GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP

Unit-I
Introduction to protection systems, Need for protection:
The capital investment involved in a power system for the generation, transmission and
distribution of electrical power is so great that proper precautions must be taken to ensure that the
equipment not only operates as nearly as possible to peak efficiencies, but also that it is protected from
accidents. The purpose of the protective relays and protective relaying systems is to operate the correct
circuit breakers so as to disconnect only the faulty equipment from the system as quickly as possible,
thus minimising the trouble and damage caused by faults when they do occur.
The modern power system is very complex and even though protective equipments form 4 to 5%
of the total cost involved in the system, they play a very important role in the system design for good
quality of reliable supply.
The most severe electrical failures in a power system are shunt faults which are characterized
by increase in system current, reduction in voltage, power factor and frequency. The protective relays
do not eliminate the possibility of faults on the system, rather their action starts only after the fault has
occurred on the system. It would be ideal if protection could anticipate and prevent faults but this is
impossible except where the original cause of a fault creates some effects which can operate a
protective relay.
So far only one type of relay falls within this category, this is the gas detector relay (Buchholz
relay) used to protect transformers which operates when the oil level in the conservator pipe of a
transformer is lowered by the accumulation of gas caused by a poor connection or by an incipient
breakdown of insulation (slowly developing fault).
Primary and Backup protection:
There are two groups of relaying equipments for protecting any equipment:
1. Primary relaying equipment.
2. Back-up relaying equipment.

Primary relaying is the first line of defence for protecting the equipments whereas the back-up
protection relaying works only when the primary relaying equipment fails which means back-up
relaying is inherently slow in action. Primary relaying may fail because of failure of any of the
following:
(i) Protective relays (moving mechanism etc.).
(ii) Circuit breaker.
(iii) D.C. tripping voltage supply.
(iv) Current or voltage supply to the relays.
Since it is required that back-up relays should operate in case primary relays fail, the back-up relays
should not have anything common with primary relays. Hitherto, the practice has been to locate the
back-up relays at a different station.

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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP
A second job of the back-up relays is to act as primary protection in case the primary protection
equipment is taken out for repair and maintenance.

Back up protection-types

(i) Remote back-up

(ii) Relay back-up
(iii) Breaker back-up

Name of Equipment % of Total Failures

Relays 44

Circuit breaker interrupters 14

AC wiring 12

Breaker trip mechanisms 8

Current transformers 7
DC wiring 5
VT 3
Breaker auxiliary switches 3
Breaker trip coils 3
DC supply 1

Zones of protection:

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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP
• An electric power system is divided into several zones of protection. Each zone of protection,
contains one or more components of a power system in addition to two circuit breakers.

• When a fault occurs within the boundary of a particular zone, then the protection system
responsible for the protection of the zone acts to isolate (by tripping the Circuit Breakers) every
equipment within that zone from the rest of the system.
• The circuit Breakers are inserted between the component of the zone and the rest of the power
system. Thus, the location of the circuit breaker helps to define the boundaries of the zones of
protection.
• Different neighbouring zones of protection are made to overlap each other, which ensure that
no part of the power system remains without protection. However, occurrence of the fault with
in the overlapped region will initiate a tripping sequence of different circuit breakers so that
the minimum necessary to disconnect the faulty element
Definitions of relay

Relay: A relay is an automatic device which senses an abnormal condition in an electric circuit and
closes its contacts. These contacts in turn close the circuit breaker trip coil circuit, thereby it opens the
circuit breaker and the faulty part of the electric circuit is desconnected from the rest of the healthy
circuit.
Pick up Level: The value of the actuating quantity (current or voltage) which is on the threshold
(border) above which the relay operates.
Reset Level: The value of current or voltage below which a relay opens its contacts and comes to
original position.
Operating Time: The time which elapses between the instant when the actuating quantity exceeds the
pick-up value to the instant when the relay contacts close.

Reset Time: The time which elapses between the instant when the actuating quantity becomes less than
the reset value to the instant when the relay contact returns to its normal
position.
Primary Relays: The relays which are connected directly in the circuit to be protected.
Secondary Relays: The realys which are connected in the circuit to be protected through current and
potential transformers.
Auxiliary Relays: Relays which operate in response to the opening or closing of its operating circuit to
assist another relay in the performance of its function. This relay may be instantaneous or may have a
time delay.
Reach: A distance relay operates whenever the impedance seen by the relay is less than a prespecified
value. This impedance or the corresponding distance is known as the reach of the realy.
Underreach: The tendency of the relay to restrain at the set value or the impedance or impedance
lower than the set value is known as underreach.
Overreach: The tendency of the relay to operate at impedances larger than its setting is known as
overreach.

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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP
Functional Characteristics of Protective Relays:
A protective relay is required to satisfy four basic functional characteristics: (i) reliability, (ii)
selectivity, (iii) speed, and (iv) sensitivity.
Reliability: The relay should be reliable is a basic requirement. It must operate when it is required.
There are various components which go into operation before a relay operates. Therefore, every
component and circuit which is involved in the operation of the relay plays an important role; for
example, lack of suitable current and voltage transformers may result in unreliable operation.
Since the protective relays remain idle most of the time on the power system, proper maintenance will
play a vital role in improving the reliable operation of the relay.

Inherent reliability is a matter of design based on long experience. This can be achieved partly by: (i)
simplicity and robustness in construction, (ii) high contact pressure, (iii) dust free enclosures, (iv) good
contact material, (v) good workmanship, and (vi) careful maintenance.
Selectivity: It is the basic requirement of the relay in which it should be possible to select which part
of the system is faulty and which is not and should isolate the faulty part of the system from the healthy
one. Selectivity is achieved in two ways: (i) unit system of protection, and (ii) non-unit system of
protection.

Unit system of protection means the one is which the protection responds only to faults within its own
zone and does not make note of the conditions elsewhere, e.g., the differential protection of
transformers and generators. Here the protection scheme will work only if the fault is in the
transformer or the generator respectively.

Non-unit system of protection is one in which the selectivity is obtained by grading the time or current
settings of the relays at different locations, all of which may respond to a given fault.

Speed: A protective relay must operate at the required speed. It should neither be too slow which may
result in damage to the equipment, nor should it be too fast which may result in undesired operation
during transient faults.

The shorter the time for which a fault is allowed to persist on the system, the more load can be
transferred between given points on the power system without loss of synchronism. Fig.1 shows the
curves which represent the power that can be transmitted as a function of fault clearing time for
various types of faults.

It can be seen from the curves that the severest fault is the 3-phase fault and the least severe is the L-G
fault in terms of transmission of power.

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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP

Fig.1 Power transmitted during various faults on a system as a function of relay plus breaker time

Sensitivity: A relay should be sufficiently sensitive so that it operates reliably when required under the
actual conditions in the system which produce the least tendency for operation. It is normally
expressed in terms of minimum volt-amperes required for the relay operation.

Classification of Protective Relays

Based on Technology
Electromagnetic relays
Static relays
Micrpo Processor –Based relays
Numerical Relays

Based on Function

Over current relays

Under voltage relays

Impedance relays
Under frequency relays
Directional relays

Basically there are two different operating principles of relays: (i) electromagnetic attraction, and (ii)
electromagnetic induction.
In the electromagnetic attraction type of relays the operation is obtained by virtue of an armature being
attracted to the poles of an electromagnet or a plunger being drawn into a solenoid. These relays can be
operated by both d.c. as well as a.c. quantities. With d.c. the torque developed is constant and if this
force exceeds a predetermined value the relay operates.

Electromechanical relays
These relays are constructed with electrical, magnetic & mechanical components & have an operating
coil & various contacts,& are very robust & reliable.

1. Attracted armature Relays

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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP

• Hinged armature type

• Plunger type

• Balanced beam type

• Moving coil type

• Polarised moving iron type

• Reed Type

Hinged type and modified Hinged type.

-VA burden is low, 0.08W for pick-up for relay with one contact and 0.2 W for four
contacts
-Used for protection of small machines , equipment etc.
- Used for auxiliary relays such as indicating flags, slave relays, alarm relays etc.

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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP

Plunger Type

-The moment of plunger is controlled by a spring

-Design obsolete as it draws more current

Moving Coil Relays : Rotating MC and Axial MC

-Polarised moving DC moving coil relay- it responds only for DC actuating quantities
-Can be used for AC , in conjunction with rectifiers
- More sensitive type, 0.1mW
-Costlier than induction cup and moving iron type
- Used as slave relays with rectifier bridge comparators
-- Damping is formed by aluminum former
- Top is 2 cycles
-Copper former for heavier damping and slower operation
-Operating torue- interaction B/W field of PM and coil.

Moving Coil Relays : Rotating MC and Axial MC

-More sensitive as it has one air gap, sensitivity as low as 0.1mW can be obtained.
-Faster due to light moving parts
-Top is 30ms
-Delicate relay and contact gap is small, to be handled carefully

Polarised MI Relay
-Permanent magnet-produces flux + main flux, for polarisation- increases sensitivity of the relay
- It can also be used with AC with rectifiers.
-Sensitivity of range 0.03-1mW.----with transistor amplifiers it can be 1 micro W
- Used as slave relays with rectifier bridge comparators
-Current carrying contacts are stationary-more robust than MC

-Top is 2ms to 15 ms
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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP

Reed ( Nickel- iron strips) Relays

-Very reliable and maintenance free
-Used for control purposes

-Suitable as slave relays

-I/P reqd 1 W to 3W
-Speed 1 or 2ms
-Bounce free and more suitable for normally closed applications, 2kW at 30A Imax and 300V DC
supply
-Open contacts can withstand 500V to 1 kV

In case of a.c. quantity the force is given by

F  I2

F = KI2

Let I = Im sin t; then F = KIm2 – K cos 2t

This shows that the force consists of two components, one the constant, independent of time, whereas
the other is a function of time and pulsates at double the supply frequency. The total deflecting force,
therefore, pulsates at double the frequency. Since the restraining force is constant the net force is a
pulsating one which means that the relay armature vibrates at double the power supply frequency.
These vibrations will lead to sparking between the contacts and the relay will soon be damaged.

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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP
To overcome this difficulty in a.c. electromagnet, the two fluxes producing the force are displaced in
time phase so that the resultant deflecting force is always positive and constant. This phase
displacement can be achieved either by providing two windings on the electromagnet having a phase
shifting network or by putting shading ring on the poles of the magnet as shown in Fig.2 However, the
shading ring or coil method is more simple and is widely used.

Induction Relays: The induction relays operate based on the electromagnetic induction principle.
Therefore, these relays can be used only on a.c. circuits and not on d.c. circuits. Depending upon the
type of rotor being used, these relays are categorised as (i) induction disc type, and (ii) induction cup
type of relays.
In case of induction disc type of relays, disc is the moving element on which the moving contact
of relay is fixed whereas in case of induction cup the contact is fixed with the cup. There are two
structures available under the induction disc type of relay: (i) the shaded pole structure, and (ii) the
watthour meter structure.
Shaded Pole Structures: As shown in Fig.2, the disc is placed between the shaded and unshaded poles
of the relay. The relay consists of an operating coil which is fed by the current proportional to the
system current. The air gap flux produced by this flux is split into two out-of-phase components by a
shading ring made of copper that encircles part of the pole face of each pole at the air gap. The disc is
normally made of aluminium so as to have low inertia and, therefore, requires less deflecting torque for
its motion.
Sometimes, instead of shading ring, shading coils are used which can be short circuited by the contact
of some other relay. Unless the contacts of the other relay are closed, the shading coil remains open
and hence no torque can be developed. Such torque control is employed where directional feature is
required which will be described later.

Fig..2 Shaded pole structure.

Torque production in an induction relay

It is well known that for producing torque, two fluxes displaced in space and time phase are required.
Let these fluxes be
1 = m sin t

2 = m sin (t + )

Flux 1 is produced by the shaded pole and 2 by the unshaded. The shaded pole flux lags that by the
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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP
unshaded pole by angle . The two fluxes 1 and 2 will induce voltages e1 and e2 respectively in the
disc due to induction. These voltages will circulate eddy currents in the disc of the relay. Assuming
the disc to be non-inductive, these currents will be in phase with their respective voltages. The

vector diagram shows the phase relations between various quantities.

e1  d1/dt

 m cos t
e2  m  cos (t + 

The eddy current i1  e1

Assuming same resistance to flow of eddy current,

i2  e 2

i.e.,i1  m cos t

and i2   m  cos (t + )

Fig.3 Phasor diagram for an induction relay.

The flux 1 will interact with eddy current i2 and 2 will interact with i1 and since 2 is
leading 1 the torque due to 2 and i1 will be reckoned as positive whereas that due to 1
and i2 as negative. The resultant torque is
T  2i1 – 1i2
  m sin (t + ) .  m cos t – m sin t.  m  cos (t + )
 m m sin (t + ) cos t –  m m sin t cos (t + )
 m m sin 
Thus the torque is maximum when the two fluxes are displaced by 90° and since 2 leads
1, the rotation of the disc under the poles will be from unshaded pole towards the shaded
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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP
pole. Also it is seen that the torque is of constant magnitude; therefore, there is no
possibility of vibration.
The control torque is provided with the help of a control spring which is attached to the spindle of the
disc. As the disc moves towards closing of the contacts, the spring torque increases slightly with the
winding of the spring. The relay disc is so shaped that as it turns towards the pick up position (closing of
contacts), there is increase in the area of the disc between the poles of the actuating structure which
causes increase in eddy currents and, therefore, increase in electrical torque that just balances the
increase in the control spring torque. The shape of the disc usually is that of a spiral.

Since the shape of the disc is not perfectly circular, suitable balance weight is provided on that part of
the disc which has smaller area.
The damping torque is provided by a permanent magnet of high retentivity steel. The motion of
the disc can be controlled by adjusting the position of this magnet.
The minimum torque required for the movement of the disc is fixed for a particular design, i.e.,
the ampere-turns required are fixed. Therefore, for different pick up current settings, number of turns are
changed effectively so as to keep the same ampere-turns. Higher current setting will require smaller
number of turns. Selection of the required current setting is by means of a plug setting multiplier which
has a single insulated plug. While the plug is withdrawn for adjusting it to a different current setting
during on-load condition, maximum current tap is automatically connected, thus avoiding the risk of
open circuiting the secondary of the C.T. under load condition.

The operating time of the relay depends upon the distance between the moving contact and the
fixed contact of the relay. The distance between the contacts is adjusted by the movement of the disc
back stop which is controlled by rotating a knurled moulded wheel at the
base of the graduated time multiplier scale. This is known as time multiplier setting. The higher the time
multiplier setting the greater is the operating time.

Watt-hour Meter Structure: The construction of this structure is exactly identical to watt-hour meters.
The structure has two separate coils on two different magnetic circuits, each of which produces one of
the two necessary fluxes for driving the disc of the relay.

Fig. 4 Watt-hour meter structure

Induction Cup Relays: This relay has four or more electromagnets. A stationary iron core is placed
between these electromagnets. The rotor is a hollow cylindrical cup which is free to rotate in the gap
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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP
between the electromagnets and the stationary iron core. When the electromagnets are energized, they
induce voltages in the rotor cup and hence the eddy currents. The eddy currents due to one flux interact
with the flux due to the other pole; thereby a torque is produced similar to the induction disc type of
relay.
The induction cup type of relays are more sensitive than the induction disc type of relays and re used in
high speed relay applications.

Fig. 14.5 Induction cup structure

The ratio of reset to pick up is inherently high in case of induction relays as compared to attracted
armature relays as their operation does not involve any change in the air gap of the magnetic circuit as
it is in the case of latter. The ratio lies between 95% and 100%. This is not perfectly 100% because of
the friction and imperfect compensation of the control spring torque.

Overcurrent Relays

Over current and its causes

In an electric power system, over current or excess current is a situation where a larger than
intended electric current exists through a conductor, leading to excessive generation of heat, and the
risk of fire or damage to equipment.

Possible causes for over current include short circuits, excessive load, incorrect design, or a
ground fault.

Application of Over current Protection Overcurrent Protection is used in almost all electrical
equipments such as HT lines, Transformers, Generators, Reactors, Capacitor Banks, Motors,
Neutral displacement relays in capacitor banks, Breaker failure Protection.

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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP
Applications

Motor Protection: For over loads and Ist for stator windings

Large: Inverse time & Inst phase and ground relays for >100kW Small/Medium Cost of CTs & Pro
relays is not conomical.
HRC fuses
employed for
S>C protection.
Thermal relays
for over load
protection.

Transformer Protection: O.C protection against faults when differential protection can’t be justified

Small, below 500 kVA

in distribution sys.
-by drop-out fuses,
as cost of relays &
CBS not justified

Large
-O.C + Diff. Prot
for through faults
Temp. indicators &
alarms provided

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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP

Relays used in O.C protection (choice depends on time/current characteristics

• Instantaneous over current relay - (AAR, MI PMMC, Static)

• Inverse time over current relay- (EMI PMMC, Static)
• Directional over current relay- Double actuating quantity IR with DR feature
• Static OC realys
• HRC fuses, drop-out fuses- in LV, HV, MV Dist. Sys.
• Thermal relays for OC protection

Depending upon the time of operation the relays are categorized as: (i) Instantaneous over- current
relay, (ii) Inverse time-current relay, (iii) Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) over- current relay,
(iv) Very inverse relay, and (v) Extremely inverse relay.

(i) Instantaneous over-current relay is one in which no intentional time delay is provided for the operation.
The time of operation of such relays is approximately 0.1 sec. This character- istic can be achieved with
the help of hinged armature relays. The instantaneous relay is more effective where the impedance Zs
between the source and the relay is small compared with the impedance Zl of the section to be
protected.

(ii)Inverse time-current relay is one in which the operating time reduces as the actuating quantity increases
in magnitude. The more pronounced the effect is the more inverse the characteristic is said to be. In
fact, all time current curves are inverse to a greater or lesser degree. They are normally more in- verse
near the pick up value of the actuating quantity and become less inverse as it is increased. This
characteristic can be obtained with induction type of relays by using a suitable core which does not
satu- rate for a large value of fault current. If the saturation occurs at a very early stage, the time of
opera- tion remains same over the working range. The characteristic is shown by curve (a) in Fig.6 and
is known as definite time characteristic.

Fig:6 Characteristics of various over-current relays: (a) definite time, (b) IDMT, (c) very inverse, and (d) extremely inverse

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GVSSN (iii)
Srirama
InverseSarma, MECS,time
definite minimum SGPover-current relay is one in which the operating time is approximately
inversely proportional to the fault current near pick up value and becomes substantially constant
slightly above the pick up value of the relay (Fig.(b)). This is achieved by using a core of the
electromagnet which gets saturated for currents slightly greater than the pick up current.

(iv) Very inverse relay is one in which the saturation of the core occurs at a later stage, the characteristic
assumes the shape as shown in Fig.(c) and is known as very inverse characteristic. The time-current
characteristic is inverse over a greater range and after saturation tends to definite time.

(v) Extremely inverse relay is one in which the saturation occurs at a still later stage than curve (c) in Fig.6.
The equation describing the curve (d) in the figure is approximately of the form I2t = K, where I is the
operating current and t the operating time.

Instantaneous over current relay

This relay is referred as instantaneous over current relay, the relay operates as soon as the current in the
coil gets higher than pre set value (Ip).
There is no intentional time delay set. There is always an inherent time delay of the order of a few
milliseconds.(0.1-0.08 sec)
Attracted armature type relays shows this characteristics- Hinged type -More effective if Zs<Zl

Overcurrent Protection Definite Time Relays

This relay is created by applying intentional time delay after crossing pick up value of the current. A
definite time over current relay can be adjusted to issue a trip output at definite amount of time after
it picks up. Thus, it has a time setting adjustment and pick up. Attracted armature type relays with time
element shows this characteristics.
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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP
Inverse time over current relay
Inverse time is a natural character of any induction type rotating device. This means that, the time of
operation inversely varies with input current. This characteristic of electromechanical induction disc
relay is very suitable for over current protection. In this relay, if fault is more severe, it would be cleared
more faster.

I1 t=K if PSM <10

Realization of Time current characteristics using EM relays

By suitable design of magnetic circuit

Saturation above a certain value ofactuating current

Below saturation inverse characteristic
Above saturation straight line characteristic
Saturation at pick up value – Definitetime characteristic
Saturation at later stage – IDMT characteristic
Saturation at still later – veryinverse

Saturation at a very late stage – extremely inverse

IDMT
Characteristics achieved by using a core of electromagnet which gets saturated for I’s
slightly > Pick-up current
-inv-time Characteristics at lower values of If- if PSM<10
-DT Characteristics For higher values of fault current, - if PSM 10-20
-Used for protection of distribution lines
Have provision for I & T settings

Very Inverse (Int= K, n= 2 to 8 or t= K/ (In-1), for standard t=13.5/ (I-1)

gives better selectivity than IDMT
- used where IDMT fails to achieve good selectivity
used in ground faults
recommended where If decreses as Dist. From power source increase

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GVSSN Srirama Sarma,
EI ( I3.5t=K MECS,
enclosed fuses) SGP
-Used where IDMT & VI fails in selectivity
suitable for prot of M/C against over heating as chs. Governed I2 t=1
for prot. Of power Tr, expensive cables, raiway trolley, wires
able to distinguish between If and inrush current
Time Current Characteristics
These curves are normally plotted on log-log graph papers as shown in Fig.7. The ordinate is the
operating time and the abscissa the multiple of pick up value of the actuating quantity. The abscissa is
taken as multiple of pick up value so that the same curves can be used for any value of pick up, i.e., if
the curves are known for pick up value of 2.5 A, then the characteristics remain same for 5 A or 6.25 A
or any other pick up value. This is possible with induction type of relays where the pick up adjustment
is by coil, because the ampere-turns at pick up are the same for each tap and hence at a given multiple
of pick up, the coil ampere-turns and hence the torque are the same regardless of the tap used.

Fig. 14.7 Standard 2.2 sec IDMT curve

The advantage of plotting the curves on log-log sheets is that if the characteristic for one particular pick
up value and one time multiplier setting is known, then the characteristics for any other pick up value
and time multiplier settings can be obtained.
The curves are used to estimate not only the operating time of the relay for a given multiple of pick up
and time multiplier setting but also it is possible to know how far the relay moving contact would have
travelled towards the fixed contacts within any time interval.
This method is also useful in finding out whether the relay will pick up and how long it will take for the
operation of the relay when the actuating quantity is changing as for example during the in-rush current
period of starting a motor etc.
For most effective use of the characteristics the multiple of pick up should not be less than 1.5 because
then the total actuating force is low and any additional friction may not result in operation of the relay
or it may take inordinately long time.
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GVSSN Srirama Sarma,
The inverse MECS,
time current SGP
relays are non-directional relays and are used for the protection of feeders,
transmission lines, transformers, machines and other numerous applications.

Relay Current Setting

Provided with tappings

• Phase to phase fault protection – 50%-200% -steps of25%

• If rating of the relay is 5 A then 2.5A, 3.75A, 5A, 6.25A,…………, 10A

• Earth fault protection - 20%-80% - steps of 10%

• Normal current rating of earth fault relay 1A

• Time-current characteristic -current in ampere onX-axis

• Different curves for the same relay for different settings

Time Multiplier Setting(TMS)

• Different operating times possible for the same relay
• By adjusting the angular distance by which the movingpart of the relay travels for closing the relay
contacts
• Can be set up to 10 steps from 0.1,0.2,…..,0.9,1

For, TMS =1, if operating time = 4 s then with TMS = 0.5 it will be 4x0.5= 2 s with TMS = 0.2 it will be
4x0.2= 0.8 s

Note :All these op. times are for the same value ofcurrent

Problem: Determine the time of operation of a relay of rating 5 amps, 2.2 sec IDMT and having a relay
setting of 125% TMS = 0.6. It is connected to a supply circuit through a C.T. 400/5 ratio. The fault
current is 4000 amps.
Solution: The pick up value of the relay is 5 amps but since the relay setting is 125%, therefore, the
operating current of the relay is
5 × 1.25 = 6.25 amps
The plug setting multiplier of the relay,

PSM = Secondary current / Relay current setting

Primary current (fault current) / Relay current setting CT ratio
4000
= =8
6.25  80
From the standard 2.2 sec curve (Fig.7) the operating time for PSM = 8 is 3.2 sec. Since the TMS is
0.6, the actual operating time of the relay is 1.92 secs.
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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP

Directional over current relay

The relay consists of two units: (i) directional unit; and (ii) non-directional or inverse time current unit.
The second unit is exactly the same as discussed in the previous section.
The directional unit is a four-pole induction cup unit. Two opposite poles are fed with voltage
and the other two poles are fed with current. The voltage is taken as the polarizing quantity. The
polarizing quantity is one which produces one of the two fluxes required for production of torque and
this quantity is taken as the reference compared with the other quantity which is current here. This
means that the phase angle of the polarizing quantity must remain more or less fixed when the other
quantity suffers wide changes in phase angle.

In a circuit at a point the current can flow in one direction at a particular instant. Let us say this is
the normal direction of flow of current. Under this condition the directional unit will develop negative
torque and the relay will be restrained to operate. Now if due to certain changes in the circuit
condition, the current flows in opposite direction, the relay will develop positive torque and will
operate.

Fig.8 Internal connection diagram of a directional over-current relay.

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GVSSN Srirama
ForSarma, MECS,
a directional SGP unit unless the directional unit contacts are closed, the over-current
over-current
unit is not energized because the operating coil of the over-current unit completes its circuit through the
directional unit contacts or if the over-current unit has shading coil on its poles for the production of
lagging flux; then the shading coil completes its circuit through the directional unit contacts (Fig.8).
The contacts of the directional unit can be easily removed and if maintenance is required the whole
unit can be easily dismantled and re-assembled without altering its characteristics.
The torque developed by a directional unit is given by
T = VI cos ( – ) – K

where V = r.m.s. magnitude of the voltage fed to the voltage coil circuit,
I = the r.m.s. magnitude of the current in current coil,
 = the angle between I and V,
 = the maximum torque angle (a design quantity), and
K = restraining torque including spring and friction.

Say for a particular installation ( – ) = constant K1; then the torque equation becomes
T = K1VI – K

Under threshold condition when the relay is about to start,

T = 0 = K1VI – K

or VI = K /K = K = constant
1

This characteristic is known as a constant product characteristic and is of the form of a rectangular
hyperbola as shown in Fig.9.

For the operation of the relay the product of V and I should give a minimum torque which exceeds the
friction and spring torque. From the characteristic it is clear that it is not enough to have the product
greater than K but there is a minimum value of voltage and a minimum value of current required for
the torque to be developed. The product of any value of voltage and any value of current to exceed K is
not enough. Say A is the location of the directional relay. In case the fault is close to the relay the voltage
to be fed to the relay may be less than the minimum voltage required. The maximum distance up to
which the voltage is less than the minimum voltage required is known as the dead zone of the
directional relay i.e., if the fault takes place within this zone the relay will not operate.

Fig 9:characteristic of a directional relay.

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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP
Universal relay torque equation
The universal relay torque equation is given as follows:
T = K1 I2 + K2V2 + K3VI cos ( – ) + K

By assigning plus or minus signs to some of the terms and letting others be zero and
sometimes adding some terms having a combination of voltage and current, the operating
characteristics of all types of relays can be obtained. For example, for over-current relay
K2 = 0, K3 = 0 and the spring torque will be – K. Similarly, for directional relay, K1 = 0, K2 =
0.

The discrimination using overcurrent protection is achieved in the following ways:

(i) Time graded system.

(ii) Current graded system.
(iii) Time-current graded system.

Time Graded System

The selectivity is achieved based on the time of operation of the relays. Consider a radial
feeder in Fig.. The feeder is being fed from one source and has three substations indicated
by the vertical lines. The crosses represent the location of the relays. The relays used are
simple overcurrent relays. The time of operation of the relays at various locations is so
adjusted that the relay farthest from the source will have minimum time of operation and as
it is approached towards the source the operating time increases. This is the main
drawback of grading the relays in this way because it is required that the more severe a
fault is, lesser should be the operating time of the relays whereas in this scheme the
operating time increases. The main application of such a grading is done on systems
where the fault current does not vary much with the location of the fault and hence the
inverse characteristic is not used.

Time Graded system

Definite time overcurrent relays
Preset time –independent of fault current
Definite time relays are cheaper than IDMT Relays
Starts a timing unit to trip the circuit breaker
Operating time is in increasing order
Difference in time settings of adjacent relays
To cover operating time of circuit Breaker
To cover errors in relay
usually 0.5 sec, More accurate relays and fast CB can reduce the difference in the time further from
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GVSSN Srirama
0.4s toSarma,
0.3s MECS, SGP

Faults near the power source

Involves a large current
Most destructive
Should be cleared quickly
Time graded system takes longest time
Suitable when impedance between substations is low & fault current does not vary much with location of
fault. DT suitable for Zs>Z1.

Current Graded System

This type of grading is done on a system where the fault current varies appreciably with
the location of the fault. This means as we go towards the source the fault current
increases. With this if the relays are set to pick at a progressively higher current towards
the source, then the disadvantage of the long time delay that occurs in case of time graded
systems can be partially overcome. This is known as current grading.
Since it is difficult to determine the magnitude of the current accurately and also
the accuracy of the relays under transient conditions is likely to suffer, current grading

alone cannot be used. Usually a combination of the two gradings, i.e., current time
grading is used.

Suitable for fault current vary much with location offault.

Pick-up current in increasing order
High speed instantaneous over current relays
Operating time same for all relays, forZs<Z1
Difficult to determine magnitude of current accurately as all ckt parameters may not be knownand accuracy
of relays affected by transients.

Time-Current Grading System

This type of grading is achieved with the help of inverse time overcurrent relays and the
most widely used is the IDMT relay. The other inverse characteristics, e.g., very inverse or
extremely inverse are also employed depending upon the system requirements. If the
IDMT relays are slow at low values of overloads, extremely inverse relays are used and if
the fault current reduces substantially as the fault location moves away from the source,
very inverse type of relays are used.
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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP

Combination of instantaneous and IDMT protection

-Widely used For protection of Dist. Lines- IDMT is used
-Suitable where Zs<Z1

Selection of Current Setting

For proper coordination between various relays on a radial feeder, the pick up of a relay
should be such that it will operate for all short circuits in its own line and should provide
back up protection for short circuits in immediately adjoining line. For back up protection
setting, it should be equal to the value of the current when the fault is at the far end of the
adjoining section with minimum generation connected to the system. A 3-phase fault
under maximum generation gives the maximum fault current and line-to-line fault under
minimum generation gives the minimum fault current. The relay must respond between
these two extreme limits. On a radial system the current setting of the relay farthest from
the source should be minimum and it goes on increasing as we go towards the source.
According to Indian Standard specifications the operating value should exceed 1.3 times
the setting, i.e.,
Min short circuit current  1.3Isetting

Selection of Time Setting

For proper coordination between various relays on a radial feeder the operating time of
the relay farthest from the source should be minimum and it should increase as we go
towards the source. Referring to Fig., if the time of operation of relay 1 is say T1, that of
the relay 2 say T2 then T2 = T1 + t, where t is the time step between successive relays and
consists of the time of operation of C.B. at 1, over-travel of relay at 2 and factor of safety
time. Here over- travel of relay at 2 means, the travel of the relay at 2 due to inertia of the
moving system of the relay even after the fault at location 1 is removed. A suitable value
of over-travel is 0.1 sec. Similarly factor of safety time is taken as 0.1 sec. The time
grading should be done at the maximum fault currents because at lower values it will
automatically have a higher selectivity as the curves are more inverse in that range.
The characteristics of the various IDMT relays used on system in Fig. on a simple
graph should look like the ones in thick lines in Figure given below.
If suppose characteristic 2 intersects 1 at a current I, this means that if the
current exceeds I amperes relay at 2 will operate faster than 1 which is not desirable if
the fault is in the zone of relay 1.

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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP

Protection of Parallel Feeders

Refer to Fig. where two feeders are connected in parallel to increase the transmission
capacity. The feeders are again fed from one end.
It is required that in case of a fault on any one of the feeders, that feeder should be
isolated from the supply and the load must receive power through the other healthy
feeder.
In case of a fault on any one feeder, say 2, the current will be fed to the fault as
shown in Figure by the arrows. It is to be seen that as far as the relays near the source are
concerned, the direction of current is same as the normal direction of the current, whereas
the direction of the current in the relay near the load end of the faulty feeder is reversed.
Therefore, for proper coordination the relays near the source-end are non-directional relays
whereas relays near the load-end are directional relays. The direction of the current for
which the directional relays will operate is indicated by the corresponding arrow heads.
In this case as soon as fault takes place in feeder 2, the directional relay in feeder 2 will
operate first; thereby the current in thereby the current in feeder 1 corresponds to load
current and after some time the non-directional relay in feeder 2 will operate, thereby
isolating feeder 2 from the source.

Protection of Ring Mains

As shown in Fig, (a) four substations are inter-connected and fed through one source.
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GVSSN Srirama Sarma,
The relays at A MECS,
and B areSGP
non-directional relays. The coordination can be achieved by
opening the ring at A and considering the system as a radial feeder connected to one
source (Fig.(b)).

The relays used are directional over current relays with the relay near end A having
minimum time of operation. Next open the ring at B as shown in Fig.(c).
The total protection scheme consists of six directional over current relays and two non-
directional over current relays. The scheme is shown in Fig.(d).

Consider a fault as shown in Fig.(d). The fault will be fed as shown by long arrows. The
relays at locations CDE and FG will start moving. The relay at E will operate first as
this has minimum operating time out of these relays; thereby after a time of 0.3 sec. The
relays at C and D will reset as the fault current ceases to flow through these relays. Out
of relays F and G, G has smaller operating time and, therefore, relay at G will operate
first; thereby isolating the feeder GE from the source. So far, we have considered the
feeders being fed from one end only. In case the flow of power could be reversed at will
by connecting more than one sources, it is necessary to consider each feeder separately
without any reference to the others and any one form of protection to be described next
should be used.

Earth fault and phase fault protection

Earth fault protection - 20%-80% of CT sec

rating - steps of 10%, more sensitive

Phase to phase fault protection – 50%-200% -

steps of 25%

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GVSSN Srirama Sarma, MECS, SGP

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