PHYSICS, SECTION A (1/2): MEASUREMENTS AND STATICS

QUANTITIES AND UNITS

The SI (Standard International) unit system is the most widely used system in measurement
and comprises seven fundamental units.

A fundamental quantity, also called a base quantity, is known as one that is independent from
the others and usually cannot be expressed using other quantities. A derived quantity is one that
is a combined product of different fundamental ones, e.g. ‘speed’ is derived from distance
(length) and time, two base quantities. ‘Area’ and ‘volume’ are derived from multiple lengths.

The table below shows units the seven “fundamental quantities”.

Quantity Symbol Unit Name (SI) Measuring Instrument
Length

Mass

Time

Electronic Current

Temperature

Amount of a Substance ---------

Luminous Intensity ---------

This table shows a few derived quantities.

Quantity Unit Unit Breakdown Measuring Instrument

Volume

Force

Speed

Pressure

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 ENSURING ACCURACY WHEN TAKING MEASUREMENTS

1. Avoiding parallax errors – These occur when the experimenter is not viewing the readings at
eye level. Not doing this can cause inaccurate data to be recorded. When possible, equipment
should always be placed on a level surface. Sometimes perpendicular aids must be constructed
from set squares in order to read instruments accurately.

2. Avoiding zero error – Before using an

instrument, it is important that it is
calibrated to read zero at the start of the
experiment. Scales and stopwatches have an
option to reset to zero while the gauges on
ammeters and voltmeters must be checked
beforehand.
3. Human response time – When taking
readings with stopwatches, for example, the
actual time for the experimenter to start and
stop the stopwatch causes a delay and
accounts for a slight error in measurement.
This is why it is important to repeat an
experiment multiple times.

Accuracy and precision are two different things.

 Accuracy refers to how correct the data is.

 Precision refers to how consistent the data
is when reproduced between trials.

The table below shows a list of some unit prefixes that denote the magnitude (size) of the unit.

Prefix Symbol Power SI Unit Conversion Example

Mega 5.0MJ = 5.0 x 106 J =

Kilo 4.52km = 4.52 x 103 m =

Centi 300cm = 3 x 10-2 m =

Milli 6.8ms = 6.8 x 10-3 m =

Micro 4500μA = 4500 x 10-6 A =

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 STANDARD FORM & UNIT CONVERSION

Standard form is a means of expressing large numbers in simple ways using integer powers and
usually three significant figures. Note that the decimal point goes after the first significant figure.

For e.g. 54880N in standard form (to 3 S.F.) will be written as 5.49 x 104 N.
0.006483J in standard form (to 3 S.F.) will be 6.48 x 10-3 J.

How to convert m/s to km/h How to convert km/h to m/s

Convert 108km/h to m/s Convert 18m/s to km/h

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method is a process for creating setups of situations to examine factors of the real
world and gather data from testing. This data can then be analyzed and replicated by other
scientists to further study the models and draw reasoning from them. It was first used by scientists
such as __________________ and _________________.

The scientific method has FOUR main steps:

1. ____________________ - Which can be made visually or through apparatus.

2. ____________________ - A statement made that has to be proven true or false. It has

to be testable.

3. ____________________ - Formulating a method to test the hypothesis and gather data.

May have to be repeated several times to validate results under various conditions.

4. ____________________ - Determining whether or not the results conform to the

hypothesis and formulating a theory based on them.

PERIOD OF A PENDULUM
One of the first major experiments in Physics was Galileo’s determination for the acceleration
due to gravity on Earth, also known as g. This was done using a pendulum with strings of varying
lengths.

 The period is defined as the _______________________________________________.

 The only factor that affects the period of the pendulum is ______________. The mass of the bob
and the angle of displacement the bob is held at does not affect the time for one swing.

 Usually 10-20 oscillations are taken because the human response time would create too large of
a delay and error if just testing for 1 oscillation.
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Example question: Complete the table and plot a graph of T 2 (y) vs. L (x).
Length, L (m) Time for 20 oscillations, t(s) Period, T (s) Period Squared, T2 (s2)
0.10 12.96
0.20 18.00
0.30 22.00
0.50 28.28
0.60 31.10

Using the graph, find the T2

value when the length is 0.40m:

_____________________

Calculate the gradient:

Now calculate the acceleration due to gravity, g, using this formula.

Put the unit for your answer as m/s2 as that is the unit for acceleration.
(π = 3.14)

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SCALARS AND VECTORS

Quantity Definition Examples

Scalar

Vector

Parallel and antiparallel vectors: We just add the vectors to form a single vector called a
___________________. A single vector may also be the resultant of two other vectors, e.g. an
airplane’s overall flight direction is a combination of the engines’ thrust, gravity and the wind.

Opposite direction vectors (antiparallel) are viewed as negative. Draw the resultant vectors for the
two examples below.

NON-PARALLEL VECTORS
Draw and measure the resultant forces for both diagrams below.

Question: An airplane is flying east in still air at 92m/s. A heavy north-east wind starts to blow at
36m/s at 45o. Using a scale of 1cm:10m/s, draw a vector diagram to show the resultant velocity of
the plane. Measure the angle the plane deviated from its original path.

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MASS AND WEIGHT

Quantity Definition Example

Mass The amount of matter contained in an A truck has more mass than a car and thus,
object. It is a measure of an object’s would resist a change in motion more than a
______________ or resistance to change car would. It would take longer to speed up
in motion. and require more force on its brakes.

Weight The force exerted on a body’s mass by An astronaut on the Moon would have the
gravity. same mass on Earth but less weight, because
the Moon’s gravitational field is weaker.

Note the formula for weight: Since inertia is defined as an

object’s resistance to change, the
greater the mass, the more difficult
it is to change its motion.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND STABILITY

Objects balance at a point called the centre of

gravity. The centre of gravity of an object can be
defined as ______________________________
______________________________________.

The force of weight acts downward from the

centre of gravity. Imagine it as a straight line
vector pointing down from that position.

Objects or systems that are stable tend to have most of their mass deposited much ____________ than
unstable ones. They are said to have a low centre of gravity. Observe the shapes below.

An irregular lamina’s centre of gravity can be found by boring

holes and hanging a plumb-line from each hole

The purpose of the plumb-line is to see which points are

vertically below the hole. By marking the lines,
an intersection will be noticed. This is the lamina’s
centre of gravity.

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FORCES

Forces enable masses to overcome inertia, i.e. they are able to cause a change in an object’s
acceleration, deceleration or direction (even shape and size, but NOT ___________)
Forces are measured in _____________, which can be derived as ______________.

Type of Force Description

Pulls objects towards the centre of the Earth.
The effect of gravity on an object’s mass.
The resistance an object experiences when rubbing a surface.
The upward force exerted by a fluid.
Attraction due to charged particles called electrons stored in an object.
An attraction or repulsion caused by north and south poles.
The force that always acts opposite to another, e.g. the forward push
from swimming while pushing the water backward.
An upward force exerted on a string or rope attached to a load.
The pull towards a central point for an object moving in a circle.
The attraction holding the nucleus of an atom together.

 Forces may be ______________ or _______________. They may also be

________________, such as by kneepads worn by athletes or helmets by cyclists. When a
force is absorbed, its impact is decreased.

 All moving objects on Earth experience some form of resistance, whether from the
surface they are on (friction) or the medium that they are in, such as the atmosphere
(called air resistance or drag).

In this example, the two “resistant forces”

are equal to the applied forward thrust of the
car. This will give an overall resultant or net
force of ___________.

This doesn’t mean the car will stop. This means that the object is in _______________________
and is moving at a constant velocity. Therefore, we can say that if a force is absent, there will be
no change in motion or direction.

NOTE: The car does not require a force to keep moving forward. It only requires a force to
accelerate or to combat the constant friction of the road. If the resistant forces are greater
than the forward thrust, the car will ______________________ and then stop.

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 AIR RESISTANCE & TERMINAL VELOCITY
Observe the panels below:

1. As he falls, ___________ initially pulls him down.

2. ___________________ acts upwards, making his ____________________ (NOT decelerate).
3. Eventually, the air resistance will be equal to his weight. He will then be held at
_____________________ and fall at a ____________________. Acceleration stops at this
point. This balanced velocity is referred to as _________________________.
4. When he opens the parachute, he decelerates (velocity decreases) as the parachute has a wide
surface area that increases his air resistance.
5. As his velocity decreases, his air resistance also decreases until the forces are balanced again.
He falls at a safe terminal velocity, no longer accelerating.
6. When he hits the ground, the ground causes a sudden deceleration that brings him to rest.

NOTE: An area that has no air or atmosphere is known as a ________________. If there is no air, then
there is no air resistance. All objects fall or accelerate at the same rate in a vacuum, since only gravity is
pulling them down.

FREEFALL

When an object is accelerating due to gravity only, it .

is said to be in freefall. If on Earth, this is to be taken as
10 m/s2 (rounded off from 9.81m/s2) this means that
with each second, the velocity increases by 10 m/s. So,
after 5s in freefall, the velocity would be _________.

NOTE: The value for ‘g’, 10m/s2, may also be

written as 10N/kg.
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 PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS AND LEVERS

The drawing depicts Odie trying to balance Garfield, who is heavier. Let’s also say that the two of them
are at a balance or equilibrium. How far would Odie have to be from the pivot to balance Garfield?

NOTE: The
fulcrum itself has a
moment of zero. It
has no turning
force acting on it.

Each above is creating a turning force or _______________. Moments are determined about the turning
point or fulcrum, so any distances used in calculation must be measured from the fulcrum.

Note the formula for calculating a moment:

The Principle of Moments states that ________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.

Using the figures shown, what is the force

applied to the effort end of the wheelbarrow?

Reena, Mark and Sharon, sit on a seesaw fashioned from a log resting on a pivot. Each of them has the
same weight of 500N. Mark sits 0.4m away from the pivot and Sharon sits 0.8m away from the pivot. For
the seesaw to be in equilibrium, calculate the distance Reena has to sit to balance Mark and Sharon.

QUESTION: Draw diagrams of the following, identifying effort, load and fulcrum:
(I) Hammer (II) crowbar (III) spanner (IV) door, and one other of your choice.

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 This relationship is denoted by Hooke’s Law,
HOOKE’S LAW which states that:
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
________

The term directly proportional means the

variables increase/decrease at the same rate.

If one quantity increases while the other decreases,

this is called inversely proportional.

However, when a load (F) is attached, the spring

When an object changes shape due to the action
of a force upon it, the object is said to
experience _____________________. On the
diagram, the initial length of the spring is noted
as L0. This is when no weight is attached.
extends. This extension is noted as x. The total
length of the spring is now given as (L0 + x).
As the weight of the load is increased, the
extension will increase. If the weight is doubled
to 2F, the extension will double to 2x.

The constant (k) can be obtained by finding the gradient of an extension-force graph. To put it simply, k
represents the “stiffness” of the spring. A bigger ‘k’ value would require more force to extend the spring.

HOWEVER, there is a point where the proportionality will stop if too much weight or force is applied to
the spring. This is called the ______________________________________. Beyond this point is the
______________________, where further extension can cause permanent deformation of the spring.

Example question: The initial length of a spring is 10mm. A 20N weight is attached and it has a
length of 14mm. What is the extension and length of the spring if 50N were attached?

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 DENSITY AND ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE

Density is defined as ____________________________________.

However, Cube A is considered denser

because it has more __________.

Cube A has twice as much mass in it than

Cube B. Therefore, we can say that Cube A
is twice as dense than B.

Cube B can be made denser by:

1._______________________
Note these two objects. They are both cube
containers of the same size and volume. 2._______________________

Note the formula and units for density:

Archimedes’ Principle states that:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

To find the volume, fill a measuring cylinder with an initial

volume of water. Place the rock gently to avoid splashing. Next,
measure the final volume of the water.

The volume of the rock is equal to the change of volume of the

water (given that the rock has been fully submerged).

NOTE: If the rock were only partially submerged, the water level
would rise by the volume partially submerged and the weight of
water displaced would only be the weight partially submerged.

Question 2: If gasoline has a density of 720kg/m3, calculate

Question 1: If the rock has a mass of 60g, how much mass of gasoline can be filled in 0.028m3 gas tank.
3
calculate its density in g/cm .

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RELATIVE DENSITY

Relative density is a given ratio of the density of a substance in reference to the density of
another substance (usually the medium it is kept in). It is one of few quantities with NO UNIT.

For e.g. if the block below had a mass of 6000kg and was kept in a container of mercury, what
would be its relative density is mercury had a density of 13,600kg/m3?

SINKING AND FLOATING

Whether or not an object sinks or floats depends on two things: the density of the object, and the
density of the medium the object is held in. There are usually two forces that act on the object at
this point: a downward force (____________) and an upward force known as ________________

A large boat of great weight is able to float because of two main reasons:

1. It has a _____________ interior, which decreases its overall density. Only the hull is
made of material denser than water, such as steel or zinc.

2. It has a ____________________________, which increases the _______________

acting on it.

NOTE: The density of pure water is given as ________________ or ________________. Since

seawater has salt and other substances, its density would be slightly higher.

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PHYSICS, SECTION A (2/2): DYNAMICS AND ENERGETICS

DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT

Distance is the __________________________________________________________. The

magnitude is of importance, not the direction, therefore distance is noted as a ________ quantity.

Displacement is the ____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________.

Both magnitude and direction are importance. It is therefore a __________.

Looking at the example to the left, if a

person ran from A to B and then B to C,
they would have travelled a distance of
______ but a displacement of _______.

DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPHS

Displacement-time graph simply show an object’s position as time passes. Observe the graph
below. It shows that after 5 seconds, the object is 25m away from the starting position. From 5s to
10s, the object has not moved since its position is still 25m away. For the last 2.5s, the object has
returned to its starting position.

Calculating the gradient of a line in the graph gives the object’s ____________________.

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 SPEED AND VELOCITY

Quantity Definition Formula Unit Category

Speed (s)

Velocity (v)

ACCELERATION

When the velocity of an object is changing, it has an acceleration. It can either speed up or slow
down or change direction. A positive acceleration denotes that the velocity has increased over
time. A negative acceleration (or deceleration) denotes that velocity has decreased over time.

Acceleration is therefore defined as the ______________________________________________.

It is a ___________ quantity.

Note the formula and unit for acceleration below:

VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS

These graphs above represent an object’s change in velocity as time passes. HOWEVER, note
that the lines are straight for the left figure and curved for the right figure. The acceleration in
graph A is said to be ________________, while graph B is said to be ____________________.
Since the line is getting less and less steep in the right figure, the acceleration can be said to be at
a decreasing rate.

Observe the LEFT figure for now. Aside from the appearance of the graph and general idea of
motion, other quantities can also be deduced and calculated from the graph:

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  The _______________________ can be obtained by calculating the gradient of the slope.

 The _______________________ can be obtained by calculating the area under the

required portion of the graph. If the displacement for the entire journey is required, we
need to find the area of a trapezium in this case, which is given by the following formula:

Example Question (Graph work)

1. Calculate the gradients of A, B and D, and the displacement of BCD.

Example question: Plot the events on the graph. Label the points.
A: ______– The driver begins at 10m/s and keeps going at constant velocity for 20 seconds.
B: ______– He takes 10 seconds to decelerate uniformly until he comes to rest.
C: ______– He remains at rest for 10 seconds.
D: ______– He accelerates in reverse until he is at -10m/s.
E: ______– He reverses at a constant velocity of -10m/s for 20 seconds.
F: ______– He decelerates for 10 seconds until he is at rest again.

15
NEWTON’S THREE LAWS OF MOTION

Before Isaac Newton’s laws of motion were made known, many people ascribed to Aristotle’s
Law of Motion, which basically stated that “Nothing moves unless you push it. An object’s
speed is proportional to the force applied to it.”

We learned previously that this is not true because:

Newton’s Three Laws are stated below:

Law What the Law States Example

1st A trolley will stay where it is unless

someone pulls or pushes it. It cannot
move unless a force is applied to it.

Similarly, if a trolley is moving, a force

will be needed to stop it. This force
could be friction, air resistance or the
reaction force from a collision.

2nd A trolley with more mass will need a

greater force to get it to accelerate at the
same rate as a trolley with less mass.

3rd In order to swim forward, a person must

push the water backwards. Pushing the
water back is the “action” while the
water pushing the body forward is the
“reaction”.

Think about how Newton’s Laws apply to the following situations:

1. A rocket or airplane being able to propel itself upward or forward.

2. A child jumping on a trampoline.
3. Why an astronaut would need to tie themselves to an object while doing repairs in space.
4. Why a loaded truck is harder to stop than an empty one
5. Why seatbelts or deployable airbags are necessary in cars

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 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

Linear momentum is defined as __________________________________________________.

Momentum is a ______________ quantity, since it has a direction. The force that produces a
change in momentum of a body is called an _______________.

Note the formulas and units

for momentum and impulse:

Scenario A: The white ball hits the 8-ball,

transferring all its momentum to it, and comes to
a stop. The 8-ball then moves at the same
velocity as the white ball.

Scenario B: The two balls move at a combined

mass. Since the combined mass is exactly twice
as large, the resultant velocity will be halved,.

The law of conservation of linear momentum states that:

_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________.

Use the law of conservation of linear

momentum to calculate the velocity of the
trolleys if they collide and move together:

Question: A footballer’s boot is in

contact with a ball for 0.05s. The force on
the ball is 180N. The ball leaves his foot
at 20m/s. Calculate:

(I) The impulse of the force on the ball

(II) The ball’s change in momentum
(III) The mass of the ball

17
LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISION

The previous examples dealt with one moving object colliding with a stationary object. However, what
would happen if we had a question like this:

PROBLEM 1: A car, heading east at 24m/s, of mass 1200kg collides with a 4000kg truck, heading west
at 5m/s. If the wreckage moves as a combined mass, what is the velocity and direction it moves at?

First, calculate the total momentum in the system before collision. This momentum should be equal
to the momentum of the wreckage after collision. The wreckage’s mass is the sum of both vehicles.
(Recall that one of the values for velocity must be negative, since it is in an opposing direction)

The direction of the wreckage will move at will be in the direction of whichever vehicle had a higher
momentum. In this case, it will be _____________.

PROBLEM 2: Two American football players collide into each other. Calculate the velocity the first
player will push the second.

18
FORMS OF ENERGY

Energy is simply defined as the __________________________. The unit for energy is __________.
A Joule is defined as the work needed to ___________________________, so 1J = 1Nm.

The principle of conservation of energy states that:

_____________________________________________________________________________________
.
____________________________________________________________________________________

The table below describes some of the many different types of energy:

Type of Energy Description Example

Released during chemical reactions or

transformation.

The flow and movement of electrons.

Occurs during physical collisions and

movement.

The energy possessed by a body by virtue of

its position, such as its height.

Energy that is stored within an object

experiencing deformation.

Held in waves such as light, X-rays and radio.

Released during the splitting (fission) of an

atom or the combining (fusion) or two atoms.

Associated with the vibrations of matter to

produce various pitches and tones.

Energy that can be stored or transferred

across molecules through kinetic energy.

Note the energy transfers in the following: (i) a car being driven on a straight road (ii) burning match
(iii) slingshot (iv) object falling from shelf (v) radio (vi) in a football being kicked (vii) acoustic guitar
(viii) wheels after brakes are applied (ix) lithium-ion batteries (x) a sprinter racing up a hill

19
 NOTE: Even though a Joule can be broken down to be a Newton-metre (Nm),
J and Nm should not be used interchangeably. Nm is reserved for moments
ENERGY AND POWER or turning forces, while J is reserved for energy.

Energy can either be released or stored. Energy that is used or released to produce some type of change
is termed _____________. Work has the same unit as energy. HOWEVER, even though energy can be
stored, work cannot, so these terms should not be used interchangeably.

Note the formula for work below:

POWER refers to ___________________________________________________________________.

For example, if there are two sprinters of the same mass (70kg) who run the same 100m dash, but sprinter
A completes the race in 1 minute, while sprinter B completes it in 1.5 minutes, BOTH sprinters did the
same work, but sprinter A had more power than B, since he did the work in less time.

Note the formula and unit for power below:

INPUT, OUTPUT & EFFICIENCY

EFFICIENCY refers to _______________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

Most objects will not convert 100% of one type of energy to another type. A fraction of the energy is
always lost due to heat, for example. When these energy losses are reduced, machines are said to be more
energy-efficient. For example, fluorescent lights tend to lose much less heat than filament lights, which
heat up very quickly. As a result, fluorescent lights are more efficient and last much longer.

Note the formula for efficiency below:

20
ENERGY IN A PENDULUM

When the pendulum swings from positions 1 to

5, it is converting kinetic to GPE. Note what
happens at:

1–
2–
3–
4–
5-

KINETIC ENERGY (KE)

This is the energy possessed by an object _____________________________. Note its formula:

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY (GPE)

This is the energy possessed by an object __________________________________________________.
Note its formula:

KE AND GPE CONVERSION

When an object is falling (assuming no air resistance) or sliding down a slope, the following is noted:

GPE LOST = KE GAINED

For situations that account for resistance or friction, energy loss is accounted for, e.g. A cyclist and his
cycle have a mass of 70kg. They descend a slope from the 2100m point to the 1600m point. Assuming
that 75% is lost to friction, what is the velocity of the cyclist as he travels down?

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ALTERNATIVE & RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Fossil fuels are formed from the remains of decayed microscopic organisms, animals and plants from
millions of years ago that have been pressed and subjected to hot temperatures over long periods of time.
They mainly come in the forms of coal, crude oil or natural gas. Fossil fuels are finite resources that
cannot be replaced and are said to be __________________________

In addition, the combustion of fossil fuels has, however, had negative effects on the environment, such as
the __________________________ (due to the release of carbon dioxide by combustion) and
__________________ (due to the release of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere).

Energy sources that are infinite and can be replaced are termed ______________________ and can be
used as viable alternatives to fossil fuels. Note that the Sun is the main source of energy for all of these,
except ______________________.

Some examples of alternative energy sources include:

Source Explanation

Energy obtained from the Sun are stored in photovoltaic cells in solar
panels and converted to electricity.

Winds turn the blades that spin a shaft that powers a generator.

The gravitational potential and kinetic energy of water flowing down a

conduit helps power a generator.

The kinetic energy from the moving tides helps generate a current.

Heat generated by converting hot water from deep beneath the earth’s
surface can be used as a source of power.

The fission (splitting) of Uranium atoms release energy from their nuclei,
which can be harnessed. This is non-renewable but very efficient.

On a smaller scale, some farmers use the remainder of their harvest to

produce ethanol that would act as fuel for their machinery.

Other things can be done to help conserve fossil fuels or reduce our usage of them, such as carpooling,
switching off appliances when not in use, using fuel-based transport less often (bicycles for short
distances, for e.g.) and switching to more energy-efficient fluorescent lights in the household.

22
 PRESSURE Question: Why does
your body exert more
Pressure is simply defined as ____________________________.
pressure on the ground if
you stand on one foot?
Note the formula and unit:

Both blocks are the same mass (60kg).

Block B is the same as A, but put to stand at
a different position. Even though the force
(weight) of both blocks would be the same,
the pressure will be different because that
force is acting down on two different surface
areas.

Calculate the pressure that blocks A and B exert.

PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS

Pressure in a fluid increases as __________

increases.

This occurs because as the position gets

deeper, the more molecules lie above that
point and thus, they will exert a greater force
or weight downwards.

Note the formula for pressure in a fluid:

Example question: An aquarium is filled with saltwater of density 1020kg/m3. It is 10m deep. The
bottom of the aquarium is to be fitted with a glass window of measurements 2m x 1.5m. The
atmosphere above the water surface is 101kPa. Calculate

(I) The pressure of the water acting against the base of the glass.
(II) The TOTAL pressure, in kPa, acting against the base of the glass.
(III) The maximum force, in kN, the glass should be able to withstand.

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GAS PRESSURE MEASUREMENT [g = 10 ms-2] [ρ of mercury = 13,600 kg/m3]

1. BAROMETER

The mercury is pushed up the bore in the

middle and forms a column. The higher the
column has, the higher the pressure.
Mercury is used instead of water because of
its high density. Mercury is 13.6x denser
than water. This means that if water was
used instead, the column would be 13.6x
taller.

Atmospheric pressure is given as 760

The atmospheric pressure acts on the mmHg, but what is this value in Pascals?
mercury (Hg) in the reservoir container,
applying a downward force to it.

2. MANOMETER

Manometers are used to find pressures of

fluids of interest. It does this by making a
comparison to atmospheric pressure (which
is already known). Atmospheric pressure is
given as either 760mmHg or 101kPa.

The difference in height (Δh) of the

column is used to calculate the pressure of
the gas.

(i) If the difference in height of both columns is 30mm, what is the unknown pressure in mmHg?

(ii) What is the unknown pressure of the gas, in Pascals?

24
HYDRAULIC LIFTS

The diagram above illustrates a hydraulic press model demonstrating the relationship between the
pressures of a plunger/piston, liquid and ram. When the plunger is pushed down with a pressure at
P1, it exerts the SAME PRESSURE in P2.

This is denoted by Pascal’s Law, which states:

______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.

Devices following this model act as force multipliers and can be used for lifting heavy objects
by applying small amounts of force. This also explains why a force as small as a foot on a pedal
could stop a moving car.

Example Question: If a 20N force is applied to the piston:

(I) Calculate the pressure exerted on the liquid by the small piston.

(II) Determine the pressure on the large piston.

(III) Calculate the force exerted by the large piston on the load:

25
HYDRAULIC BRAKES:

26
 PHYSICS, SECTION B (1/2) – STUDY AND NATURE OF HEAT

Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from areas of higher temperature to lower
temperature until the objects and their surroundings are at equilibrium, the same temperature.

CALORIC THEORY HOW WAS THIS DISPROVED?

Heat was once believed to be a weightless
fluid called “caloric” that could flow from
hotter to colder bodies. If a gas was
compressed, the concentration of caloric
would increase in the gas and the gas would
become hotter. This theory is now obsolete.
NOTE: Heat is the amount of energy that can be
transferred from a system, whereas temperature is
the average amount of heat energy per molecule.
Count Rumford, during his cannon-boring
experiments, was able to generate large
amounts of heat to boil water. This occurred
due to kinetic energy being converted to
heat energy by friction, as later proved by
James Joule. This showed that heat could be
developed due to the application of
mechanical energy and that it was indeed a
form of energy, not a fluid.

KINETIC THEORY
The theory used today is called the Kinetic Theory of Matter, which states that molecules in a
gas move freely and rapidly along straight lines. This random molecular bombardment can be
observed with light reflecting off dust or smoke particles (_____________________________).

Application of heat to molecules is able to add _______________ energy, allowing the molecules
to move and collide more often. Heat is also able to break their intermolecular bonds and
change state of matter, e.g. adding heat to a solid weakens its bonds and turns it into liquid.

Quantity Bond Strength Density Volume Other Notes

Solid Molecules vibrate in place. Fixed shape.

Liquid Takes shape of container, just like gases.

Gas Most KE. Molecules in haphazard motion.

27
TEMPERATURE AND THE KELVIN UNIT

Heat represents the total amount of energy (due to molecular vibrations) in a substance, the
temperature represents the average energy per molecule. A ‘cold’ substance such as an iceberg
contains more heat energy in it compared to a lit match, though the lit match’s temperature would
be higher.

The S.I. unit for temperature is given as ________________. To find the temperature in Kelvin,
we simply add _______ to the Celsius value. Calculate these:

Temperature Kelvin Celsius Equivalent to the temperature of…

Lower Fixed Point

Upper Fixed Point

Absolute Zero

It should be noted that absolute zero is the temperature at which there is no internal or thermal
energy in a state of matter. Put simply, it is the coldest possible temperature. Therefore, since
absolute zero is 0K, there are no negative Kelvin values.

THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

The main idea of constructing a thermometer is to find a physical property that changes steadily
with temperature and accurately link the fixed changes, e.g. when mercury is heated, it expands
proportionately and moves along the bore of the thermometer.

28
 NOTE: Mercury is preferred to alcohol
because it has a much higher boiling point
DISTINGUISHING THE THREE THERMOMETERS (357oC) whereas alcohol’s is 78oC.

Thermometer Response Factor Range Structural adaptation or advantages

Liquid-in-glass Long stem for wide range of readings.

Clinical Large, thin bulb conducts heat quickly.

Small range. Constriction prevents
mercury from returning to bulb quickly.

Thermocouple Quick, accurate readings. Can measure

from junctions of small masses.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER’S PERFORMANCE

Increase range Increase sensitivity Increase responsiveness

THERMAL EXPANSION
In a solid, the molecules are held closely together. When they are heated, kinetic energy is added
to the molecules, making them vibrate faster. This causes the molecules to move apart and
increase their volume. This is known as THERMAL EXPANSION.

This phenomenon can be observed in several everyday situations, such as creaking roofs, power
lines sagging on hot days (due to expansion), running warm water over a jar lid that is too hard
to open and even in carbonated beverages. When beverages get warm, the CO2 bubbles expand
and escape, leaving it with a ‘flat’ taste. In the cold, the bubbles contract and stay within the
drink.

29
 BIMETALLIC STRIPS

The bimetallic strip consists of 2 strips of different metals which expand at different rates as they
are heated, usually steel/iron and copper/brass. The different expansions force the flat strip to
bend one way if heated & in the opposite direction if cooled below its normal temperature.

In the circuit, the bimetallic strip (when

heated) would bend towards the contact to
allow electricity to flow. This effect is used
in a range of mechanical & electrical
devices, such as thermostats and fire alarms

THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

Whether or not radiated heat can penetrate

glass depends on wavelength. Heat is
mostly carried by infra-red waves (and
some UV). Short wavelengths have higher
frequencies and higher amounts of energy,
and therefore more penetrative ability than
longer wavelengths.

Waves lose energy as they reflect off surfaces.

Therefore, the short wavelengths that were
able to penetrate the glass cannot escape once
they convert to long wavelengths when they
are reflected inside.

30
EVAPORATION

Evaporation requires heat and is a cooling process. If you come out of a pool in a dry sunny day,
the water on your skin will use the heat energy from your body to evaporate. This produces the
"cooling effect".

At any temperature, the molecules of a liquid are in continuous random motion with different
speeds. Heat is absorbed by the liquid from the surroundings and thus gain __________ and move
____________. At the surface, the more energetic molecules are able to escape into the
atmosphere. Since the molecules with the most heat energy escape, this cools the liquid.

It should be noted that evaporation only

occurs on the ________________ of a
liquid, so ________ has no effect on rate of
In what order would the vessels evaporate? evaporation.

Other factors that affect evaporation include:

______________________________________________________________________________

HOW IS EVAPORATION DIFFERENT FROM BOILING?

Feature Evaporation Boiling

Temperature it occurs

Temperature change

Location

Physical observation

PERSPIRATION

When you perspire, heat is conducted into

your sweat and then moves out of the body
via the sweat gland and duct. The sweat,
with the heat, is then evaporated into the
atmosphere. This shows that evaporation is a
cooling process.

31
THERMAL TRANSFER PROCESSES

Heat can be transferred from one place to

the next. When two objects of varying
temperatures are placed together, a transfer
of thermal energy occurs from ___________
to ____________ temperature in an attempt
to get both objects at the same temperature.

e.g. cold water left in a 30oC room will gain

heat from the room and eventually have a
temp. of 30oC. The room loses a little heat.

This transfer occurs via three processes:

Method Definition Example

Heat moving along the

metallic frame of a frying pan.

Smoke particles rising from a

fire. Water particles rising in a
boiling pot. Losing body heat
through sweating.

Heat from the Sun reaching

the Earth. Heat leaving the
body after vigorous exercise.

THERMAL CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

 Simply put, thermal conductors are materials that allow heat to pass easily. Conductors
are materials with free electrons (such as metals), which allow the efficient transfer of
heat.

 Insulators do not have many free electrons and may have structural gaps or air spaces
that do not efficiently transfer heat, such as cloth or polystyrene. Air is a
_______________________ of heat.

32
VACUUM FLASKS

A vacuum flask is a container that is designed to retain the heat in a liquid.

ABSORPTION AND REFLECTION OF THERMAL RADIATION

Materials of various textures and colour, absorb, emit and reflect different amounts of heat. Note
that good absorbers are also good emitters of heat. Would a Caribbean house roof be a good
reflector or emitter? What about a car radiator? Or a car windscreen shade?

Good absorbers Good reflectors

SOLAR WATER HEATER

The purpose of a solar water heater is
convert solar energy into useable heat
energy. It consists of a solar panel, water
tank and an insulated frame.

33
CONVECTION CURRENTS 1. How do the heated water molecules move?

2. When these molecules reach the surface,

what happens?

3. What happens to the temperature of the

surface after?
The diagram above shows a metal pan
placed on a hot plate. The objective is to
illustrate the movement of water molecules
inside the pan. 4. How can one prevent heat from escaping
from the pan?
To determine this, we must answer the
following questions:

ACTION OF SEA BREEZES

Sea breezes are another example of convection currents. Note the diagram below and compare it
to the heated metal pan above.

34
PHYSICS, SECTION B (2/2) – RELATIONSHIPS OF HEAT

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Observe the diagrams above. The same mass, 1kg, of two different liquid samples are placed in
beakers A and B. Both samples had the same initial temperature (30 oC). Both beakers are heated
for the same time (60s) with the burners set at the same power (70W). However, at the end, the
final temperatures differed.

Sample A was able to absorb more heat before changing its temperature. Sample A was thus said
to be have a HIGHER SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY.

The Specific Heat Capacity is defined as ___________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________.

Note the formula and unit for Specific Heat Capacity:

NOTE: The specific heat capacity of water is given as 4200J/(kg K). What this means is that 1kg
of water would require 4200J of heat to increase its temperature by 1K. Similarly, it would have
to lose 4200J of heat to decrease its temperature by 1K.

35
Heat capacity excludes mass and can be defined as:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Note the formula and unit for Heat Capacity:

Note: Specific heat capacity and heat capacity are both CONSTANTS for their respective
materials. Unless the material itself is mixed with impurities, the value stays the same, e.g. pure
water’s specific heat capacity is ALWAYS 4200 J/(kg K), but saltwater will have a lower value.

TESTING FOR SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY, METHOD ONE (CALORIMETER)

The setup is called a CALORIMETER, an

apparatus used to measure specific heat
capacity. The following must be known to
calculate specific heat capacity.

The metal aluminum block is heated for 3

minutes with a 5A, 10V supply. If the initial
and final temperatures of the 2kg block are
30oC and 35oC respectively, calculate its
specific heat capacity.

36
METHOD TWO (METHOD OF MIXTURES)

Since the specific heat capacity of pure

water is already known (4200J/(kg K) or
4.2 J/(g K)), this value could be used to
determine the SHC of another material. The
principle to remember is:

Heat gained by water = Heat lost by metal

By measuring the initial and final

temperatures of both the water and metal,
the following formula can be used:

Example question: A 50g block is placed in 200g of water. The block was heated to 100oC. The
temperature of the block dropped to 30oC and the water rise from 30oC to 35oC.
Using 4.2J/(g K) as the SHC of water, calculate the SHC of the block, in J/(g K).

Example question 2: A piece of iron of mass 21.5g at a temperature of 100.0oC is dropped into an
insulated container of water. The mass of the water is 132g and its temperature rose from 20.0oC
to 21.4oC. The iron’s final temperature is 19.6oC. Using 4.2J/(g K) as the specific heat capacity of
water, calculate the specific heat capacity of iron.

37
 NOTE: “Latent” means “hidden”
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT as there are no temperature changes.

Graph showing cooling curve of naphthalene

Observe the sections of the graph where there are no temperature changes. Heat is still being lost
at these points, but without temp. change. This type is heat is known as ____________________.

Latent heat is thermal energy being used to either reform intermolecular bonds or break them.
This type of heat is lost or gained only during changes in state of matter, i.e. freezing, melting,
condensation, boiling.

Quantity Definition Formula

Specific Latent Heat of

FUSION

Specific Latent Heat of

VAPOURIZATION

38
EXAMPLE QUESTION
A student heats 200g of ice at 0oC until it turns to steam at 100oC. How much energy was needed
to do this?
[specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J/(kg K)]
[specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.34 x 105 J/kg]
[specific latent heat of vapourization of water = 2.23 x 106 J/kg]

TESTING FOR SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE

(Heat Lost by Water) = (Heat Used to Melt Ice) + (Heat Gained by Melted Ice)

Calculate, in order, the following: [SHC of water = 4.2 J/(g K)]

(i) The heat energy lost by the water (ii) The heat energy gained by the melted ice
(iii) The heat used to melt the ice (iv) The specific latent heat of fusion of ice

39
AIR PRESSURE AND THE THREE GAS LAWS
First, it is important to understand what exactly creates air pressure. Air pressure is caused by the
random motion of gas molecules (Kinetic Theory of Matter) and their collisions with the surfaces
of objects (not the molecules hitting each other!).

The greater the frequency of collisions or the greater the force the air molecules collide with
the surfaces, the greater the pressure.

There are three quantities that are examined with each of the gas laws: Pressure, Volume and
Temperature. For each law, two of these quantities vary while one is kept constant.

1. Boyle’s Law states that:

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________.

It can be represented by the equation: _________________________

NOTE: The lower the volume, the

less space the molecules have
when they are moving. Due to
this, they collide more often,
increasing the pressure.
Calculate the pressure in the 20cm and 10cm cylinders, in kPa.

Boyle’s Law can be graphed as shown below.

40
 2. Charles’ Law states that:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

It can be represented by the equation: ___________________

The pressure is made constant by increasing volume. This means that as heat increases, there is
more space for the molecules to move, so they don’t collide against the surfaces as often,
despite moving faster and hitting with greater force.

(i) A gas at 27oC was heated, which

caused the gas to expand and push
the syringe upwards. Pressure
remained constant. If the volume
increased from 30cm3 to 50cm3, what
is the final temperature?

(ii) What would be the temperature to raise the volume to 60cm3?

There are two graphs used to represent Charles’ Law, depending whether or not the Kelvin or
Celcius scale is used as the unit for temperature.

41
 3. Pressure Law states that:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

It can be represented by the equation: ___________________

Why does pressure increase with
temperature? This is because as the
molecules are heated, they gain more kinetic
energy and collide against the walls at a
greater rate and with greater force.
At absolute zero, there will be in the
substance. This is because at this
temperature, the molecules have no internal
or kinetic energy and do not move, thus they
cannot collide against the walls and create
pressure.

Two graphs may represent the Pressure Law, depending on whether Kelvin or Celcius is used as
the unit for temperature.

COMBINED GAS LAW / GENERAL GAS LAW

All three gas laws can be combined to form one formula called the General Gas Law. This is
employed when no quantity remains constant. The formula for it is a combination of all three
gas laws and is stated as:

NOTE: Not to be confused with the IDEAL GAS LAW, which will be learned at A’ Level.

42
PHYSICS, SECTION C (1/1): WAVES AND OPTICS

WAVE FEATURES

Waves carry energy without carrying matter. Some waves must propagate through a medium.
They involve oscillations, where there can be just one oscillation (called a _____________) or a
series or succession of oscillations (called a ____________________________).

Waves that require a medium to be transferred are termed ___________________ waves, while
those that can travel through a vacuum are classed as ____________________.

Feature of Wave Definition

Points on successive waves that lie on the same position

Distance between two successive crests, troughs or points in phase

Height of a wave, indicating its maximum displacement

Number of waves passing a point per second

Time taken for a wave’s complete oscillation

The VELOCITY of the wave can

be found by the following formula:

Question: Calculate the wavelength and velocity of the waveform above.

43
Wave Phenomenon Description

All waves can bounce off a surface.

All waves bend or change direction when entering another medium.

All waves can curve or bend through narrow openings and edges.

All waves can fuse, increasing or decreasing their amplitude.

Light can split into different colours. Note that light waves with
only one frequency (_______________________) cannot do this.

TRANSVERSE and LONGITUDINAL WAVES

NOTE: A compression’s
molecules are closer
together (higher pressure).
A rarefaction’s is farther
apart.

Transverse Longitudinal

44
SOUND WAVES

Sound is transferred by ____________________ waves that are ___________________ in

nature, meaning that they require molecules or a medium for their transfer. They are unable to
travel through a vacuum such as in space.

The presence of more molecules enables State Medium Approx. Speed of Sound in m/s
sound to increase its speed. This means that Gas Air
sound will travel faster in denser states of Liquid Water
matter, e.g. Solid Steel

Sounds can have different pitches or The human audible range is

volumes. The PITCH of a sound is
dependent on its __________________
while its LOUDNESS is dependent on its
___________________, for e.g. a mouse’s
squeak has high-freq, low-amp. A
loudspeaker’s bass has low-freq, high-amp.
___________________. Any wave with a
frequency higher than that range is termed
an ____________________ wave.
Ultrasound has numerous practical
applications, including the observation of
fetuses in their pre-natal stages, ultrasonic
cleaning (dental scalers, jewelry cleaning)
and probing materials for internal flaws.

ECHOES AND SONAR

SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) is

a technology that uses ultrasound pulses to
determine distances.

It does this by measuring the time it takes

for a fired sound pulse of known speed to be
emitted from a transducer, echo from a
surface and be received by a detector. The
formula for calculation is given as:

Question: If the speed of sound in sea water is 1600 m/s and the time taken for the sound pulse to
hit the sea bed and return to the detector is 400ms, calculate the depth of the sea bed, in km.

45
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC (E.M.) SPECTRUM

The electromagnetic spectrum refers to the range of wavelengths or frequencies of

electromagnetic radiation. All of them are transverse and all travel at 3 x 108 m/s in a vacuum.

NAME SOURCE APPLICATIONS

Gamma-rays - Penetrates matter.

- Causes fluorescence.
X-rays
- Gamma-rays are useful in killing cancer cells.

Ultra-violet - Tanning beds

- Fluorescent lights

- Used to sterilize medical equipment.

Visible light - Detected by stimulating nerve endings of human

retina.

- Used in optical fibres in telecommunications, as

well as in medicine.

Infra-red - Our bodies emit this type of wave.

- Detection of bodies and matter.

Microwaves - Radar and telephone communication

Radiowaves - Radio broadcasting or telescopes.

46
DIFFRACTION

Diffraction occurs when a wave passes through a narrow aperture (opening) and thus spread out
over a large area as it continues to progress. All waves can undergo diffraction.

NOTE: It is difficult to observe diffraction of light because of its _______________________.

Special equipment would be needed for proper observation.

THEORIES OF LIGHT

Many notable scientists had differing theories of lights over the eras.

Scientist Theory

Isaac Newton

Christiaan Huygens

Thomas Young

Albert Einstein

Einstein also came up with the photoelectric effect (for which he won the Nobel Prize). The
photoelectric effect is a phenomenon that produces electrons when light is shone on a metal plate.
Ideal examples of this are ________________ and _____________________.

In digital cameras, the photons are of different strengths, which produces variations of brightness
and colour to translate the photograph image.

47
 INTERFERENCE
Interference occurs when two waves superpose with each other to form a resultant wave that
might either raise or lower the amplitude. There are two types of interference:

1. ______________________ Interference 2. __________________ Interference

The concept of interference proved that light experienced properties of a wave. The diagram
below shows Thomas Young’s double-slit experiment.

SHADOWS

48
REFLECTION OF LIGHT

Reflection occurs when a wave bounces off a surface. Complete the diagrams below.

TWO LAWS OF REFLECTION

Law States

First

Second

Example of a Plane Mirror Ray Diagram

The image that is formed in a mirror is called a _____________________ image and typically
has the following characteristics:

49
REFRACTION
Refraction occurs when a wave passes through a ______________________________________,
for example: sunlight entering a piece of glass from the air, or light exiting water.

In the diagram, the light is reflected off the

fish and enters the person’s eye.

However, because the light has to move

across a different medium (water to air), it
refracts and the image of the fish seems
closer than it really is.

Characteristic of Wave Denser medium Less dense medium

Change in direction

Speed

Wavelength

Frequency

The diagrams below show refraction of light in two prisms.

50
WAVEFRONT DIAGRAMS

NOTE: A wavefront is
defined as a point of
connection for molecules
that are all in phase.

e.g. straight waves on

water or circular ripples.

51
 NOTE: A mirage cannot be
projected so it is a virtual
MIRAGES image.

Mirages occur mostly in hot places. This is

because heated air is less dense than cooler
air (which is why heated air rises).

The difference in density is important to

note, as heated air and cooler air would be
considered two separate mediums. As a
result, light would refract or bend as it
moves from one to the other.

As a result, it is as if the ground acts a

mirror, showing a reflection of the sky.

GLARE

Upon hitting a surface, light is said to be

___________________. Direct light sources
are unpolarized. If both a polarized and
unpolarized light source enter the eye
simultaneously, this results in a blurry visual
called glare.

LAWS OF REFRACTION

Law States

First

Second

52
CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

We have now understood the concept that light refracts away from the normal when entering a
less dense medium. However, if the angle of incidence is too LARGE, it will be unable to be
refracted in such a way to escape.

The point at which the angle of refraction is equal to 90o is called the _____________________.
The angle of refraction cannot be more than 90o. Instead, ________________________________
will occur, keeping the light inside the medium. In other words, the insides behave like a mirror.

APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Optical fibres are usually held in bundles to

carry data at high speeds. They may be used
as ___________________, an instrument
that is put into the body to view the internal
parts. Light is shot into the fibre and it is
reflected back up to a detector with images.

Optical fibres are made of a core of high

refractive index and surrounded by cladding
that is ________________ than the core.

Another example of total internal reflection would be in the use of road reflectors, which are
usually right-angled prisms that reflect light back to a vehicle.

53
REFRACTIVE INDEX

The refractive index of a material, put simply, tells how optically dense an object is. The higher
the refractive index, the slower the light will travel. For example, if a glass has a refractive index
of 1.5, this means light will travel 1.5x more slowly in glass than in a vacuum.

The refractive index (n) can be properly defined as:

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
____.

In order to calculate this refractive index, we may use either of these formulas:

If given angles If given speeds If given wavelengths

Example question 1:

(I) Calculate the refractive index of light

passing from Medium A to B.

(II) If the angle of the ray in Medium A was increased to 45o, what would be the new angle of
refraction?

(III) What is the speed of light through Medium B?

54
Example question 2: A manufacturer was asked to investigate the relationship between

angles of incidence, θi, and refraction, θr, for a certain type of fibre glass to build an
optical fibre. The results are shown below.

Θi / o 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0

Θr / o 23.6 30.5 38.0 43.7 48.5 52.0

sin i 0.5

sin r 0.4

(a) (i) Complete the table above for both sin i and sin r.
(i) Plot a graph of sin i vs. sin r below.

(b)(I) Calculate the gradient of the line. (II) Calculate the critical angle of fibre glass.

55
LENSES

Type Diagram Example

Magnification formula:

Lens formula:

Example question: An object of 4cm height is placed 6cm distance from the optical centre of a
lens. It produces a 20cm height image. Calculate:

(I) The magnification of the lens (III) The focal length of the lens

(II) The image distance

(i) Principal axis - ______________________________________________________________

(ii) Focal length - ______________________________________________________________

(iii) Principal focus - ___________________________________________________________

(iv) Focal plane - ______________________________________________________________

56
Object between F and 2F

Object between F and optical centre

Object beyond 2F

Object at F

Concave Lens Diagram

57
PHYSICS, SECTION D (1/2) – ELECTROSTATICS AND CIRCUITS

STATIC ELECTRICITY AND ATTRACTION

Electrostatics is the study of charges at rest. When two insulators are rubbed together, they can
produce electrostatic attraction. Matter is made of atoms which have negatively charged
particles called __________ orbiting around a small nucleus.

In the normal state, the atom has an equal number of electrons and protons, therefore we say that
it is electrically balanced or uncharged. At times, when rubbing a surface, electrons are removed
from the orbit and the object becomes ________________ charged. The object that the electrons
rubbed off on then become ________________ charged.

Note the formula for charge:

Charge is measured in __________________. One coulomb is equivalent to 6.25 x 1018 electrons.

Devices that store charge are called __________________ and gain current as time passes. It
should be noted that time plays a major factor in terms of charge.

Example questions: 1. During a certain lightning strike, a current of 5 x 104A flows for a time
period of 0.15ms. Calculate the quantity of charge of the lightning strike.

2. The makers of a cellphone have upgraded its battery capacity from 4320C to 9000C. If a
charger delivers 0.6A, how much more time will it take to charge the new battery than the old?

58
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
kinetic energy based on differences in height
(such as a river flowing downstream),
p.d. refers to the energy that generates an
e.m.f. (electromotive force), allowing
charges to flow to a component.

For e.g. the laptop has to have a lower p.d.

than the solar cell for the charges to flow
Potential difference (or p.d.) is simply from the solar cell to the laptop. If the laptop
another term for voltage. Similar to how had a higher p.d. than the solar cell, the
gravitational potential may convert to laptop would charge the solar cell instead.

CHARGING BY INDUCTION

Objects can also be charged by placing them next to each other and using a charged rod within
proximity. This method is called charging by __________________________.

Examples of technology that employ electrostatic forces are:

ELECTRIC FIELDS

An electric field is defined as a region _______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________.

59
CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

Component Circuit Symbol Note

Dry cell / Battery Converts chemical to electrical energy.

Switch Controls paths of electron flow.

Fixed Resistor Decreases current, value is constant.

Variable Resistor (rheostat) Decreases current, value can adjust.

Bulb Converts electricity to light + heat.

Voltmeter Measures voltage.

Ammeter Measures current.

Fuse Breaks circuit path if current is too high

Semiconductor diode Converts a.c. voltage to d.c. voltage.

a.c. Power Source Typically a power outlet.

Motor Converts electrical to mechanical energy.

Transformer Alters voltage by altering current.

Galvanometer Deflects needle due to small currents.

Heater Generates thermal energy.

Bell Releases sound energy.

Thermistor Resistance reduces when temperature

increases.

Photoresistor / LDR Resistance reduces when light intensity

increases.
(Light-Dependent Resistor)

LED (Light-Emitting Semiconductor light source. Releases

Diode) photons. Very efficient.

60
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CURRENT AND VOLTAGE?

Quantity Definition Unit Derivation of Unit

Voltage

Current

Resistance

The general formula that links each quantity above is:

This is also called OHM’S LAW, which states that:

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________.

Measuring Voltage and Current

Instrument Measures How it is hooked up Why?

Current.

Voltage.

Direction of small Same as ammeter. Same as ammeter.

amounts of current.

61
WIRES AND RESISTANCE

Factor Explanation

Long wires have higher resistances than shorter ones. More power loss
tends to occur along far distances. Electrical energy converts to heat.

Wires of thick diameter have more conducting material and thus can
transfer more current. The thicker the wire, the lower the resistance.

Wires made of good conducting material, e.g. copper have low resistance.

DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

Alternating current is a specific type of An A.C. voltage can be converted to D.C.

electric current in which the direction of the voltage using a
current's flow is ___________________ on _____________________________.
a regular basis. The magnitude of the
voltage produced _____________________.
A.C. voltages are found in:

Direct current is simply when it flows in

______________________ as all times. It
has a ___________ magnitude. D.C.
voltages are found in:

62
 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BATTERY CELLS
Batteries can be divided in two categories: primary cells and secondary cells.

Characteristic Primary cell (Dry Cell) Secondary cell (Wet Cell)

Recharge ability

Portability

Terminal Voltage

Internal Resistance

Structure

RECHARGING A BATTERY CELL

Secondary batteries (which are D.C.) are

recharged when they are connected to a.c.
supplies (such as outlets).

A ________________ steps down the

voltage from the outlet and a __________
converts the a.c. voltage to D.C to flow into
the battery and be stored.

VI-GRAPHS
Components that obey the relationship given by Ohm’s Law are said to be _____________ while
components that don’t, such as filaments lamps and diodes are said to be _______________.

63
DETERMINING RESISTANCE OF AN UNKNOWN RESISTOR, R

The apparatus is set up as shown in both methods with the ammeter in series with the resistor and
the voltmeter in parallel. However, the methods differ when it comes to obtaining different values
of current. In Method 1, the length of the resistance wire ‘d’ is varied by connecting the contact at
different points (recall that longer wires have higher resistance). In Method 2, a rheostat is used to
vary the resistance to obtain different values.

Using the setup in Method 2, a student obtained the following results. Plot a graph of V vs. I, and
find the gradient. What does the gradient represent?

V/V 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

I/A 0.42 0.60 0.84 1.02 1.18

64
 SERIES & PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Analyse the simple series circuit below to state its characteristics:

NOTE: If one component

stops working in a series
circuit, the circuit breaks
and current cannot travel to
the other parts in the
circuit. This is due to there
being only one pathway.

RESISTANCE IN A SERIES CIRCUIT – The total resistance in series is the sum of all
resistors in the circuit. For example, find the total resistance of a circuit which has two resistors of
10Ω and 50Ω.

FORMULA:

CALCULATION:

CURRENT IN A SERIES CIRCUIT – The current flowing into each component in a series
circuit is equal to the current flowing out of each component. This means that each ammeter (A1,
A2 and A3) would have the same reading. Show the calculation:

Note: Ammeters are placed in series next to the component to be observed. They have very low
resistance, so as to avoid significant alteration of the current passing through it in series.

VOLTAGE IN A SERIES CIRCUIT – The sum of the voltages of the individual components
in the circuit should equal the voltage of the power source. This means that the sum of voltages in
R1 and R2 should be equal to 6V. What are the voltages in R 1 and R2?

Note: Voltmeters are connected in parallel to the components. They have very high resistance, so
only very small amounts of current pass through it, since voltmeters are on separate wire paths.

65
 Analyse a simple parallel circuit with the same components as before.

Houses are wired in parallel.

This is because the overall
resistance is lower than series.

Also, if one component ceases

to work, the circuit is not
broken like in series, due to
other electron pathways being
available.

RESISTANCE IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT – The total resistance in a parallel circuit is smaller than
the value of the individual resistors.

FORMULA:

CALCULATION:

VOLTAGE IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT – The voltage in a parallel circuit is equal on each wire.
Therefore, on this circuit, the voltage on each wire would be _______.

Calculate the voltages through R1 and R2 using the formula for Ohm’s Law.

CURRENT IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT – Since the wire splits at several junctions, so does the
conducting path for the electrons. This causes the current to decrease through these paths.

Therefore, since A1 and A4 are on the same pathway, their current will be equal.
However, A2 and A3 will have different currents. The sum of A2 and A3 = A1.

Calculate the currents through A2, A3 and then use those to find the current in A1.

66
COMBINING SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

In the diagram, each resistor is 6Ω. A and B are in series with each other. C is parallel to both A and B.
And resistor D is series to A, B and C combined. To simplify the circuit, we need to reduce the number of
resistors by ‘fusing’ their values.

(a)(i) Calculate the total resistance of A and B.

(ii) Calculate the total resistance of A, B and C.

(iii) Calculate the total resistance of A, B, C and D.

(b) Calculate the total current in the circuit.

(c) Calculate the voltage through C. (Keep in mind that resistor D draws voltage).

67
POTENTIAL DIVIDERS
From the diagram, calculate the value of Vout.

Potential dividers (or potentiometers) operate simply by splitting the voltage at various points
in a circuit. They usually involve some type of variable resistor or sensor-operated resistor. They
are widely used for adjusting voltages in appliance circuits. For e.g. a radio may only need 6V
from a 9V battery. The divider splits the voltage and allows 6V to flow as a Vout value.

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS, WIRING AND FUSES

Some metals melt easily at much lower temperatures than normal. These metals can be used to
make a ___________________. If too much electricity flows through the fuse wire, it will get so
heated that it will melt. This will ________________________ and no more ___________ can
pass. If no fuse is present and too much current passes, there can be a risk of an electrical fire.

Circuit breakers have the same purpose of a fuse. One main difference is that fuses must be
replaced, while circuit breakers don’t have to be. Fuses act faster than breakers, however.

If an 8A current is being delivered through the live wire, which fuse will be best? 2A, 5A or 10A?

There are three types of wires:

Type of Wire Purpose Colour

Delivers electrical energy and high a.c. voltages to
appliances. Connects all switches and fuses.
Carries current back to the supply. Has roughly zero
volts.
Deposits excess electrons from the circuit into the
ground. It is connected to the appliance frame or
casing, not mains.

Three main electrical hazards are:

68
 Fuses and switches are always connected to
the live wire. There is a potential danger of
the live wire becoming loose and touching
the metal case of appliances.

Touching the metal casing can then result in

electrocution. However, the ground wire
will carry those excess electrons into the
ground, so the earth wire is always
connected to a case or frame.

ELECTRICITY GENERATION & CONSERVATION

1. __________ – An external energy source (e.g. coal, biofuel, uranium) heats water into steam.

2. ____________ – The steam provides mechanical energy for the turbines to spin.

3. ______________ – The turbines spin a generator, which is a large magnet that spins in a coil.

4. _________________– Increases voltage for power line transmission, decreases for household.

Since we are dependent on non-renewable fossil fuels, we can do a number of things to

conserve them:

69
PHYSICS, SECTION D (2/2) – ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPONENTS

MAGNETS
A magnet is a material that has a north and south pole that could either attract or repel other
magnets or magnetic materials. Magnetic materials, however, have no poles and cannot attract
others but can be attracted by a magnet.

Temporary Magnet Permanent Magnet

Nature

Material

Application

Magnets create fields around them, as illustrated below.

70
 MAGNETIC INDUCTION
When a piece of unmagnetised magnetic material (such as _______) touches or is brought near to
the pole of a permanent magnet, it is attracted to the magnet and becomes a magnet itself. In other
words, the material is said to have been magnetically induced. It should be noted that only 3
metals can be magnetized:

By wrapping a cylindrical coil or ______________ around an iron core and passing D.C. through
it, the iron core will become magnetized.

DEMAGNETISING A MAGNET

Method Explanation

Molecules begin to vibrate so quickly that domains are rearranged and the
charges at the poles disappear.

Physical force rearranges domains and polar charges disappear.

The a.c. causes some domains at the magnetic poles to switch directions.
If done long enough, the polar charges will be nullified.

RELAY CIRCUITS (ELECTRIC BELL)

A typical relay circuit contains a switch that is

electromagnetically operated.

1. When the current passes through the

electromagnets, they generate a magnetic field.
2. The soft iron armature is then attracted to the
electromagnet. It is pulled towards it, and the
hammer hits the gong.
3. At the same time, the contacts are broken in the
circuit, causing current flow to cease and the
magnetic field to be lost. This restarts the circuit,
causing the bell to ring in rapid successions.

71
FLOW OF CHARGES & CONVENTIONAL CURRENT

Flow of charges is different from a metal

conductor and electrolyte. In an electrolyte
(a liquid conducting material), both positive
and negative ions can flow. It can also
occur in both directions.

However, in a metal conductor, only

negative charges flow (electron flow) and
only in one direction (-ve to +ve terminals).
There is one thing to note, however. While electrons indeed do move from –ve to +ve, tradition in
the field of Physics is to work the opposite way. Due to past limitations, we must assume that
flow is +ve to –ve instead. This system is called _________________________________.

FORCES ON CURRENT-CARRYING WIRES

In the figure above, the thumb pointing

straight out represents the
_____________ while the other four
curved fingers represent the
________________________.
With this rule, the magnetic effect of a
current can be predicted.

72
 Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule is used to
predict the force (or thrust), magnetic field
and direction caused by a passing current. In
order for this interaction to occur, all three
must be perpendicular to each other.

Force, magnetic field and current are linked

First Finger = Field/Flux this way. If two are at a right angle, the third
SeCond Finger = Current can be produced.
THumb = THrust

 Predict the direction of the wire in Fig 1.

 In Fig 2, the wire is being thrusted out of the page. Draw an arrow indicating the
conventional current direction, as well as the +ve and –ve terminals.

APPLICATION OF LEFT HAND RULE TO A TURNING COIL

Predict whether the coil ABCD will have a clockwise or anticlockwise moment by determining
the forces on AB and CD.

Why would there be no force on BC?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________.

73
D.C. MOTORS AND A.C. GENERATORS

Characteristics d.c. motor a.c. generator

Power source

Energy conversion

Components

How to make the

motor spin faster or
make the generator
create more power

D.C. Motor: The purpose of the d.c. motor is to create a _________ on both sides of the wire
loops to create a turning force. This is due to Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, which says that in order
to create a force, a current must be ____________________ to the magnetic flux.

When the loop is turning, there is a chance the direction can reverse every half-rotation. A
_________________________ is used to _________________________ every half-turn to keep
the motor spinning in one constant direction. The direction of the turning force depends on the
orientation of the magnets and direction of conventional current.

A.C. Generator: It is noted that instead of a commutator, that __________ are placed at the end
of the wire loop. The purpose of these is to allow the transfer of the alternating e.m.f. induced by
the rotating wire to the external circuit. Each one is connected to a contact brush, where it rotates
about the inner diameter. The faster the external rotator, more electrical energy can be converted.

74
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Passing a magnet along a solenoid can allow electron flow and thus produce a ________. This is
denoted by _____________________, which states that:

The voltage (or emf) induced in a coil is proportional to the rate of magnetic force
across it.

What this simply means is that the faster the magnet moves in and out of the coil, the more
voltage is obtained. If the magnetic field does not move, no voltage is induced.

Similarly, an alternating current constantly switches directions and by doing that, it inherently has
a changing magnetic field. An a.c. is therefore able to induce voltage across an adjacent coil.

NOTE: A
sensitive
galvanometer
is necessary to
detect very
small changes
in current.

75
TRANSFORMERS

A transformer uses the concept of a constantly changing magnetic field to induce a voltage from a
primary to secondary coil. The more coils, the greater the electron flow and the higher the
voltage. However, if voltage is raised (step-up transformer), it trades by lowering the current.
Similarly, if voltage is lowered (step-down transformer), current is raised.

The following formulas are used in transformers:

Calculate the number of secondary coils and the secondary current in the primary coil.

Due to the principle of conservation of energy, the power and energy output can never be more
than the input. In an ___________ transformer, power input and output are said to be equal.

However, power loss does occur in transformers in real-world. To minimize power loss across a
wire, electrical energy is transferred with ________________________ and low currents. There
are numerous ways in which power loss can occur in a transformer, stated below:

Cause of Power Loss Prevention Method

76
LOGIC GATES

GATE SYMBOL TRUTH TABLE EXAMPLE USE

Input Output Also called an inverter. It

may be used in circuits that
NOT
regulate factors, e.g. turning
on flash in cameras when
the environment is dark.

Input 1 Input 2 Output An ATM will only allow a

user to access his account if
AND
they swipe the correct card
and enters the correct PIN.
Doing one alone will deny
access.

Input 1 Input 2 Output If a machine is meant to

shut off if the temperature
OR
OR pressure is too high, this
gate can allow the machine
to shut off if at least one
exceeds a certain limit.

GATE SYMBOL TRUTH TABLE EXPLANATION

Input 1 Input 2 Output NAND = Opposite of AND

NAND Also called the “universal

gate”, where the only zero
output is when there are two
zero inputs.

Input 1 Input 2 Output NOR = Opposite of OR

NOR The only positive output

occurs when there are two
zero inputs.

77
Solve the following logic gate problems:

78
An electric kettle is connected to an alarm that sounds whenever the kettle is switched on
and the lid is left open or the water level is below the heating element. The figure below
shows the circuit that controls the electric kettle’s alarm.

(a) Draw the appropriate logic gates in A, B and C to perform the electric kettle’s
alarm function.

(b) Complete the table below to show in which scenarios the alarm will go off or not.

Input Output
L M N X Y Z
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

79
PHYSICS, SECTION E (1/1): ATOMIC PHYSICS & RADIOACTIVITY

HISTORY OF THE ATOM

J.J. Thomson theorised and discovered the

electron. However, he believed the atom to
be a cluster of positive and negative charges
that he termed the “plum pudding model”.
However, scientists named Ernest
Rutherford and Niels Bohr later theorised
(and proved) that the atom had to have a
centre of positive charge. James Chadwick
discovered the neutron.
Two scientists named Hans Geiger and
Ernest Marsden assisted Rutherford in
developing the structure of the atom that we
know today. They performed an experiment
known today as the Geiger-Marsden
experiment or “gold foil” experiment.

The experiment involved setting up a radioactive source that emitted alpha-particles across a thin
piece of gold foil. A ring-like detector was placed around the foil. It was observed that the
majority of particles went straight through. However, a few were deflected.

The ones that were deflected had to have hit the nucleus, or were repelled by its positive charge.
This proved that the atom several things about the atom:

80
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

In the atom, there are THREE types of particles:

Particle Atomic mass Charge Founder

Definitions:
____________________ - The number of PROTONS in an atom.
____________________ - The number of PROTONS and NEUTRONS in an atom.

For example, if a carbon atom has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, its atomic number will be 6 and its
mass number (or atomic mass) will be 12.

The electrons are arranged in

______________ rotating around the
atomic nucleus. When the number of
protons and electrons are equal, the
atom is said to be _______________.

ISOTOPES

An isotope is defined as _______________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________.

An atom has a nucleon number and an atomic number. Using an example of Uranium (U), which
has 92 protons and 143 neutrons, we represent it as:

Each atom is assigned its own atomic number. An atomic number of 7 is always nitrogen, for
example, while an atomic number of 8 is always oxygen. So if one proton was added to nitrogen,
the element will change to oxygen.

However, the number of NEUTRONS can differ. For example, Uranium (U) could have various
numbers of neutrons and thus have various isotopes.

81
THE THREE TYPES OF RADIATION

For an atom to be stable, it must have _______________________________________________.

Unstable atoms are far removed from that ratio and lose energy by continuously emit differing
forms of energy known as radiation. This overall process is called radioactive decay. These three
types of radiation are represented as:

Type of radiation α particles β particles γ rays

Nature

Ionising effect

Penetration strength

Range

Deflection in
magnetic fields

An instrument known as a ________________________________ is used to test for the presence

of radioactive emissions. There is a margin of error in using this instrument, as sometimes the
number will exceed slightly. This occurs due to _________________________________, which
is due to radiation already present in the room or contamination of the detector tube itself. This
value is simply subtracted from the total.

The G-M tube may also be used to gauge the penetrating power of the three different types of
radiation.

82
CLOUD CHAMBERS

A cloud chamber can be created by setting up a petri-dish filled with dry ice and isopropyl
alcohol. When a radioactive source is placed on the alcohol and dry ice, lines can be seen as
particles are emitted. These lines represent the ionic trails of the particles. The density and shape
of these lines determine the type of radiation being emitted.

DEFLECTION OF RADIATION ALONG ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

Alpha particles are described as positive while beta particles are described as negative. Gamma
rays do not have a charge and are thus unaffected by any magnetic fields. In the diagram below,
draw how the three different types of radiation will interact.

SAFETY

Radioactivity was founded by __________________, who studied elements such as Uranium and
Thorium. Unfortunately, she died of radiation-induced anaemia. Awareness increased by
scientists who have to work with ionising radiation, since it can break apart molecules in the
body, kill cells and cause cancer. They have since been taking the following precautions:

83
RADIOACTIVE DECAY

Alpha-Decay: When an element loses an alpha particle, it loses ________ E.g.

Beta-Decay: When an element loses a beta particle, the nucleon number is unchanged while the
atomic number increases by 1, .e.g.

Gamma-Decay: During alpha and beta-decay, the nucleus gathers spare energy. This energy is
released as gamma-rays. This does not affect the atomic or nucleon numbers.

Decay Chains and Formulas

Isotope Atomic No. Nucleon No.
U-238 92 238
Th-234 90 234
Pa-234 91 234
Pb-210 (unstable) 82 210
Pb-206 (stable) 82 206
Bismuth (Bi) 83 210
Polonium (Po) 84 210

Using the table above, write the decay equations that

(i) Show the process to turn U-238 into Pa-234. [2 equations]

(ii) Show the process of unstable lead turning into stable lead. [3 equations]

84
 HALF-LIFE

Radioactive decay, explained before, represents the emission of particles due to unstable nuclei.
The decay process is independent of conditions external to the nucleus. Since radioactive decay is
a random process, half-life is only an estimate (though a very good one).

The half-life of a substance is defined as:

________________________________________________________________________________
.

Calculating half-life of a substance after plotting a curve:

85
Half-life Example Questions

1. The half-life of C-14 is 5700 years. A plant, upon death, experiences 8 disintegrations per
minute. Calculate how much time has passed since its death if the plant now experiences
1 disintegration per minute.

2. An 800mg sample of radon decays over a period of 20 days until only 25mg remains.
What is the half-life of radon, in days?

Background radiation and determining half-life

Remember that background radiation is radiation that is recorded despite not being placed close
to the radioactive source or after the source has completely decayed. It must be subtracted in
order to determine accurate radiation readings.

Example question 1: A Geiger counter is used to measure the radiation counts of a substance, X.
At the start of the experiment, the reading is 520 counts/s. After one hour, the reading is 70
counts/s. The background radiation was found to be 40 counts/s. Calculate the half-life of X.

Example question 2: A radioactive source is tested over a number of hours with a radiation
detector. The readings are shown in the table.

Use the readings to:

(I) Suggest a value for the background count rate during the test
(II) Determine the half-life of the sample.

86
USES OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES

Field Isotope(s) Use

Medical Cobalt-60 and gamma rays

Nitrogen-13, Oxygen-15,
Iodine-123

Archaeological and Carbon-14

Scientific Research

Power Generation Uranium-235, Thorium-232

Industrial and Bromine-82, Iodine-125

Commercial
Americium-242

Strontium-90

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Albert Einstein suggested the relation between energy (E) and mass (m) in his famous formula
____________, where c = speed of light (______________).

Reaction Description Example

One nucleus splits to form smaller nuclei, releasing Splitting of Uranium in

massive amounts of energy as gamma rays. nuclear power plants

Two smaller nuclei combine to form a larger Two H isotopes forming

nucleus, giving off energy as it does. helium (He) in the Sun.

Nuclear energy is efficient and does not contribute to air pollution. However, nuclear waste is
difficult to dispose of. Also, there is a risk of _____________ (e.g. Chernobyl and Fukushima).

Example question: The mass of the sun is lost at the rate of 2.0 x 10 9 kg every second. If the
speed of light in a vacuum is 3.0 x 108 ms-1, calculate the energy output of the sun in 1 second.
Convert to kilojoules.

87
Calculating energy released in a nuclear reaction

The equation below represents nuclear fusion in the Sun. When calculating the masses before and
after the reaction, it will be noticed that there is a small difference. This small difference in mass
was converted to energy, according to Einstein. To calculate the energy, observe the table.

Nuclide Atomic
mass / u
H-2 2.014
H-3 3.016
He 4.003
n 1.009

[u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg]

1. First, calculate the mass on the left side of the equation:

2. Then the right side of the equation:

3. Find the difference in masses, in u.

4. Convert the ‘u’ value to kg by multiplying by 1.66 x 10 -27. This will be the value of Δm.

5. Lastly, apply Einstein’s formula (ΔE=Δmc2) to calculate how much energy, ΔE, was released.

88
 Nuclide Mass / kg
Uranium-238 398.350 x 10-27
(U)
Krypton (Kr) 152.620 x 10-27
Barium-139 232.560 x 10-27
(Ba)
Neutron (n) 1.670 x 10-27

In the above case, the masses aren’t given in the unit ‘u’, so there is no need for conversion.

(i) Observe the diagram and write the equation of the fission reaction. Complete the missing
numbers in the Barium and Krypton isotopes.

EQUATION:

(ii) Calculate the difference in mass of the elements formed before and after the reaction.

(iii) Calculate the energy released in the reaction.

89