Experimental Aerodynamics English

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Experimental Aerodynamics V Chmovzh, P Soljanik, M Surgalo National

Aerospace University
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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE
National Aerospace University by N. E. Zhukovsky
«Kharkov Aviation Institute»
V. Chmovzh, P. Soljanik, М. Surgailo
EXPERIMЕNTAL AERODYNAMICS
Tutorial
on Laboratory Practices
Kharkov «KhAI» 2007

UDC 533.6.05
Experimental Aerodynamics / V. V. Chmovzh, P. N. Soljanik, М. L. Surgailo.

– Tutorial on Laboratory Practices. – Kharkov: National Aerospace
University «Kharkov Aviation Institute», 2007. – 90 c.
This tutorial contains principals of action of special devices applied

during experimental researches in aerodynamic laboratory and there
schematic diagrams, and also types and procedures of experimental
researches.
It also provides systematical material, descriptions and schematic
diagrams of test setup intended for accomplishment of typical expe-
riments using the T-5 wind tunnel located in laboratory belonging to KhAI
aerodynamics department. Description of each laboratory experiment
contains proper information concerning its procedure, and also quiz for
self-study training and passing the test in the laboratory work.
This tutorial is intended for students studying the
“Aerohydrodynamics” and “Flight Dynamics” disciplines of the “Aviation
and Cosmonautics” trend.
It is also recommended for students studying the following
disciplines: “Hydrology”, “Building Aerodynamics”, “Car Aerodynamics”,
“Basics of Mechanics of Aerospace Technical Objects”, “Automation of
Theoretical and Experimental Researches of Aerospace Technical
Objects”.
63 illustrations. 3 tables. 25 bibliographical references.
Reviewers: Ph. Doctor, associate professor V.V. Gazaev,

Ph. Doctor, associate professor V.М. Khalypa
© National Aerospace University by N. E. Zhukovsky

«Kharkov Aviation Institute», 2007
3
INTRODUCTION
This tutorial is an analysis and addition to works on procedure
issued during the period from 1958 to 1983 year by the following authors:
Andrenko G.I., Menshikov V.I., Tkachenko Ja.Е., Fefelov М.А.,
Florinskiy О.V. worked at the aerohydrodynamics department.
The tutorial corresponds to the programs of disciplines
«Aerohydrodynamics, part 1», «Aerohydrodynamics, part 2» and «Flight
dynamics», which are the basics for the specialties of the “Aviation and
Cosmonautics” trend.
Section 1 contains principals of experimental aerodynamics,
similarity parameters, main coordinate axes and concepts of factors of
pressure, forces and moments.
Sections 2 and 3 review types and methods of aerodynamic
researches. They also give description of different wind tunnels and
installations intended for experimental researches at subsonic and
supersonic velocities. Descriptions of the devices and instruments for
determination of flow parameters and test procedures are also provided
here.
Section 4 is dedicated to descriptions of the laboratory experiments.
Each laboratory experiment contains proper information concerning its
accomplishment, test setup diagrams and models to be tested, working
formulas, test procedure and procedure of analysis of obtained test
results, and quiz for self-study training and passing the test in the
accomplished laboratory work.
Authors express their thanks to collectives of the
aerohydrodynamics department of the Kharkov National Aerospace
University and department of flight dynamics of the Kharkov Air-Force
University for valuable notifications and suggestions, which were taken
into account while the matter revision.
Authors appreciate to the reviewer Ph. Doctor, associate professor
V. V. Gazaev for helpful notes made him while reading the matter.
Authors are waiting for notifications from readers concerning the
content and presentation of the matter and will use them in their following
works.
4 Section 1. Fundamentals Of Experimental Aerodynamics
Section 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF EXPERIMENTAL AERODYNAMICS
The aerodynamic calculations of any aircraft are related to the
definition of aerodynamic forces and the moments acting upon it. In some
cases this problem can be solved theoretically, but theoretical formulation
of the phenomena in aerodynamics does not define them precisely. That
is why experimental approach is more reliable in most cases.
The experimental research is mostly accomplished on scaled
models. The answers to the question what experimental conditions should
be to apply test results into practice could be found when studying laws of
similarity.
1.1. Parameters of Similarity Applied in Aerodynamics
The similarity law is the basis of the experimental aerodynamic in a
whole. As a rule, scaled aircraft models or models of aircraft parts are
tested in aerodynamic laboratories. Aircraft flight characteristics or
aerodynamic characteristics of aircraft parts can be estimated on the
basis of results of such investigation.
The investigations show that experimental data of a scale model do
not always coincide with aerodynamic characteristics of full-scale body.
This occurs because the flow created in wind tunnel and airflow over full-
scale body are not identical. So, it is necessary to know model-to-real
body transition laws to estimate aerodynamic characteristics of full-scale
body on the basis of obtained aerodynamic characteristics of scaled model.
The theory of aerodynamic similarity covers two separate questions:
1. What is the procedure of conversion from scale model
aerodynamic characteristics to aerodynamic characteristics of full-scale
body if similarity of phenomena was provided during investigations of
scale model?
2. What conditions should be observed during investigations of
scale model to provide aerodynamic similarity of phenomena?
There are three types of similarity in mechanics: geometrical,
kinematic and dynamic. Two bodies are geometrically similar if similar
segments of bodies are proportional and the angles between similar
segments are identical. In aerodynamics an additional requirement is
added: equality of angles characterizing body position in flow that is
equality of angle of attack and angle of sideslip.
The flows are considered as kinematically similar if velocities in the
similar points are proportional; and angles of velocity vectors in the similar
points are identical. That means that kinematic similarity presupposes that
velocity fields are geometrically similar.
Section 1. Fundamentals Of Experimental Aerodynamics 5
The flows about bodies are dynamically similar if forces acting upon
the similar elements are proportional and angles of orientation of the
corresponding force vectors are identical. That means that the dynamic
similarity presupposes geometrical similarity of the fields of force vector.
The mechanical similarity of two phenomena requires providing their
geometrical, kinematic and dynamic similarity at the same time. The first
two conditions are necessary, but not sufficient. The adequacy of
phenomena similarity is provided by dynamic similarity.
Within a fluid there are different forces, such as pressure, friction,
gravity, inertia, elasticity and so on. Thus, several criteria of similarity
exist, each of which relates two different forces of different nature.
When considering each criterion separately the partial similarity
takes place. If all of similarity criteria are executed, then we talk about
complete similarity.
Let’s write down general criteria of similarity:
1. Froude number
V2
Fr = (1.1)
gl
characterizes ratio of inertia force to gravity.
2. Reynolds number
Vl
Re = (1.2)
υ
characterizes ratio of inertia force to viscosity force and represents the
criterion of viscosity.
3. Strouhal number
Vt
Sh = (1.3)
l
characterizes inertia hydrodynamic force arising at unsteady fluid motion.
4. Euler number
Δp
Eu = (1.4)
ρV 2
characterizes the ratio of pressure force to inertia force.
Here l is a characteristic linear size, V is characteristic velocity, υ
is a kinematics viscosity coefficient, t is a characteristic time period, Δp
is a pressures, ρ is the liquid density, g is the acceleration of gravity.
Mach number is included in the similarity criteria if gas moves at
higher velocities. Mach number is a ratio of characteristic velocity to
speed of sound a
V
M= . (1.5)
a
Mach number plays great role in gas dynamics. When M < 1 gas
flow is called subsonic; when M > 1 – gas flow is called supersonic.
For each specific case not all criteria are of the same importance.
For gas flow which velocity is close to speed of sound and higher, it is
necessary to take into account Mach scaling. When Mach numbers
M < 0,4 it is possible to neglect the influence of compressibility and
Reynolds number Re becomes the main similarity criterion. For solutions
of aeromechanics dynamic problems (for example, acrobatic flights, etc.)
and fluid flows close to free surface (test of surface and submarine
vessels, etc.) the main similarity criterion is Froude number Fr .
1.2. Basic Coordinate Systems
As usual, when accomplishing tests and calculations of aircraft
aerodynamic characteristics two types of coordinate systems are applied:
wind axes 0 xa ya za and body axes 0 xyz (fig. 1.1). Both coordinate
systems are right-hand, their origins coincide with aircraft center of mass.
In the wind coordinate system axis 0 xa coincides with direction of
flight velocity; lift axis 0 ya coincides with direction of lift force and is
perpendicular to axis 0 xa ; cross-wind force axis 0 za is perpendicular to
plane 0 xa ya , forming right-hand system.
The Body coordinate system
axes 0 xyz corresponds to geometrical
axes of aircraft. The longitudinal axis
0x is directed forward and coincides
with longitudinal body axis. The
normal axis 0 y lies in the aircraft
plane of symmetry and is directed
upward. Transverse axis 0 z is
perpendicular to plane 0 xy and
directed along the right-hand wing
creating right-hand system.
The angle α
G created by
projection of velocity V onto aircraft
Fig. 1.1. Body Axes and Wind Axes plane of symmetry and longitudinal
axis 0x , is called angle of attack.
The angle of sideslip is angle β
G
created by velocity vector V and aircraft plane of symmetry.
When aircraft moves the aerodynamic forces acting upon it can be
G G
reduced to one resulting aerodynamic force R and resulting moment M .
Let’s project vector of resulting aerodynamic force onto wind axes
and body axes. As a result we shall obtain longitudinal force X ( X = −Q ),
normal force Y and transverse force Z in body axes, drag force X a
( X a = − Qa ), lift force Ya and cross-wind force Z a in wind axes.
1.3. Coefficients of Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

As usual, in practice force coefficients obtained as a result of
division of force value by characteristic area S and dynamic pressure
(velocity head) are used
ρ ∞V∞ 2
q∞ = ,
2
where ρ ∞ and V∞ are density and velocity of undisturbed flow.
Usually, when aircraft is analyzed in a whole, gross wing area is
taken as characteristic area S ; if separated wing or tail unit is considered
then net area of wing or tail unit is taken as characteristic area S .
If, for example, fuselage or engine nacelle is analyzed then body
mid-section area is taken as characteristic area S . Mid-section is the
largest body cross-section area created by plane perpendicular to
direction of undisturbed velocity at angle of attack equals zero.
The coefficient of resulting aerodynamic force can be represented in
the following form
R
CR = . (1.6)
q∞ S
Aerodynamic force coefficients:
X Y Z
Cx = , Cy = , Cz = ; (1.7)
q∞ S q∞ S q∞ S
X Y Z
C xa = a , C ya = a , C za = a . (1.8)
q∞ S q∞ S q∞ S
Here C x , C y , C z , C xa , C ya and C za are coefficients of longitudinal,
normal, transverse, drag, lift and cross-wind forces accordingly.
The vector projections of resulting aerodynamic moment onto body
axes have the same names: M x is roll moment; M y is yaw moment; M z
is pitch moment. Coefficients of aerodynamic moment components are:
Mx My Mz
mx = ; my = ; mz = ; (1.9)
q∞ Sl q∞ Sl q∞ Sb
where m x , m y and m z are coefficients of roll, yaw and pitch moment; l
and b are wing span and chord (in general, MAC) or, when analyzing
aircraft parts they are their characteristic dimensions.
In practice it is often
necessary to transmit from
characteristics in the body axes
to characteristics in the wind axes
and vice versa.
Let’s determine the relation
between coefficients of
aerodynamics forces in wind and
body coordinate systems.
It follows from Fig. 1.2 that
Fig. 1.2. Aerodynamic Forces ⎧ X a = X cos α + Y sin α ,
in Body Axes and Wind Axes ⎨ (1.10)
⎩Ya = Y cos α − X sinα .
Taking into account (1.7) and (1.8), having divided equation (1.10)
term by term by dynamic pressure q∞ and characteristic area S , we shall
obtain
⎧C x a = C x cos α + C y sinα ,
⎨C = C cos α − C sinα . (1.11)
⎩ ay y x
When the angle of attack α does not exceed 14° , it is possible to
assume that cos α ≈ 1 and sinα ≈ α in formulas (1.11). As for aircraft
C xa C ya , then it is possible to neglect the value of C xa sin α term and
formulas (1.11) will be as follows
⎧⎪C y a ≈ C y ,
⎨ (1.12)
⎪⎩C x a ≈ C x + C y α .
1.4. Pressure Coefficient

Let’s consider incompressible fluid flow about wing. Let’s allocate a
flow filament within flow moving from infinity and branches in point A
passing around wing contour (Fig. 1.3). Let’s specify two points in this
flow filament: one point is located far ahead the wing, the second point is
in arbitrary point on the wing contour. Let’s designate the pressure and
velocity in the first point as p∞ and V∞ accordingly, and in the second
point as p and V .
Let’s write Bernoulli equation for allocated flow filament assuming
that change of weight energy and change of internal energy is equal to
zero and neglecting losses:
ρV∞ 2 ρV 2
p∞ + = p+ = const ,
2 2
from which
ρV∞ 2 ρV 2
p − p∞ = − . (1.13)
2 2
In experimental aerodynamics when the calculating pressure acting
upon streamlined bodies dimensionless coefficient identified as pressure
coefficient is used.
Having designated in (1.13) an excessive pressure in arbitrary point
on the wing contour as Δp = p − p∞ we shall obtain
ρV∞ 2 ⎛
V2 ⎞
Δp = ⎜1− 2 ⎟. (1.14)
2 ⎜⎝ V∞ ⎟⎠
In such case the pressure coefficient will represent ratio of
excessive pressure in some investigated point Δp = p − p∞ to dynamic
pressure of undisturbed flow far from the body q∞ = ρV∞ 2 2 :
2
p − p∞ ⎛V ⎞
Cp = =1−⎜ ⎟ . (1.15)
q∞ V
⎝ ∞⎠
The point in which flow filament branches is called a stagnation
point. Velocity in stagnation point equals to zero V = 0 . Let’s write down
Bernoulli equation for the point lying far ahead wing and for stagnation
point:
ρV∞ 2
p∞ + = p0 = const ,
2
where p0 is pressure in stagnation
point and it is equal to sum of static
2
p∞ and dynamic pressure ρV∞ 2 . Fig. 1.3. Deriving Expression
It follows from Bernoulli for Pressure Coefficient
equation that the total pressure will
be the highest in the stagnation point, where dynamic pressure is zero.
It follows from equation (1.15) that maximum value of pressure
coefficient in stagnation point for incompressible fluid equals to C p = +1 .
If local pressure p exceeds pressure of undisturbed flow p∞
(V < V∞ ), then C p > 0 , and value ( p − p∞ ) > 0 is termed excessive
pressure, if pressure p is lower than p∞ (V > V∞ ), then C p < 0 , and value
( p − p∞ ) < 0 is termed rarefaction.
At large angles of attack the pressure coefficient on the airfoil upper
surface can reach large negative values, at the same moment on the
lower surface it changes within limits of 0 ≤ C p lower ≤ +1 .
10 Section 2. Aerodynamic Experimental Methods
Section 2
AERODYNAMIC EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Aerodynamic experiment now has reached a high degree of

perfection. Methods of experiments are various. At first the reciprocity
principle of flow is significant. This principal says that force interaction of
flow and body is the same regardless whether the body moves within
immovable medium, or medium streamlines the body with velocity
opposite to body velocity. It is important that velocity of body motion and
velocity of undisturbed flow should be the same. Reciprocity principle has
the great importance for the whole aerodynamics because it allows
accomplishing experiments with fixed models of aircraft and their parts
within flow of moving medium. With that the dynamic similarity of scaled
model and full-scale aircraft should be fulfilled.
All methods of researches can be divided in two groups:
1) analysis of cases when medium is immovable and body moves;
2) analysis of cases, when body is immovable and medium moves.
Each group includes some experimental approach of obtaining
relative motion of body and medium.
The first group comprises the following methods for obtaining relative
motion of body and medium:
1) straight line motion (body fall; air-research sled; flight tests);
2) curvilinear motion (flight tests).
The second group comprises:
1) usage of natural wind;
2) wind tunnels.
2.1. Aerodynamic Tests when Body Moves along Straight Line

One of the simplest methods of body drag determination is a test with
falling bodies. Such way was applied by Galileo to conform his discovery
that all bodies fall with identical acceleration. Galileo explained deviations
from this law by presence of air drag. This manner was greatly developed by
French engineer and scientist Eiffel. In Eiffel experiments device with
body under test slid along cable stretched vertically. The famous Russian
scientist Mendeleev had done experiments with falling bodies in laboratory of
the St-Petersburg University. The simplest devices applied for this testing
allowed clearing up some important problems of aerodynamics. In particular,
drag coefficients of simple bodies – sphere and plate – were determined.
At the beginning of aviation development definition of aerodynamic
forces acting upon bodies of more complicated shape was accomplished by
using so called aerodynamic sled. Aerodynamic sled moved along rails.
Section 2. Aerodynamic Experimental Methods 11
Forces were measured when
sled velocity became steady. In
view of the fact that quite long rail-
way was required for sled accele-
ration and then deceleration, total
length of railway was greatly longer
then length of its "working" segment,
along which velocity was constant.
Substantial defect of such method
is that natural wind influences
onto streamlining of the model.
Wind velocity is not constant both in
direction and in value, therefore true Fig. 2.1. Schematic Sketch of Hydraulic
model velocity can differ from the Channel (Test Sled)
sled velocity.
Aerodynamic sleds are located inside special premises to increase
precision of measurements. In such way sleds are widely used in
experiments accomplished in hydraulic channels (Fig. 2.1). Model is fixed by
means of special holder to a sled put on rails. Holder transfers forces
acting upon the model during its movement within water to
dynamometers, which are also arranged on the sled.
2.2. Wind Tunnels

Typical structure of wind tunnel is a channel, in which air flow is
created by means of a fan.
The first wind tunnel in Europe was "air blower" tunnel constructed by
K. E. Tsiolkovsky in 1897. First wind tunnels were small, flow velocity in
them was also low. Today experimental researches in wind tunnels are
widely used and they became main device for such investigations.
Contemporary wind tunnels can be divided in two following classes:
1) open–ended wind tunnels (Fig. 2.2) and 2) closed–ended wind tunnels
(Fig. 2.3).
Fig. 2.2. Open-ended Wind Tunnel

In open-ended wind tunnel air is sucked in by fan 1 , which is driven

by DC motor 2 . Usage of DC motor allows regulating number of revolu-
tions and, therefore, airflow velocity stepless. Wind tunnel inlet head 3 is
termed contractor. From the contractor air passes into working section 4 ,
and further into stream-line expanding part 5 , which is called diffuser.
Screen 6 is installed at the inlet of working section to create uniform flow
within the working section. Model under test 7 is fixed in the wind tunnel
working section.
Training wind tunnel Т–8 belonging to KhAI aerodynamic
department is the open-ended wind tunnel and is used to study
parameters of boundary layer on flat plate.
In closed-ended wind tunnel air sucked by fan is not thrown into
premises but is supplied to so-called returned channel. As a result
continuous flow circulating occurs. As a rule, flow velocity in working
section of closed-ended wind tunnel in comparison with open-ended wind
tunnel size-for-size of working sections and under the same power of
drives is higher.
Structurally wind tunnels are divided in tunnels with open working
section and closed working section. Wind tunnels with open working
section are termed wind tunnels with free stream, because their working
sections have no side walls.
Typical example of low-speed wind tunnel is closed-ended wind
tunnel with open working section and single return channel. This wind
tunnel as others low-speed wind tunnels comprise the following parts:
Working section – chamber, in which model is fixed on balance.
Strong requirements are made to airflow within working section. Airflow
shall be uniform when model is not installed within the tunnel, pulsations
and downwashes shall be minimal within working section. Model
dimensions, as a rule, shall be less than corresponding dimensions of
working section, in order to provide that flow boundaries do not influence
on flow over model.
Contractor 1 – contracting wind tunnel segment ahead of working
section required to create flow in working section.
Diffuser 6 – expanding wind tunnel segment behind working section
intended to decrease velocity and to raise pressure ahead of fan.
Return channel – channel, cross-feeding the wind tunnel and
directing flow from fan to contractor. Wind tunnels with two return
channels supplying flow to contractor from two directions symmetrically
also exist. But tunnels with single channel are more efficient. Screens of
profiled guide blades 3 are installed within bend of return channel.
Wind Tunnel power plant comprises one or some DC motors 5 ,
rotating multiblade fans 4 .
Honeycombs and screens 2 are installed in stilling chamber 7
within the wind tunnel to even flow and to break large vortex to small
vortexes.
Training wind tunnel Т–5 belonged to KhAI aerodynamic
department is closed-ended wind tunnel with open working section (see
Fig. 2.3). Diameter of wind tunnel working section – 0.75 m , length of
working section – 1.2 m , range of velocity variation – ( 10… 40 ) m / s ; DC
motor power – 32 кW .
Fig. 2.3. Low-speed Closed-ended Wind Tunnel with Open Working Section:
1 – Contractor; 2 – Honeycomb; 3 – Guide Blades;
4 – Fan; 5 – Electrical Motor; 6 – Diffuser; 7 – Stilling Chamber
High-speed subsonic wind tunnels are constructed as closed-ended

tunnel with closed working section.
Supersonic wind tunnels are of two types: short-term operation wind
tunnels and continuous operation wind tunnels.
Short-term operation wind tunnel is a tunnel in which air flow exists
during short period of time within wind tunnel working section.
Fig. 2.4. shows diagram of short-term supersonic wind tunnel Т–6
located in KhAI. Wind tunnel power plant comprises compressor (power
of compressor drive is of 3000 кW ), pressing air to specified pressure,
and air accumulator (gas tank) to accumulate and store compressed air
(pressure within gas tank is 8 atm , gas tank volume – 4300 m 3 ).
Duration of operation of such wind tunnel is not long, and required

power of power plant is substantially less than required one to create
continuous airflow using fan. Gas tanks are separated from wind tunnel
contour by means of automatic shutters 1 while filling them with air.
During experiment automatic shutters keep constant pressure in stilling
chamber 3 needed for specified Mach number when pressure
continuously drops within gas tanks. Channel behind the first shutter
separating aerodynamic contour from tanks branches into two parts.
Shutter regulating pressure within stilling chamber and forcing
ejector 2 are installed in supply channel. Forcing ejector involves a
portion of air passed through working section 5 and flowing along return
channel, into main stream, that increases time of experiment.
Supply channel expands behind the ejector and variable-incidence
blades are installed in channel bends to decrease hydraulic resistance.
Honeycomb and screens located in stilling chamber decrease irregularity
of velocity distribution over the wind tunnel channel cross-section.
Laval nozzle 4 contour for each specified Mach number in working
section is obtained by means of two exchangeable plate nozzle inserts.
Wind tunnel working section (of square cross-section: 0.6 × 0.6 m ) is
enclosed by impermeable chamber. Working section length is 1.5 m .
Flow deceleration behind working section is provided by controllable
diffuser (inverse Laval nozzle), at the end of which sucking ejector 7 is
installed decreasing pressure at diffuser outlet. Downstream diffuser 6 air
passes through return channel having bypassed forcing ejector via
sound-suppressing chamber is dropped.
Wind tunnel Т–6 is equipped with six-component balance with rigid
suspension.
A short-term operation wind tunnel possesses some advantages. It
is possible to obtain flows with high Mach numbers M inside them. But in
some cases duration of their operation is so short that it is very difficult to
obtain quantitative aerodynamic characteristics.
Supersonic wind tunnels of continuous operation are better plants.
Fig. 2.5 shows diagram of variable density wind tunnel. It is possible
to decrease coefficient of kinematic viscosity due to increase of air
density, and thereby to increase Reynolds number. High-speed variable
density wind tunnel allows satisfying conditions of similarity in Re and M
numbers simultaneously.
Fig. 2.4. Diagram of Supersonic Wind Tunnel Т–6 KhAI:

1 – Shutters; 2 – Forcing Ejector; 3 – Stilling Chamber; 4 – Nozzle;
5 – Working Section; 6 – Diffuser; 7 – Sucking Ejector
Fig. 2.5. Variable Density Wind Tunnel Diagram:

1 – Special Door; 2 – Fan; 3 – Motor; 4 – Stuffing-box; 5, 7 – Deflector;
6 – Screen; 8 – Working Section; 9 – Correcting Screen
There are many other types of wind tunnels:

- wind tunnels intended to study of aircraft power plants;
- wind tunnels intended to solve tasks of flight dynamics (vertical
wind tunnels for study of spin);
- wind tunnels for studying of icing condition of aircraft parts
(climatic wind tunnels).
2.3. Aerodynamic Balance

Direct measurement of forces and moments by means of
aerodynamic balance is the most precise and reliable method.
Aerodynamic balances differ from each other by quantity of measurable
components of total force and resulting aerodynamic moment, and also
by structure. By quantity of measurable components balances are divided
in single-component, two-component, three-component, four-component
and six-component. Important condition of correct design of multi-
component balances is separate component measuring.
In practice three-component and six-component balances are
usually used. Six-component balance allows measuring three projections
of aerodynamic force and three projections of aerodynamic moment.
Three-component balance usually measures lift, drag and pitch moment.
Depending on positioning aerodynamic balance are divided in two
types: balance located outside the model and working section
(mechanical type balance), and balance located inside the model or
inside struts supporting model within flow.
By manner of model attachment balances can be the following:
balance on thread suspension that means model is attached to dynamo-
metric system by means of threads-wires, cables, tapes, stretched by
means of auxiliary weights and springs, and rigid, that means model is
attached to dynamometric system by means of rigid struts or holders.
Experiment in wind tunnel Т–5 is accomplished on three-component
aerodynamic balance АВТ–5 (Fig. 2.6).
Model is fixed to suspension in three points. Model support
comprises two front struts rigidly connected with floating frame and one
rear link attaching to change of incidence mechanism driver. Front
holders are enclosed with cowls. Model is suspended to balance in
inverted position so that its upper surface is turned down.
Balance structure permits change of longitudinal and transverse
bases for attachment models of various shape and dimensions.
Longitudinal base may be equal to 300 , 250 , 200 or 150 mm , transverse
base may be equal to 500 or 250 mm .
Mechanism of changing angle of attack is mounted on floating
frame and allows to change angel of attack within limits of α = ±40° .
Floating frame is intended to fix supports and to take up forces
acting upon the model. Floating frame of balance АВТ–5 is suspended on
elastic holders of tape type to vertical links of mechanism of force
decomposition coming to balance measuring units Ya and M z .
Besides vertical links
floating frame has link in
horizontal plane, which is a
diamond-shaped system of
bracing. From the right
bracings are attached to crank
with weight creating pretension
in considered system. From
the left bracings are connected
with vertical link of balance unit
X a by means of elastic tape.
Measurement of compo-
nents of aerodynamic forces
and moments is accomplished
in the way of determination of
reactions in corresponding
links of force decomposition
mechanism required to prevent Fig. 2.6. Kinematic Diagram of Aerodynamic
model translation and rotation. Balance АВТ–5: 1 – Nozzle; 2 – Model;
3 – Floating Frame; 4 – Change of Attack
Such reactions are measured Angle Mechanism; 5 – Balance Units
by balance elements.
Rider type balance unit is a balance-beam with two movable weights.
Balance units are installed on the balance frame above the wind tunnel
working, where working place for operators is provided.
The lift value
Ya = Y ′ kY , (2.1)
where Y ′ is an indication of balance unit Ya ; k y is a calibration factor,
k y = 28.9 N .
The drag value of model with suspension
X a = X Σ′ k X ,
Σ (2.2)
where X Σ′ is an indication of balance unit X a ; k x is a calibration factor,
k x = 9.4 N .
The pitch moment concerning an axis which is passing through
forward units of the suspension bracket of the model
M z = M z′ kmz , (2.3)
where M z′ is an indication of balance unit M z ; kmz is a calibration factor,
kmz = −1 Nm .
2.4. Stream Visualization

Purpose of some aerodynamic investigations is obtaining qualitative
stream picture.
Aerodynamic spectra - pictures of airflow or water streams over
various bodies allow understanding physics of stream process correctly,
develop reliable models of analyzed aerodynamic processes, detect
imperfection of streams about various bodies and make correction of their
shapes, because break of stream-line stream in most cases causes
deterioration of aerodynamic characteristics.
Visibility of water flow about bodies is reached in three ways:
coloring flow, introducing the smallest drops of liquid of specified weight
close to 1, and adding insoluble small particles.
Visualization methods lying in adding insoluble small particles to
water the most widely are used. As usual, lycopodium powder, coffee
ground or small-size aluminum filing are added to water (Fig. 2.7).
Other methods should be noted: smoke spectra, silk threads
method, soot-oil coatings and shadow method.
Smoke spectra are widely used in contemporary aerodynamic
laboratories. In that case visualization of airflow is reached using thin
smoke streams generated either by special smoker located ahead of the
streamlined body, or from hole made on the surface of streamlined body
(Fig. 2.8). The second manner is intended analysis of boundary layer
condition – its transition from laminar to turbulent state, determination of
separation domain and so on.
Silk thread method lies in the following. Object under test is placed
into airflow; object surface is glued over with silk threads (Fig. 2.9).
Spectrum shows in which places of wing surface stream-line stream is
broken and where such breaks transit to flow stall and places of vortex
formation. Viewing silk threads shows that in stream-line flow silk thread
conducts itself evenly and it is shown in picture in a form of short line. As
stream-line flow becomes broken silk thread beats at first and then, with
flow stall, rotates intensively, in that way showing place of vortex
formation. In fully stalled flow silk thread beats as a rule, but it is directed
opposite to main flow; in that case silk threads indicate presence of
upstream within area of stalled flow.
Principal of obtaining shadow spectra is based on property of light
beam to deviate from its initial direction when passing through medium
with other density (Fig. 2.10).
Fig. 2.7. Sphere moving

within wind tunnel when
Re = 0.10 .
Small-size magnesium
filings are illuminated with
thin light knife, creating
shadow of sphere [2]
Fig. 2.8. Symmetrical

airfoil at angle of attack
α = 6° , Re = 20 000 .
Smoke visualization in
wind tunnel [2]
Fig. 2.9. Visualization in

wind tunnel Т–4 KhAI
using silk threads
Fig. 2.10. Aircraft model

when M = 1.1 .
Picture was made using
shadow methods [2]
20 Section 3. Measuring Flow Velocity And Pressure
Section 3
MEASURING FLOW VELOCITY AND PRESSURE
When testing aerodynamic characteristics of streamlined bodies it is
necessary to know precisely value and direction of undisturbed flow
velocity which is a term of all formulas of experimental aerodynamics.
Value of undisturbed flow velocity is usually determined on the basis of
measured pressure. This section contains materials concerning various
air-pressure head, and also instruments registering pressure value.
3.1. Micromanometer
Micromanometers are used to measure small differences in
pressure (Fig. 3.1). Let’s consider scheme of micromanometer.
Case 1 accommodates cylindrical reservoir 2 , which lower part is
connected to flexible tube 3 enclosing glass pipe 4 in metal fixture of
200… 300 mm length. Indicating scale 5 with interval of 1 m m is marked
on the glass pipe.
Fig. 3.1. Micromanometer
Micromanometer is connected to pressure head so that pressure

within reservoir is greater than pressure brought to end of glass pipe.
With that liquid level in thin glass pipe rises up to height h relatively to
zero level (Fig. 3.2), and in reservoir it drops onto value Δh , that means
that liquid volume ΔhF = lf ( l is length of liquid column in glass pipe)
overflows from reservoir to the glass pipe under action of pressure
difference Δp .
Having designated difference of liquid heights as H = Δh + h , we
can write down pressure difference
Δp = p1 − p2 = ρ liq gH = ρ liq g ( Δh + h ) . (3.1)
Section 3. Measuring Flow Velocity And Pressure 21
Let’s designate glass pipe angle of incidence as α , then height
h = l sinα . And formula (3.1) will have the following form
Δp = p1 − p2 = ρ liq gl sinα ( f ( F sinα ) + 1 ) . (3.2)
Let’s designate expression f ( F sin α ) + 1 = ϕ , where magnitude ϕ
is termed micromanometer geometrical factor. Then pressure difference
Δp = ρ liq glϕ sinα . (3.3)
Fig. 3.2. Deriving Formula for

Determination of Pressure Difference
It is clear from (3.2) that micromanometer geometrical factor

depends on area of reservoir cross-sections and diameter of
micromanometer glass pipe, and also on angle of incidence. Value of
micromanometer geometrical factor characterizes given micromanometer
and is defined by its calibration that means comparison of indications of
given micromanometer with standard micromanometer.
Multiplier sin α is a coefficient of micromanometer glass pipe angle
of incidence. The smaller pipe angle of incidence the longer liquid column
l at fixed pressure difference Δp ; accuracy of readout of magnitude l is
invariable ( ±0.5 mm ), therefore, with decreasing angle α relative error
decreases too, and accuracy of pressure determination is increased.
In practice expression for determination of pressure difference (3.3)
is written in the following form:
ρ liq
Δp = g l k , [ Pa ] , (3.4)
ρ alc
where k = ϕ ρ alc` sin α is micromanometer factor, g cm 3 ; ρ alc is density
of standard liquid (alcohol), ρ alc = 0.8095 g cm 3 ; ρ liq is density of liquid
poured in micromanometer, g cm 3 ; l is micromanometer indication, mm .
Micromanometer factor values corresponding to certain pipe angles
of incidence, are indicated on micromanometer incidence mechanism 6 :
0.1 , 0.2 , 0.4 , 0.6 , 0.8 .
3.2. Multitube Manometer

Multitube manometers are used to measure pressure
simultaneously in several points of streamlined body (Fig. 3.3), which are
series of glass pipes connected to common reservoir by lower end.
Measured pressure from each certain point is brought to upper end of
each pipe. Measuring pipes mounted on the common panel have
common scale. The panel also can change angle of incidence α similar
to inclined pipe of micromanometer. Pressure for comparison (usually
atmospheric) brought to manometer reservoir will be used. Then level of
liquid in each pipe corresponds to pressure difference in analyzed point
and atmospheric pressure.
Fig. 3.3. Multitube-type

Manometer:
1 – Model;
2 – Reservoir;
3 – Collector;
4 – Measuring Glass Pipes;
5 – Indicating Scale;
6 – Panel;
7 – Connecting Flexible Tubes
Pipes of a multitube manometer can have various internal diameter.

In consequence of capillary effect the level of rise of liquid in glass pipes
will be various, therefore before the beginning of experiment their initial
levels l0 i are readout.
Similar to micromanometer expression for determination pressure
difference in each point i will have the following form:
ρ liq .mt .m
Δpi = g ( li − l0i ) kmt .m , (3.5)
ρ alc
where li are indications of each measuring pipe i , mm ; k mt .m is factor of
multitube manometer, similar to micromanometer factor; ρ liq .mt .m is
density of liquid poured in multitube manometer, g cm 3 .
3.3. Static and Pitot Tubes
Airflow in low-subsonic wind tunnel working section can be
considered as one-dimensional and incompressible. In that case relation
between total p0 , static p and dynamic q∞ = ρV∞ 2 2 (velocity head)
pressures can be represented in the following form
p0 = p + q∞ . (3.6)
Static pressure holes are arranged on channel wall or surface of
streamlined solid body for sense of static pressure. They are made in a
form of holes in body surface (Fig. 3.4). Hole axis shall be perpendicular
to body surface in analyzed point. Hole diameter shall be the smallest,
because large hole dimensions cause additional flow disturbances, that
causes error of measured pressure. But holes less than 0.2 mm are not
made, because pressure action will delay due to throttling hole effect.
Recommended hole diameter is 0.25… 0.5 mm .
When measuring static pressure in cross-section of wind tunnel a
series of holes are made in its wall located in the same plane perpen-
dicular to wind tunnel axis. Cross-section under analysis is enclosed with
impermeable collector in which pressure taken in different points of cross-
section is averaged. Pressure in collector is brought to micromanometer.
To measure total pressure nozzles in the form of cylindrical tube
with a hole set opposite to flow (Pitot tube) are applied (Fig. 3.5).
Fig. 3.4. Measurement of Static Pressure:

а – on Flat Wall; b – on Curvilinear Wall Fig. 3.5. Pitot Tube
Shape of Pitot tube nose and ratio of inlet hole diameter to external
tube diameter does not insert influence on measuring total pressure within
wide velocity range if tube axis coincides with flow direction. That is why
generally Pitot tube in a form of tube with blunt end is applied. Such tube
is not sensitive to downwash angles within limits of ±10… ± 12° .
3.4. Pitot-Static Tube

As an alternative to using separate Pitot and static tubes, it is
possible to use a combined device called the Pitot-static tube (Fig. 3.6).
The Pitot-static tube consists of two concentric tubes. The inner one is
simply a Pitot tube (to sense the total pressure p0 ), but the outer one is
sealed at the front and has small holes in the side to sense the static
pressure p .
Fig. 3.6. Pitot-Static Tube

Simple relation between pressure difference ΔpH measured by
micromanometer brought to pipes with holes of Pitot-static tube and true
value of difference Δp exists
1 1
ΔpH = p0 H − pH = ( p0 − p ) = Δp , (3.7)
ψ ψ
where ψ is a Pitot-static tube factor, which is determined by its
geometrical shape and positions of holes at its given orientation. For
every Pitot-static tube factor ψ is constant and close to 1 within wide
range of Reynolds numbers Re .
3.5. Determination of Dynamic Pressure Using Pitot-Static Tube

Measurement of dynamic pressure in analyzed point is accomp-
lished using Pitot-static tube and micromanometer (Fig. 3.7). Taking into
account expression (3.7) in analyzed point dynamic pressure equals to
ρV 2 ρ liq
q= = p0 − p = ψ k l g, (3.8)
2 ρ alc p p
where l p is micromanometer indication, mm ; k p is micromanometer factor.
Velocity in analyzed point of flow will be
2 ρ liq
V= ψ k l g. (3.9)
ρ ρ alc p p
3.6. Determination of Dynamic Pressure and Flow Velocity
by means of Pressure Difference Method
Dynamic pressure in open working section of low-subsonic wind
tunnel is determined by pressure difference in stilling chamber
(prechamber) and working section. For static pressure sense series of
static holes integrated in collector as a whole are made in the wall of
stilling chamber. Pressure from collector is brought to micromanometer by
means of flexible pipes. Upper end of measuring glass pipe of
micromanometer is remained open, because average static pressure in
open working section of wind tunnel equals to atmospheric pressure.
For deriving the formula defining magnitude of a velocity head in a
working section let’s write Bernoulli equation and flow rate equation for
sections 1 − 1 (stilling chamber) and 2 − 2 (working section) (Fig. 3.7):
ρVst 2 ρV∞ 2 ρV∞ 2
pst + = p∞ + +ξ ; (3.10)
2 2 2
S stVst = S∞V∞ ,
where S st and S ∞ are areas of the first and the second cross sections
correspondingly; ξ is hydraulic losses coefficient between considered
sections.
From equation (3.10) we obtain
ρV∞ 2 ⎡ Vst 2 ⎤ ρV∞ 2 ⎡ S∞ 2 ⎤
pst − p∞ = ⎢1 − 2 + ξ ⎥ = ⎢1 − 2
+ ξ ⎥.
2 ⎣⎢ V∞ ⎦⎥ 2 ⎣⎢ S st ⎥⎦
Let’s designate 1 ⎡⎢ 1 − ( S∞ S st ) + ξ ⎤⎥ = μ , where μ – velocity field
2
⎣ ⎦
coefficient of wind tunnel working section.
Fig. 3.7. Measurement of Dynamic Pressure and

Flow Velocity in Working Section of Wind Tunnel
Then formula for calculation of dynamic pressure will have the

following form
ρV∞ 2
q∞ = = Δ pμ .
2
When measuring dynamic pressure by means of micromanometer
working formulas for dynamic pressure and flow velocity will be:
ρ liq
q∞ = glv kv μ , (3.11)
ρ alc
2 ρ liq
V∞ = glv kv μ . (3.12)
ρ ρ alc
where lv is indication of micromanometer, connected to stilling chamber,
mm ; kv is micromanometer factor.
3.7. Boundary Layer. Measurements in Boundary Layer

Flow area directly adjacent to body is named boundary layer. Liquid
in this layer gradually decelerates under action of viscosity forces coming
near to streamlined body surface and equals to zero on body surface.
When studying boundary layer closely (Fig. 3.8) it is clear that at low
velocity of undisturbed flow liquid in boundary layer moves evenly in the
form of immiscible layers. Particles rotate around their own axes
perpendicular to flow plane only, always remain within limits of the same
infinitely thin layer. Particles do not cross-mix. Such boundary layer is
named laminar. If undisturbed velocity flow is high, then it could be that
practically total boundary layer is irregularly turbulent. Such boundary
layer is named turbulent.
In most cases at mean Reynolds numbers structure of boundary
layer is so that laminar boundary layer is formed at front part of
streamlined body, which further converts to turbulent. Such boundary
layer is called compound.
Determination of boundary layer characteristics requires special
methods of measurements and more sensible instruments in comparison
to general tests. Due to small thickness of boundary layer and large cross
gradients of velocity analysis of boundary layer requires small-size and
complicated in production instruments.
More widely used method of velocity determination in boundary
layer is pneumometric method, which allows calculating velocities using
Bernoulli equation by pressures measured by means of pneumometric
heads.
Fig. 3.8. Diagram of Flow over Wing with Formation of Boundary Layer:
1 – Laminar Boundary Layer; 2 – Turbulent Boundary Layer; 3 – Wake;
4 – External Flow; T – Transition Point from Laminar to Turbulent Mode;
S – Separation Point of Boundary Layer
Pneumometric heads inserted in boundary layer can cause serious

disturbances and change character of flow next to wall. That is why micro
Pitot tubes are used (Fig. 3.9); in practice medical needles with inner
diameter of 0.05 to 0.3 mm are used as such micro tubes. Static pressure
required determining values of dynamic pressure and velocity is
measured on the surface of the body under test, because static pressure
does not change in thickness of boundary layer.
Velocity in boundary layer is determined by differential of total
pressure and static pressure in analyzed point. For that total pressure
head and static head are connected to micromanometer (Fig. 3.10).
Fig. 3.10. Test Diagram for Determination of

Fig. 3.9. Micro Pitot Tube Velocities in Boundary Layer
More detailed information about determination of parameters in a

boundary layer will be presented later in a laboratory practical work.
28 Section 4. Test Procedure And Analysis of Data
Section 4
TEST PROCEDURE AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.1. Laboratory Experiment «Determination of Parameters of
Boundary Layer on Flat Plate by Pneumometric Method»
Purpose
1. Familiarize with measurement technique in boundary layer.
2. Determine flow mode in boundary layer on plate.
3. Compare velocity profile with theoretical values.
List of Equipment Used
1. Wind tunnel Т–8 with coordinate setting device.
2. Metal flat plate.
3. Micro Pitot tube.
4. Micromanometer.
General. Boundary layer on plate
Thickness of boundary layer δ is conditional value. It is accepted that
line on which velocity differs from external flow local velocity on 1% is the
boundary layer edge (see Fig. 4.1). Beyond the boundary layer flow can be
considered as potential.
Curve of velocity distribution
along the normal to surface in some
point of the body under test is called
velocity profile.
Ratio of the velocity in boundary
layer in the specified point to external
V
flow local velocity x is marked
Vδ
along abscissa axis, relative distance
y from body surface along the
δ
normal to the point in boundary layer,
Fig. 4.1. Velocity Profile in Boundary Layer
in which velocity is determined, is
marked along ordinate axis.
For plate theoretical values of velocity in laminar and turbulent layers are
defined by the formulas
V x lam ⎡ 3 ⎛ y ⎞ 1 ⎛ y ⎞ 3 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎜ ⎟− ⎜ ⎟ ⎥,
Vδ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎝ δ ⎠ 2 ⎝ δ ⎠ ⎥⎦
(4.1)
V x turb ⎛ y ⎞ n
=⎜ ⎟ .
Vδ ⎝δ ⎠
Section 4. Test Procedure And Analysis of Data 29
Exponent n depends on Reynolds number determined using the
boundary layer thickness δ : Reδ = V0 δ υ . Exponent is chosen from
Table 4.1 (for given experimental setup n = 1 7 )
Table 4.1.
Reδ 10 4
10 5
10 6
107
n 16 17 18 19
The following formulas are used to calculate thickness of laminar
and turbulent boundary layers on the plate:
x x V x
δ lam = 5.8 ; δ turb = 0.37 ; Re x = 0 , (4.2)
Re x 5 Re
x
υ
where Re x is a Reynolds number determined along the plate length; x is
a distance from the leading edge of the plate to section, in which
boundary layer thickness is measured; Vδ is the flow velocity on the
boundary layer edge in the given section; υ is the kinematic viscosity
coefficient.
Description of Experimental Setup
Testing of boundary layer on the plate is accomplished in open-
ended wind tunnel with closed square working section (Fig. 4.2).
Coordinate setting device is set in the wind tunnel upper part, which
allows moving micro Pitot tube both in vertical and in horizontal direction
(along plate). In horizontal plane coordinate setting device can be placed
into four positions only, coordinates x for these positions are indicated in
Fig. 4.2. In vertical plane coordinate setting device allows to set micro
Pitot tube at any distance from plate within working section. Scale division
value of the coordinate setting device is 0.01 mm .
Fig. 4.2. Experimental Setup for

Determination of Boundary Layer
Parameters on Plate: 1 – Working
Section of Wind Tunnel; 2 – Wall of
Wind Tunnel Working Section;
3 – Micro Pitot tube;
4 – Coordinate Setting Device;
5 – Micromanometer; 6 – Static
Pressure Holes; 7 – Metal Plate
Coordinate y is determined from relation: y = 0.5d + y ′ , where y′ is

a coordinate setting device indications; d = 0.8 mm is the external
diameter of micro Pitot tube.
Velocity is determined by readings of micromanometer using
formula (3.14). Taking into account that ρ liq = ρ alc and ψ ≈ 1 , formula
(3.9) will have the following form
2
V= k pl p g . (4.3)
ρ
Density value ρ = f ( pa , t ° ) and value of flow kinematic viscosity
coefficient υ = f ( pa , t ° ) , required to accomplish calculations of boundary
layer thickness are determined by nomograms (Fig. 4.3 and 4.4) by
known atmospheric pressure and temperature.
Procedure
Step 1. Connect micromanometer to Pitot tube and static pressure
holes using flexible tubes, prepare it to operation.
Step 2. Place coordinate setting device in one section of wind tunnel
working section.
Step 3. Set micro Pitot tube in zero position.
Step 4. Measure velocities over thickness of boundary layer having
moved the micro Pitot tube from zero position upward.
Step 5. Repeat works specified in points 2–5 for other sections.
Record test results for each section in Table.
Test results of boundary layer parameters
y 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.5 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Section x= δ= Vδ =
lp
Vx
y δ
V x Vδ
Section x= δ= Vδ =
lp
Vx
y δ
V x Vδ
Step 6. Calculate theoretical values of velocity distribution over
thickness of laminar and turbulent boundary layers by formulas (4.1) for
specified values y δ . Record obtained results in the table below.
Theoretical values of boundary layer parameters
y δ 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
V x lam Vδ
V x turb Vδ
Step 7. Plot dependences V x Vδ = f ( y δ ) , V x lam Vδ = f ( y δ ) ,

V x turb Vδ = f ( y δ ) .
Step 8. Calculate theoretical values of thickness of laminar and
turbulent boundary layers along plate length by formulas (4.2) for each
section (for calculations it is possible to use value Vδ obtained during
tests).
Step 9. Plot dependences δ = f ( x ) , δ lam = f ( x ) , δ turb = f ( x ) .
Step 10. Compare experimental and theoretical dependences for
laminar and turbulent boundary layers and define flow mode in boundary
layer in each section.
Quiz
1. What is boundary layer?
2. What flow modes in boundary layer do you know?
3. How does static pressure change in boundary layer along the
normal to body surface?
4. What laws does velocity change in laminar and turbulent
boundary layers obey?
5. What instruments are used to measure velocity in boundary
layer?
6. What is Reynolds number? What is its physical meaning?
7. In what way does boundary layer thickness change along plate?
8. What are the differences between laminar and turbulent boundary
layers?
9. What is the value of flow velocity on plate surface? Explain,
please.
10. In what way is boundary layer thickness determined in
laboratory work?
Fig.4.3. Nomogram
Fig.4.4. Nomogram
4.2. Laboratory Experiment «Determination of Velocity Field

Coefficient Within Working Section of Wind Tunnel Т–5»
Purpose
1. Get skills in application of the basic devices used during tests in
subsonic wind tunnel.
2. Determine distribution of coefficient of velocity field in the chosen
cross section along and across wind tunnel working section.
1. Wind tunnel with open working section Т–5.
2. Micromanometer for measurement of mean dynamic pressure.
3. Pitot-static tube.
4. Micromanometer for determination of dynamic pressure (velocity
head) in reference point.
5. Coordinate setting device.
General. Coefficient of Velocity Field
The main criterion describing perfection of a wind tunnel is sufficient
uniformity of an airflow in the field around model. The following
parameters describe uniformity of an airflow:
1) a degree of velocity (dynamic pressure) non-uniformity of a stream
over cross-sections and along length of a working section;
2) a degree of downwash (upwash) angles non-uniformity in vertical
and horizontal planes over cross-section and along length of a
working section;
3) a degree of static pressure non-uniformity over cross-sections and
along length of a working section.
In a working section of a wind tunnel there is the sizeable area of
the uniform velocities (dynamic pressure). It’s a flow core, where model
under test shall be placed. In flow core deviation of value of dynamic
pressure should not exceed ±2% from average value. From a flow core to
boundaries or walls velocity slows down up to zero (Fig. 4.5). Values of
dynamic pressure, static pressure and downwash angles of a stream will
differ a little for points of flow core and greatly in a boundary layer of
filament.
Let’s consider the velocity field coefficient characterizing a degree of
dynamic pressure non-uniformity in the chosen cross-section of wind
tunnel working section.
Velocity Field coefficient μi is the ratio of dynamic pressure taken in
the given reference point of a wind tunnel working section to the dynamic
pressure measured on pressure difference between stilling chamber and
a working section:
q
μi = i , (4.4)
q∞
where qi is a dynamic pressure in the reference point of flow; q∞ is a
dynamic pressure measured using the pressure difference method.
Fig. 4.5. Change of Dynamic Pressure in

Open Working Section of Wind Tunnel
Velocity field coefficient of wind tunnel working section in the area of
model location within the selected section will be
1
μ=
S ∫
μ ( s ) dS , (4.5)
S
where S is the area of rectangle ABCD , (Fig. 4.6,a). Having designated
the rectangle dimensions as a and b , we shall obtain
a b
2 2
1
μ=
ab ∫a dy ∫b μ ( y , z ) dz . (4.6)
− −
2 2
The graph μ = f ( z ) is plotted on the basis of experiment results
(Fig. 4.6,b) for selected horizontal line, y = const . Such graphs are also
created for all horizontal lines of the given section to provide full analysis
of the field. The graph shall represent coordinates of section of the
working section x and coordinates of the selected line y = const , along
which the Pitot-static tube was moved.
a b
Fig. 4.6. Experimental Setup for Measurement of Dynamic Pressure
Within Selected Section of Wind Tunnel Working Section (a);
Test Graph of Field Coefficient Along Axis z when y = const (b)
Formula for definition of dynamic pressure in the working section of

wind tunnel will be
ρ∞V∞ 2 ρliq
q∞ = = Δpμ = μ kv l v g ,
2 ρalc
where μ is mean velocity field coefficient, which is determined for flow
core.
Experimental Setup and
Procedure of Determination of Velocity Field Coefficient
Two micromanometers and Pitot-static tube are required to
determine the velocity field coefficient μi . Pitot-static tube is placed within
the flow analyzed and displaced with step of 25 mm along the radius
close to boundaries of air flow where speed changes rapidly, and with
step of 50 mm within the flow core. The Pitot-static tube movement in the
given section point is provided by the coordinate setting device (Fig. 4.7).
Values of dynamic pressure are calculated by formulas (3.8) and
(3.11) on the basis of readings of micromanometers connected to the
Pitot-static tube and stilling chamber, whence
ρ liq
ψ k p l pi g
q ρ alc
μi = i = . (4.7)
q∞ ρ liq
kv l v g
ρ alc
Fig. 4.7. Experimental Setup:

1 – Wind Tunnel Т–5;
2 – Micromanometers;
3 – Pitot-static Tube;
4 – Coordinate Setting
Device
During carrying out the experiment it is expedient to set identical

factors of micromanometers: k p = kv . Pitot-static tube used in the given
laboratory work has factor ψ ≈ 1 .
Thus, taking into account that ρ liq = ρ alc , ψ ≈ 1 , k p = kv , the
working formula (4.7) can be written down as follows:
lpi
μi = . (4.8)
lv
Further one should allocate a flow core where the deviation of value
of dynamic pressure does not exceed ±2% from average value, and
determine velocity field coefficient of the wind tunnel working section μ .
For mean value of the velocity field coefficient of the wind tunnel
working section along the selected line of the cross section formula (4.6)
will be as follows
n
∑ μi
i =1
μ= , (4.9)
n
where n is quantity of points belonging to the flow core.
Procedure
Step 1. Place Pitot-static tube by means of the coordinate setting
device into reference point of the chosen cross section.
Step 2. Simultaneously readout indications of micromanometers l pi
and lv and write down them in the table below.
Experiment Results of Velocity Field Coefficient

zi -375 -350 -300 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 375
x= y= kv = kp =
l pi
lv
μi
x= y= kv = kp =
l pi
lv
μi
x= y= kv = kp =
l pi
lv
μi
Step 3. Place Pitot-static tube into the next point. Step of the probe
displacement equals to 25… 50 mm .
Step 4. Calculate velocity field coefficient μi for each point of the
section by formula (4.8).
Step 5. Plot graphs of dependences μ = f ( z , x ) .
Step 6. Estimate degree of uniformity of flow velocity distribution
within working section of wind tunnel Т–5. Define the flow core.
Step 7. Determine mean velocity field coefficient μ within the flow
core in the selected section by formula (4.9).
Quiz
1. What is velocity field coefficient?
2. What is flow core?
3. What is dynamic pressure (velocity head)?
4. Describe procedure of determination of velocity field coefficient.
5. Describe velocity distribution within cross-section of the wind
tunnel working section.
6. What is the principal of operation of Pitot-static tube?
7. Methods of measurement of velocity within the wind tunnel
working section.
8. For what purposes is the velocity field coefficient of the wind
tunnel working section determined?
4.3. Laboratory Experiment «Determination of Pressure
Distribution over Wing Surface»
Purpose of Work
1. Study test procedure of determination of pressure distribution
over wing surface.
2. Determine pressure distribution chordwise within specified
sections and spanwise.
3. Calculate the wing lift coefficient.
1. Wing model drained in several sections.
2. Wind tunnel Т–5.
3. Micromanometer to measure dynamic pressure.
4. Multitube manometer.
General
Determination of pressure distribution is one of the most widely
spread test accomplished in wind tunnels. Knowing pressure distribution
over body it is possible to determine total pressure forces well enough
and, mainly, determination local distribution of forces and flow character
close to body surface. Such tests are very important to create rational
shapes of object parts, and also to find load distribution required for
stress calculations.
Pressure distribution over body surface is determined by means of
special drained models. Drainage lies in the following: surface of
streamlined body is drilled with holes of small diameter playing role of
static heads.
Quantity of holes and interval between them are selected so that it
would be easy to interpolate intermediate values of pressure. That is why
holes are drilled with smaller interval in area of supposed pressure
hopping. In spatial flows it is more complicated to select quantity and
position of holes, especially when studying pressure distribution over
body surface for its various positions in relation to flow direction. Drainage
becomes more complicated in very thin rear or nose part of the body. It is
easier to select quantity and positioning of holes for two-dimensional and
axisymmetric flows. So, for two-dimensional flow drainage is
accomplished only in one section – along airfoil contour, for axisymmetric
flow – along generatrix.
Models meant for analysis of pressure distribution are made of
wood or metal. The most widely used method of drained model making is
as follows. Grooves are made in the model’s whole surface, in which
copper or brass tubes are inserted. Pipe ends located in the model are
soldered, another ends are set outside. Grooves with pipes are puttied if
model is wooden, or soldered if model is metal. Then surface of model is
profiled to template thoroughly, required number of small diameter holes
is drilled in pipes, connections are soldered to free ends of pipes, to which
flexible tubes from multitube manometer are connected.
After check of pipes for leakage model surface is polished. Position
of each hole center shall be fixed precisely and marked on the section
template. Drainage holes are enumerated. Fig. 4.8, as an example,
shows diagram of drainage holes’ marking of wing model for tests at
subsonic velocities. It is clear that tubes are located more thickly on
convex wing surface and more often in wing airfoil nose, where the
pressure hopping is expected. Drainage holes are drilled spanwise in
several sections.
Fig. 4.8. Diagram of Wing Drainage
During tests pressure is measured in the selected section, and

drainage holes in other sections are closed with adhesive tape. When
repeating test for next section close drainage holes in the former section
and open in the following. Such method allows measuring pressure in
different sections without rearrangement of connecting pipes between
model and manometer.
When accomplishing tests in wind tunnel with open working section
static pressure of undisturbed flow equals to atmospheric pressure. That
is why atmospheric pressure is brought to reservoir of multitube
manometer. Test is accomplished at constant velocity for several sections
and several angles of attack. Dynamic pressure is measured applying
pressure difference method.
As a result of experiment it is possible to plot vector or coordinate
diagrams of pressure distribution. Pressure coefficient C p is used as
value characterizing pressure, which equals to ratio of excessive pressure
in analyzed point on body surface Δpi = pi − p∞ to dynamic pressure of
undisturbed flow q∞
Δp p −p
C pi = i = i 2∞ . (4.10)
q∞ ρV∞
2
Differential pressure in the point Δpi = pi − p∞ , measured by means
of multitube manometer can be determined by formula (3.11)
ρ liq.mt .m
Δpi =
ρ alc
(
kmt .m li − l0i g , )
and dynamic pressure measured applying pressure difference method by
formula (3.13)
ρ liq
q∞ = μ kv l v g .
ρ alc
Then expression defining value of pressure coefficient in the point
Cp will be the following
i
ρ liq.mt .m
ρ alc
(
kmt .m li − l0i g )
C pi = . (4.11)
ρ liq
μ kv l v g
ρ alc
On vector diagram pressure coefficient is plotted as vector normal
to contour of streamlined body and directed inward at C p > 0 or outward
at C p < 0 . Fig. 4.9 shows, as an example, vector diagram for symmetrical
thin airfoil streamlined at small angle of attack. Due to complexity of
plotting vector diagrams are not widely used. In general tests results are
represented in the form of coordinate (chord) diagram of pressure
distribution, which is plotted as follows. Relative coordinates of the
streamlined body section points (coordinates of points divided by body
characteristic dimension) are put along abscissa axis, for example, for
airfoil it is ratio of coordinate x to airfoil chord b , x = x b ), in which
pressure was measured. Pressure coefficient C p is put along ordinate

axis, with that negative values are put upwards (Fig. 4.10).
Flow stagnation point, in which velocity equals to zero and pressure
coefficient is maximum (for incompressible fluid C p max = +1 ) can not be
determined by tests. But it can be easily defined when plotting vector or
coordinate diagram applying interpolation. As a rule, flow stagnation point
lies nearby airfoil leading edge.
On trailing edge pressure coefficient has the same values when
coming from low or upper surfaces.
Fig. 4.9. Vector diagram of Pressure Fig. 4.10. Coordinate Diagram of Pressure
Coefficient Distribution for Wing Airfoil Coefficient Distribution for Wing Airfoil
On the basis of obtained diagrams C p = f ( x ) it is possible to deter-

mine value of wing section (airfoil) normal force coefficient (Fig. 4.11).
Fig. 4.11. Determination of Wing Lift

Normal force acting upon an element of wing surface dS = dx dz
with chord bsec ,
bsec
ρ ∞V∞ 2
Ysec =
2 ∫ ( С p l − С p up ) 1 ⋅ dx , (4.12)
0
from another side,
ρ ∞V∞ 2
Ysec = C y sec
1 ⋅ bsec . (4.13)
2
Comparing expressions (4.12) and (4.13), we get
bsec
∫ ( С p l − С p up ) 1 ⋅ dx
1
C y sec =
1 ⋅ bsec
0
or, having divided by bsec ,
1
C y sec = ∫ ( С p l − С p up ) dx . (4.14)
0
Therefore, coefficient C y sec numerically equals to square concluded
between curves C p l = f ( x ) and C p up = f ( x ) on coordinate diagram of
pressure coefficient distribution.
On distribution of pressure coefficient forces coefficients in the body
axes are calculated.
At small angles of attack C ya sec ≈ C y sec (see 1.3). Having
determined C ya sec for series of angles of attack we can plot dependence
C ya sec = f (α ) .
Having plotted diagrams C p = f ( x ) for several wing sections and
angles of attack, it is possible to plot graph of function C ya sec = f ( z ) ,
z
where z = ; l is a semispan.
l 2
2
Further, applying graphical integration it is possible to determine
wing lift coefficient C ya for specified angles of attack
1
∫
C ya = C ya sec dz
0
and plot graph C ya = f (α ) .
Experimental Setup and Procedure of Determination

of Pressure Coefficient and Wing Lift Coefficient
Preparation of wing model for tests is described above, diagram of
test installation is shown in Fig. 4.12. Wing model 1 is installed by means
of suspension, drainage tubes are connected to multitube manometer 4 .
Fig. 4.12. Diagram of Test

Setup for Determination of
Pressure Coefficient:
1 – Drained Wing Model;
3 – Micromanometer;
4 – Multitube Manometer;
5 – Drainage Holes
During tests set model in turn under specified angle of attack and
record indications of tubes of multitube manometer li , and also
micromanometer indications lv , by which velocity of undisturbed flow is
determined applying method of pressure difference.
Velocity field coefficient for wind tunnel T–5 is μ ≈ 1 . Factors of
micromanometer and multitube manometer are expedient to set identical:
kv = kmt .m = 0.4 . Operating fluid in multitube manometer is water
ρ liq mt .m = 1 g сm 3 , operating fluid in micromanometer is alcohol
ρ liq = 0.8 g сm 3 .
Thus formula (4.11) will be
ρ liq mt .m kmt .m ( li − l0i ) 1 ( li − l0i )
C pi = = ,
ρ liq kv lv 0.8 lv
C pi = 1.25
( li − l0i ) . (4.15)
lv
Value of wing section lift coefficient defined by formulas (4.14),
numerically equals to square on coordinate diagram of pressure
coefficient distribution (Fig. 4.13) and it can be calculated by means of
graphical integration:
n− 1
C ya sec = ∑ (C p l i )
− C p upi Δx . (4.16)
i=2
Dependence C ya sec = f ( z ) is plotted to obtain wing lift coefficient

and coefficient C ya is determined by formula by means of graphical
integration:
m
C ya = ∑ C ya sec i
Δz . (4.17)
i =1
Fig. 4.13. Determine C ya sec of Wing Section (а);

Determine C ya of Gross Wing (b)
Coordinates of sections and geometric characteristics of wing model

are shown in Fig. 4.14, a.
Diagram of drainage holes is shown in Fig. 4.14, b. Coordinates of
x
drainage holes in shares of airfoil chord x = are indicated in Table 4.2.
b
Table 4.2.
Coordinates of drainage holes
Upper surface Low surface
i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
x 0.03 0.09 0.18 0.29 0.39 0.53 0.64 0.87 0.79 0.64 0.53 0.38 0.25 0.14 0.06
а b
Fig. 4.14. Coordinates of Sections (а); Diagram of Drainage Holes (b)
(Wing Chord b = 0.1 m ; Wing Span l = 0.5 m )
Procedure
Step 1. Write down initial indications of multitube manometer l0 i .
Step 2. Place model in wind tunnel at specified angle of attack.
Step 3. Accomplish test for prescribed angle of attack. Record
values li of multitube manometer and value lv in the table.
Test values of pressure coefficient of wing sections
at given angles of attack
Upper surface Low surface
i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
x 0.03 0.09 0.18 0.29 0.39 0.53 0.64 0.87 0.79 0.64 0.53 0.38 0.25 0.14 0.06
α= lv = kv = kmt .m = z=
l0 i
li
li − l0 i
C pi
l0 i
li
li − l0 i
C pi
l0 i
li
li − l0 i
C pi
Step 4. Calculate values of pressure coefficient C pi in each point by
formula (4.15). Plot coordinate diagrams C p = f ( x ) for each angle of
attack.
Step 5. Determine lift coefficient C ya sec for each angle of attack
using dependence C p = f ( x ) by formula (4.16). Plot dependence
C ya sec = f (α ) . Record results of calculations into the Table.
Test values of lift coefficient of wing section and wing in a whole
Section z1 = z2 = z3 = wing
α
C ya sec
Step 6. Plot dependences C ya sec = f ( z ) for each angle of attack,

calculate wing lift coefficient using formula (4.17). Plot the final
dependence C ya = f (α ) .
Step 7. Determine values α 0 , C αya for wing using graph C ya = f (α ) .
Analyze results.
Quiz
1. What is pressure coefficient C p ?
2. How angle of attack influences onto pressure distribution?
3. What is the method of determination of pressure coefficient?
4. What models are used for experimental researches of pressure
distribution over body surface?
5. What is the method of measuring static pressure over the wing
surface?
6. Describe how could it be possible to determine section lift
coefficient on the basis of pressure distribution picture?
7. What is critical point (stagnation point)?
8. Design and principal of operation of multitube manometer?
9. What types of pressure coefficient distribution diagrams do you
know?
4.4. Laboratory Experiment «Determination of Wing Model

Aerodynamic Characteristics by Balance Method»
Purpose
1. Become familiar with balance method procedure.
2. Determine and analyze aerodynamic characteristics of wing.
2. Balance АВТ–5.
3. Wing model.
4. Micromanometer.
General
Tests are accomplished at constant dynamic pressure and variable
angles of attack of model. Angles of attack can be changed from small
negative corresponding to low negative lift to angles exceeding stalling
angle on some degrees.
Mean dynamic pressure in working section of subsonic wind tunnel
is determined by pressure difference method by formula (3.11). Taking
into account that ρ liq ≈ ρ alc , μ ≈ 1 dynamic pressure q∞ in wind tunnel Т –
5 is determined in the following way
q∞ = kv lv g . (4.18)
Model aerodynamic coefficients are calculated for each angle of
attack by the following formulas:
1. Drag coefficient of model only
C xa = C xa Σ − C xa susp , (4.19)
where C xa Σ is a total drag coefficient of model and suspension;
X X a susp
C xa Σ = a Σ ; C xa susp is a drag coefficient of suspension, C xa susp = .
q∞ S q∞ S
When determine coefficient C xa susp suspension drag force X a susp is
divided by model characteristic area S .
Drag of model suspension devices is determined experimentally. For
that suspension drag is measured in the model presence, having
eliminated model joint with balance.
2. Model lift coefficient
Y
C ya = a . (4.20)
q∞ S
where Ya is a lift of model, measured on balance АВТ–5.
3. Model longitudinal moment coefficient relatively to suspension
front point on balance АВТ–5
Mz
mz = . (4.21)
q∞ Sb
where M z is longitudinal moment relatively to suspension front point on
balance АВТ–5 ; b is mean aerodynamic chord ( bMAC ).
Coefficient of Lift vs. Angle of Attack Graphs

As tests and theory show at small angles of attack, which are of the
most interest, lift coefficient increases with rise of angle of attack linearly.
At some angle of attack α 0 , termed zero-lift angle, lift coefficient
C ya equals to zero. For symmetrical bodies α 0 = 0 and curve C ya = f (α )
passes through origin of coordinate. It is possible to mark linear segment
on curve C ya = f (α ) , on which lift coefficient rises in proportion to angle
of attack:
C ya = C yaα ( α − α 0 ) , (4.22)
dC ya
where derivative C αya = characterizes lifting properties of wing.
dα
If angle of attack continue rising flow evenness becomes broken,
flow starts to separate from body surface and curve C ya = f (α ) deflects
from linear law. This angle is named angle of beginning of stall α b .st .
Value ( 0.8… 0.85 )C ya max corresponds to angle of the beginning of stall.
Starting from some angle of attack great part of upper surface is located
within flow stall and further increasing angles of attack causes drop of lift
coefficient. Angle of attack at which lift coefficient reaches maximum
value C ya max , is termed stalling angle of attack α st .
Angles of attack between α 0 and α b .st compile range of flight
angles of attack. Angles of attack exceeding α st , are termed supercritical.
Wing Polar Graphs

The first type polar is relation between lift coefficient and drag
(
coefficient C xa = f C ya .)
When building polar graph drag coefficient C xa is laid by abscissa
axis, and lift coefficient C ya is laid by ordinate axis.
Often C xa scale is increased in 5 or 10 times to increase precision.

Angle of attack marking is accomplished on obtained curve that means
corresponding value of angle of attack is marked close to each point (see
Fig. 4.15).
( )
Fig 4.15. Dependences C ya = f ( α ) , K = f ( α ) , C xa = f C ya
It is easy to determine lift to drag ratio for any angle of attack using
polar line
Y C ya
K= a = . (4.23)
X a C xa
Point corresponding to maximum lift to drag ratio K max could be
found if you draw tangent from origin of coordinate to polar line. Angel of
attack at which lift to drag ratio is maximum is termed most efficient angle
α m .e , because horizontal steady flight at that angle of attack and given
speed has the most range ability.
Besides values C ya and C xa at angles of attack corresponding to
them it is possible to find maximum value of lift coefficient C ya max using
polar line and stalling angle of attack α st , minimal value of drag
coefficient C xa min .
Function K = f (α ) is shown in Fig. 4.15. Lift to drag ratio and lift
coefficient equal to zero at zero-lift angle of attack α = α 0 . For
symmetrical body α 0 = 0 , that means curve of function K = f (α ) will
pass through origin of coordinate.
Longitudinal Moment Coefficient. Center of Pressure.
Aerodynamic Center
Relation between longitudinal moment coefficient m z and angle of
attack α or C ya characterizes longitudinal static stability. At small angles
of attack relations m z = f (α ) and m z = f C ya ( ) represented in Fig 4.16
have linear segment, corresponding to linear segment of function
C ya = f (α ) . At the same angles of attack where linear law of curve
C ya = f (α ) is broken (in area close to C ya max ), curve m z = f C ya ( ) also
has non-linear segment.
( )
On linear segment relation m z = f C ya has the following form:
m z = m z0 + m z C y C y ≈ m z0 + m z C ya C ya , (4.24)
where m z0 is moment coefficient at zero lift; derivative m z C ya = dm z dC ya .
Center of pressure is point of intersection line of aerodynamic force
action and one of main body axes.
When considering airfoil of wing or tail unit it is accepted that center
of pressure is located on airfoil chord, when considering fuselage, engine
nacelle, rocket it is accepted that center of pressure is located on the
main body axis.
Position of center of pressure is defined by coordinate xc . p , counted
from model suspension front point, because value m z is obtained
relatively to this point. This coordinate is often expressed in shares of
chord b or body length L :
xc . p m m xc . p
xc . p = = − z ≈ − z , xc . p = . (4.25)
b Cy C ya L
Graph of function xc . p = f (α ) is hyperbolae (see Fig. 4.17). If
mz0 < 0 center of pressure displaces to body nose with growing angle of
attack, if m z0 > 0 center of pressure displaces to body tail. Curve
xc . p = f (α ) has a break at angle of attack α = α 0 , and at that center of
pressure displaces to infinity.
Aerodynamic center is a body point, in relation to which moment is
constant within wide range of flight angles of attack, that means moment
does not depend on angle of attack (does not depend on C ya ):
C ya
xa .c = − m z . (4.26)
Fig. 4.16. Dependences m z = f ( α ) and m z = f C ya ( )
Fig. 4.17. Dependences xc . p = f C ya ( ) and xc . p = f (α )

Figs 4.15 and 4.16 illustrate manner defining derivative C yaα and
aerodynamic center xa .c by test curves C ya = f (α ) and m z = f C ya ( )
properly:
dC ya ΔC ya
C αya = ≈ , (4.27)
dα Δα
dm z Δm z
xa .c =− ≈− , (4.28)
dC ya ΔC ya
where Δα is taken in radians in formula (4.27).
If value Δα is taken in degrees, then it is necessary to multiply
derivative C αya° by 57.3 .
Flow over Wing of Finite Span
Peculiarities of flow over unswept high-aspect ratio wings are
defined by overflow from low surface to upper surface on wing tips.
If lift is realized on wing, then under wing there is a zone of reduced
pressure, and under wing there is a zone of increased pressure. Under
action of pressure difference air overflows through wing tip edges from
zone of increased pressure to zone of reduced pressure. So, flow parallel
to wing span occurs. Transverse flow along wing span is more intensive at
wing tips and damps to central section. Streamlines become curved due to
above mentioned flow.
As a result of interaction of upper and low flows vortices are formed
behind the wing. In real conditions vortices are unstable and twist into two
powerful vortex cores (Fig. 4.18), which can be observed using
aerodynamic probe or another type of visualization.
Fig. 4.18. Trailing Vortexes on Rectangular Planform Wing.

Visualization is Provided in Smoke Wind Tunnel
at Reynolds Number Re = 100 000 ; Angle of Attack α = 14° [2]
Test Setup
Diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 4.19.
Model is wing of rectangular planform: wing chord b = 0.1 m ; wing
span l = 0.5 m . Wing airfoil dimensions: relative thickness c = 0.12 ;
relative camber f = 0.06 ; chordwise position of maximum camber
x f = 0.3 . The drag coefficient of suspension attributed to wing area
C xa susp = 0.04 .
Fig. 4.19. Diagram of

Test Setup for Wing
Model Analysis by
Balance Method:
1 – Wing Model;
4 – Balance АВТ–5
Procedure
Step 1. Equilibrate balance units.
Step 2. Accomplish tests at constant velocity of flow and various
model angles of attack within range from −6° to +20° . Record indications
of micromanometer lv and indications of balance units into Table.
Test values of wing model aerodynamic characteristics
α lv X Y MZ q∞ X aΣ Ya M z C xaΣ C xa C ya mz K xc .p
Step 3. Visualize flow over wing by means of aerodynamic probe.

Step 4. For each angle of attack calculate dynamic pressure q∞ by
formula (4.18), values of forces taking into account calibration factors by
formulas (2.1) – (2.3), values of coefficient of forces and moment by
formulas (4.19) – (4.21), lift to drag ratio K by formula (4.23), chord-wise
position of center of pressure xc . p by the formula (4.25).
(
Step 5. Plot dependences C ya = f (α ) , C xa = f C ya , K = f (α ) , )
(
) on the basis of test data. Accomplish marking
xc . p = f (α ) , m z = f C ya
by angle of attack on graph C xa = f ( C ya ) .
Step 6. Analyze obtained dependences. Determine values α 0 , α m .e ,
C ya m .e , α st , C ya max , C αya , C xa min , C xa0 , K max , m z0 , xa .c = − m z C ya ,
corresponding to experimental data and record them in the table below.
Test values of wing model aerodynamic characteristics

Wing α0 α m .e C ya m .e α st C ya max C αya C xa min C xa0 K max m z0 xa .c
Quiz
1. What are coordinate systems used in experimental
aerodynamics?
2. How can we determine undisturbed flow dynamic pressure in
wind tunnel working section by tests?
3. How can we determine coefficients of forces C ya and C xa and
moment m z by indications of balance units X , Y and MZ ?
4. What is wing polar? Show characteristic points on wing polar.
5. Explain dependences C ya = f (α ) , K = f (α ) , m z = f C ya . ( )
6. What do the following characteristics mean: α 0 , α m .e , C ya m .e ,
α st , C ya max , C αya , m z0 , m z C ya , C xa min , C xa0 , K max and how can we
determine them by test graphs?
7. What is lift to drag ratio?
8. What are center of pressure and aerodynamic center?
9. What does derivative m z C ya characterize?
10. How can we exclude suspension influence on model
aerodynamic characteristics?
4.5. Laboratory Experiment «Determination of Sphere Drag

Coefficient and Initial Degree of Flow Turbulence»
Purpose
1. Familiarize procedure of balance test.
2. Study influence of Reynolds numbers on sphere drag coefficient.
4. Define initial degree of flow turbulence.
3. Study influence of flow incipient turbulence on sphere drag
coefficient.
3. Micromanometer for measuring dynamic head.
4. Sphere model with diameter d sphere = 0.15 m .
5. Turbulence promoter (wire ring).
General
Tests of characteristics vs. Reynolds number are accomplished at
constant model angle of attack and variable dynamic head in wind tunnel by
balance method. During tests we shall obtain relations between aerodyna-
mic force coefficients and velocity of undisturbed flow (Reynolds numbers
Re ). During tests we shall study only cases when body has two planes of
symmetry or axis of symmetry and moves in parallel to these planes or this
axis. In such conditions medium force action is reduced to drag only.
True drag force of model with suspension Х aΣ is determined by
formula (2.2).
Model drag Х a is calculated as difference between total drag Х aΣ
and suspension drag Х a susp :
Х a = Х a∑ − Х a susp . (4.29)
Further drag coefficient C xa is determined by formula
X
C xa = a . (4.30)
q∞ S
Velocity and dynamic head of airflow in tunnel working section V∞
and q∞ are determined by formulas (3.14) and (3.13). Further Reynolds
number Re are calculated for obtained velocity values:
V ⋅d
Re = ∞ , (4.31)
ν
where d is model characteristic dimension, m ; ν is kinematic viscosity
coefficient, m 2 s .
Turbulence Influence on Flow over Body.
Sphere as Instrument Flow Turbulence Measuring
Body air resistance comprises skin friction drag and pressure drag.
For bluff bodies, as tests show, main part of drag is pressure drag.
That is why in turbulent flow over such bodies drag coefficient is less than
in laminar flow. Sphere drag coefficient at some Reynolds numbers drops
greatly having reached its minimal value, after that, with growing
Reynolds numbers Re , increases insignificantly and decreases again not
having reached the former minimal value. This can be explained so that
boundary layer on sphere transfers from laminar mode to turbulent. If we
represent drag coefficient as function of Reynolds number Re , then it
would be chart shown in Fig. 4.20. Numbers Re , lying between values
Re1 and Re 2 , are termed critical and characterize «drag crisis».
Fig. 4.20. Relation C xa = f (Re) for sphere
Sphere higher sensitivity to flow turbulence ε allows applying it as

standard to define value of flow turbulence initial degree in wind tunnels.
It is accepted that ratio of mean-square velocity differential with respect to
time t to averaged velocity in the same point during the same time period:
t2
1
t ∫
ΔV 2 dt
t1
ε= t2
.
1
t ∫
Vdt
t1
There is certain relation between incipient turbulence and critical

Reynolds number Re . That is why, having tested sphere in wind tunnel it
is possible to find value ε using curve C xa = f (Re) . In practice critical
number Recr is taken corresponding to drag coefficient C xa sphere = 0.3 . By
value Recr , having used test relation ε = f (Re) , we can find wind tunnel
incipient turbulence degree.
Test Setup and Procedure of Definition of Sphere Drag

Coefficient and Initial Degree of Flow Turbulence
Sphere balance tests and incipient flow turbulence are
accomplished in wind tunnel Т–5 (closed-ended type with open working
section) using three-component balance АВТ–5. Diagram of installation is
shown in Fig. 4.21.

Test Setup for
Determination of Sphere
Drag Coefficient:
1 – Sphere Model;
Drag force and drag coefficient are calculated by formulas (4.29)

and (4.30). Suspension drag Х a susp is taken from graph of relation
Х a susp = f ( q∞ ) . Dynamic head q∞ is calculated by formula (4.18).
Reynolds number is determined by expression (4.31), in which
sphere diameter d sphere in meters is characteristic dimension, and velocity
of undisturbed flow is defined as follows
2
V∞ = q∞ . (4.32)
ρ
Kinematic viscosity coefficient ν and air density are taken from
nomograms ν = f ( t °C , pа ) (refer to Fig. 4.4) and ρ = f ( t °C , pа ) , (refer
to Fig. 4.3).
Procedure
Step 1. Develop test plan.
Step 2. Make sure the model is attached securely and equilibrate
balance units.
Step 3. Accomplish tests at different values of dynamic head of
sphere only and sphere with turbulence promoter.
Step 4. Record test results in the table below.
Test values of sphere drag coefficient

№ kv lv X q∞ ХaΣ Х a susp Х a sphere V∞ Re C xa sphere
Step 5. Calculate values of dynamic head (formula (4.18)), velocity

V∞ (formula (4.32)) and total drag force Х a Σ by formula (2.2).
Step 6. Using relation Х a susp = f ( q∞ ) (Fig. 4.22) determine
suspension drag Х a susp .
Step 7. Calculate sphere drag coefficient Х a sphere by formula (4.29).
Step 8. Using formula (4.31) determine Reynolds number.
Step 9. On the basis of calculations build graphs of relations
C xa sphere = f ( Re ) for sphere with turbulence promoter and without
turbulence promoter; indicate value Recr .
Step 10. Determine incipient flow turbulence in wind tunnel by graph
ε = f ( Recr ) (Fig. 4.23).
Step 11. Make a conclusion about turbulence promoter influence on
sphere drag coefficient.
Note
Figs. 4.24 and 4.25 show picture of flow over sphere and sphere
with turbulence promoter. Drag coefficient in flow over sphere with
turbulence promoter decreases in comparison with drag coefficient of
sphere only in pre-crisis zone.
Fig.4.22. Relation
Fig.4.23 Relation
Fig. 4.24. Picture of Flow over

Sphere when Re = 15 000 .
Laminar boundary layer stalls
before equator remaining
laminar along length almost
equal to radius. Then layer
becomes unstable and quickly
transforms into turbulent [2].
Fig. 4.25. Picture of Flow over

Sphere with Turbulence
Promoter when Re = 30 000 .
Visualization is provided with
air bubbles in water. Wire ring
placed on sphere disturbs
boundary layer which becomes
turbulent and stalls far
downstream, than in laminar
flow [2].
Quiz
1. What is Reynolds number? What is critical Reynolds number?
2. What are flow modes in boundary layer?
3. What is initial degree of flow turbulence?
4. What is the relation between sphere drag coefficient and Reynolds
number Re ?
5. What is the relation between sphere drag coefficient with
turbulence promoter and Reynolds number Re ?
6. What are the components of body air resistance?
7. Which air resistance component dominates in laminar flow?
8. Which air resistance component dominates in turbulent flow?
9. Which air resistance component is higher and why?
10. How can we exclude suspension influence on sphere
aerodynamic characteristics?
4.6. Laboratory Experiment «Determination of Swept Wing
Aerodynamic Characteristics by Balance Method»
Purpose
Obtain and analyze main aerodynamic characteristics of swept
wings.
3. 2 wing models with sweep-forward and sweep-back.
4. Micromanometer.
General
For general information refer to laboratory experiment
«Determination of wing model aerodynamic characteristics using balance
method» (page 48).
Test Setup and Procedure of Determination of Swept Wing
Aerodynamic Characteristics
Two wing models with sweep-forward and sweep-back are analyzed
in this laboratory experiment (Fig. 4.26).
Fig. 4.26. Wing models

Sweep angle of wings leading edge χ l .e = ±45° , mean aerodynamic
chord ba = b0 = bw .t = 0.15 m , wingspan l = 0.3 m . For sweep-back wing
model coordinate of suspension front point is x f . p.s = 0.15 m , for sweep-
forward wing model it is x f . p.s = −0.09 m . Suspension drag coefficient
related to wing area C xa susp = 0.044 .
Diagram of the test setup is shown in fig. 4.27.

Test Setup for Wing
Model Analysis by
Balance Method:
1 – Wing Model;
As suspension front point position on swept wings was chosen

arbitrarily, it is necessary to recalculate the coordinate of center of
pressure and longitudinal moment relatively to of mean aerodynamic
chord ba (MAC).
Chordwise position of center of pressure obtained by formula (4.25)
m z′
′
xc . p ≈ − (4.33)
C ya
corresponds to the position of center of pressure relatively to the
suspension front point.
Coordinate of center of pressure relatively to leading edge of MAC
is determined by formula
x =x c.p − x + x′ ,
f . p.s a c.p (4.34)
where variables with over-bar are related to MAC ba ; x f . p.s = x f . p.s ba is
relative position of model’s suspension front point; xa = xa ba is
dimensionless coordinate MAC leading edge relatively to root chord
vertex.
Coordinate of MAC leading edge relatively to root chord vertex is
defined by formula
1η + 2 η+2
xa = l tg χ l .e = λ tg χ l .e b0 . (4.35)
6η+1 12
Here λ = l 2 S is wing aspect ratio; η = b0 bw .t is wing taper, where
bw .t and b0 are wing tip and root chords.
Coordinates x f . p.s and xa are replaced in formula (4.34) with their
signs (plus or minus).
The real value of longitudinal moment coefficient relatively to MAC
leading edge is the following
m z = − xc . p C ya . (4.36)
Procedure
Step 1. Equilibrate balance units.
Step 2. Accomplish tests at constant velocity of flow and various
angles of attack for both models. Record indications of micromanometer
lv and indications of balance units into the table below.
Test Values of Wing Model Aerodynamic Characteristics

α lv X Y MZ q∞ X aΣ Ya M z C xaΣ C xa C ya K m z′ xc′ .p m z xc .p

Step 4. Recalculate values of centre of pressure and longitudinal
moment coefficient relatively to MAC leading edge by formulas (4.34) and
(4.36).
Step 5. Plot dependences C ya = f (α ) , C xa = f C ya , K = f (α ) , ( )
(
) on the basis of test data. Accomplish marking
xc . p = f (α ) , m z = f C ya
by angle of attack on graph C xa = f ( C ya ) .
corresponding to experimental data and record them in the table below.
Test Values of Wing Model Aerodynamic Characteristics
χ l .e α0 α m .e C ya m .e α st C ya max C αya C xa min C xa0 K max m z0 xa .c
+45°
−45°
Quiz
Refer to quiz for laboratory experiment No. 4.4.
4.7. Laboratory Experiment «Determination of Aerodynamic

Characteristics of Fuselage and “Fuselage + Wing” System
Using Balance Method»
Purpose
1. Obtain and analyze main aerodynamic characteristics of separate
fuselage.
2. Obtain and analyze main aerodynamic characteristics of
“fuselage + wing” system.
3. Models of fuselage and «fuselage + wing» system.
4. Micromanometer.
General
For general information refer to Laboratory experiment
method» (page 48).
Test Setup and Procedure of Determination of Aerodynamic
Characteristics of Fuselage and “Fuselage + Wing” System
In this laboratory experiment models of fuselage and
«fuselage + wing» system are tested (see Fig. 4.28).
Fig. 4.28. Models of «Fuselage + Wing» System and Fuselage
Wing mean aerodynamic chord ba = 0.1 m , wing span l = 0.5 m ,

position of wing leading edge x w = 0.3 m , fuselage diameter d f = 0.09 m ,
fuselage length l f = 0.7 m , coordinate of forward suspension point of
models of fuselage and “fuselage + wing” system x f . p.s = 0.21 m .
Test setup is shown in Fig. 4.29.

Setup for Fuselage + Wing
Model Analysis by Balance
Method:
1 – Fuselage + Wing” Model;
Take into account that drag coefficient of suspension for

«fuselage + wing» system is C xa susp = 0.067 and for clear fuselage is
C xa susp = 0.4717 .
Coordinate of center of pressure determined by formula (4.33)
xc′ . p ≈ − m z′ C ya
corresponds to coordinate of center of pressure relatively to the model
forward suspension point.
Coordinate of center of pressure relatively to wing MAC nose of
«fuselage + wing» system (see Fig. 4.28)
( )
xc . p = x ′c . p − xw − x f . p.s , (4.37)
where xw = xw ba and x f . p.s = x f . p.s ba – relative coordinates of wing
leading edge and model forward suspension point properly.
Coordinate of center of pressure for separate fuselage relatively to
fuselage nose (see Fig. 4.28)
xc . p = x f . p.s + x ′c . p , (4.38)
where x f . p.s = x f . p.s l f .
In formulas (4.37) and (4.38) variables with overline are divided by
MAC ba for “fuselage + wing” system, and divided by fuselage length l f
for separate fuselage.
True values of longitudinal moment factor relatively to MAC nose
and fuselage nose for models of «fuselage + wing» system and separate
fuselage properly are determined by formula (4.36)
m z = − xc . p C ya .
Procedure
Step 1. Accomplish test under constant velocity of free stream and
various angles-of-attack for models of «fuselage + wing» system and
fuselage only. For each angle-of-attack record indications of
micromanometer lv and weight elements into the table below.
Test Values of Aerodynamic Characteristics
of «Fuselage + Wing» System Model and Fuselage Model
α lv X Y MZ q∞ X aΣ Ya M z C xaΣ C xa C ya K m z′ xc .p′ m z xc . p

Step 3. Recalculate coordinate of center of pressure and
longitudinal moment factor relatively to MAC nose and fuselage nose for
models of «fuselage + wing» system and fuselage correspondingly by
formulas (4.37), (4.38) and (4.36).
( )
xc . p = f (α ) , m z = f C ya on the basis of test data. Accomplish marking
by angle of attack on graph C xa = f C ya . ( )
corresponding to experimental data and record them in the table.
Step 6. Add characteristics of separated wing in the table having
taken them from laboratory experiment No. 4.4 and analyze them.
of Models of Fuselage and «Fuselage + Wing» System
α0 α m .e C ya m .e α st C ya max C yaα C xa min C xa0 K max m z0 xa .c
Fus+wing
Fuselage
Wing
Quiz
4.8. Laboratory Experiment «Determination of
Wing Model Aerodynamic Characteristics with
Deflected Flap Using Balance Method»
Purpose
1. Study procedure of balance method.
2. Determine and analyze main aerodynamic characteristics of wing
model with deflected flap.
1. Wind tunnel Т-5.
2. Aerodynamic balance АВТ–5.
3. Wing model with flap.
4. Micromanometer.
General
method» (p. 48).
Test Setup
In this laboratory experiment wing model with deflected flap is
tested under condition that δ flap = +30° and δ flap = +45° (see Fig. 4.30).
Fig. 4.30. Wing models with deflected flaps
Procedure
Step 1. Balance weight elements.
Step 2. Accomplish test under constant velocity of free stream and
various model’s angles of attack for two angles of flap deflection. Record
indications of micromanometer lv and weight elements for each angle-of-
attack in the table below.
Test Values of Wing Model Aerodynamic Characteristics No.
α lv X Y MZ q∞ X aΣ Ya M z C xaΣ C xa C ya mz K xc . p

( )
xc . p = f (α ) , m z = f C ya on the basis of test data. Accomplish marking
by angle of attack on graph C xa = f C ya . ( )
corresponding to experimental data and record them in Table.
Step 6. Add characteristics of separated wing into Table having
taken them from laboratory experiment No. 4.4 and analyze them.

of Wing Model with Deflected High Lift Devices
α0 α m .e C ya m .e α st C ya max C yaα C xa min C xa0 K max m z0 xa .c
0°
+30°
+45°
Quiz
1. What is the purpose of application of high lift devices in aircraft?
2. Itemize main types of aircraft high lift devices.
3. How does flap deflection influence onto derivative C yaα ?
4. How does flap deflection influence onto zero lift angle?
5. How does flap deflection influence onto value of maximum lift
coefficient C ya max ?
6. How does flap deflection influence onto value of lift to drag ratio
K max ?
4.9. Laboratory Experiment «Investigation of Influence
of the Engine Fairing on Fuselage Drag»
Purpose
1. Familiarize with procedure of balance method.
2. Determine drag of fuselage model with a star-shaped
reciprocating (radial) engine with a fairing and without it at different flow
velocities.
3. Fuselage model with detachable engine fairing.
4. Micromanometer.
General
Refer to the section “General” of the laboratory experiment
«Determination of Sphere Drag Coefficient and Initial Degree of Flow
Turbulence» (page 56).
Drag of a streamlined body is much less than drag of a bluff body
with the same cross-section. Bluff body drag can be reduced considerably
when the body is placed into a fairing.
Fairings play an exclusive role for radial engines of air cooling. Drag
of such engine without fairing is great, because high-power vortexes
occur behind cylinders. Installation of a fairing (cowling) leads to reducing
of a vortex zone, and considerably improves streamlining. Fig. 4.31
illustrates flow patterns of an engine nacelle model with a radial engine of
the air cooling, received in the smoke wind tunnel.
Fig. 4.31. Flow Patterns of Engine Nacelle Model [11]

Test Setup
Models of a fuselage with a star-shaped reciprocating engine with a
fairing and without it will be investigated in contemporary laboratory
activity; diameter of fuselage mid-section d f = 0.13 m (Fig. 4.28).
Fig. 4.32. Models of a Fuselage with a Fairing and Without It
Diagram of test setup is shown in Fig. 4.33.

Setup for Fuselage Model
Analysis:
1 – Fuselage Model;
Procedure
Step 1. Mount fuselage model in wind tunnel.
Step 2. Accomplish tests at different values of dynamic head for
fuselage only and fuselage with engine fairing. Record test results into
tables below.
Test Values of Drag Coefficient of Fuselage Without Fairing
kv lv X Х aΣ Х a susp Xa q∞ V∞ Re C xa
Test Values of Drag Coefficient of Fuselage with Fairing
kv lv X Х aΣ Х a susp Xa q∞ V∞ Re C xa
Step 5. Calculate total drag force X a Σ by formula (2.2).

Step 6. Calculate values of dynamic head q∞ and velocity V∞ by
formulas (4.18) and (4.32) accordingly.
Step 7. Calculate drag coefficient Х a` by formula (4.29), assuming
that the characteristic area is fuselage mid-section area.
It is allowed not to consider the drag of the suspension, if we need to
obtain the value of change of a drag coefficient as the final result only
ΔC xa = C xa without fairing − C xa with fairing
It is evident, that under such condition the suspension drag Х a susp
included in the values X a Σ without fairing and X a Σ with fairing will be canceled.
Step 8. Determine Reynolds number using formula (4.31), having
assumed that characteristic dimension is fuselage length.
Step 9. On the basis of accomplished calculations built graphs of
dependence C xa = f ( Re ) for fuselage only and fuselage with fairing.
Step 10. Analyze the obtained graphs. Determine mean value of
ΔC xa .
Step 11. Make conclusions about influence of Reynolds number Re
and the fairing on drag coefficient.
Quiz
1. What is the purpose of fairing application?
2. Why does the drag coefficient decrease?
3. Give examples of application of fairings.
4.10. Experiment Calculated Work «Definition of

Total Interference Factor of «Fuselage + Wing» System
Purpose
1. Study procedure of definition of interference factor using
experimental data.
2. Study procedure of recalculation of wing aerodynamic
characteristics with respect to changed wing aspect ratio.
General
Definition of Interference Factors
Aircraft lift coefficient depends on the wing characteristics mainly
because the wing is the aircraft main supporting element.
Let’s consider separated wing consisting of two outer panels. Let’s
designate the net wing area as S w in contrast to gross wing area S . Lift
coefficient of the wing consisting of two outer panels C ya w and its
derivative C αya w are considered as known. Coefficient C ya f and its
derivative C αya f are considered as known too.
Let’s define lift coefficient of the «fuselage + wing» system taking
into account their mutual interference. Let’s assume that wing is mounted
on the fuselage with some setting angle ϕ , and system in a whole is
streamlined under some angle of attack α . Supposing Ya w α and Ya w ϕ
are lift forces of wing consisting of outer panels with presence of angle of
attack α and setting angle ϕ ; Ya f is lift force of separate fuselage;
ΔYa w α and ΔYa w ϕ are lift increments on the wing caused by interference
due to angle of attack α and wing setting angle ϕ ; ΔYa fα and ΔYa fϕ
are lift increments on fuselage caused by interference due to angle of
attack α and wing setting angle ϕ . Then lift of «fuselage + wing» system
can be presented in the following form
Ya f + w = Ya w α + ΔYa w α + Ya w ϕ + ΔYa w ϕ + Ya f +
(4.39)
+ ΔYa f α + ΔYa f ϕ .
Let’s express lifts by means of dimensionless factors
Y
C ya = a ,
q∞ S
where S is the wing gross area.
Then formula (4.39) will look like
C ya f +w (
= C ya w α + ΔC ya w α + C ya w ϕ + ΔC ya w ϕ ) SSw +
(4.40)
Sm . f
(
+ C ya f + ΔC ya fα
S
,+ ΔC ya fϕ )
where S w is the wing area, formed by outer panels; S m . f is the fuselage
midsection area.
To take into account interference of wing and fuselage the
interference coefficients are used in engineering approaches:
Ya w α + ΔYa w α Ya w ϕ + ΔYa w ϕ
Kα = ; Kϕ = ;
Ya w α Ya w ϕ
ΔYa f α ΔYa f ϕ
Δ Kα = ; ΔKϕ = .
Ya w α Ya w ϕ
In general interference coefficients Kα , ΔKα , Kϕ and ΔKϕ depend
on ratio of fuselage midsection diameter d f to gross wingspan l , wing
planform and fuselage section, wing position in relation to fuselage height
and length. Mainly, as analysis shows, interference factors depend on ratio
df
, (Fig. 4.34).
l
It is possible to use the
following relations for
approximate evaluation:
Δ K α ≈ K α ( K α − 1 ) , Kϕ ≈ 1 ,
Δ Kϕ ≈ K α − 1 ;
Kα + ΔKα = Kα2 ,
Kϕ + ΔKϕ = Kα ,
( Kϕ + ΔKϕ ) ( Kα + ΔKα ) = K1 .
α
The latest three equalities
are more precise than the
former three equations.
As it is clear, calculation
of interference factors is
reduced to determination of Fig. 4.34. Relation Between Interference
coefficient Kα . d
Factors and Ratio f
l
For midwing monoplane theoretical value of interference factor Kα0

depends on cross-section of «fuselage + wing» system only and is
determined by formula
Kα0 = 1 + σ , (4.41)
d
where σ = f .
l
Total interference factor
( Kα ( )
+ ΔKα ) theor = Kα0 + ΔKα0 ν , (4.42)
where multiplier ν additionally takes into account effect of fuselage part
located ahead of the wing,
( )
ν = 0 ,6 + 0 ,4 1 − 0 ,8 e −0 ,25 xn ,
xn
where xn = is the relative distance from fuselage nose to the
df
middle of wing root chord (Fig. 4.35).
Fig. 4.35. Geometry of «Fuselage + Wing» System

and Wing Combined of Outer Panels
Basing on test results total interference factor can be calculated by
formula
С αya f + w − С αya f Sm . f
( Kα + ΔKα )exp = , (4.43)
С αya w S w
S
where S w = w is the relative wing area, combined of panels;
S
S
Sm . f = m . f is the relative area of fuselage midsection; S is the gross
S
wing section (wing with underfuselage part).
Recalculation of Aerodynamic Characteristics of Wing with
Certain Aspect Ratio for another Value of Aspect Ratio
In practice it is necessary to transmit from aerodynamic coefficients
obtained at certain aspect ratio λ1 , to their values at another value of
aspect ratio λ 2 . Usually airfoil atlases contain characteristics of typical
wings with rectangular planform and aspect ratio λ = 5 (in USA λ = 6 ).
These characteristics can be recalculated for any value of aspect ratio.
Derivative C αya of terminate span wing with aspect ratio λ can be
calculated by formula
α C αya ∞
C ya = , (4.44)
1+
( 1 + τ ) Cα
ya ∞
πλ
where C αya ∞ is a derivative of airfoil lift coefficient; τ is a factor depending
on wing planform and aspect ratio λ .
By known value of C αya for wing with aspect ratio λ = 5 we can
determine value of derivative C αya ∞ by formula
α C αya
C ya ∞ = . (4.45)
1−
( 1 + τ ) Cα
ya
πλ
Let’s assume that we should transmit from given characteristics of
rectangular wing with typical aspect ratio λ1 = 5 to wing characteristics
with some aspect ratio λ 2 . Recalculation shall be accomplished basing on
condition of constancy of true angle-of-attack for both considered wings.
With that values of coefficients C ya , C xp and m z will be identical for both
wings, and angles-of-attack α 1 and α 2 , inductive drag coefficients C xi 1
and C xi 2 will be different. As true angles-of-attack of both wings are
identical then
α real 1 = α 1 − ε 1 = α real 2 = α 2 − ε 2 . (4.46)
Downwash angles in degrees may be obtained using formulas
ε 1D =
( 1 + τ 1 ) 57.3C D ( 1 + τ 2 ) 57.3C
ya , ε 2 = ya .
π λ1 π λ2
Then
⎛ (1 + τ 2 ) (1 + τ1 ) ⎞C
α D2 − α 1D = 57.3 ⎜⎜ − ⎟ ya . (4.47)
⎝ π λ2 π λ1 ⎠⎟
(
Relation α D2 − α 1D = f C ya ) is linear and passes through the point of
origin. For that case point A1 belonging to curve C ya = f (α ) of the first
wing is displaced along horizontal line into point A2 , located on distance
α D2 − α 1D from point A1 (Fig. 4.36).
Fig. 4.36. Recalculation of Wing Characteristics of Certain Aspect Ratio

for Another Value of Aspect Ratio
Let’s define difference of inductive drag of the initial wing with

aspect ratio λ1 = 5 and wing with optional aspect ratio λ 2 . Drag
coefficients are expressed as sums of coefficients of profile drag and
inductive drag:
C xa 1 = C xp 1 + C xi 1 ,
C xa 2 = C xp 2 + C xi 2 .
Taking into account that profile drag coefficients for both wings C xp 1
and C xp 2 are identical if C ya are identical we can write down the
following expression
C xa 2 − C xa 1 = C xi 2 − C xi 1 .
Inductive drag of wings shall be defined by formulas
C xi 1 =
(1 + δ1 ) C 2 C xi 2 =
(1 + δ2 ) C 2
ya , ya ,
π λ1 π λ2
where δ is a coefficient depending on wing planform and wing aspect
ratio λ .
Then
⎛ (1 + δ2 ) (1 + δ1 ) ⎞ 2
C xa 2 − C xa 1 = ⎜ − ⎟ C ya . (4.48)
⎝ π λ 2 π λ 1 ⎠
(
Function C xa 2 − C xa 1 = f C ya ) is a squared parabola. Let’s displace
point B1 of the initial wing polar along horizontal line into point B2 on
distance C xa 2 − C xa 1 from point B1 (refer Fig. 4.36). Marking of angles-of-
attack can be accomplished on new polar in compliance with new function
C ya = f (α ) .
Curve of pitch moment m z = f C ya ( ) does not change with varying
aspect ratio.
Comparison of curve re-calculations for different aspect ratios with
experimental data shows well coincidence for wings with aspect ratio λ > 3 .
Coefficients τ and δ for wings of rectangular planform can be
determined using Fig. 4.37 for proper aspect ratio.
Fig. 4.37. Functions τ = f ( λ ) and δ = f (λ )

for Wings of Rectangular Planform
Procedure
Initial data for accomplishment of this laboratory experiment are the
test data obtained during the following laboratory experiments:
method» and «Determination of aerodynamic characteristics of fuselage
and «fuselage + wing» system using balance method».
Step 1. Extract following experimental data:
• derivative C αya of wing with aspect ratio λ1 = 5 ;
• derivative C αya f of fuselage;
• derivative C αya f +w of «fuselage + wing» system.
Step 2. Define aspect ratio λ 2 of wing formed by outer panels.
Step 3. For wing with aspect ratio λ 2 calculate derivative C αya w by
formulas (4.44) and (4.45). Values of coefficients τ and δ are represented
in the Table 4.3.
Table 4.3
Values of coefficients τ and δ
λ 5 4
δ 0,043 0,032
τ 0,16 0,136
Step 4. Calculate experimental and theoretical values of
interference factor ( Kα + ΔKα ) by formulas (4.42) and (4.43). Compare
obtained values.
( )
Step 5. Calculate and plot functions C ya = f (α ) , C xa = f C ya for
wing formed by outer panels with aspect ratio λ 2 . Mark polar by angles of
attack.
Quiz
1. What is interference factor?
2. What is influence of fuselage onto isolated wing formed by outer
panels?
4.11. Laboratory Experiment «Research of
Aircraft Model Moment Characteristics»
Purpose
1. Obtain and analyze main aircraft aerodynamic characteristics
with elevator deflected.
2. Plot trim curve.
1. Aircraft model.
2. Wind tunnel Т-5.
3. Micromanometer for measurement of dynamic head.
4. Balance АВТ-5
General
method» (page 48).
It is necessary to take into account aircraft moment characteristics
during detail analyzing the aircraft features as material body. In particular,
to provide straight steady flight it is necessary that not only sum of all
forces acted upon the aircraft will be equal to zero but also sum of the
moments of these forces relatively to the aircraft center of gravity will be
equal to zero too.
Let’s consider the simplest case of longitudinal motion – steady
horizontal flight. Speed constancy in such case is provided under
condition that engine thrust equals to drag force, and altitude constancy is
provided under condition that lifting force equals to weight.
Such equality during steady horizontal flight shall be kept under
constant angle of attack α .
In its turn, to maintain required angle of attack, sum of moments of
all forces relatively to axis z , passing through the aircraft center of gravity
shall be equal to zero. In such case it is said that the aircraft is trimmed in
longitudinal direction.
The aircraft longitudinal trim is reached by means of deflection of
elevator or stabilizer. At deflection of horizontal tail its lift changes and
thereby additional longitudinal moment is created relatively to the center
of gravity required for the aircraft trim in flight at specified angle of attack.
Each angle of attack at which it is possible to accomplish horizontal
steady flight corresponds to specific elevator angle or stabilizer angle.
Relation between elevator (stabilizer) angle required for aircraft trim
and angle of attack at which the aircraft is trimmed is termed trim curve.
But we can’t finish considering the steady flight conditions here. It is
also necessary to know whether the obtained aircraft trim is steady or not.
In flight the aircraft may deviate from trim under action of different
disturbances (wind gusts, deflection of control surfaces and so on).
If aircraft returns to the initial position and restores trim after finish of
action of external disturbance then such aircraft is called stable.
Otherwise the aircraft is unstable.
Aircraft static stability is characterized by the aircraft moment
diagram – relation between longitudinal moment coefficient m z and angle
∂m z
of attack α (Fig. 4.38). If derivative < 0 , then aircraft possesses
∂α
static stability. Really, let’s assume that the aircraft was trimmed ( m z = 0 )
at some angle of attack α . With increasing angle of attack on certain
value Δα (see Fig. 4.38)
negative moment appears
which presses towards
decreasing of angle of
attack and returns the
aircraft to trim. If derivative
∂m z
> 0 , then aircraft is
∂α
statically unstable.
As there is a liner
law between lift coefficient
at small angle of attack
Fig. 4.38. Aircraft Moment Diagram and angle of attack, then
condition of aircraft trim
∂m z ∂m z
can be written as follows < 0 . Derivative is termed as
∂C ya ∂C ya
longitudinal static stability factor or longitudinal static stability degree.
If we know position of the aircraft center of gravity xc .g (its relative
xc .g xa .c
coordinate xc .g = ) and aerodynamic center xa .c = , then
ba ba
expression for the aircraft longitudinal moment coefficient relatively to axis
passing through the center of gravity can be represented as follows
( )
m z = m z0 − xa .c − xc .g C ya ,
whence
∂m z
∂C ya
(
= − xa .c − xc .g , )
that means it is determined by mutual positioning of aerodynamic center
and center of gravity (Fig. 4.39).
Fig. 4.39. Definition of stability margin
If the aircraft aerodynamic center is located behind the center of

gravity xa .c > xc .g , then the aircraft is stable, if aircraft aerodynamic center
is located ahead of the center of gravity xa .c < xc .g – the aircraft is
( )
unstable. Difference xa .c − xc .g is termed as stability margin.
With permanent aerodynamic configuration (stable position of
aerodynamic center) the stability margin may be changed due to
displacement of the center of gravity. Displacement of the center of
gravity backward decreases the stability margin. It is evident that it is
possible to provide of required stability margin by selection of the center
of gravity position.
It should be selected within such limits providing sufficiently stable
state of the aircraft and possibility of trim and control at which control
surface angles and forces required to control them would be within
allowable values.
In general, tests for longitudinal stability are accomplished in wind
tunnel at various elevator angles δ el and dependences m z = f (α ) are
built for each angle δ el (Fig. 4.40). Trim curve α trim = f ( δ el ) is obtained
on the basis of these graphs.
Each point of a trim curve expresses an equilibrium condition of
moment at a specific flight mode: at specific velocity, C ya and δ el . As it
was already mentioned, the character of a trim curve depends on a
C ya
degree of static stability m z .
C ya α ∂δ el
There are m z < 0 and δ el trim = < 0 for static stability of
∂α trim
aircraft.
Therefore, basing on the trim curve character it is possible to judge

about the static stability of aircraft.
Fig. 4.40. Building dependence C ya trim = f (α ) and trim curve

Test Setup and Procedure of Determination of Aircraft Model
Aerodynamic Characteristics
In this laboratory experiment model of aircraft is tested (Fig. 4.41).

Test Setup for Aircraft
Model Analysis by
Balance Method:
1 – Aircraft Model;
Procedure
Step 1. Accomplish test at constant speed of undisturbed flow and
various angles of attack of the model. Repeat test at various elevator
angles. Record test data into the table below.
Test Values of Aerodynamic Characteristics of Aircraft Model
α lv X Y MZ q∞ X aΣ Ya M z C xaΣ C xa C ya mz K xc . p
δ el =
Step 4. Process test results in compliance with procedure described

in the laboratory experiment No. 4.4, graph dependences C ya = f ( α ) ,
C ya trim = f ( α ) , m z = f ( α ) , α trim = f ( δ el ) .
Step 5. Analyze obtained results and dependences.
Step 6. Make conclusions.
Quiz
1. What is aerodynamic center?
2. What are criteria of aircraft stability?
3. What is trim curve?
C ya α
4. What happens with the derivatives m z and δ el trim ?
86
REFERENCES
1. Алтухов В.А., Губчик А.А., Демидов В.С. Руководство к
лабораторным работам по аэродинамике. – М.: ВВИА, 1963. – 261 с.
2. Альбом течений жидкости и газа: Пер. с англ./Сост. М. Ван-
Дайк. – М.: Мир, 1986. – 184 с.
3. Андренко Г.И. Коэффициент продольного момента самолета:
Учеб. пособие. – Х.: ХАИ, 1958. – 11 с.
4. Андренко Г.И. Тарировка аэродинамического насадка: Учеб.
пособие. – Х.: ХАИ, 1958. – 9 с.
5. Андренко Г.И. Тарировка микроманометра: Учеб. пособие. –
Х.: ХАИ, 1958. – 13 с.
6. Аржаников Н.С., Мальцев В.Н. Аэродинамика. – М.:
Оборонгиз, 1956. – 483 с.
7. Горлин С.М., Слезингер И.И. Аэромеханические измерения. –
М.: Наука, 1964. – 720 с.
8. Горшенин Д.С. Руководство к практическим занятиям в
аэродинамической лаборатории. – М.: Машиностроение, 1967. – 224 с.
9. Закс Н.А. Основы экспериментальной аэродинамики. – М.:
10. Лабораторный практикум / Под ред. С.Г. Попова. – М.: МАИ,
1972. – 115 с.
11. Мартынов А.К. Экспериментальная аэродинамика. – М.:
12. Меньшиков В.И. Определение аэродинамических характе-
ристик профиля в потоке газа: Учеб. пособие для курсового и
дипломного проектирования. – Х.: ХАИ, 1974. – 88 с.
13. Мельников А.П. Основы прикладной аэродинамики. – Л.:
ЛКВВИА, 1953. – 580 с.
14. Ткаченко Я.Е. Аэродинамические коэффициенты крыла:
Учеб. пособие. – Х.: ХАИ, 1958. – 25 с.
15. Ткаченко Я.Е. Коэффициенты лобового сопротивления
шара и осесимметричных тел: Учеб. пособие. – Х.: ХАИ, 1958. – 15 с.
16. Ткаченко Я.Е., Андренко Г.И. Аэродинамические трубы и
поле скорости потока: Учеб. пособие. – Х.: ХАИ, 1958. – 27 с.
17. Фабрикант Н.Я. Аэродинамика. – М.: Наука, 1964. – 814 с.
18. Федоров Е.Я. Руководство к лабораторным работам в
аэродинамической лаборатории. – Казань: Казан. авиац. ин–т, 1968.
– 81 с.
87
19. Федявский К.К., Войткунский Я.И., Фадеев Ю.И.
Гидромеханика. – Л.: Судостроение, 1968. – 568 с.
20. Фефелов М.А. Визуализация дозвуковых потоков и
определение параметров потока в рабочей части дозвуковой
аэродинамической трубы: Метод. указания к лаб. работе. – Х.: ХАИ,
1981. – 23 с.
21. Фефелов М.А. Визуализация сверхзвуковых потоков и
определение параметров потока в рабочей части сверхзвуковой
аэродинамической трубы: Метод. указания к лаб. работе. – Х.: ХАИ,
1981. – 20 с.
22. Фефелов М.А. Измерение параметров пограничного слоя:
Метод. указания к лаб. работе. – Х.: ХАИ, 1983. – 18 с.
23. Фефелов М.А. Определение аэродинамических
характеристик весовым методом: Метод. указания к лаб. работе. –
Х.: ХАИ, 1983. – 29 с.
24. Фефелов М.А. Определение распределения давления по
поверхности тела: Метод. указания к лаб. работе. – Х.: ХАИ, 1983. –
26 с.
25. Флоринский О.В. Распределение давления по поверхности
крыла: Учеб. пособие. – Х.: ХАИ, 1958. – 17 с.
88
LIST OF CONTENTS
Introduction .............................................................................................. 3
Section 1. Fundamentals of Experimental Aerodynamics ...................... 4
1.1. Parameters of Similarity Applied in Aerodynamics ................ 4
1.2. Basic Coordinate Systems..................................................... 6
1.3. Coefficients of Aerodynamic Forces and Moments ............... 7
1.4. Pressure Coefficient............................................................... 8
Section 2. Aerodynamic Experimental Methods ................................... 10
2.1. Aerodynamic Tests when Body Moves
along Straight Line ............................................................... 10
2.2. Wind Tunnels ....................................................................... 11
2.3. Aerodynamic Balance .......................................................... 16
2.4. Stream Visualization ............................................................ 18
Section 3. Measuring Flow Velocity and Pressure................................ 20
3.1. Micromanometer .................................................................. 20
3.2. Multitube Manometer ........................................................... 22
3.3. Static and Pitot Tubes.......................................................... 23
3.4. Pitot-Static Tube .................................................................. 24
3.5. Determination of Dynamic Pressure Using
Pitot-Static Tube .................................................................. 24
3.6. Determination of Dynamic Pressure and Flow Velocity
by means of Pressure Difference Method............................ 25
3.7. Boundary Layer. Measurements in Boundary Layer............ 26
Section 4. Test Procedure and Analysis of Data .................................. 28
Parameters of Boundary Layer on Flat Plate by
Pneumometric Method»....................................................... 28
Velocity Field Coefficient Within Working
Section of Wind Tunnel Т–5»............................................... 34
4.3. Laboratory Experiment «Determination of Pressure
Distribution over Wing Surface» .......................................... 39
Wing Model Aerodynamic Characteristics by
Balance Method» ................................................................. 48
4.5. Laboratory Experiment «Determination of Sphere Drag
Coefficient and Initial Degree of Flow Turbulence» ............. 56
4.6. Laboratory Experiment «Determination of Swept Wing
Aerodynamic Characteristics by Balance Method» ............. 63
89
4.7. Laboratory Experiment «Determination of Aerodynamic
Characteristics of Fuselage and “Fuselage + Wing”
System Using Balance Method».......................................... 66
Wing Model Aerodynamic Characteristics with
Deflected Flap Using Balance Method»............................... 69
4.9. Laboratory Experiment «Investigation of Influence
of the Engine Fairing on Fuselage Drag» ............................ 71
4.10. Experiment Calculated Work «Definition of Total
Interference Factor of «Fuselage + Wing» System............ 74
4.11. Laboratory Experiment «Research of
Aircraft Model Moment Characteristics» ............................ 81
References ............................................................................................ 86
Chmovzh Vitaly
Soljanik Paul
Surgailo Мary
EXPERIMЕNTAL AERODYNAMICS
Редакторы: Т.А. Ястремская,

Е.Н. Чмовж, О.А. Дудка
Св. план, 2007

Подписано в печать 08.06.2007
Формат 60×84 1/16. Бум. офс. № 2. Офс. печ.
Усл. печ. л. 5. Уч.-изд. л. 5,62. Т. 100 экз. Заказ 271.
Цена свободная
Национальный аэрокосмический университет им. Н.Е. Жуковского
«Харьковский авиационный институт»
61070, Харьков-70, ул. Чкалова, 17
http://www.khai.edu
Издательский центр «ХАИ»
61070, Харьков-70, ул. Чкалова, 17
izdat@khai.edu
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Experimental Aerodynamics V Chmovzh, P Soljanik, M Surgalo National

Article · January 2007

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V. Chmovzh, P. Soljanik, М. Surgailo

Kharkov «KhAI» 2007

Experimental Aerodynamics / V. V. Chmovzh, P. N. Soljanik, М. L. Surgailo.

This tutorial contains principals of action of special devices applied

63 illustrations. 3 tables. 25 bibliographical references.

Reviewers: Ph. Doctor, associate professor V.V. Gazaev,

© National Aerospace University by N. E. Zhukovsky

1.3. Coefficients of Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

1.4. Pressure Coefficient

Aerodynamic experiment now has reached a high degree of

2.1. Aerodynamic Tests when Body Moves along Straight Line

2.2. Wind Tunnels

Fig. 2.2. Open-ended Wind Tunnel

In open-ended wind tunnel air is sucked in by fan 1 , which is driven

High-speed subsonic wind tunnels are constructed as closed-ended

Duration of operation of such wind tunnel is not long, and required

Fig. 2.4. Diagram of Supersonic Wind Tunnel Т–6 KhAI:

Fig. 2.5. Variable Density Wind Tunnel Diagram:

There are many other types of wind tunnels:

2.3. Aerodynamic Balance

2.4. Stream Visualization

Fig. 2.7. Sphere moving

Fig. 2.8. Symmetrical

Fig. 2.9. Visualization in

Fig. 2.10. Aircraft model

Fig. 3.1. Micromanometer

Micromanometer is connected to pressure head so that pressure

Fig. 3.2. Deriving Formula for

It is clear from (3.2) that micromanometer geometrical factor

3.2. Multitube Manometer

Fig. 3.3. Multitube-type

Pipes of a multitube manometer can have various internal diameter.

Fig. 3.4. Measurement of Static Pressure:

3.4. Pitot-Static Tube

Fig. 3.6. Pitot-Static Tube

3.5. Determination of Dynamic Pressure Using Pitot-Static Tube

Fig. 3.7. Measurement of Dynamic Pressure and

Then formula for calculation of dynamic pressure will have the

3.7. Boundary Layer. Measurements in Boundary Layer

Pneumometric heads inserted in boundary layer can cause serious

Fig. 3.10. Test Diagram for Determination of

More detailed information about determination of parameters in a

Fig. 4.2. Experimental Setup for

Coordinate y is determined from relation: y = 0.5d + y ′ , where y′ is

Step 7. Plot dependences V x Vδ = f ( y δ ) , V x lam Vδ = f ( y δ ) ,

4.2. Laboratory Experiment «Determination of Velocity Field

Fig. 4.5. Change of Dynamic Pressure in

Formula for definition of dynamic pressure in the working section of

Fig. 4.7. Experimental Setup:

During carrying out the experiment it is expedient to set identical

Experiment Results of Velocity Field Coefficient

Fig. 4.8. Diagram of Wing Drainage

During tests pressure is measured in the selected section, and

pressure was measured. Pressure coefficient C p is put along ordinate

On the basis of obtained diagrams C p = f ( x ) it is possible to deter-

Fig. 4.11. Determination of Wing Lift

Experimental Setup and Procedure of Determination

Fig. 4.12. Diagram of Test

Dependence C ya sec = f ( z ) is plotted to obtain wing lift coefficient