
theexchange
heat change inwith
the external potential energy
the environment, is negligible.
technical work by the channel is not performed,
andUnder
the change in the external
the assumptions potential
made, the energy is negligible.
flow parameters are considered known in the
selected
Undersection of the flow
the assumptions if thethe
made, pressure -p is determined
flow parameters in each section,
are considered known inthethedensity
se-
–ρ (or specific volume v), temperature - Т and speed – W.
lected section of the flow if the pressure -p is determined in each section, the density –ρ
To find these parameters, it is necessary to have a system of four equations, which are
(orused
specific volume
as the v), temperature
following — Т andmotion,
equations: energy, speed — W.
continuity, state.
To find these parameters, it is necessary to have a system of four equations, which
The energy equation is a special case of the first law of thermodynamics for a flow-
arethrough
used asandthe closed
following equations:
system in terms energy, motion, continuity, state.
of enthalpy

𝑚𝑚𝑊𝑊 2
𝛿𝛿𝑄𝑄 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑 � � + 𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑧𝑧вы𝑐𝑐 ) + 𝛿𝛿𝐿𝐿тех + 𝛿𝛿𝐿𝐿тр (4.2)
2
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 41
Taking into account the described assumptions for the adiabatic flow, Eq. (4.2) can be
 the change in the external potential energy is negligible.
Under the assumptions made, the flow parameters are considered known in the
selected section of the flow if the pressure -p is determined in each section, the density
S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
–ρ (or specific volume v), temperature - Т and speed – W.
A.D. Ezhov
To find these parameters, it is necessary to have a system of four equations, which are
used as the following equations: energy, motion, continuity, state.
The energy equation is a special case of the first law of thermodynamics for a
The energy equation is a special case of the first law of thermodynamics for a flow-
flow-through
through andand closed
closed system
system in in terms
terms of of enthalpy
enthalpy

𝑚𝑚𝑊𝑊 2
𝛿𝛿𝑄𝑄 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑 � � + 𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑧𝑧вы𝑐𝑐 ) + 𝛿𝛿𝐿𝐿тех + 𝛿𝛿𝐿𝐿тр (4.2)
2
Taking into account the described assumptions for the adiabatic flow, Eq. (4.2) can be
Taking into account the described assumptions for the adiabatic flow, Eq. (4.2) can
be rewritten as
rewritten as
rewritten as
rewritten as 𝑚𝑚𝑊𝑊 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑 � � =2 0,
𝑚𝑚𝑊𝑊 (4.3) (4.3)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚𝑊𝑊 + 𝑑𝑑22 � � = 0, (4.3)
and for 1 kgand rewritten
of thermodynamic as 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
working + 𝑑𝑑 �fluid � =2 0,fluid (4.3)
for 1 kg of thermodynamic working
2
and for 1 kg of thermodynamic 𝑚𝑚𝑊𝑊working2 fluid
and for 1 rewritten
kg of thermodynamic 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
as𝑑𝑑ℎ + 𝑑𝑑 � � 𝑊𝑊 +𝑊𝑊 working
𝑑𝑑
2 � � fluid
= 0, (4.3)
=220, (4.4)
𝑑𝑑ℎ 𝑊𝑊 +2 𝑑𝑑 � � = 𝑚𝑚𝑊𝑊
2 0, 2 (4.4) (4.4)
and for 1 kg of thermodynamic 𝑑𝑑ℎ + 𝑑𝑑 � � = working
20, fluid (4.4) (4.3) of the specifi
Expression 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑 �equation � = and 0, shows that the sum
Expression (4.4) is(4.4)
Expression called is the
(4.4)
called
is energy
called
the energy
equation
the
2 energy and shows
2 equation that
and theshows
sum of thatthethe specif-
sum of the spe
enthalpy and
Expression (4.4) specific
is called
𝑑𝑑ℎ kinetic
+ the 𝑑𝑑 � energy
𝑊𝑊
energy � = in an adiabatic
equation
0, and flow remains
shows that the unchanged.
(4.4)
sum of the specific
ic enthalpy and enthalpy and for
specific kinetic 1 kg
and specific of thermodynamic
energykinetic in an 2 adiabaticenergy inflow working fluid
an adiabatic
remains flow unchanged.remains unchanged.
enthalpy
For the and finalspecific
section kinetic of the process energy in 1-2, anafter adiabatic
integratingflow remains
equationunchanged.(4.4), we obtain
For the Expression
finalForsection
the final(4.4)
of the is process
section called of𝑑𝑑ℎ thethe
1-2, + energy
process
𝑑𝑑 after
� � equation
𝑊𝑊 2 integrating
1-2,
= 0, after and shows
integrating
equation that
equation
(4.4), the
we sum
(4.4),
obtain
(4.4)of wetheobtain
specif
Forenthalpy
the finaland section of the
specific kinetic𝑤𝑤energy process
2 −𝑤𝑤 2 1-2, after integrating equation (4.4), we obtain
ℎ121 −inℎan adiabatic flow(4.5) remains unchanged.
𝑤𝑤 2
2=
2 1 2 −𝑤𝑤
2
2 = ℎ − ℎ (4.5) that the sum of the
For theExpression (4.4) is called 2ℎ the energy equation andequation
shows
2 2
final section of𝑤𝑤the
2 −𝑤𝑤 process
1
= − 1-2, ℎ
1
after 2
2 increase in the flow rate(4.4),
integrating (4.5) we obtain
(4.5)
It can be seen from
enthalpy and this
specific equation
2 kinetic 1that an
energy in an adiabatic flow remainsis determined
unchanged. by
It can be seen from this 2 −𝑤𝑤equation
2 that an increase in the flow rate is determined
It canIt corresponding decrease in enthalpy.
𝑤𝑤
be
canseen from
be For
corresponding this
seenthefrom final equation
this
section
decrease equation that2
of
in2 the an1
enthalpy.=increase
that ℎ1an
process 2in the
− increase
ℎ1-2, flow
after therate
in integrating
flow is determined
(4.5) rate by webyobt
is determined
equation (4.4), a
corresponding
a correspondingThe equation
decrease decrease
of enthalpy.
motion in enthalpy.
is a connection between mechanical types of energy and i
It can
The seeninfrom
beequation of this equation
motion is a that
𝑤𝑤22connection 1 an increase between in the flow (4.5)
mechanical rate is determined by
1 kg types of energy a
−𝑤𝑤 2

Theveryequation
often called of the Bernoulli
motion is a connection equation, =between
ℎwhich
1 − ℎ2 inmechanical
relation totypes of aenergy
of working and fluid
is
The equation ofoften
corresponding
veryform: motion is a the
decrease
called connection
in enthalpy.
Bernoulli between
2 equation, mechanical
which in types relation of toenergy
1 kg and of a working
has often
very the called the Bernoulli equation, which in relation to 1 kg of a working fluid
is very often The has
called Itthe
thecan
equation form:beofseen
Bernoulli motion fromisthis
equation, a equation
which
connection in that
relation
betweenan increase
to 1 kg of
mechanicalina theworkingflow rate
types fluid
of is determin
energy and
has the form: corresponding decrease
𝑊𝑊 2
in enthalpy.
has the form:very often called the𝑑𝑑Bernoulli � � 𝑊𝑊 = −𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣.
2
equation, which in relation(4.6) to 1 kg of a working flu
𝑊𝑊 22𝑑𝑑 � 2 � = −𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣. (4.6)
has theThe form: equation𝑑𝑑of � motion
� = is a connection between (4.6)
−𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣. mechanical types of energ
It can be seen from the 2equation that dp and dW always have opposite signs, that is
verybeoften
It can seen called
from the the Bernoullithat
𝑊𝑊 2equation equation,
dp andwhich dW in relation toopposite
1 kg ofsigns, a worki
It the
canspeed
be of afrom
seen one-dimensional
the equation
𝑑𝑑 � � = gas
that flow
dp
−𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣. andincreases
dW alwaysonlyalways
in the
have
have
(4.6)direction
opposite of decreasing
signs,
(4.6) that
th
is,
the has
pressure. speedthe of form:a one-dimensional 2 gas flow increases only in the direction of decre
the speed of
pressure. a one-dimensional gas flow increases only in the direction of decreasing
It can beIt seen
can from
be seen thefrom equation the that dp𝑊𝑊 2and
equation that dWdp always
and dWhave alwaysopposite
have signs,opposite thatsigns, that
pressure.
The continuity equation is based 𝑑𝑑 � on �= the −𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣.
law of conservation of mass(4.6) and emphasize
is, the speedthatthe speed
of aThe of a one-dimensional
continuity
one-dimensional equationgas flow is increases2gas flow
based on only increases
the law
in the only in the
of direction
conservation of direction
of mass of
decreasing and decreasi
empha
the flow rate
Thepressure.
continuity equationper second is based 𝑚𝑚̇, given on the bylawrelation
of (4.1) remains
conservation of constant
mass and emphasizes
pressure. that the thatItthe canflow be seen rate per from second the equation 𝑚𝑚̇, giventhat dp and dW
by relation (4.1)always
remains have opposite signs
constant
flow rate
the speed equationper second
of𝑚𝑚̇a=one-dimensional 𝑚𝑚 ̇ ,
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 given by relation
gaslaw flow (4.1) remains constant
only(4.7)
The continuity 𝑚𝑚̇ =ison based on the
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ofincreases
conservation in mass
of the direction
(4.7) and emphasiz of de
The continuity equation
pressure. is based the law of conservation of mass and empha-
(4.7)constantworking fluid
From
that thethis formula
flow rate𝑚𝑚̇per = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
and relation𝑚𝑚̇(4.1)
second , givenit by follows
relation that(4.1)for remains
a compressible
sizes that From
the From this formula and relation (4.1) it follows that for a compressible working
theflow rate
constancy per 𝑚𝑚second
̇ depends ṁ, given
not only by is relation
on
based theon (4.1)
profile
the remains
lawofforthe constant
channel
ofaconservation F andworking changes inemth
this
the
The continuity
formula
constancy and
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
̇ ̇ =equation
relation
depends (4.1)
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
not onlyit follows
on the that
profile of compressible
the (4.7) of
channel F
mass and
and fluid
changes i
thespeed W,
constancythat butthe
𝑚𝑚also
̇ flow onrate
depends the not density
per second
only oronspecific
𝑚𝑚the ̇ , given volume.
profile by of relation
the (4.1) remains
channel F and constantin the
changes
From speedthis W, but alsoand
formula on relation
the density (4.1) oritspecific
follows volume.
that for a compressible working flu
speed
The W, but also
channels inonwhich the density the
𝑚𝑚 ̇ = or
moving specific
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 gas volume.
increases its speed while (4.7) decreasing the
theTheconstancy
channels 𝑚𝑚̇ depends
in which notthe only moving on thegas profile of the channel
increases its speed F andwhile changes in t
Thepressure
channels are called
in whichnozzles. the It
moving was found gas that if the velocity
increases its speed inwhile
the nozzle isdecreasing
decreasing subsonic
the
speed FromW, butare thisalso on the
formula density
and relation Itor specific (4.1) volume.
itthat
follows
if thethat for aincompressible worki
thenpressure
pressure it should
are calledhave called
a tapering
nozzles.
nozzles.
It
42 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––wasgeometry. was
found
found
From
that if the
the energy
velocity
velocity
equation
in the forthethe
nozzle
nozzle
final
is
is subs
section
subsonic,
then the constancy
it should inahave 𝑚𝑚̇adepends
tapering not
geometry. only gason the profile
From ofspeed
the material
energy the channel
equation F
for andfinal
the change set
ofThe
then the channels
process
itofshould have (4.5) which
it follows
tapering the geometry. moving
that the flow From increases
rate
the of the
energy its
equation while
medium
for the decreasing
in an
final arbitrary
section
pressure speed
the W,
process but(4.5) alsoiton follows the densitythat theor flow
specific
thatofifrate volume.
ofvelocity
the material in themedium insubson
an arb
ofsection
the willare
process be called
(4.5) determined
it nozzles.
follows bythat Itthewas the found
dependence:
flow rate the
the material medium nozzle
in an is
arbitrary
then section
itThe
should willhave be determined
a in tapering bythe the moving dependence:
section will bechannels
determined bywhich thegeometry.dependence: 2
Fromgas theincreases
energy equation its speed for thewhile finaldecrea
secti
 has the form: 𝑊𝑊 2
� = −𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣.
𝑑𝑑 � (4.6)
2 𝑊𝑊 2
𝑑𝑑 � � = −𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣. (4.6)
It can be seen from the equation 2 that dp and dW always have opposite signs, th
the Itspeed
can be
of aseen from the equation
one-dimensional
THERMODYNAMIC gas that increases
flow
PROPERTIES,dp and dW always
only in thehave opposite
direction signs
of decrea
the speed of a one-dimensional gas flow increases only in the direction of de
pressure. PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Thepressure.
continuity equation is based on the law of conservation of mass and empha
From thisthatThe
formula continuity
the flow
and rate perequation
relation second
(4.1) it 𝑚𝑚 iṡ ,based on
by the
giventhat
follows alaw
relation
for of conservation
(4.1) remains
compressible of mass
flu- and em
constant
working
that the flow rate𝑚𝑚̇per second 𝑚𝑚̇, given by relation (4.1) remains
=on𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 constant
(4.7)in
id the constancy ṁ depends not only the profile of the channel F and changes the
From
speed W, but also onthis formulaorand
the density 𝑚𝑚relation
̇ = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
specific (4.7) working
(4.1) it follows that for a compressible
volume.
the From
The channels this formula
constancy
in which 𝑚𝑚̇ depends
the andnot
moving relation
gasonly (4.1)
on
increases theititsfollows
profile that
the for
speedofwhile a compressible
channel F and
decreasing workiin
thechanges
theW,
speed constancy
but also 𝑚𝑚oṅ depends notoronly
the density on the
specific profile of the channel F and change
volume.
pressure are calledspeed
nozzles. It
W, but was found that if the velocity in the nozzle is subsonic,
The channels inalso
whichon the
thedensity
moving or specific
gas increasesvolume.its speed while decreasing
then it should pressure
have a tapering
The channels geometry.
are calledinnozzles. From
which Itthe the energy
wasmoving
found that equation for
gas ifincreases the
its final
the velocity speed
in section
the while is
nozzle decreas
subs
of the process then
(4.5) ititshould
follows
pressure are thatathe
called
have flow rate
nozzles.
tapering It of
wasthefound
geometry. material
themedium
Fromthat ifenergy in an arbitrary
the velocity in for
equation the the
nozzle
finalisses
thenprocess
section will beofdetermined
the it should
by(4.5)
thehave a tapering
it follows
dependence: thatgeometry. From
the flow rate ofthe
theenergy equation
material mediumforinthean fina
arbi
of the
section process
will (4.5) it follows
be determined that the flow rate of the material medium in an a
by the dependence:
section will be determined by the dependence:
𝑊𝑊2 = �2(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) + 𝑊𝑊12 , (4.8)
(4.8)
2
𝑊𝑊2 = �2(ℎ − ℎ2 + 𝑊𝑊1 ,
) (4.8)
whereflow
where W1 — initial 𝑊𝑊1 − initial flow rate.
rate.
1

𝑊𝑊where
If W1 = 0,Ifthen
𝑊𝑊1 − initial flow rate.
1 = 0, then
If 𝑊𝑊1 = 0, then
𝑊𝑊2 = �2(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) (4.9)
𝑊𝑊2 = �2(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) (4.9)
(4.9)
and taking into account the introduction of the concept of enthalpy of deceleration
and taking
and taking into account into accountofthe
the introduction theintroduction of the concept
concept of enthalpy of enthalpy
of deceleration h*of decelerat

𝑊𝑊 = �2(ℎ∗ − ℎ), (4.10)

(4.10)
∗ − ℎ ), (4.10) sectio
where W and h are where
the velocity
W andand 𝑊𝑊 specific
h are
= �2(ℎ enthalpy
the velocity andinspecific
the considered
enthalpysection.
in the considered
Flow regime �2(ℎ
𝑊𝑊 =where
with
FlowW
∗ −and
initial
regime ,h are
ℎ)velocity
with W = 0velocity
theinitial
velocity was
andcalled
specific 0 (4.10)
𝑊𝑊1 expiration
= enthalpy and is expiration
in the
was called very often and
considered section.
is v
1
where W and hinare
encountered encountered
the velocity
practice,
Flow since and
regime inaspecific
inwith practice,
number ofsince
initialenthalpy in in
technical
velocity a 𝑊𝑊
number
the 0 of technical
=considered
problems
was problems
section.
>>
Wcalled .
W expiration 2 ≫is
𝑊𝑊and .
𝑊𝑊1ver
1 2 1
Flow regime
As applied encountered
withtoinitial
an gasinunder
velocity
As ideal
applied practice,
to an
𝑊𝑊1 =
the0since
idealwasgasincalled
assumption a number
under ofassumption
technical
ofexpiration
the
a constant heatisproblems
and very
of
capacityoften
a constant
c𝑊𝑊 𝑊𝑊1 . ca
2 ≫ heat
ex-
p
encountered in practice, since into(4.10)
Asexpression
applied a number
willofbe
an ideal technical
under problems
rewritten
gas as: 𝑊𝑊2 ≫ 𝑊𝑊of
the assumption 1 . a constant heat capa
pression (4.10) will be rewritten as:
As applied to an expression
ideal gas under (4.10)𝑊𝑊 the =assumption
will be�rewritten
2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 (Т∗ −as:ofТ)a constant heat capacity 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 (4.11)
expression (4.10) will be rewritten as:
and expressing 𝑊𝑊 the �2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐Т
= value ∗ − Т)
𝑝𝑝 through the adiabatic process indicator
(4.11)𝑘𝑘 and th
(4.11)
and expressing𝑊𝑊the =value
and 2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑝𝑝c(Т
�expressing
gas constant
∗ − 𝑅𝑅
through )using
Тthe the Mayer's
adiabatic
value equation
process
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 through we obtain:
theindicator
adiabatic (4.11)
k and the specific
process gas𝑘𝑘 and the
indicator
p
and expressing
constant the gas
R using value
constant
Mayer’s through
𝑅𝑅 using
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝equation the adiabaticequation
we Mayer's
obtain: processwe indicator
obtain: 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 and the specific
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 = 𝑅𝑅
gas constant 𝑅𝑅 using Mayer's equation we obtain: 𝑘𝑘 − 1
Thus, equation (4.11) can 𝑘𝑘 be represented 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 = as: 𝑅𝑅
𝑘𝑘 − 1
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 = 𝑅𝑅
Thus, equation (4.11) can 𝑘𝑘 −be1𝑘𝑘 represented 𝑇𝑇as:
�2
Thus, equation (4.11) can be represented as: 𝑘𝑘−1 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 �1 − 𝑇𝑇 ∗�
𝑊𝑊 = ∗ (4.12)
Thus, equation (4.11) can be 𝑊𝑊represented
= �2
𝑘𝑘 as:∗ �1 − �
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇
(4.12)
which, 𝑘𝑘 taking into 𝑇𝑇account
𝑘𝑘−1 the relations 𝑇𝑇 ∗ for the adiabatic process, will take the
𝑊𝑊 = �2 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 ∗ �1 − ∗� (4.12)
𝑘𝑘−1 𝑇𝑇
which, taking into account the relations for the 𝑘𝑘−1adiabatic process, will take the f
𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝 𝑘𝑘
which, taking into account the relations 𝑊𝑊 =for�the 2 adiabatic 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 ∗ �1 process,
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– − � 𝑘𝑘−1 � will � take the form: 43 (4.13)
𝑘𝑘−1 𝑝𝑝∗
𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝 𝑘𝑘
𝑊𝑊 = �2𝑘𝑘−1 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 ∗ �1 − � ∗� � (4.13)
𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝 𝑘𝑘−1 𝑝𝑝
𝑊𝑊 = � It2can be 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇seen
∗ �1 from
− � ∗this � relation
𝑘𝑘
� that the outflow (4.13)rate is the greater, the lower
𝑘𝑘−1 𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝 ∗
 =𝑊𝑊 𝑊𝑊 = =ТТ� 2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
∗2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (Т𝑝𝑝ТТ)()Т−−Т)Тas: ) (4.11)
(4.11)(4.11)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝((� (4.11)
𝑊𝑊 (4.10)
𝑊𝑊 = 2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐will
2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∗− −
expression �� be 𝑝𝑝rewritten
andexpressing
and expressing
and expressing
and expressing the value
the valuethe𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐value
the 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝value
through
=through through
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝through
the the the
adiabatic
∗ adiabatic theadiabatic
adiabatic
process
process process
process indicator
indicator
indicator
indicator and
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 and the
(4.11) and
𝑘𝑘and
𝑘𝑘the thespeci
the
specific
specific spec
𝑊𝑊 �2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑝𝑝 (Т − Т)
gasconstant
gas
gasconstant
gas constantconstant 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
using
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 using usingMayer's
using
Mayer's
Mayer's Mayer's
equation
equation equation
equation weweobtain:
obtain: weweobtain:
obtain:
and expressing the value 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 through the adiabatic process indicator 𝑘𝑘 and the spec
S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑘𝑘 we 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘
gas constant 𝑅𝑅 using Mayer's A.D. Ezhov 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝equation
== 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 =
𝑝𝑝 =
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅obtain:𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑝𝑝
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘− −11 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘
− − 1 1
𝑘𝑘
Thus,
Thus,
Thus,equation
Thus, equation equation
equation
(4.11) (4.11)
(4.11)(4.11)
canbe
can becan can be
be represented
represented
represented represented as:𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 as:
as: =as: 𝑅𝑅
𝑘𝑘 − 1
Thus, equation (4.11) can 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘be represented ∗ �1 −𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 �as:
𝑊𝑊 =
𝑊𝑊 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
�2
= �2 =𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘=�2 �2
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 ∗∗�1 �1 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
− −∗ �1
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
�� − �∗ (4.12) (4.12)
(4.12)(4.12)(4.12)
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇∗∗ 𝑇𝑇 ∗𝑇𝑇
𝑘𝑘−1
𝑘𝑘−1 𝑘𝑘−1
𝑘𝑘−1
which, taking into account
which, takingthe
into account
= �2
𝑊𝑊account thethe
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 relations for
∗ adiabatic
relations
�1the
− for
𝑇𝑇 process, will take the form:
𝑘𝑘
for
� the adiabatic process, will
(4.12)take theform:
form
which,which,
which, taking
taking taking
into
into into
account
account the
the the
relations
𝑘𝑘−1
relations
relations for
for the ∗ the adiabatic
adiabatic
𝑇𝑇adiabatic
process,
process,
process, will
willtake
will take take
the
the the
form:
form:
𝑘𝑘−1
which, taking into𝑘𝑘account 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 the relations
𝑘𝑘−1 for
𝑘𝑘−1
𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘the adiabatic process, will take the form
𝑘𝑘−1

𝑊𝑊 =
𝑊𝑊 =� 𝑊𝑊2𝑊𝑊
� 𝑘𝑘
2==�𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 �2 2∗∗𝑘𝑘−1
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 �1�1𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
−∗���1∗�1
−
∗𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
��−−��𝑝𝑝��∗𝑝𝑝�∗� � �
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (4.13)
(4.13)(4.13)
(4.13)
𝑘𝑘−1 𝑘𝑘−1
𝑘𝑘−1 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝∗
𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝 𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘−1
(4.13)
𝑊𝑊 =this �2 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 that∗ �1 −the � � rate is the greater,(4.13)
� ∗outflow
ItItIt
cancan ItbeIt
canbebe seen
cancanbe
seen
seen be
from seen
from
from seen
this from
this
this from
relation this relation
relation
relation relation
thatthat
that
𝑘𝑘−1 thethe
the outflow
that outflow
outflow 𝑝𝑝rate
the outflow rateisisisthe
rate thegreater,
rate
the is the greater,
greater,
greater, the
thelower
the the
lower
lower the
thelower
lower
the
the theval
the
value
value v
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ratio𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝
ofthe thepressure
pressure ∗ ∗ − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝).
value of ofthe
of the of
thepressure
pressure
pressure ratio ∗ratio
ratio
ratio or
or more
more orortheir
∗𝑝𝑝∗ their
more more theirtheirdifference
difference
difference
difference difference
(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝∗∗−
(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 −𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝). (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝). − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝).
It can be seen 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 from this relation that the outflow rate is the greater, the lower the v
∗ 𝑝𝑝
AtAt
Atthe same
the
the At Atthe
of
same
same time,
the
the samesamein in
pressure
time,
time, an
in anexperimental
time,
time, an ininanan
ratio
experimental
experimental
𝑝𝑝 study
orexperimental
experimental
more their
study
study of the ofstudy
study outflow
difference
of the
the of ofthe
outflow
outflow ofoutflow
the
(𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∗gasesoutflow
−of𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝).
of from
gases
gases ofoffrom agases
converg-
gases
from froma aconvergi
aafrom
converging
converging converg
𝑝𝑝∗
ing nozzle,
nozzle,
nozzle, itnozzle,
itnozzle,
was
itwas
was itwas
itfound
found found was
that found
found
that
that it itisitthat that it itisisimpossible
impossible
isis impossible
impossible impossible
toto toobtain
obtain
obtain toto obtain
aobtain
aagas a agas
gaspressure
gas pressure
pressure gaspressure
pressure
belowabelow
below
below aabelow
certaina acertain
certain
certain certain
value val
value v
atatlarge
large
large At the pressure
atpressure
large
atpressure
large
pressure same
pressure
drops
drops time, indrops
drops
in in an
the
the in inthe
outlet
outlet experimental
thesection
outletsection
outlet
section ofofthestudy
section of
thenozzle
the ofof
the
nozzle
nozzle thethenozzle outflow
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝nozzle
.. 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝кр . of. gases from a converg
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝кр
value at drops in the outlet section of
nozzle, it was found that it is impossible to obtain a gas pressure below a certain v p кр
кр .
кр

The
The
The TheThe
maximum
maximum
maximum maximum
maximum speed
speed
speed speed
speed
corresponds
corresponds
corresponds corresponds
corresponds
intothe to
to this
this
this to tothis
critical
critical
critical this critical
critical
pressure.
pressure.
pressure. pressure.
pressure.
It Itwas
Itwas was It Itwas
found
found
found wasfound
found
that
that the
the that
that
ratio
ratio the
the of
of rati
ratio
at large pressure drops outlet section of the nozzle 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝кр . that the ra-
the the
thecritical thecritical
critical
critical critical
pressure
pressure pressure
pressure
totothe to
theinitial
the tothe
initial
initial theinitial initialpressure
pressure
pressure pressure
atat the
the atthe
atnozzle
nozzle thenozzle nozzle
inlet
inlet inlet(stagnation
inlet
(stagnation
(stagnation (stagnation
pressure)
pressure) pressure)
pressure)
can c
can
tio of the The
be pressure
maximum
determined to speed
by the formula:pressure
corresponds atto thethis nozzle
critical inletpressure. (stagnation It was pressure)
found that the rati
be be determined
bedetermined
determined bythe
by theby the formula:
formula:
formula:
can be determined the critical
by the formula: pressure to the initial 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
pressure
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘
at the nozzle inlet (stagnation pressure)
be determined кр by кр
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝кр 𝑝𝑝 the=formula:
𝑝𝑝 кр 2 =
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽2кр 2 2 𝑘𝑘−1
(4.14)
= = 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽кр
∗ ∗=
𝑝𝑝кр𝑝𝑝
==𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽��кр �𝑘𝑘−1
=��𝑘𝑘−1 � �𝑘𝑘−1
𝑘𝑘+1
𝑘𝑘+1
� (4.14)(4.14)
(4.14)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝∗∗ 𝑘𝑘+1
𝑘𝑘+1 𝑘𝑘
𝑝𝑝кр 2
This
This means
This means Thismeans means
that
that thethethatthat the
critical
critical thecritical
critical
pressure
pressure pressure
= 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽крpressure
ratio
=ratio
𝑘𝑘−1
� ratiodepends
ratio
depends
� depends depends
only on
only only
on only
theon
the onthe
adiabatic
adiabatic theadiabatic
adiabatic
(4.14) process
process process
process
index ind
index in
𝑝𝑝∗ 𝑘𝑘+1
thatk,
k,that
k, is,
is, k,thatthat
on
on theis,
theis,on onthe
physical
physical thephysical
physical
properties
properties properties
properties
ofthe
of of
thegas.ofthe
gas. the
For
For gas.
gas. airFor
air For
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 =
= air
air1,4;𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘=𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽=
1,4; 1,4;
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽кр 1,4;
кр =
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 (4.14)
кркр==
=𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽0,528.
0,528. 0,528.
0,528.
This means This that means the that thepressure
critical critical pressure
ratio ratio depends
depends only on onlyadiabatic
the on the adiabatic process process in
IfIf the
the If
Ifpressure
pressurethethe pressure
pressure of of the
the of of the
medium
medium the medium
medium downstream
downstream downstream
downstream
k, that is, on the physical properties of the gas. For air 𝑘𝑘 = 1,4; 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽кр = 0,528. of
of the
the ofof the
nozzle
nozzle the nozzle
nozzle
pp isis p pis
reduced
reduced is reduced
reduced
toto to topressur
pressures
pressures press
index k, that lower
lower
lower is,
than
than lower
on𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝thethan
кр,,physical
than then 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝кр
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝кр
then ,this, then
then
this will this
properties
this
will not will
will
not ofnot
affect
affect notaffect
the affect
gas.
the
the For
gas
gas the the air
gasgas
pressure
pressure pressure
=1,4;β
k pressure atat the
the =0,528.
atexit
кр exit
atthe
the
ofexit
of exitof
the
the ofthe
theconvergi
converging
converging converg
кр
If the𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝pressure of the medium downstream equalof𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 the nozzle p is reduced to press
nozzle
Ifnozzle 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝nozzle
nozzle
the pressure andof
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 and it𝑐𝑐it𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝will
𝑐𝑐and
the and
will it itwill
remain
remain
medium willremain
remain
constant
constant
downstream constant
constant
andequal
and and
equal
of and
the 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝equal
кр.. 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝кр
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝nozzle
кр pкр .is. reduced to pressures
lower than 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝кр , then this will not affect the gas pressure at the exit of the converg
lower Gas
than
Gas flow Gas
pflow ,Gas then
flow
rate
rate flow this
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑐𝑐rate
̇ inrate
inwill 𝑚𝑚iṫ 𝑚𝑚not
this
this in inthis
̇ will
case,
case, this
affect case,
case,
itit will
will itwill
theconstant
gas
itremainwill
remain remain
pressure
remain
constant,
constant, at constant,
the
constant,
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝and
and exit the of
andand thethe
outflow the outflow
converging
outflowvelocity velocity
in theinint
velocity
кр nozzle 𝑚𝑚 and remain and equal кр .the outflow velocity in the
converging nozzle will also constant
remain constant and toequal tothe the localof ofspeed ofofsound.
sound.
pc andconverging
converging
nozzleconverging it will nozzle
nozzle remain nozzle
will
will also
constant will
also also
and remain
remain
remain constant
equal constant
pкр andequal
. and and
equal equal
to to
thelocal
the local local
speed
speed speed sound.
sound.
Gas flow rate 𝑚𝑚̇ in this case, it will remain constant, and the outflow velocity in
Gas flow convergingrate ṁ in thisnozzle case, it willwillalsoremain
remain constant,
constant and theequal
and outflow to the velocity
local speed in the of sound.
converging nozzle will also remain constant and equal to the local speed of sound.

𝑘𝑘
𝑤𝑤кр = 𝑎𝑎 = �𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇кр = �2 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 ∗ , (4.15)
𝑘𝑘+1 (4.15)
where Tкр converging
where 𝑇𝑇кр −nozzle outlet nozzle
converging temperature.
outlet temperature.
The constant critical
The constant pressure
critical drop isdrop
pressure explained by theby
is explained nature of the of
the nature propagation of
the propagation of the
disturbance
the disturbance in the medium.
in the medium.
Description of the experimental setup
The unit is mounted on a frame and consists of a constant pressure source - a
44 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
compressor, an air line with shut-off and control valves, a rotameter, a converging
nozzle and four pressure gauges.
The schematic diagram of the installation is shown in Figure 4.1.
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

Description of the experimental setup

The unit is mounted on a frame and consists of a constant pressure source — a

compressor, an air line with shut-off and control valves, a rotameter, a converging nozzle
and four pressure gauges.
The schematic diagram of the installation is shown in Figure 4.1.

Fig. 4.1.

Air from the coaxial oil-free compressor 1 through the shut-off valve 2 enters
the pressure regulator 3, and then into the rotameter 5 and the converging nozzle 6.
Subsequently, the air through the control valve 10 is released into the environment.
The pressure drop in the nozzle device is created by the difference in pressure of
the compressed air at the inlet to the nozzle (p1) and at the exit from it (pc). The stated
values are determined from the overpressure measurements. Δp1 and Δp1с, fixed using
pressure gauges 7 and 8. Excessive pressure in the line behind the nozzle Δp2 measured
by a manometer 9. Absolute pressure in the area where the outflow occurs (p2) is variable
and is regulated by changing the flow area of the valve 10. With the valve fully open,
the pressure p2 equal to atmospheric pressure pбар, which is measured with a barometer.
Taking into account the specifics of the experiment, when it is required to study the
dependence of the second mass flow rate and the outflow rate on the pressure drop in the
converging nozzle at a constant inlet pressure, any change in the flow area realized by

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 45
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

valve 10 will lead to an increase in the inlet pressure p1, therefore, an additional valve
4 is included in the design of the installation, which bleeds part of the air continuously
supplied by the compressor 1 to the environment. For the convenience of selecting the
appropriate operating parameters, a control valve 4 and a pressure gauge 11 are provid-
ed, the readings of which are needed for a high-quality experiment, but not participating
in the processing of experimental data.
continuously supplied by the compressor 1 to the environment. For the convenience of
selecting the appropriate operating parameters, a control valve 4 and a pressure gauge
Experimental procedure
11 are provided, the readings of which are needed for a high-quality experiment, but
not participating in the processing of experimental data.
Before switching
Experimental procedure on the unit, make sure that valves 2 and 4 are fully open and pres-
sure regulator 3 is unloaded.
Before switching on the unit, make sure that valves 2 and 4 are fully open and pressure
Taking
regulator into account the requirements for studying the dependence of the mass flow
3 is unloaded.
rate and
Taking flow
into rate onthe
account therequirements
pressure ratiofor studying the dependence of the mass flow
rate and flow rate on the pressure ratio
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 = = ∗
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
Most appropriate pressure
Most appropriate p1 keep
pressure constant,
p1 keep and the
constant, and value p2 increase.
the value (this
p2 increase. formula
(this formu-
takes into account that the pressure at the nozzle inlet p1 is practically the stagnation
la takesp*,
pressure intoand
account that thebehind
the pressure pressure
theatnozzle
the nozzle
p2 matches is practically
inlet p1 the parameterstheof stagnation
the area
where the expiration
pressure p*, and theoccurs.)
pressure behind the nozzle p2 matches the parameters of the area
where
For this,the
all expiration
measurementsoccurs.)
are carried out at different β in about 10-12 modes. After
turningForon this,
the compressor 1, loading
all measurements the pressure
are carried regulatorβ 3,
out at different in the pressure
about at the inlet
10-12 modes. After
to the nozzle is constant according to the readings of the pressure gauge 7 (Δp1) and
turning
the on the
readings compressor
of the manometers1, loading
are taken theinpressure
sequence regulator
8 (Δpс) 3,andthe pressure
9 (Δp at the inlet
2), as well as a
to the nozzle
rotameter is constant
5, fixing the massaccording
flow rateto𝑚𝑚̇the
. In readings of valve
the future, the pressure gauge but
10 is closed, 7 (Δp ) and
so 1that
the
thereadings
readingsofofthethemanometer
manometers 7 remain
are taken theinsame (valve8 4(Δp
sequence and the 9manometer
) and 11 are
(Δp2), as well as a
с
intended for this) and the measurements of the manometers 8 and 9, as well as the
rotameter 5, fixing the mass flow rate ṁ. In the future, valve 10 is closed, but so that the
rotameter 5 are repeated. The measurement results are entered into the protocol of the
readings of(Table
experiment the manometer 7 remain
4.1 ), where thethe same (valve
barometric 4 and the
pressure manometer
readings 11 are intend-
are additionally
recorded and the
pбар and
ed for this) ambient temperature
measurements 1. manometers 8 and 9, as well as the rotameter
of tthe
At5 the
are end of theThe
repeated. experiments, all control
measurement resultsvalves are moved
are entered to protocol
into the their original
of theposition.
experiment
(Table 4.1 ),ofwhere
Processing results pressure readings are additionally recorded pбар and
the barometric
research
1.ambient
Determinestemperature t1. pressure in front of the nozzle p1, at the nozzle exit (in the
the absolute
outlet section)
At the end , and
pсof behind the nozzle
the experiments, p2 invalves
all control Pascals.
areFor this,tothe
moved readings
their originalof each
position.
manometer, taking into account the division price, are first converted into ATI
2
(kg/cm ), and then taking into account the barometric pressure reading pбар defined in
46 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
mmHg the absolute pressure is determined by the formula
p= pбар +Δp (4.16)
 For this,toallthe nozzle is constant
measurements are carriedaccording
out attodifferent
the readings of the10-12
β in about pressure gaugeAfter
modes. 7 (Δp1)
turning onthethereadings
compressor of the1,manometers
loading theare taken in
pressure sequence
regulator 3, 8the(Δp с) and 9at(Δp
pressure the2),inlet
as well a
rotameter
to the nozzle 5, fixing
is constant the masstoflow
according rate 𝑚𝑚̇. Inofthe
the readings thefuture,
pressure valve
gauge10 is7 closed,
(Δp1) and but so
the readings
the readings ofTHERMODYNAMIC
of the manometers the manometer are taken7 in remain
PROPERTIES,
sequence the same
8 (Δp(valve 4 and the manometer 11
с) and 9 (Δp2), as well as a
PROCESSES AND CYCLES
rotameterintended
5, fixingfor thethis)
massand flow therate
measurements
𝑚𝑚̇. In the future, of thevalve
manometers 8 andbut9, so
10 is closed, as that
well as
rotameter
the readings of the5manometer
are repeated. The measurement
7 remain the same (valve results4 are
and entered into the protocol
the manometer 11 are of
intendedexperiment
Processing forofthis) and
research (Table 4.1 ), where of
the measurements
results thethebarometric
manometers pressure
8 and readings
9, as wellare as addition
the
recorded
rotameter 5 are repeated. p бар and ambient temperature
The measurement results t 1 . are entered into the protocol of the
experimentAt the(Table
end of 4.1the),experiments,
where the barometric
all control valves pressure readingsto are
are moved theiradditionally
original position
1. Determines
recorded pбар and theambient
absolutetemperature
pressure in tfront1 . of the nozzle p 1
, at the nozzle exit (in
the outlet Processing of research results
At thesection)
end of the pс, and behind theallnozzle
experiments, control in Pascals.
p2valves For this,
are moved the readings
to their originalof each
position.
1. Determines
manometer, taking into account the absolute
the division pressure
price,in arefront
firstof the nozzle
converted , at (kg/cm
intop1ATI the nozzle
2
), exit (in
Processing of research results
outlet section) pс, and behind the nozzle p2 in Pascals. For this, the readings of e
and then taking into account
manometer, the barometric
taking into account pressurethe reading pprice,
division defined in mmHg
are nozzle
first the into A
converted
1. Determines the
2
absolute pressure in front of the nozzle p
бар
1 , at the exit (in the
absolute pressure
(kg/cm is determined
), and then by the
taking formula
into account the barometric
outlet section) pс, and behind the nozzle p2 in Pascals. For this, the readings ofpбар pressure reading each defined
manometer,mmHg the absolute
taking into account pressure theis division
determined by the
price, areformula
first converted into ATI
2
(kg/cm ), and then taking into account p= pбарthe +Δp barometric pressure reading (4.16) pбар (4.16)defined in
mmHg the absolute pressure is determined by the formula
Taking
Taking into into account
account the relationship
the relationship betweenbetweenthe pressure the pressure
units units
p= pбар +Δp (4.16)
1 at = 1 kg/cm2=9,81∙104 Pa= 735,6 mmHg
Taking into account the relationship between the pressure units
formula (4.16)1 at = can 1 kg/cmbe represented
2
=9,81∙10 4 as:
Pa= 735,6 mmHg
1 at = 1 kg/cm2=9,81∙10 4
Pa= 735,6 mmHg
formula (4.16) can be represented as: 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = � 𝑝𝑝бар + ∆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝� ∙ 9,81 ∙ 104 (4.17)
formula (4.16) can be represented as: 735,6
2. According to the calibrated 𝑝𝑝бар schedule of the installation according to the fi
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = � + ∆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝� ∙ 9,81 ∙ 104 (4.17) (4.17)
735,6

2.2. According
According to
to the
the calibrated
calibratedschedule
scheduleofofthetheinstallation according
installation to the
according fixedfixed
to the
numbers of flow meter divisions (Nдел) the mass flow rate is determined ṁ in kg/s
numbers
3. By of flow
equation meter divisions
4.9, assuming (Npдел
that h=с ∙T) the
the gas
mass flow rate
velocity is determined
in the nozzle outlet in kg/s
𝑚𝑚̇ sec-
3. By equation
tion is determined
numbers of flow4.9, assuming
meter that(N
divisions thethe
дел)p∙T
h=с gasflow
mass velocity in determined
rate is the nozzle outlet section is
𝑚𝑚̇ in kg/s
determined
3. By equation 4.9, assuming that h=сp∙T the gas velocity in the nozzle outlet section is
determined 𝑊𝑊 = �2с𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 ) (4.18) (4.18)
In In
thisthis
expression, the specific
expression, the 𝑊𝑊 =isobaric
specific
�2сisobaric heat
𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇capacity
𝐶𝐶heat of air,
) capacity taking
of
(4.18) air, into account
taking into account
dependence
dependence (1.43), (1.43),
can can be
be taken taken as constant in thea form of a numerical valueJ/ of 1005
In this expression, the as constant
specific in the form
isobaric heat of numerical
capacity value
of air, of 1005
taking into account
J/kg∙K. Temperature at the nozzle inlet Тс is found analytically, equating the right-
dependence at(1.43),
kg∙K. Temperature can beinlet
the nozzle taken as constant
is found in the formequating
analytically, of a numerical value of 1005
the right-hand
hand sides of equation 4.18 andТсthe right-hand side of the equation
J/kg∙K. Temperature at the nozzle inlet Тс is found analytically, equating the right-
sides of equation 4.18 and the right-hand side𝑚𝑚̇of ∙𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐 the equation
hand sides of equation 4.18 and𝑊𝑊 the=right-hand side(4.19)
of the equation
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐
𝑚𝑚̇∙𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐
𝑊𝑊4.1.
obtained from the flow equation = (4.19)
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 (4.19)
Specific
obtainedobtained air
from thefrom volume
flow the at equation
flow
equation the
4.1.nozzle exit 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐 , included in the last equation is found from
4.1.
the thermal equation of state of an ideal gas
Specific air volume
Specific air volumeat the
at nozzle exit exit
the nozzle , included in the in
𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐 , included lastthe
equation is foundisfrom
last equation found from
the thermal
the thermal equationequation
of state of
of state p
of an
an ideal v =R∙T
c∙ cideal gas
gas c (4.20)
where the specific gas constantpfor air R=
c∙vc=R∙T c 287,1 J/kg∙K(4.20)
That is,the
where wespecific
will havegasan equation
constant forinair
theR=following form
287,1 J/kg∙K
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
𝑚𝑚̇∙𝑅𝑅∙𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐
That is, we will have an equation in the following form 47
�2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 ) = (4.21)
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 ∙𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐
𝑚𝑚̇∙𝑅𝑅∙𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐
Solving this equation for�Т2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
с and𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇1introducing (4.21)
− 𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 ) = some constant value
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 ∙𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐
 In this expression, the specific isobaric heat capacity of air, taking into account
hand
J/kg∙K. Temperature sides ofatequation
dependence the nozzle
(1.43), can4.18beinlet
and taken theТ right-hand
is𝑚𝑚̇found side
analytically, of form
the equation
equating the right-
𝑊𝑊 с=as constant in the of a numerical value of 1005
∙𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐
(4.19)
hand sides J/kg∙K.
of equation 4.18
Temperature at the 𝑊𝑊and the right-hand nozzle side of the equation
= inlet Тс is found (4.19) analytically, equating the right-
𝑚𝑚 ̇ 𝐹𝐹
∙𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐
𝑐𝑐

obtained
hand sides from ofthe flow equation
equation 4.18 and
𝑚𝑚̇ ∙𝑣𝑣 𝑐𝑐 4.1. the right-hand side of the equation
𝐹𝐹 𝑐𝑐
𝑊𝑊 = S. Yu. Mesnyankin, (4.19)
obtained from the
Specific air volume at the nozzle flow equation 𝐹𝐹 4.1.
𝑊𝑊exit = 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, included(4.19) in the last equation is found from
𝑐𝑐 𝑚𝑚 ̇ ∙𝑣𝑣
A.D. Ezhov
obtained Specific
from the
the thermal flow
air volume equation
equationatofthe 4.1.
statenozzleof anexit ideal𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐gas 𝐹𝐹
, included in the last equation is found from
airobtained
Specific the thermal from
volume at thethe
equation flow
nozzleof state equation
exitof𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐pan 4.1.
ideal
,c∙vincluded
c=R∙Tc
gasin the last (4.20) equation is found from
the thermalSpecific
equationair of volume
state of an idealnozzle (4.20)
where the specific gas at the
constant pgas
for
c∙ vc=R∙Tairexit R= c 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐 , included
287,1 (4.20)
J/kg∙K in the last equation is found from
where thethe specific
thermal gasequation
constant of for air of
state R=an287,1 idealJ/kg∙K gas J/kg∙K
where the specific gas c∙vc=R∙Tcfor air R=(4.20)
pconstant 287,1
That
That is, we
is, we will will have an
have an equation equation in
in287,1 the
the following following form form
where the specific gas constant for air R= p c∙vc=R∙T J/kg∙K (4.20)
That is, we will have an equation in the following c
𝑚𝑚̇∙𝑅𝑅∙𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 form
�2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇1for − 𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶 )R= = 287,1 J/kg∙K(4.21)
That is, wewherewill have the specific
an equation gas in constant
the following air form𝑚𝑚̇𝐹𝐹∙𝑅𝑅∙𝑇𝑇
𝑐𝑐 ∙𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
�2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 ) = 𝐹𝐹 ∙𝑃𝑃 (4.21) (4.21)
Solving
That is,this we equation
will have foran Т с and introducing
equation 𝑚𝑚̇in
∙𝑅𝑅∙𝑇𝑇the 𝑐𝑐some
following 𝑐𝑐 constant
form value
2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
� 𝑝𝑝 1 ( 𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶 ) = 𝑐𝑐
(4.21)
Solving
Solvingthis thisequationequationfor forТсТand с and introducing
introducing
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 ∙𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 somesome𝑚𝑚 constant
∙ 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐constant
𝐹𝐹̇ 𝑐𝑐∙𝑅𝑅∙𝑇𝑇 value
value
�2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇1 − 𝐴𝐴 𝑇𝑇
= ) =
𝐶𝐶 �𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 𝐹𝐹 ∙𝑃𝑃
𝑐𝑐 (4.21)
Solving this equation for Тс and introducing some constant 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐̇ ∙ ∙𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 value
𝑅𝑅
𝑐𝑐
Solving this equation 0,5 for Тс and introducing
𝐴𝐴 = �𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 some constant value
unit of magnitude К , we will have 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑚𝑚̇ ∙ 𝑅𝑅 𝐹𝐹 ∙ 𝑃𝑃
𝐴𝐴 = �𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝
unit of magnitude К0,5 , we will 2have 𝑚𝑚̇ ∙ 𝑅𝑅 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 ∙ 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐
0,5 𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶 = −𝐴𝐴 ± 𝐴𝐴�𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 =2 + 2𝑇𝑇
� 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 1 (4.22)
unit of magnitude
unit of magnitude К К Т, we , we willwill have have 2 𝑚𝑚 ̇ ∙ 𝑅𝑅
Be aware that
0,5
𝑇𝑇0,5 = −𝐴𝐴 ± and 2
𝐴𝐴�𝐴𝐴single-digit. + 2𝑇𝑇1 (4.22)
с must
𝐶𝐶be positive
unit of magnitude 𝑇𝑇 Тс=must К
−𝐴𝐴 be 2 , we will
𝐴𝐴�𝐴𝐴2 +and
± positive have
2𝑇𝑇1single-digit. (4.22)
Be
4. aware
Based that on 𝐶𝐶the results of calculations, graphs of dependences are built W=f(β), 𝑚𝑚̇=
2
Be aware4.f(β),
that Т must be positive 𝑇𝑇 and= −𝐴𝐴
single-digit. ± 𝐴𝐴�𝐴𝐴
с on the results of calculations, graphs of dependences are built (4.22)
𝑃𝑃
2 + 2𝑇𝑇 (4.22)
Based where
𝐶𝐶
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 = with obligatory indication 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽кр determined by the formula
2 1
4.14. 𝑚𝑚̇=
W=f(β),
𝑃𝑃21
4. Based on Bethe
Bef(β),
aware aware
that
results𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽that
Т= Тс with
𝑃𝑃
must must be positive
be positive and
andindication ofsingle-digit.
single-digit.
where с of calculations, obligatory graphs dependences
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽кр determined are built W=f(β),
by the formula =
𝑚𝑚̇4.14.
All4. calculations
𝑃𝑃2 are
𝑃𝑃1 entered in table 4.1.
f(β), where 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 Based
4. Based = onwith on obligatory
the the results
results of calculations,
indication
of calculations, 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽крgraphs graphs
determined of dependences ofby dependences
the formula are
4.14.
are built built W=f(β), 𝑚𝑚̇=
W=f(β),
All calculations
Table where
𝑃𝑃1 are entered in table 4.1.
4.1. 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 = with obligatory indication 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 determined by the formula 4.14.
𝑃𝑃
= f(β), f(β),
2
whereare entered
Allṁcalculations with 𝑃𝑃in obligatory indication
1 table 4.1.
determined
кр by the formula 4.14.
Table 4.1.
All calculations Measurements are entered in table 4.1.Calculation
Table 4.1.All calculations are entered in table 4.1.
№. Measurements
Δр1 Δрс Δр2 Nдел Calculationр1 рс р2 𝑚𝑚̇ A Тс W 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
Table
Measurements 4.1.
№. Δр scale
1 Δрс Δр2 Calculation Nдел рPa 1 рс р2 𝑚𝑚̇
kg/s AK ТKс W
0,5
m/s -𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
Table 4.1
№. Δр1 1 Δрscale с Measurements
Δр2 Nдел р1 рс PaCalculation р2 𝑚𝑚̇ A kg/sТс K0,5 W K 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 m/s -
Measurements Calculation
12 №. Δр1
0,5
scale Δрс ΔрPa 2 Nдел р1 рс kg/s р2 K 𝑚𝑚
K̇ Am/s Т -с W 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
1№. Δр1 Δрscale Δр2 Nдел р1 рPa р2 ṁ A
kg/s ТсK WK βm/s -
0,5
2… с с

2 … 1 scale Pa kg/s K0,5 K m/s -

11
1… 112
211 …
… 11
11

Test questions

1. Why are four equations considered when considering moving streams?

2. What should be the nozzle configuration to increase the speed in the subsonic
region?

48 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

3. What is the difference between flow and outflow?

4. On what and how does the expiration rate depend?
5. Why in the course of experiments do they strive to maintain a constant pressure
at the inlet to the nozzle and how is this implemented in the course of the experiment?
6. Why, with a decrease in β, the nature of the change in m ̇ and W becomes less
pronounced?

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 49
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

LABORATORY WORK LISTING

LABWORK № 4
ADIABATE AIR DEPLETION THROUGH A SUBSONIC NOZZLE

Date:______________Student_________________________Group___________
1. Figure of experimental device
1—
2—
3—
4—
5—
6—
7—
8—
9—
10 —

2. Calculation

50 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

3. Experiment table and data processing results

Measurements Calculation
№. Δр1 Δрс Δр2 Nдел р1 рс р2 ṁ A Тс W β
scale Pa kg/s K0,5 K m/s -
1
2
…
11

4. Charts

5. Conclusion _____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Date of labwork ____________________
Date of defender ________________________
Professor ______________________

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 51
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

5. ADIABATIC EXPIRATION OF VARIOUS GASES

MATHEMATICAL MODELING METHODS
The purpose of this work is to study the process of the outflow of various gases in
a converging nozzle.

Theoretical information

A wide variety of different working bodies moving in the channels requires a more
detailed study of the features of their characteristics (R is the specific gas constant and k
is the adiabatic process index) during the outflow.
It is very difficult to set up an experiment in such a way as to vary with different
gases, therefore, a model study is proposed in the work, which makes it possible to
obtain data as in a real experiment, abandoning the compressor system and expensive
control and measuring equipment. Such an approach will significantly intensify the edu-
cational process due to an instant transition from one mode to another. In such a setting,
each student can complete an individual task using the numerous options introduced
into the computer. All theoretical provisions stated for the previous work “Adiabatic air
outflow through a subsonic nozzle will be valid in this work.

Work area description

The schematic diagram of the working area with measurement systems is shown in
Figure 5.1 and displayed on the monitor screen
The working section is a tube in which the investigated converging nozzle 3 with a
constant outlet diameter is installed d = 1,5∙10-3 м. The flow of the test gas through the
nozzle is created using a vacuum pump 5. The gas pressure at the inlet is kept constant
and corresponds to atmospheric pressure (p1=pбар). Gas flow rate ṁ and its speed W
regulated by valve 4. Operating modes are determined by the vacuum value behind the
nozzle Δp3 fixed in excess atmospheres (ATI).

52 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

Fig. 5.1

Vacuum at the nozzle outlet Δp2 also recorded in excess atmospheres. Gas flow
measurement is carried out using a measuring washer 2 with a diameter d = 5∙10-3 m and
is regulated by valve 4 with control according to the differential pressure readings ΔН in
Pascals by instrument 7.

Experimental procedure

After starting the working program, the subject of the laboratory work is displayed
on the monitor and you enter into a dialogue with the computer, where three types of
working bodies are laid: air, carbon dioxide and helium.
After choosing one of the options, a diagram of the experimental setup is displayed
with the display (in operating modes) of the gas movement in the working section, the
position of the control valve and indication of the readings of the measuring instruments
(ΔН, Δp2, Δp3).
There is no gas flow before the start of the experiment. The control valve 4 (Fig. 5.1.)
Is completely closed, and all instruments show “zeros”. After turning on the vacuum
pump 5, a vacuum is created behind valve 4. By successive opening of valve 4, the min-
imum vacuum is established Δp3=0, 1 ati and at the same time the gas flow begins, and

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 53
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

on the indicator devices 6 and 7 the numerical values of the pressure drops are displayed
Δp2 and Δp3 and ΔН, which are entered into the protocol of the experiment (Table 5.1).

Table 5.1
Measurements Calculation
№
Δр3 Δр2 ΔН р3 р2 β ṁ А Тс, W
modes
ATI ATI Pa Pa Pa - kg/s K0,5 K m/s
1

Subsequent modes are canceled at values Δp3 = 0,2; 0,3; ….0,9 ATI. Measurement
results of ΔН, Δp for each mode are recorded in the protocol.

Processing of research results

1. The absolute pressure in front of the nozzle is determined p1, at the nozzle exit
(in the outlet section) р2 and behind the nozzle р3 in Pascals
р1=рбар (5.1)
р3=рбар- - Δp3 (5.2)
р2=рбар - Δp2 (5.3)
It should be remembered that all arithmetic operations must be performed in
the same quantities, and for this you need to remember the relationships between the
pressure units:

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
1 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1 2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 9,81 ⋅ 104 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0,981 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 104 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 = 735,6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
1 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1 2 = 9,81 ⋅ 104 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0,981 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 104 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 = 735,6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
2. The 2.
pressure 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐is calculated:
ratio
The pressure ratio is calculated:
2. The pressure ratio is calculated: 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
3
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 = (5.4)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝3
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 = (5.4)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝1
3. The mass second gas flow rate is determined
543.– –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
The mass second gas flow rate is determined
𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝜇𝜇ш 𝐹𝐹ш �2𝜌𝜌ш Δ𝐻𝐻 (5.5)
𝜇𝜇ш 𝐹𝐹ш �2𝜌𝜌across
𝑚𝑚̇ = pressure (5.5)
ш Δ𝐻𝐻 the graduated washer in Pascals;
Where Δ𝐻𝐻 - measured differential
 1 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1 = 9,81 ⋅ 10 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0,981 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 10 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 = 735,6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
1 2.
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴The = 1pressure 2
= ratio
9,81 is ⋅ 10 calculated:
4
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0,981 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 104 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 = 735,6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝3 PROPERTIES,
2. The pressure
1 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ratio = is calculated:
9,81 ⋅ 10 THERMODYNAMIC
4
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0,981 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 104 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 = 735,6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (5.4)
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 =
PROCESSES𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝AND CYCLES
1 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1 2 = 9,81 ⋅ 104 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0,981 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 1 = 104 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 = 735,6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
2. The pressure𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ratio is calculated: 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝3
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
1 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1 ratio =is9,81 ⋅ 104 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 0,981 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 104 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 = 735,6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (5.4)
2. The pressure 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 calculated: 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 1
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝3isdetermined
3.3. The Themass masssecond secondgas gas flowflowrate rateis determined
2. The pressure ratio is calculated: 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (5.4)
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝13
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 = (5.4) (5.5)
3. The mass second gas flow rate𝑚𝑚 iṡ = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝ш13𝐹𝐹ш �2𝜌𝜌ш Δ𝐻𝐻
𝜇𝜇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
determined
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 = pressure across the graduated washer(5.4)
3. TheWhere mass
Where Δ𝐻𝐻 -—
second measured
gas flow
measured 𝑚𝑚̇rate
differential
𝜇𝜇is
=differential 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2𝜌𝜌
𝐹𝐹determined
� 1 pressure Δ𝐻𝐻 across the graduated washer inin Pascals;
(5.5) Pas-
3. cals; 𝜇𝜇
The massш - volumetric
second washer
gas flow flow
rate flow
ш rate ш
is determined determined ш by calibration 𝜇𝜇 ш =0,95; 𝐹𝐹
ш - hole area of
WheretheΔ𝐻𝐻 — volumetric
- measured washer
differential rate determined
-5 2 by calibration =0,95; — hole
measuring washer 𝑚𝑚̇F= ш 𝜇𝜇 𝐹𝐹pressure
=ш1,962∙10 ш �2𝜌𝜌ш Δ𝐻𝐻
across
m ; 𝜌𝜌ш the graduated
- gas densitywasher in frontinofPascals;
the washer,
(5.5)
3. The
𝜇𝜇шarea mass
of thesecond
determined
- volumetric measuring from
washer gastheflowthermal
𝑚𝑚̇rate
washer = F𝜇𝜇шis =determined
equation
determined
1,962∙10 of by
-5
state ; (1.2)
mcalibration
2
— accordingш =0,95;
gas𝜇𝜇density tointheш -formula
hole
𝐹𝐹front areawash-
of (5.5)
the of
Where Δ𝐻𝐻 - measured differential ш 𝐹𝐹pressure
ш� -5
2𝜌𝜌ш Δ𝐻𝐻
2 across the graduated washer in Pascals;
theer,measuring
determined washer
from the = 1,962∙10
Fш thermal equation m of ; 𝜌𝜌state
ш - gas (1.2) density
accordingin front
to the offormula
the washer,
Where
𝜇𝜇 - volumetric
Δ𝐻𝐻 - washer
measured
determined from the thermal equation -5
ш flow 𝑚𝑚 ̇ rate
differential= 𝜇𝜇determined
ш 𝐹𝐹pressure
ш � 2𝜌𝜌
of𝜌𝜌state ш Δ𝐻𝐻 by𝑃𝑃
across
1 calibration graduated
𝜇𝜇 ш =0,95;
(1.2) according to the formulain Pascals;
the washer
𝐹𝐹ш - hole area of
(5.5)
2= (5.6)
the
𝜇𝜇ш - measuring
volumetric washer washer Fflow ш = rate 1,962∙10
determined m ; by
ш 𝜌𝜌ш1-calibration
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 gas density 𝜇𝜇шin front𝐹𝐹шof- hole
=0,95; the washer,
area of
Where Δ𝐻𝐻 - measured differential pressure -5 𝑃𝑃2 across the graduated washer in Pascals;
determined
the measuring fromwasher the thermal Fш = equation1,962∙10 of m state
1 ; 𝜌𝜌 (1.2) - gas according tointhe
densityvalues formula
front of the washer,
where R is the
𝜇𝜇ш - volumetric washer flow rate determinedspecific gas constant
𝜌𝜌ш = having numerical
byш calibration 𝜇𝜇ш =0,95;for 𝐹𝐹шair is 287,1
- hole area of J/kg∙K,
(5.6)
determined from
for СО2 – washer the thermal
188,9 J/kg∙K, equation
for Не – 2077 of
-5 state
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 21 (1.2) according to the formula
the measuring Fш = 1,962∙10 m𝑃𝑃1 ;J/kg∙K; 𝜌𝜌ш - gas density in front of the washer,
where 𝜌𝜌 = (5.6)
determined
where𝑇𝑇1R- R is
thethe
isfrom
the specific
the thermal
specific
temperature gas ofconstant
gas equation
constant
the working ш having
of𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
having state
𝑃𝑃11fluid numerical
(1.2)
numerical before values
according
values for
tofor
entering the air is287,1
formula
air
the 287,1J/kg∙K,
isvolumetric J/kg∙K,
washer for is
for СО – 188,9 J/kg∙K, for Не – 𝜌𝜌ш =J/kg∙K;
2077 (5.6)
СОtaken equalJ/kg∙K, to the ambient temperature 𝑃𝑃11 in Kelvin. values for air is 287,1 J/kg∙K,
2
where — 188,9 for Не — 2077 J/kg∙K; 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
2 R is the specific gas constant having numerical
𝑇𝑇1 - СО
for
where the
4.R –temperature
—is188,9
2 Determine
the
the theofvelocity
J/kg∙K,
specific
temperature
the Не
for
gas working
constant
of the
𝜌𝜌
–of2077 gas fluid
=
ш having
working J/kg∙K;
outflow 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇1fluid
beforenumerical theentering
in before outlet thefor
section
values
entering
volumetric
the of
air the nozzle
is 287,1
volumetric from(5.6)
washer
J/kg∙K,
washer
isany of
is
taken
for СО equal
the – two toequations:
188,9 theJ/kg∙K,
ambient for temperature
Не – 2077 in Kelvin.
J/kg∙K;
𝑇𝑇1 -taken
where theRtemperature
2
is thetospecific
equal of gas
the ambient the constant
working
temperature fluidin before
having numerical
Kelvin. enteringvaluesthefor volumetric
air is 287,1 washer
J/kg∙K, is
4.
takenDetermine
equal the velocity
to theJ/kg∙K,ambient of gas
of thetemperature outflow in
in Kelvin. the outlet section of the nozzle from any of
𝑇𝑇1 - СО
for the –temperature
24. 188,9
Determine the for Не
velocity
working
– of2077 gas
fluid
J/kg∙K;
outflow
before entering the volumetric washer is
the
taken two equations:
equal to the ambient temperature 𝑤𝑤 = in
� 2с
Kelvin. (𝑇𝑇in − the 𝑇𝑇 outlet
) section of the nozzle from any (5.7)
4.1 -Determine the velocity of gas outflow in the 𝑝𝑝 outlet
1 𝐶𝐶section theof the nozzle from any of
𝑇𝑇 ofthe
the temperature
two equations: of the working fluid before entering volumetric washer is
the
4.
taken two
Determine equations:
equal tothe the velocity
ambient oftemperature
gas outflow inKelvin. the outlet section of the nozzle from any of
obtained from equation = �or2с𝑝𝑝in
(4.9)
𝑤𝑤 (𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 ) (5.7)
the two equations:
4. Determine the velocity of gas outflow in the outlet section of the nozzle from any of
obtained
the two equations:from equation (4.9) 𝑤𝑤 or = �2с𝑤𝑤𝑝𝑝 (=𝑇𝑇1𝑚𝑚− ̇ ∙𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶 )∙ 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 (5.7)
(5.8)
𝑤𝑤 = �2с𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇1 −𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑇𝑇∙𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝)2 (5.7)
obtained from equation (4.9) or 𝑚𝑚̇ ∙ 𝑅𝑅 ∙ 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐
obtained
obtained from from equations
equation (4.9) 𝑤𝑤 (4.19)
or
=𝑤𝑤 � =2с and (4.20).
𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 ) (5.8)
(5.7)
obtained from equation (4.9) or 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 ∙ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2
Since the unknowns are W and𝑚𝑚T ̇ ∙c 𝑅𝑅– ∙temperature 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 at the nozzle outlet with area Fc =
obtained from equations
equation (4.19)
(4.9) or 𝑤𝑤 =(4.20).
and 𝑚𝑚̇𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐∙ 𝑅𝑅∙define (5.8)
-6 2
1,766∙10 m , then first you should 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝∙2𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 Тс.
𝑤𝑤 = (5.8)
Since
obtained the
The-6from unknowns
algorithm are W
for finding and T
Tc detailed– temperature
𝐹𝐹
𝑚𝑚̇ ∙ 𝑅𝑅 ∙in ∙ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 at the nozzle outlet
𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐the previous work (formulas 4.21 - 4.23), with area F = i.e.
2 equations (4.19) and (4.20).
c 𝑐𝑐 2 c
1,766∙10 some mconstant
, then first
value you should 𝑤𝑤 = define Тс. (5.8)
obtained
Since thefrom
obtained unknowns equations
from equations WA(4.19)
are (4.19) is initially
and andTand (4.20).
c – (4.20).
𝐹𝐹determined
𝑐𝑐 ∙ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2
temperature bythe
at the nozzle
formula: outlet with area Fc =
The
1,766∙10
Since thealgorithm
-6 2 for finding Tc detailed in the previous work (formulas 4.21 - 4.23), i.e.
m , then
unknowns first areyouW and should define
– temperature
Tc (4.20). Тс. 𝐹𝐹 ∙ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝at the nozzle outlet with area Fc =
obtained from
Since equations (4.19) areand
some constant
-6 2 the value unknowns
A is initially W and
determined
𝐴𝐴 =
Tc — temperature
𝐶𝐶с.𝑝𝑝by the formula:
𝑐𝑐 2 at the nozzle outlet with area
(5.9)
1,766∙10
The algorithm m , then
for first you should define � Т
Since the unknowns -6 finding
2 are W T canddetailed
T – in
temperaturethe previous
𝑚𝑚 ̇ ∙ at
𝑅𝑅 work
the (formulas
nozzle outlet 4.21
with - 4.23),
area F i.e.
=
Fc = 1,766∙10 m , then first you should define Тс.
c c
some
The
1,766∙10 constant
algorithm
-6
m 2 value
, for finding
then firstA isyouinitiallydetailed
Tcshould determined in the
define 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐Т∙сprevious
.𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝by
2 the formula: work (formulas 4.21 - 4.23), i.e.
and The then define
algorithm c byfinding
Tfor ratio: 𝐴𝐴 = � 𝐶𝐶
detailed in (5.9)
some constant value A is initially determined T c
𝑝𝑝
𝑚𝑚 ̇ ∙ 𝑅𝑅by the formula: work (formulas 4.21–4.23),
the previous
The algorithm for finding Tc detailed in the 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 ∙ previous𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝2 work (formulas 4.21 - 4.23), i.e.
i.e. some constant value A is 𝐴𝐴 initially
= 𝐶𝐶 determined
� 𝑝𝑝 𝐹𝐹 ∙ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝by the formula: by the formula: (5.9)
and
somethen constantdefinevalue Tc byAratio: is initially determined 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐̇ ∙ 𝑅𝑅2
𝐴𝐴 = �𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 (5.9)
and then define Tc by ratio: 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚
̇𝑐𝑐 ∙∙ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑅𝑅2
𝐴𝐴 = �𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 (5.9)
and then define Tc by ratio: 𝑚𝑚̇ ∙ 𝑅𝑅
and then define Tc by ratio:
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 55
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

and then define Tc by ratio:

𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 = −𝐴𝐴2 ± 𝐴𝐴�𝐴𝐴2 + 2𝑇𝑇1 (5.10)(5.10)

Be awareBethat
aware that T
Tc must bec must be positive
positive and unambiguous.
and unambiguous.
5. Based5. on
Based on the of
the results results of calculations,
calculations, graphs
graphs of of dependences
dependences are builtare built W=f(β), 𝑚𝑚
W=f(β),
in this
f(β),case,
ṁ = f(β), in this it iscase, it is imperative
imperative to apply
to apply the value 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽кр determined
value the determined by the formu
by the formula
4.14.
4.14.
All calculations are summarized in Table 5.1.
All calculations are summarized in Table 5.1.
Control questions
1. How does the type of working fluid affect the flow rate?
Control questions
2. On what and how does the expiration rate depend?
1. How3.does
How theistype
the transition
of workingfrom one
fluid mode
affect thetoflow
another
rate?carried out?
4. What
2. On what should
and how doesbe the
done to increase
expiration ratethe gas flow rate when the gas outflows through
depend?
3. Howconverging nozzle
is the transition of constant
from one mode geometry
to anotherin the supercritical
carried out? outflow region?
4. What5.should
How isbethe nozzle
done outlet temperature
to increase the gas flow determined?
rate when the gas outflows through
a converging6.nozzle
Why of
when decreasing
constant β the
geometry nature
in the of the change
supercritical in region?
outflow velocity and mass flow ra
becomes less pronounced?
5. How is the nozzle outlet temperature determined?
6. WhyLABORATORY
when decreasing WORK LISTING
β the nature of the change in velocity and mass flow rate
becomes lessLABWORK
pronounced?№ 5
ADIABATIC EXPIRATION OF VARIOUS GASES MATHEMATICAL
MODELING METHODS
Date:______________Student_________________________________Group______
____
1. Figure of experimental device

1—
2—
3—
4—
5—
6—
7—

56 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

LABORATORY WORK LISTING

LABWORK № 5
ADIABATIC EXPIRATION OF VARIOUS GASES MATHEMATICAL
MODELING METHODS

Date:______________Student_________________________Group___________
1. Figure of experimental device
1—
2—
3—
4—
5—
6—
7—

2. Calculation

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 57
 S. Yu. Mesnyankin,
A.D. Ezhov

3. Experiment table and data processing results

Measurements Calculation
№
Δр3 Δр2 ΔН р3 р2 β ṁ А Тс, W
modes
ATI ATI Pa Pa Pa - kg/s K0,5 K m/s
1
2
3

4. Charts

5. Conclusion _____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Date of labwork ____________________
Date of defender ________________________
Professor ______________________

58 – –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

Reference

1. Лабораторный практикум по термодинамике и теплопередаче: Учебное

пособие для энергомашиностроительных спец.вузов. Под редакцией В. И. Крутова,
Е. В. Шишова. — М.: Высшая школа, 1988. —216 с.
2. Бурдаков В. П., Дзюбенко Б. В., Меснянкин С. Ю., Михайлова Т. В.
Термодинамика: учебное пособие для вузов. В 2 частях. 4.1. Основной курс — М.:
Дрофа, 2009. — 479 с.
3. Методические указания к лабораторным работам «Термодинамические
процессы реактивных двигателей». Под ред. В. К. Кошкина и Т. В. Михайловой
М.: МАИ. 1987. С. 4–10.
4. Изучение процесса адиабатного истечения газа через сужающееся сопло
при имитационном моделировании. Авт. сост. Е. Н. Иноземцева, Ю. С. Михеев,
М.: Изд-во МАИ, 1990. — 16 с.

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– 59
 Educational publication

Mesnyankin Sergei
Ezhov Alexey

THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES,
PROCESSES AND CYCLES

Технический редактор Лина Мовсесян

Компьютерная верстка: Анастасия Шантурова
Дизайн обложки: Сергей Чалый

Выпущено в авторской редакции

Издательство «Знание-М»
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