EEE-4131: DIFFUSION Lecture-03

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 CONTENTS
01 Impurity Doping

02 Diffusion Mechanism

03 Diffusion Systems

04 Diffusion Profile

05 Problems in Diffusion System

06 Evaluation Techniques of Diffusion Layers

2
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 Impurity Doping

Impurity doping is the introduction of controlled amount of impurity dopant into semiconductors.
Main goal of doping is changing the electrical properties of semiconductor
Formation of p-n junction.
Alters the type and level of conductivity of semiconductor materials.
Forms active regions of bipolar technology, as well as drain and sources in MOS devices
Dope polysilicon layers.
Diffusion and Ion implantation are the two key methods of impurity doping.

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 Diffusion Mechanism

Diffusion is used to incorporate impurity into the semiconductor in a controlled manner.

Diffusion is the redistribution of atoms from higher concentration to lower concentration of the impurities.
It describes the process by which atoms move in a crystal lattice.
In a diffusion system impurities are brought in contact with the prepared wafer for a specific temp and time.
In a diffusion system impurities are brought in contact with the prepared wafer for a specific temp and time.
The speed of the diffusion process depends on the Temperature, Time, Dopant, Substrate, Concentration gradient, The
crystallographic orientation of the substrate.
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 Point Defects

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 Diffusion Mechanism
The diffusion of a dopant in a crystal can be visualized as the atomic movement of the dopant through the crystal lattice by
vacancies and interstitial.

Substitutional/Vacancy Diffusion
I. At high-temperature lattice atoms gains energy.
II. After gaining sufficient energy atom leaves the
lattice site and creates a vacancy.
iii. Neighboring atom (i.e. impurity) migrates to the
diffusion by vacancy
vacancy.

Interstitial Diffusion
i. Impurity atom jumps from an interstitial position
to a neighboring empty interstitial position.
ii. Interstitial atoms are smaller and mobile.
iii. Faster than vacancy.

diffusion by interstitial
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 Diffusion Mechanism
Interstitialcy Diffusion
i. Extended interstitial mechanism.
ii. Interstitial atom displaces a substitutional atom driving it to an interstitial site where it diffuses some
distance before returning to a substitutional site.
iii. Low energy is required in this technique.

Host Atom

Interstitial Atom

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 Diffusivity
𝐸
(− 𝑘𝑇𝑎 )
Diffusion coefficient, 𝐷 = 𝐷0 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑐𝑚2
𝐷0 = 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ( )
𝑠
𝐸𝑎 = 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑒𝑉)
eV
𝑘 = Boltzmann constant
K
𝑇 = Temperature (𝐾)

Diffusion constant or diffusivity is a function of activation energy and frequency factor

D0 is independent of temperature.
D is measured as function of temperature and determines whether the diffusion is dominated by interstitial or vacancy.
The activation energy of the interstitial is less than the substation impurity atoms.

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 Diffusion Systems
Features of Diffusion System
The diffusion process should not damage the wafer.
Residue should be easily removeable.
The system should be a reproducible process.
The system should have batch processing capacity.

Dopant atoms can be introduced into wafer from the following sources
Solid Source Impurity in the form of solid ore

Liquid Source Impurity in the form vapor

Gaseous Source Impurity in the form of gas

Spin-on Technique Impurity in the form of a dilute mixture

Planner Dopant Source Impurity is directly placed by the CVD process

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 Diffusion System

Spin on Technique Planar Source Arrangement

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 Solid Source Diffusion System

In solid source diffusion, the boat carrying the silicon wafers is loaded into the diffusion tube alongside the solid source .
During the heating process, the dopant source evaporates producing dopant vapor.
Vapor is transported via carrier gas and deposited uniformly on the surface of the heated silicon.
Further heating allows the diffusion of the phosphorus atoms into the surface.
Chemical Reaction:
Boron diffusion in Silicon Phosphorus diffusion in Silicon

2𝐵2 𝑂3 + 3𝑆𝑖 ⇋ 4𝐵 + 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 2𝑃2 𝑂5 + 5𝑆𝑖 ⇋ 4𝑃 + 5𝑆𝑖𝑂2

(Phosphorus Pentoxide)
(Boron trioxide)
P2O5 is produced from,
Excessive B2O3 at the wafer surface creates Boron skin Ammonium monophosphate NH4H2PO4 (S)
which disconnects the diffusion process. Ammonium diphosphate (NH4)2H2PO4 (S)
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 Liquid Source Diffusion System

In liquid source diffusion, the container of the liquid is immersed in a constant temperature bath.
𝑁2 carrier gas is bubbled through the liquid source and into the diffusion tube.
At high temperatures, the liquid evaporates and reacts with 𝑂2 gas.
Chemical Reaction:
Boron diffusion in Silicon Phosphorus diffusion in Silicon

900o C 0 - 40o C
2(𝐶𝐻3 𝑂)3 𝐵 + 9𝑂2 → 𝐵2 𝑂3 + 6𝐶𝑂2 + 9𝐻2 𝑂 4𝑃𝑂𝐶𝑙3 + 3𝑂2 → 2𝑃2 𝑂5 + 6𝐶𝑙2
(TMB) (Phosphorus oxychloride)

H20 makes the wafer surface uneven, called the pitting effect. Cl2 is preserved for halazone reaction.

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 Disadvantages of Liquid Source Diffusion System
Source is corrosive.
Bubblers must be pressurized and must have been known to explode.
Sensitive to bubbler temperature change.
Danger of forming insoluble silicon compounds at wafer surface that are invisible, but are extremely undesirable.

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 Gaseous Source Diffusion System

In gaseous source diffusion, a gaseous dopant source is directly introduced with other carrier gases into the diffusion tube.
Excessive dopant source is dissolved in chemical trapper.
Chemical Reaction:
Boron diffusion in Silicon Phosphorus diffusion in Silicon
300o C 400o C
𝐵2 𝐻6 + 3𝑂2 → 𝐵2 𝑂3 + 3𝐻2 𝑂 2𝑃𝐻3 + 4𝑂2 → 𝑃2 𝑂5 + 3𝐻2 0
(Diborane) (Phosphine)

Pitting effect may occur. Pitting effect may occur.

Phosphine is highly toxic and explosive

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 Gaseous Source Diffusion System

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 Diffusion Equation (Fick's 1 st Law)
A=Cross section area of crystal (𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ ∗ 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠)
n1= No. of atoms in layer-1
n2= No. of atoms in layer-2
N1=Volume concentration at layer-1 (atom/cm3)
N2=Volume concentration at layer-2 (atom/cm3)
d=distance between tetrahedral site
d/ 3 = A single jump length along the x (100) direction
ง =Jump frequency
𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
We know, N= =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 ∗ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
n1 n2
So,N1= and N2=
𝐴∗d/ 3 𝐴∗d/ 3

For diffusion atom in one layer must jump into neighboring layer.
Considering in time 1/ง half of the impurity atom is jumping right
(𝑥) and other half jump left(−𝑥) on average.
Δ𝑛 (n1− n2)/2
Net flow of atoms across P along 𝑥 direction, =
Δ𝑡 1/ง

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 Diffusion Equation (Fick's 1 st Law)
(n − n )/2
Δ𝑛
Net flow of atoms across P along x direction, = 1 1/ง2
Δ𝑡
ง Ad n1 n2
= 2 3 (N1 - N2) …………………(i) [ Using, N1= and N2= ]
𝐴∗d/ 3 𝐴∗d/ 3
Δ𝑁 (N − N1)
Change of Volume concentration with respect to 𝑥, Δ𝑥 = 2
d/ 3
Δ𝑁
⇒ N2− N1 = (d/ 3) Δ𝑥
Δ𝑁
⇒ N1− N2 = − (d/ 3) Δ𝑥 …………..(ii)
Δ𝑛 ง Ad d Δ𝑁
Substituting (ii) in equation (i) Δ𝑡 = − 2 3 ∗ 3 ∗ Δ𝑥
Δ𝑛 ง Ad2 Δ𝑁 Here,
⇒ Δ𝑡 = − 2 9 ∗ Δ𝑥 x = direction of dopant flow
1 Δ𝑛 ง d2 Δ𝑁 N = Volume concentration (atom/cm3)
⇒ A Δ𝑡 = − 6 ∗ Δ𝑥 Flux density 𝑗 =
1 Δ𝑛
(atom/cm2 . s) [rate of change of impurity per unit area and time]
A Δ𝑡
ง d2
Diffusivity or Diffusion Coefficient, 𝐷 = (cm2/sec) [rate of diffusion]
6
𝜕𝑁
In partial derivative form ⇒ 𝑗 = −𝐷 𝜕𝑥 Fick’s first law

This is Fick’s First law or commonly known as the continuity equation which states that under diffusion conditions flux density is
directly proportional to the concentration gradient.
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 Diffusion Equation (Fick’s 2 nd Law)
It is hard to measure N and 𝑗 using Fick’s First law due to its change in a small atomic layer. Now we take the larger area for
obtaining the measurable quantity.
Now let us consider the flow of particles in the crystal of cross-section 𝐴 between planes P1 and P2 separated by 𝑑𝑥.
Rate of accumulation of particles between P1 and P2 ,
𝜕𝑁
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐴 ∗ 𝑑𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑡 … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Rate of accumulation of partial in term of flux flowing in and out of the region
Flux entering the 𝑑𝑥 region at P1 = 𝐴𝑗
Flux leaving the region dx at P2 = 𝐴(𝑗 + 𝑑𝑗)
Net flux between P1 and P2 = 𝐴𝑗 − 𝐴(𝑗 + 𝑑𝑗)
𝑑𝑥
= −𝐴𝑑𝑗 … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑣)
𝜕𝑁
Equating (𝑖𝑖𝑖) and 𝑖𝑣 , 𝐴 ∗ 𝑑𝑥 ∗ = −𝐴𝑑𝑗
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑁 𝑑𝑗
⇒ 𝜕𝑡 = − 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑁 𝑑 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁
⇒ 𝜕𝑡 = − 𝑑𝑥 (−𝐷 𝜕𝑥 ) [ using Fick ′ s first law 𝑗 = −𝐷 𝜕𝑥 ]
𝜕𝑁 𝑑 𝜕𝑁
⇒ 𝜕𝑡 = 𝑑𝑥 (𝐷 𝜕𝑥 )

𝜕𝑁 𝜕 𝜕𝑁
In partial derivative form, = 𝜕𝑥 (𝐷 𝜕𝑥 ) Ficks 2nd law
𝜕𝑡
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 Diffusion Equation
𝜕𝑁 𝜕 𝜕𝑁
From Fick’s second law, = 𝐷
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑁 𝜕 𝜕𝑁 Here,
⇒ =𝐷
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑁 𝑥, 𝑡 = Volume concentration of the
𝜕𝑁 𝜕2 𝑁
⇒
𝜕𝑡
=𝐷
𝜕𝑥2
diffusing impurity at a distance 𝑥 from the
The solution of the second-order differential equation will be, surface at a given time 𝑡
𝐴 −𝑥2
𝑁(𝑥, 𝑡) = exp … … … … … . . (𝑣) [where, A is the arbitrary constant]
𝑡 4𝐷𝑡

∞
Total amount of impurity, Q=‫׬‬−∞ 𝑁 𝑑𝑥
∞ 𝐴 −𝑥2
Let,
⇒ Q = ‫׬‬−∞ exp( )𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 =𝑢
𝑡 4𝐷𝑡
2 4𝐷𝑡
𝐴 ∞ exp −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
⇒ Q = 2 ‫׬‬0 4𝐷𝑡 ⇒ = 𝑢
𝑡 4𝐷𝑡
2𝐴 ∞ ⇒𝑥=u1/2 4𝐷𝑡
⇒Q= ‫ 𝑡𝐷 ׬‬exp −𝑢 𝑢1/2−1 𝑑𝑢
𝑡 0
2𝐴 1 ∞ 1 ⇒𝑑𝑥 = 4𝐷𝑡 ½𝑢1/2−1 𝑑𝑢
⇒Q= 𝐷𝑡 Γ( ) [using, ‫׬‬0 exp −𝑢 𝑢1/2−1 𝑑𝑢 = Γ( )]
𝑡 2 2 ⇒𝑑𝑥 = 𝐷𝑡𝑢1/2−1 𝑑𝑢
1
⇒ Q = 2 𝐴 𝐷 𝜋 [using, Γ( )= 𝜋]
2
Q 𝑥 0 ∞
⇒𝐴 =
2 𝐷𝜋
𝑢 0 ∞
Q Q −𝑥2
Substituting, 𝐴 = in equation (v), 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑡) = exp … … (𝑣𝑖)
2 𝐷𝜋 2 𝐷𝜋𝑡 4𝐷𝑡

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 Diffusion Profile
Fick's 2nd law involves measurable quantities of volume concentration, diffusion depth, and
diffusion time. The law can be used to obtain the impurity distribution for a variety of diffusion
conditions. Depending on boundary conditions the Fick’s law has two types of impurity
distribution.

Unlimited Source Diffusion/ Complementary Error Function

Limited Source Diffusion/ Gaussian Distribution Function

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 Unlimited Source Diffusion
Initial Condition,
𝑁(𝑥, 0) = 0 N0
Boundary conditions,
𝑁 0, 𝑡 = N0 [N0=surface impurity concentration] 𝑧
𝑑𝑧
𝑁(∞, 𝑡) = 0 𝑥𝑗
Q −𝑥2
F𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑣𝑖) 𝑁 𝑥, 𝑡 = exp
2 𝐷𝜋𝑡 4𝐷𝑡
Considering small portion of the source of thickness, 𝑑𝑧 which contains a quantity of impurity N0 𝑑𝑧 at a distance 𝑧 from the
plane,
No𝑑𝑧 −𝑧2
⇒ 𝑁 𝑧, 𝑡 = 2 𝐷𝜋𝑡 exp 4𝐷𝑡
Around the x,
No ∞ −𝑧2
⇒𝑁 𝑥, 𝑡 = ‫ ׬‬exp 4𝐷𝑡 𝑑𝑧
2 𝐷𝜋𝑡 𝑥
Now,
No ∞ −𝑧2 No 𝑥 −𝑧2 From Error Function Algebra,
⇒𝑁 𝑥, 𝑡 = ‫ ׬‬exp 4𝐷𝑡 𝑑𝑧 − 2 𝐷𝜋𝑡 ‫׬‬0 exp 4𝐷𝑡 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑦
2 𝐷𝜋𝑡 0 𝑒𝑟𝑓 𝑦 = ‫׬‬0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑧2 𝑑𝑧
No ∞ −𝑧2 𝑥 −𝑧2 𝜋
⇒𝑁 𝑥, 𝑡 = [ ‫׬‬0 exp 𝑑𝑧 − ‫׬‬0 exp 𝑑𝑧 ] 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓 (𝑦)
2 𝐷𝜋𝑡 4𝐷𝑡 4𝐷𝑡
No ∞ −𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 − 𝜋 ∗ 2 𝑥 −𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 ] 𝑒𝑟𝑓 0 = 0 ; 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 (0)=1 ; 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 (∞)=1
⇒𝑁 𝑥, 𝑡 = [ ‫׬‬0 exp ‫׬‬ exp
2 𝐷𝜋𝑡 4𝐷𝑡 2 𝜋 0 4𝐷𝑡
No 𝜋 𝑥
⇒𝑁 𝑥, 𝑡 = [ 𝐷𝑡𝜋 − 4𝐷𝑡 𝑒𝑟𝑓 ] [using Gamma function and error function algebra]
2 𝐷𝜋𝑡 2 4𝐷𝑡
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 Unlimited Source Diffusion
No 𝜋 𝑥
⇒𝑁 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2 𝐷𝜋𝑡
[ 𝐷𝑡𝜋 − 2 4𝐷𝑡 𝑒𝑟𝑓 4𝐷𝑡
]
No No 𝑥
⇒𝑁 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2
− 2
𝑒𝑟𝑓 4𝐷𝑡
No 𝑥
⇒𝑁 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2
[1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓 4𝐷𝑡
]
No 𝑥
⇒𝑁 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2
[1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓 4𝐷𝑡
]
No 𝑥
⇒𝑁 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2
𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 4𝐷𝑡 [ 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 ( 𝑦 )=1−𝑒𝑟𝑓 ( 𝑦 ) ]
This diffusion profile is solved by considering unlimited source into infinite region.
Now, assuming that the solution for the negative values of 𝑥 is reflected in the plane of 𝑥 = 0 and superposed on the distribution of 𝑥
≥ 0. So, the diffusion from a sheet impurities 𝑄 into a semi-infinite [0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ ∞] region can be profiled as,
𝑥
𝑁 𝑥, 𝑡 = N0 𝑒𝑟𝑓c 4𝐷𝑡
∞ ∞
𝑥 𝑥
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑄0 = න 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 = න N0 𝑒𝑟𝑓c 𝑑𝑥 Let, =𝑚
4𝐷𝑡 4𝐷𝑡
0 0
∞ ⇒𝑑𝑥 = 4𝐷𝑡 𝑑𝑚
= ‫׬‬0 N0 𝑒𝑟𝑓c 𝑚 4𝐷𝑡 𝑑𝑚
∞
= N0 4𝐷𝑡 ‫׬‬0 𝑒𝑟𝑓c 𝑚 𝑑𝑚 𝑥 0 ∞
2 ∞ 1
= 𝑁 𝐷𝑡 [ ‫׬‬0 𝑒𝑟𝑓c 𝑚 𝑑𝑚 = ] 𝑚 0 ∞
𝜋 0 𝜋

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 Unlimited Source Diffusion
𝑥
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑒, 𝑁 𝑥, 𝑡 = N0 𝑒𝑟𝑓c
4𝐷𝑡

Now the boundary conditions,

At 𝑥 = 0 : 𝑁 0, 𝑡 = N0 𝑒𝑟𝑓c 0
= N0 [𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 (0)=1]
𝑥𝑗
At 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑗 : 𝑁 𝑥𝑗, 𝑡 = N0 𝑒𝑟𝑓c 4𝐷𝑡
[𝑥𝑗 = 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ]
𝑥𝑗
⇒Nc = N0 𝑒𝑟𝑓c [𝑁 𝑥𝑗, 𝑡 = Nc]
4𝐷𝑡

Now for the 𝑥𝑗 depth at the background concentration Nc ,

𝑥
⇒ 𝑁𝑐 = N0 𝑒𝑟𝑓c 4𝐷𝑡 𝑗

N 𝑥𝑗
⇒ N 𝑐 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓c 4𝐷𝑡
0
N
⇒ x𝑗 = 4𝐷𝑡 𝑒𝑟𝑓c-1 (N 𝑐 ) [ 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 (𝑦)=1−𝑒𝑟𝑓 (𝑦) ]
Diffusion profile for an unlimited source
0

𝐷𝑡 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

This type of diffusion is also known as complementary error function diffusion or pre-deposition

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 Limited Source Diffusion
▪ Fixed (or constant) amount of dopant is deposited onto the silicon surface. Q0

▪ This type of diffusion is also known as Gaussian diffusion or drive-in diffusion.

𝑥𝑗
Initial Condition,
𝑁(𝑥, 0) = 0

Boundary conditions,
∞
‫׬‬0 𝑁 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑄0 [ Q0= Constant amount of impurities placed on the surface prior to diffusion ]

𝑁(∞, 𝑡) = 0

Q −𝑥2
Form equation 𝑣𝑖 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑡) = 2 exp [𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 − ∞ ≤ 𝑥 ≤ ∞]
𝐷𝜋𝑡 4𝐷𝑡
Limited source is considered for semi-infinite region 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ ∞
Q0 −𝑥2
S𝑜, 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑡) = exp
𝐷𝜋𝑡 4𝐷𝑡

©ADNAN AMIN SIDDIQUEE 24

 Limited Source Diffusion
−𝑥2 Q0
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑒, 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑡) = exp
𝐷𝜋𝑡 4𝐷𝑡
Boundary conditions,
Q0
At 𝑥 = 0 : 𝑁 0, 𝑡 = 𝐷𝜋𝑡 exp 0
Q0
⇒𝑁0 = 𝐷𝜋𝑡 [𝑁 0, 𝑡 = 𝑁0]

Q0 −𝑥𝑗 2
At 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑗 : 𝑁 𝑥𝑗 , 𝑡 = exp [𝑥𝑗 = 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ]
𝐷𝜋𝑡 4𝐷𝑡
2
−𝑥𝑗
⇒ 𝑁𝑐 = 𝑁0 exp 4𝐷𝑡 [𝑁 𝑥𝑗, 𝑡 = Nc]
Now for the 𝑥𝑗 depth at the background concentration Nc ,
−𝑥𝑗 2
⇒ 𝑁𝑐 = 𝑁0 exp 4𝐷𝑡
𝑁𝑐 −𝑥𝑗 2
⇒ = exp
𝑁0 4𝐷𝑡
𝑁𝑐 −𝑥𝑗 2
⇒ = exp Diffusion profile for limited source
𝑁0 4𝐷𝑡
𝑁 −𝑥𝑗 2
⇒ ln(𝑁𝑐) =
0
4𝐷𝑡
𝑁𝑜
⇒ 𝑥𝑗 = [4𝐷𝑡 ∗ ln ] 1/2
𝑁𝑐

©ADNAN AMIN SIDDIQUEE 25

 Two-Step Diffusion
A two-step diffusion consists of a constant source diffusion followed by a
limited source diffusion.
The shallow diffusion layer is formed by imposing constant source diffusion
for a short time at low temperatures.
Then the constant source is turned off and removed.
Drive-in diffusion along with oxidation takes place under a constant total
dopant condition which moves the diffusion front to the desired path.
The resulting profile is Gaussian diffusion if Dtdrive−in ≫ Dtpredeposition
The resulting profile is erfc diffusion if Dtpredeposition ≫ Dtdrive−in

©ADNAN AMIN SIDDIQUEE 26

 Mathematical Problem
Assume that boron is diffused into an n-type silicon wafer with a doping concentration of 1x1015 atoms/cm3. Find the diffusivity
from a known impurity profile of Gaussian function for diffusion time of 1 hr. junction depth of 2 microns and surface
concentration become 1x1018 atom/cm3. Estimate the total amount of dopant introduced prior to diffusion.
Assume that phosphorus is diffused into a p-type silicon wafer and its profile can be represented by a gaussian function with a
diffusivity of 2.3x10-13 cm2/s. The measured surface concentration is 1x1018 atom/cm3 and junction depth is 1 micron at a
substrate concentration of 1x1015 atom/cm3.
I. Calculate the diffusion time and the total dopant in the diffusion layer.
II. Estimate the junction depth if the diffusivity is 1.4x10-13 cm2/s.
Phosphorus is added to a silicon wafer from a gaseous source at 975oC for 30 minutes. Determine the junction depth for a 0.2 Ω-
cm p-type substrate. Assume that the diffusion coefficient of Phosphorus is 10-13 cm2 s-1 and that its solid solubility is 1021 atom
cm-3 at 975oC.
(a) A predeposition process is carried out for 15 minutes on an n-type silicon wafer with a bulk doping concentration of 1017
atoms/cm3 at 950oC using diborane gas. Determine the p-n junction depth given that the surface solubility of boron at 950oC is
3.8 x 1020 atoms/cm3, the intrinsic diffusivity (Do) is 0.76 cm2/s, and the Arrhenius activation energy (Ea) is 3.46 eV.
(b) A drive-in process is subsequently performed on this sample after the deposition process. In order to produce a p-n junction
1.28 μm below the wafer surface, estimate the required Dt, the product of the diffusion coefficient and time. Based on your
result, determine the time required if the drive-in temperature is 1650oC. [given, K=8.6 x 10-5 eV/K]

©ADNAN AMIN SIDDIQUEE 27

 Mathematical Problem
Resistivity (Ω-cm)
1

10-1

𝑒𝑥𝑝(−𝑥 2 )
10-2

𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐(𝑥)
P-Type
Boron
10-3

n-Type
Phosphorous 10-4

10-5

10-6
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Resistivity (Ω-cm)
Normalized distance from the surface
Page 3 of 3

©ADNAN AMIN SIDDIQUEE 28

 Problems in Diffusion System
Diffusion result can be checked by two simple technique: the junction depth and the sheet resistance of the diffused layer

Radial Thermal gradient

▪ Dislocation.
▪ Degrades lifetime.
▪ Loss of planarity of the surface.

Lateral Diffusion
▪ Decreases channel length.

Toxicity and By products

▪ Gaseous dopants can be very toxic.
▪ Special arrangement for by product removal is needed.

©ADNAN AMIN SIDDIQUEE 29

 Evaluation of Diffusion Layer
Diffusion result can be checked by two simple technique: the junction depth and the sheet resistance of the diffused layer

Junction Depth Measurement

▪ Angle Lap Technique
* A small chip of diffused slice is lapped at an angle for visual
magnification.
* The junction is stained using chemical etchants. (HF, HNO3, Al2O3)
* The sample is put under strong illumination for 1-2 minutes.
* The p-type region will be stained darker than the n-type region.
* A reference plane (optical flat/glass slide) is placed on the top surface chip.
* Vertically illuminated by monochromatic light or sodium vapor lamp.
* Interference and optical patterns are formed because of interaction
between reflections from the diffused surface and diffused/substrate
interface.
* Interference fringe lines are used to measure the distance d (vertical
depth which is related to junction depth.
[For sodium vapor light distance between fringe is approximately 0.29um] Angle lap technique

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 Evaluation of Diffusion Layer
Grinding wheel

Doped layer Doped layer

Groove wafer After selective etch

Junction Depth Measurement

▪ Grinding/Grooving Wheel Technique
* A cylinder is used to groove the surface of the wafer. (Groove diameter is known)
* Wafer is immersed in a stain solution.
* Doping-sensitive etch removes part of the top layer. (HF, HNO3)
* Sample is exposed to bright light. (p-type region will be stained darker than the n-type region)
* Width of the stained region is measured using an optical microscope.
* Junction depth can be found from the known geometry of the groove.

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 Evaluation of Diffusion Layer
Junction Depth Measurement
▪ Grinding/Grooving Wheel Technique.

a and b are measured using optical microscope

©ADNAN AMIN SIDDIQUEE 32

 Evaluation of Diffusion Layer

Four-point probe technique

Here for a diffused layer,
Sheet Resistance Measurement 𝐿 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
▪ The ratio of resistivity to thickness is called sheet resistance. 𝑤 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
▪ Four-point probe technique is used to measure the sheet resistance of diffused layer. t = 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
▪ A known DC current (𝐼) is passed through the outer two probes. s = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔
▪ Developed voltage (𝑉) is measured through the inner two probes.
𝑉
▪ Resistivity can be found using : ρ=2∗pi ∗ 𝑠 ∗ 𝐼 [𝑡 ≫ 𝑠 ; bulk sample]
𝑝𝑖 ∗ 𝑡 𝑉
▪ ρ= ln(2) ∗ [𝑡 ≪ 𝑠 ; thin sheet]
𝐼
ρ 𝑉
▪ For thin sheet, 𝑅𝑠 = = 4.53 ∗
𝑡 𝐼
𝑉
▪ The sheet resistance 𝑅𝑠 is given by 𝑅𝑠 = * Correction Factor(CF).
𝐼

©ADNAN AMIN SIDDIQUEE 33

 Evaluation of Diffusion Layer

Van der Pauw test structure

Sheet Resistance Measurement (Van der Pauw Technique)
▪ The sheet resistance of a sample with an irregular shape can be determined using the Van der Pauw Technique.
▪ A current (𝐼) is injected through one pair of contacts and the resulting voltage (𝑉) is measured across another pair
of contacts.
ρ 𝑝𝑖 𝑉
𝑅𝑠 = 𝑡 = ln(2) ∗ 𝐼 𝐶𝐷
𝐴𝐵
▪ For accuracy, the probes are rotated by 90° and the measurement is repeated three/four times.

©ADNAN AMIN SIDDIQUEE 34

 Evaluation of Diffusion Layer

Van der Pauw’s technique

©ADNAN AMIN SIDDIQUEE 35

 References
VLSI Fabrication Principles by Sorab K Ghandhi.
VLSI Technology by S. M. SZE.
The Science and Engineering of Microelectronic Fabrication by Stephen A. Campbell.
Silicon VLSI Technology by Plummer, Deal, and Griffin
Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication by Richard C. Jaeger

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 Any
QUESTIONS

©ADNAN AMIN SIDDIQUEE 37