EE 16
• being more reliable and accurate and with
Module 6 – Protective Equipment
Protective Equipment
- It is Equipment applied to electric power
systems to detect abnormal and intolerable
conditions and to initiate appropriate corrective
actions.
- These devices include lightning arresters, surge
protectors, fuses, and relays with associated
circuit breakers, reclosers, and so forth.
- are applied commensurately with the degree of
protection desired or felt necessary for the
particular system.
Protective devices must therefore be installed
on power systems:
- to ensure continuity of electrical service
- to limit injury to people
- to limit damage to equipment when problem
situations develop.
All units of mechanical and electrical
parameters and their multiples and
submultiples that are involved in the protection
systems are in accordance with:
- SI (International Units System);
- exceptions are made when hours (h) may be
used instead of seconds (s)
- temperature is °C (Celsius).
Protection devices
- In order to minimize the time of a fault
switchgears and equipment are provided with
___________ to detect them and to isolate the
faulty part of installation.
It is required to have an early detection and
localization of faults, and then, prompt removal
from service of faulty equipment, for the
purpose of:
 To safeguard the entire system to ensure
continuity of supply.
 To minimize damage and repair costs.
 To ensure safety of personnel.
Two Technology – Fuse and Protection relays
- Fuse
• were commonly used as a protection against
overcurrent and overloads in the past and
are still very popular in some countries they
are still used in LV installations and in MV
cables and transformers with rated power
up to 630-1250 kVA.
- Protection relays
the ability to detect other type of faults than
overloads and overcurrent that can occur in
networks and equipment.
• The protective relay or simply relay has this
specific functionality, they are set to operate,
and initiate tripping, when a fault condition
is detected.
Each power system protection scheme is made
up from the following components:
 Fault detecting or measuring relays
 Tripping and other auxiliary relays
 Circuit breakers
 Instrument transformers – current (CT) and
voltage (VT)
Protection
- the branch of electric power engineering
concerned with the principles of design and
operation of equipment called ‘relays’ or
‘protective relays’ that detects abnormal
power system conditions and initiates
corrective action as quickly as possible in order
to return the power system to its normal state.
Quickness of response
- is an essential element of protective relaying
systems – response times of the order of a few
milliseconds are often required.
Fundamentals of Power system protection
- The nature of relaying
Characteristics of protective system
- Reliability
- Selectivity
- Stability
- Speed
- Sensitivity
Protective relaying
- is an important requirement in power
generation, transmission and distribution,
which identifies the exact location of the fault
and gives command for isolating the faulty
portion very close to the fault by sensing
variations in electrical quantities for ensuring
safe operation.
Reliability
- The protective relay should operate positively
and isolate the faulty portion of the power
system as and when required. A reliable
relaying system must be dependable and
secure.
Selectivity
- Protection is arranged in zone, which should
cover the power system completely, having no
part unprotected. When a fault occurs, the
protection is required to select and trip the only
the nearest circuit breaker.
Stability
- This term, applied to protection on distinct from
power network, refers to the ability of the
system to remain inert to all load conditions
and fault external to the relevant zone.
Speed
- The function of automatic protection is to
isolate fault from the power system in a very
much shorter time than could be isolated
manually, even with great deal of supervision
Sensitivity
- Sensitivity is a term frequently used when
referring to the minimum operating limit of a
complete protective system. A protective system
is said to be sensitive if the primary operating
current is low.
Protective devices are selected and assigned to
protect a specific part of the power system
Primary zone of protections
- Responsibility of the protection device
Backup or overreached zone
- The overlapping of zones allows a protective
device to provide backup protection to the
adjacent zone
Backup protection
- is intended to operate only when the primary
protection fails to clear the fault.
Backup (defined by IEEE)
- protection that operates independently of
specified components in the primary protective
system
Elements of a protection system
1. Battery and DC supply
- Since the primary function of a protection
system is to remove a fault, the ability to trip a
circuit breaker through a relay must not be
compromised during a fault, when the AC
voltage available in the substation may not be of
sufficient magnitude.
2. Circuit breaker
- Circuit breakers of several designs can be found
in a power system, and it’s name is according to
the medium used to interrupt the fault current
In addition, better insulating materials, better
arc quenching systems and faster operating
requirements resulted in a variety of circuit
breaker characteristics: interrupting medium of
oil, gas, air or vacuum; insulating medium of oil,
air, gas or solid dielectric; Operating
mechanisms using impulse coil, solenoid,
spring–motor–pneumatic or hydraulic.
3. Relay
- This convert the signal from a monitoring
devices and give instructions to open a circuit
under faulty conditions or to give alarms when
the equipment being protected is approaching
towards possible failure.
4. Transducers
- Commonly known as the Instrument
Transformer, current and potential transformer.
The function of current and potential
transformers (collectively known as
transducers) is to transform power system
currents and voltages to lower magnitudes, and
to provide galvanic isolation between the power
network and the relays and other instruments
connected to the transducer secondary
windings.
Factors which influence design of a protective
system
- Industry Standards
• The Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers (IEEE) and other organization
provides industry standards through ANSI
or IEC These organizations provides
industry standards through ANSI or IEC.
These include specific standards for many
applications.
  ANSI-C37.90-1989 Relays and Relay
System Associated with Electric Power
Apparatus
 IEEE STD 242-1975 Recommended
Practice for Protection and
Coordination of Industrial and
Commercial Power System
- Development of Protective Relays
• Electro-mechanical relay
• Solid-state relay
• Digital relay
- Electro Electro-mechanical relay: mechanical
relay (1st generation)
• The most commonly used
• Uses the induction disc principle (watt-
hour meter)
• Provides individual phase protection
- Solid state relay (2nd generation)
• Characteristic curve is obtained
through use of RC timing circuits
• No moving parts
• Used to retrofit electro-mechanical
mechanical relays
• Fast reset
• Less maintenance
- Digital Relay (3rd generation)
• Computer Computer-based-with CPU
• Selectable characteristic curves and
protection functions
• Metering and control functions
• Event and/or disturbance recording
• Remote communication
• Self-monitoring
Protection relay
- is a smart device that receives inputs, compares
them to set points, and provides outputs. Inputs
can be current, voltage, resistance, or
temperature. Outputs can include visual
feedback in the form of indicator lights and/or
an alphanumeric display, communications,
control warnings, alarms, and turning power off
and on.
Input
- A relay needs information from the system to
make a decision. These inputs can be collected
in a variety of ways. In some cases, the wires in
the field can be connected directly to the relay.
Settings
- Many protection relays have adjustable settings.
The user programs settings (pick-up levels) that
allow the relay to make a decision. The relay
compares the inputs to these settings and
responds accordingly.
Processes
- Once the inputs are connected and the settings
are programmed, the relay compares these
values and makes a decision. Depending on the
need, different types of relays are available for
different functions.
Outputs
- The relay has several ways of communicating
that a decision has been made. Typically, the
relay will operate a switch (relay contact) to
indicate that an input has surpassed a setting,
or the relay can provide notification through
visual feedback such as a meter or LED. One
advantage of electronic or microprocessor
relays is an ability to communicate with a
network or a PLC.
Power system component needs protection:
 Generator
 Transformer
 Bus
 Transmission line
 Circuit breaker
 Motor(Load)
Generator and motor protections (rotating
machinery protection)
- involves the consideration of more possible
failures or abnormal operating conditions than
any other system element. Although the
frequency of failure, particularly for generators
and large motors, is relatively low, the
consequences in cost and system performance
are often very serious.
• Abnormal conditions that must be dealt:
 Winding faults: stator – phase and
ground fault
 Overload
 Over speed
 Abnormal voltages and frequencies.
• For generators we must consider:
 Under excitation
 Motoring and start-up
• For motors we are concerned with:
 Stalling (locked rotor)
 Single phase
 Loss of excitation (synchronous
motors).
Transformer Faults (or short circuits)
- are the result of internal electrical faults, the
most common one being the phase-to-ground
fault. Somewhat less common are the turn-to-
turn faults.
Common Electrical protection
 Over current
 Current Differential
 Three-phase
  Volts-per-hertz protection
Non-Electrical Protection
 Pressure Devices (Buchholz relay)
 Temperature devices
Bus Protection (or bus differential)
- has been the most difficult protection to
implement because of the severity of an
incorrect operation on the integrity of the
system.
Bus
- is one of the most critical system elements. It is
the connecting point of a variety of elements
and a number of transmission lines, and any
incorrect operation would cause the loss of all
of these elements.
Power Transmission line protection
- are one of the most important systems under
electrical power system.
Transmission system
- is a system which between the generation and
the distribution center.
Several factors we need to consider while
protection of transmission lines:
 Wind and Ice
 Contamination
 Vandalism
 External forces
 Equipment Failures
 System Disturbances
 Overloading of system
 Lightning
Common transmission line protection:
 Differential Protection
 Phase Comparison
 Over Current Protection*
 Earth fault overcurrent protection (Use for
protect from large residual current)
 Distance Protection*
 Thermal overload protection (Use for
underground power system)
Types of Relays
- Protective Relays – Protective relays are
function as to detect the fault and also to initiate
the appropriate control signal such as the
tripping signal.
- Regulating Relays – Regulating relay is a
device which manages the operation of the load
of tap changer on the transformer.
- Reclosing and Synchronizing - Relays this is a
programmable relay whose the function is to
initiate a sequence of actions leading to the
automatic reclosing of the circuit breaker.
- Monitoring Relays - Monitor power supplies
(voltage, current, power, phase), temperatures,
and other analogue signals and detects
abnormalities in machines and equipment by
determining values against alarm thresholds.
- Auxiliary Relays - these relays which assist
other relays by applying supplementary actions.
Device number
- are used to identify the functions of devices
shown on a schematic diagram.
ANSI/IEEE C37.2-2008
- is one of a continuing series of revisions of the
standard, which originated in 1928.
1 - Master Element
2 - Time-delay Starting or Closing Relay
3 - Checking or Interlocking Relay, complete
Sequence
4 - Master Protective
5 - Stopping Device, Emergency Stop Switch
6 - Starting Circuit Breaker
7 - Rate of Change Relay
7F - Rate Of Change Of Frequency Relay (ROCOF)
8 - Control Power Disconnecting Device
9 - Reversing Device
10 - Unit Sequence Switch
11 - Multifunction Device
12 - Overspeed Device
13 - Synchronous-Speed Device
14 - Underspeed Device
15 - Speed or Frequency Matching Device
16 - Data Communications Device
17 - Shunting or Discharge Switch
18 - Accelerating or Decelerating Device
19 - Starting-to-Running Transition Contactor
20 - Electrically-Operated Valve ( Solenoid Valve )
21 - Distance Relay
21G - Ground Distance
21P - Phase Distance
22 – Equalizer circuit breaker
23 – Temperature control device, Heater
24 – Volts per hertz relay
25 – Synchronizing or synchronism-check device
26 – Apparatus thermal device, Temperature Switch
27 – Undervoltage relay
27P - Phase Undervoltage
27S - DC undervoltage relay
27TN - Third Harmonic Neutral Undervoltage
27TN/59N - 100% Stator Earth Fault
27X - Auxiliary Undervoltage
27 AUX - Undervoltage Auxiliary Input
27/27X - Bus/Line Undervoltage
27/50 - Inadvertent Energization
28 - Flame Detector
29 - Isolating Contactor
30 - Annunciator Relay
31 - Separate Excitation Device
32 - Directional Power Relay
32L - Low Forward Power
32H - High Directional Power
32N - Wattmetric Zero-Sequence Directional
32P - Directional Power
32R - Reverse Power
33 - Position Switch
34 - Master Sequence Device
35 - Brush-Operating or Slip-ring Short Circuiting
Device
36 - Polarity or Polarizing Voltage Device
37 - Undercurrent or Underpower Relay
37P - Underpower
38 - Bearing Protective Device / Bearing Rtd
39 - Mechanical Condition Monitor ( Vibration )
40 - Field Relay / Loss of Excitation
41 - Field Circuit Breaker
42 - Running Circuit Breaker
43 - Manual Transfer or Selector Device
44 - Unit Sequence Starting Relay
45 - Atmospheric Condition Monitor (fumes, smoke,
fire)
46 - Reverse-Phase or Phase Balance Current Relay
or Stator Current Unbalance
47 - Phase-Sequence or Phase Balance Voltage Relay
48 - Incomplete Sequence Relay / Blocked Rotor
49 - Machine or Transformer Thermal Relay /
Thermal Overload
49RTD - RTD Biased Thermal Overload
50 - Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
50BF - Breaker Failure or LBB ( Local Breaker Back-
up )
50DD - Current Disturbance Detector
50EF - End Fault Protection
50G - Ground Instantaneous Overcurrent
50IG - Isolated Ground Instantaneous Overcurrent
50LR - Acceleration Time
50N - Neutral Instantaneous Overcurrent
50NBF - Neutral Instantaneous Breaker Failure
50P - Phase Instantaneous Overcurrent
50SG - Sensitive Ground Instantaneous Overcurrent
50SP - Split Phase Instantaneous Current
50Q - Negative Sequence Instantaneous
Overcurrent
50/27 - Inadvertent Energization
50/51 - Instantaneous / Time-delay Overcurrent
relay
50/74 - Ct Trouble
50/87 - Instantaneous Differential
51 - AC Time Overcurrent Relay
51C - Voltage Controlled Time Overcurrent
51G - Ground Time Overcurrent
51LR - AC inverse time overcurrent (locked rotor)
protection relay
51N - Neutral Time Overcurrent
51P - Phase Time Overcurrent
51R - Locked / Stalled Rotor
51V - Voltage Restrained Time Overcurrent
51Q - Negative Sequence Time Overcurrent
52 – AC circuit breaker
52a - AC circuit breaker position (contact open
when circuit breaker open)
52b - AC circuit breaker position (contact closed
when circuit breaker open)
53 - Exciter or Dc Generator Relay
54 - Turning Gear Engaging Device
55 - Power Factor Relay
56 - Field Application Relay
57 - Short-Circuiting or Grounding Device
58 - Rectification Failure Relay
59 - Overvoltage Relay
59B - Bank Phase Overvoltage
59N - Neutral Overvoltage
59NU - Neutral Voltage Unbalance
59P - Phase Overvoltage
59X - Auxiliary Overvoltage
59Q - Negative Sequence Overvoltage
60 - Voltage or Current Balance Relay
60N - Neutral Current Unbalance
60P - Phase Current Unbalance
61 - Density Switch or Sensor
62 - Time-Delay Stopping or Opening Relay
63 - Pressure Switch Detector
64 - Ground Protective Relay
64F - Field Ground Protection
64R – Rotor earth fault
64REF – Restricted earth fault differential
64S – Stator earth fault
64S - Sub-harmonic Stator Ground Protection
64TN - 100% Stator Ground
65 - Governor
66 - Notching or Jogging Device/Maximum Starting
Rate/Starts Per Hour/Time Between Starts
67 - AC Directional Overcurrent Relay
67G - Ground Directional Overcurrent
67N - Neutral Directional Overcurrent
67Ns – Earth fault directional
67P - Phase Directional Overcurrent
67SG - Sensitive Ground Directional Overcurrent
67Q - Negative Sequence Directional Overcurrent
68 - Blocking Relay / Power Swing Blocking
69 - Permissive Control Device
70 - Rheostat
71 - Liquid Switch, Level Switch
72 - DC Circuit Breaker
73 - Load-Resistor Contactor
74 - Alarm Relay
75 - Position Changing Mechanism
76 - DC Overcurrent Relay
77 - Telemetering Device, Speed Sensor
78 - Phase Angle Measuring or Out-of-Step
Protective Relay
78V - Loss of Mains
79 - AC Reclosing Relay / Auto Reclose
80 - Liquid or Gas Flow Relay RTD - Resistance Temperature Detector
81 - Frequency Relay RTU – Remote Terminal Unit/Data Concentrator
81O - Over Frequency SER – Sequence of Events Recorder
81R - an invalid use of R suffix - refer 7F for Rate Of TCM – Trip Circuit Monitor
Change Of Frequency (ROCOF) LRSS – Local/Remote selector switch
81U - Under Frequency VTFF - Vt Fuse Fail
82 - DC Reclosing Relay
83 - Automatic Selective Control or Transfer Relay Suffixes Description
84 - Operating Mechanism _1 - Positive-Sequence
85 - Pilot Communications, Carrier or Pilot-Wire _2 - Negative-Sequence
Relay A - Alarm, Auxiliary Power
86 - Lock-Out Relay, Master Trip Relay AC - Alternating Current
87 - Differential Protective Relay AN - Anode
87B - Bus Differential B - Bus, Battery, or Blower
87G - Generator Differential BF - Breaker Failure
87GT - Generator/Transformer Differential BK - Brake
87L - Segregated Line Current Differential BL - Block (Valve)
87LG - Ground Line Current Differential BP - Bypass
87M - Motor Differential BT - Bus Tie
87O - Overall Differential BU - Backup
87PC - Phase Comparison C - Capacitor, Condenser, Compensator, Carrier
87RGF - Restricted Ground Fault Current, Case or Compressor
87S - Stator Differential CA - Cathode
87S - Percent Differential CH - Check (Valve)
87T - Transformer Differential D - Discharge (Valve)
87V - Voltage Differential DC - Direct Current
88 - Auxiliary Motor or Motor Generator DCB - Directional Comparison Blocking
89 - Line Switch DCUB - Directional Comparison Unblocking
90 - Regulating Device DD - Disturbance Detector
91 - Voltage Directional Relay DUTT - Direct Underreaching Transfer Trip
92 - Voltage And Power Directional Relay E - Exciter
93 - Field-Changing Contactor F - Feeder, Field, Filament, Filter, or Fan
94 - Tripping or Trip-Free Relay G - Ground or Generator
95 – TRIP CIRCUIT HEALTHY GC - Ground Check
96 – Transmitter H - Heater or Housing
97 – For specific applications where other numbers L - Line or Logic
are not suitable M - Motor or Metering
98 – For specific applications where other numbers MOC - Mechanism Operated Contact
are not suitable N - Neutral or Network
99 – For specific applications where other numbers O - Over
are not suitable P - Phase or Pump
PC - Phase Comparison
Acronyms Description POTT - Pott: Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip
AFD - Arc Flash Detector PUTT - Putt: Permissive Underreaching Transfer
CLK - Clock or Timing Source Trip
CLP - Cold Load Pickup R - Reactor, Rectifier, or Room
DDR – Dynamic Disturbance Recorder S - Synchronizing, Secondary, Strainer, Sump, or
DFR – Digital Fault Recorder Suction (Valve)
DME – Disturbance Monitor Equipment SOTF - Switch On To Fault
ENV – Environmental data T - Transformer or Thyratron
HIZ – High Impedance Fault Detector TD - Time Delay
HMI – Human Machine Interface TDC - Time-Delay Closing Contact
HST – Historian TDDO - Time Delayed Relay Coil Drop-Out
LGC – Scheme Logic TDO - Time-Delay Opening Contact
MET – Substation Metering TDPU - Time Delayed Relay Coil Pickup
PDC – Phasor Data Concentrator THD - Total Harmonic Distortion
PMU – Phasor Measurement Unit TH - Transformer (High-Voltage Side)
PQM – Power Quality Monitor TL - Transformer (Low-Voltage Side)
RIO – Remote Input/Output Device TM - Telemeter
TT - Transformer (Tertiary-Voltage Side)
Q - Lube Oil
W - Water
F - Fuel
G - Gas
U - Under or Unit
X - Auxiliary
Z – Impedance
Module 7 – Substation layout
In the today’s world, the need for bulk electrical
power has increased. To fulfil the required demand,
huge power is needed to be delivered; hence
bigger generating stations are to be designed. The
electrical power generating stations may be
generating electrical energy by means, but not
limited to, hydraulic, thermal, or renewable sources
solely contingent on the accessibility of resources
and areas where these power stations are built. The
areas where power stations are built might not be
nearby load centers where the load is consuming
power. Therefore, transmitting generated power to
the load center is of great importance.
There is a need for larger high voltage transmission
networks, called Grid, for the purpose of
transmission. Usually, power is generated in lower
voltage levels and is economical for its transmission
in high voltages. However, the distribution of
electrical power is achieved in lower voltages
pertinent to consumer requirements. Therefore, for
maintenance of such voltage levels and deliverance
of stability numerous switching stations and
transformation stations are created amid consumer
ends and electrical power generating stations.
These stations are commonly known as the
electrical substations.
Electrical substation
- a network of electrical components comprising
of power transformers, bus bars, auxiliaries,
and switchgear etc.
- may have a single or complex circuit composed
of numerous outgoing and incoming circuits
which are connected to a bus bar.
- may receive electrical energy directly from
generating stations through incoming power
supply lines or from other substations while it
delivers electricity to the consumers through
outgoing transmission lines.
- A substation which is near to the electrical
power generation is also known as grid
substation.
Main Purpose of Substations
 It serves as protection hub of the
transmission system.
 It maintains the frequency of system
confined in targeted limits and has to deal
with load shedding.
 It controls the exchange of electrical energy
amid consumers and generating stations.
 It is ensuring transient stability along with
steady-state stability of the system.
 It delivers sufficient line capacity hence
securing supply.
 It helps in reducing the flow of reactive
power, hence gaining voltage control.
 Through line carrier, it performs data
transmission to ensure monitoring of
network, protection, and control.
 It helps in fault analysis and pinning cause
for a failure, hence improving the
performance of the electrical network.
 It ensures reliable supply through feeding
network at numerous points.
 It assists in determining energy transfer
with help of transmission lines.
Different Substation Layouts
1. According to service requirement
- A sub-station may be called upon to change
voltage level or improve power factor or
convert a.c. power into d.c. power etc. According
to the service requirement, sub-stations may be
classified into
• Transformer sub-stations.
 Those sub-stations which change the
voltage level of electric supply are
called transformer sub-stations. These
sub-stations receive power at some
voltage and deliver it at some other
voltage. Obviously, transformer will be
the main component in such sub-
 stations. Most of the sub-stations in
the power system are of this type.
• Switching sub-stations
 These sub-stations do not change the
voltage level i.e. incoming and
outgoing lines have the same voltage.
However, they simply perform the
switching operations of power lines.
• Power factor correction sub-stations.
 Those sub-stations which improve the
power factor of the system are called
power factor correction sub-stations.
Such sub-stations are generally located
at the receiving end of transmission
lines. These sub-stations generally use
synchronous condensers as the power
factor improvement equipment.
• Frequency changer sub-stations
 Those sub-stations which change the
supply frequency are known as
frequency changer sub-stations. Such a
frequency change may be required for
industrial utilisation.
• Converting sub-stations
 Those sub-stations which change a.c.
power into d.c. power are called
converting sub-stations. These sub-
stations receive a.c. power and convert
it into d.c power with suitable
apparatus to supply for such purposes
as traction, electroplating, electric
welding etc.
• Industrial sub-stations
 Those sub-stations which supply
power to individual industrial
concerns are known as industrial sub-
stations.
2. According to constructional features
- A sub-station has many components ( e.g.
circuit breakers, switches, fuses, instruments
etc.) which must be housed properly to ensure
continuous and reliable service. According to
constructional features, the sub-stations are
classified as :
• Indoor sub-stations
 For voltages up to 11 kV, the
equipment of the sub-station is
installed indoor because of economic
considerations. However, when the
atmosphere is contaminated with
impurities, these sub-stations can be
erected for voltages up to 69 kV or
even higher.
• Outdoor sub-stations
 For voltages beyond 69 kV, equipment
is invariably installed out- door. It is
because for such voltages, the
clearances between conductors and
the space required for switches, circuit
breakers and other equipment
becomes so great that it is not
economical to install the equipment
indoor.
• Underground sub-stations
 In thickly populated areas, the space
available for equipment and building is
limited and the cost of land is high.
Under such situations, the sub-station
is created underground.
• Pole-mounted sub-stations
 This is an outdoor sub-station with
equipment installed over- head on H-
pole or 4-pole structure. It is the
cheapest form of sub-station for
voltages not exceeding 11 kV (or 34.5
kV in some cases). Electric power is
almost distributed in localities through
such sub- stations. For complete
discussion on pole-mounted sub-
station.
3. According to bus configurations
- The industry has developed several standard
bus configurations that vary in complexity, cost,
and reliability. The layout of a substation for
any particular configuration may vary to
accommodate differences in equipment type,
size and arrangement, and site-specific criteria.
• Radial Bus Configuration
 The radial bus configuration consists
of one main bus and a single breaker,
also called single bus, single breaker.
The transmission lines, transformers,
and shunt capacitor banks for extra
high voltage application, are connected
to the main bus through circuit
breakers, circuit switchers, or motor
operated or manually operated
disconnect switches. Radial bus
substations are the simplest to
operate. But they have the least system
reliability and flexibility of operation.
• Sectionalized Radial Bus Configuration
 The sectionalized or split radial bus is
a modification of the radial bus. This
configuration is two radial buses tied
together through a sectionalizing or
bus tie circuit breaker. The
sectionalizing circuit breaker can be
operated normally open or normally
 closed, depending on system ring bus, two breakers must be tripped
requirements. Bus faults or the failure to isolate a faulted line or transformer.
of a breaker (other than the In the case of the one-half breaker
tiebreaker) to operate for a fault configuration, one of the breakers is
requires an outage of only the affected usually at the other end of the
bus section. Breaker bypass switches transmission line. In the Figure below,
can be applied in sectionalized radial Substations A, B, C, D, and E form an
bus substations and operate the same extended ring bus.
as in radial bus substations. • Breaker and One Half Bus Configuration
• Main and Transfer Bus  The breaker and one-half
 The main and transfer bus is another configuration consist of two main
modification of the radial bus. This buses. Connected between the main
configuration consists of a main bus buses are bays which consist of three
and a transfer bus. All circuits are circuit breakers. A circuit is terminated
connected to the main bus through between each two circuit breakers.
circuit breakers and to the transfer bus • Double Breaker Double Bus
through transfer switches. The main Configuration
and transfer buses are connected  The double breaker double bus
through a transfer bus circuit breaker. configuration consists of two main
 The transfer bus circuit breaker buses. Connected between the main
protects a circuit during maintenance buses are bays consisting of two circuit
of its associated circuit breaker. breakers, and between the circuit
• Single Breaker Double Bus Configuration breakers, a circuit. In this
 The single breaker double bus configuration, each circuit has two
configuration is a modification of the dedicated circuit breakers.
sectionalized radial bus. This
configuration consists of two main
buses connected through a tie circuit
breaker.
• Ring Bus Configuration
 The ring bus configuration is, in reality,
a series of sectionalized radial buses
connected together to form a ring.
Each bus is called a position.
Sometimes a transmission line and a
transformer are paired on one ring
position. In this configuration, only one
position is removed from service for a
circuit or bus fault. The circuit
breakers which serve the faulted
position are opened. The failure of a
breaker to operate for a line or bus
fault will cause two positions to be
removed from service.
 This configuration allows for any
circuit breaker to be removed from
service for maintenance without an
outage on any circuit. Line disconnect
switches are often installed to allow a
line to be removed from service and
the ring to remain intact. The two
circuit breakers sourcing the line are
opened, the line disconnect switch is
opened, and then the two circuit
breakers are closed.
• One-Half Breaker Configuration
 The one-half breaker configuration is a
variation of the ring bus concept on a
multiple substation basis. As with the
 The double bus
- double breaker configuration consists of two
--- --- --- --- --- ---
High Voltage Electrical Equipment
- Major
Module 8 – Substation High Voltage Equipment
Electrical substations are the interface between
parts of the distribution grid and transmission
systems. It transforms voltage from high to low, or
vice versa, or perform any of several other
important functions. Between the generating
station and consumer, electric power may flow
through several substations at different voltage
levels. A substation may include transformers to
change voltage levels between high transmission
voltages and lower distribution voltages, or at the
interconnection of two different transmission
voltages.
Single bus configuration
- consists of one main bus that is energized at all
times and to which all circuits are connected.
This arrangement is the simplest but provides
the least amount of system reliability
Sectionalized bus
- is basically two or more single bus schemes,
each tied together with bus sectionalizing
breakers. The most common configuration is
the double bus single breaker configuration.
Main and Transfer Bus
- consists of two independent buses, one of
which, the main bus, is normally energized.
Under normal operating conditions, all
incoming and outgoing circuits are fed from the
main bus through their associated circuit
breakers and switches.
Ring bus configuration
- is an extension of the sectionalized bus
arrangement and is accomplished by
interconnecting the two open ends of the buses
through another sectionalizing breaker.
Breaker and a half configuration
- consists of two main buses, each normally
energized. Electrically connected between the
buses are three circuit breakers and, between
each two breakers
main buses, each normally energized.
Electrically connected between the buses are
two circuit breakers and, between the breakers,
one circuit.
electrical equipment such as
transformers, switchgear and circuit breakers
are all part of the power plant design. Together
with these major components are the
protection and instrumentation.
 Transformer
• is a static machine used for transforming
power from one circuit to another without
changing the frequency. As there are no
rotating or moving parts, a transformer is
classified as a static device. Transformer
operates on an AC supply. Transformers
operate based on the principle of mutual
induction. Power transformers are generally
used in transmission network for stepping
up or down the voltage level. It operates
mainly during high or peak loads and has
maximum efficiency at or near full load.
Distribution transformer steps down the
voltage for distribution purpose to domestic
or commercial users. It has good voltage
regulation and operates 24 hrs a day with
maximum efficiency at 50% of full load.
Instrument transformers include C.T and P.T
which are used to reduce high voltages and
current to lesser values which can be
measured by conventional instruments.
• Types of Transformers
 Step up transformers - converts the
low voltage (LV) and high current from
the primary side of the transformer to
the high voltage (HV) and low current
value on the secondary side of the
transformer.
 Step down transformers - converts
the high voltage (HV) and low current
from the primary side of the
transformer to the low voltage (LV)
and high current value on the
secondary side of the transformer.
 Three phase transformer - generally
used in three phase power system as it
is more cost effective than single phase
transformers.
 Single phase transformer - But when
size matters, it is preferable to use a
bank of three single phase transformer
vs a three-phase transformer, as it is
 easier to transport than one single
three phase transformer unit.
 Two winding transformer - is
generally used where the ratio
between the high voltage and low
voltage side is greater than 2.
 Autotransformer - where the ratio
between the high voltage and low
voltage sides is less than 2.
 Outdoor transformer - outdoor
transformers are designed for
installing outdoors.
 Indoor transformers - are designed
for installing at indoors.
 Oil cooled transformer - the cooling
medium is transformer oil.
 Dry type transformer - air cooling is
used instead.
• Types of transformer windings – core
type and shell type, and also berry type
transformers
 A core type transformer - has two
vertical legs or limbs with two
horizontal sections named yoke. The
core is rectangular in shape with a
common magnetic circuit. Cylindrical
coils (HV and LV) are placed on both
the limbs.
 A shell type transformer - has a
central limb and two outer limbs. Both
HV, LV coils are placed on the central
limb. The double magnetic circuit is
present.
 In a berry type transformer, the core
looks like the spokes of a wheel.
Tightly fitted metal sheet tanks are
used for housing this type of
transformer, with transformer oil filled
inside.
 Circuit breaker
• An electrical circuit breaker is a switching
device which can be operated manually and
automatically for controlling and protecting
an electrical power system. As the modern
power system deals with huge currents,
special attention should be given during
designing of a circuit breaker to ensure it is
able to safely interrupt the arc produced
during the closing of a circuit breaker.
• Types of circuit breaker
 Oil circuit breaker
 Air circuit breaker
 Gas (SF6) circuit breaker
 Vacuum circuit breaker
• According to their services:
 Outdoor circuit breaker.
 Indoor breaker.
• According to the operating mechanism:
 Spring operated circuit breaker.
 Pneumatic circuit breaker.
 Hydraulic circuit breaker.
• According to the voltage level:
 High voltage circuit breaker.
 Medium voltage circuit breaker.
 Low voltage circuit breaker.
• According to tank used
 Dead Tank
 Live Tank
 Switchgear
• Switchgear is a general term used to refer
to a range of switches, circuit
breakers, fuses, etc., which are used in
an electric power system to control, regulate
and switch the circuit on and off. By
controlling the circuit, switchgear protects
and isolates electrical equipment from
 the power supply,
enabling testing, maintenance and fault
clearing work to be undertaken.
• Switchgear has two types of components:
 Power-conducting components:
These conduct or interrupt
the power flow; such as
switches, circuit breakers, fuses,
isolators, relays, lightning arrestors,
and so on.
 Control systems: These monitor,
control and protect the power-
conducting components; such as
control panels, current transformers,
potential transformers, associated
circuitry, and so on.
• Switchgear is directly linked to the
supply system and, based on the voltage
level, can be classified as either:
 Low voltage switchgear (LV).
 Medium voltage switchgear (MV).
 High voltage switchgear (HV).
 Protective Relay
• A relay is automatic device which senses an
abnormal condition of electrical circuit and
closes its contacts. These contacts in turns
close and complete the circuit breaker trip
coil circuit hence make the circuit breaker
tripped for disconnecting the faulty portion
of the electrical circuit from rest of the
healthy circuit. Selection of relays and
coordination of their settings so that the
correct circuit breaker trips when it is
supposed to, and does not trip when it is not
supposed to is a subject too broad to be
covered herein. For the purpose of this
document the listings below will set forth
those protective relay types which will be
considered. For the relay, using IEC or IEEE
standards are widely used in today’s
engineering.
 Emergency power system
• Those portions of the station service load
that must be operable for a safe shutdown
of the unit, or that are required for
protection of the unit during shutdown, will
be fed from a separate 480-volt unit
emergency power bus. A suitable
emergency diesel engine driven generator
will be installed and arranged to start
automatically and carry these loads if the
normal source of power to this bus is lost.
The loads fed from this bus might include
such things as emergency lighting,
communication system, battery charger,
boiler control system, burner control
system, control boards, annunciator,
recorders and instrumentation. Design of
these systems will provide for them to
return to operation after a brief power
outage.
• Battery and charger.
 General requirements. The dc
system, consisting of a station battery,
chargers and dc distribution panels,
provides a continuous and reliable
source of dc control voltage for system
protection during normal operation
and for emergency shutdown of the
power plant. Battery will be nominal
125 volts, mounted on wooden racks
or metal racks with PVC covers on the
metal supporting surfaces. Lead
calcium cells having pasted plates or
other suitable cells will be considered
for use.
 Duty cycle. Required capacity will be
calculated on an 8-hour duty cycle
basis taking into account all normal
and emergency loads. The duty cycle
will meet the requirements of the
steam generator burner control
system, emergency cooling systems,
control bench board, relays and
instrument panels, emergency lighting
system, and all close/trip functions of
the medium voltage and 480-volt
circuit breaker systems.
 Battery chargers.
 Two chargers capable of
maintaining a 2.17 the proper
float and equalizing voltage on the
battery will be provided. Each
charger will be capable of
restoring the station battery to full
charge in 12 hours after
emergency service discharge.
Also, each unit will be capable of
meeting 50 percent of the total dc
demand including charging
current taken by the discharged
battery during normal conditions
 Battery room. Only the battery will be
located in a ventilated battery room.
The chargers maybe wall or floor
mounted, together with the main dc
distribution panel, immediately
outside the battery room.
 DC distribution panel. The
distribution panel will utilize molded
case circuit breakers or fuses selected
to coordinate with dc breakers
furnished in control panels and
switchgear. The breakers will be
equipped with thermal magnetic trip
devices, and for 20 kA dc interrupting
rating.
General facilities design
Input adjustments will be designed to be delegated
to automatic control systems except during start up,
shutdown, and abnormal operating conditions
when the operator displaces or overrides automatic
control functions. The following instruments will be
mounted on the control board in the operating
room to provide the operator with information
needed for operations:
a. Generator.
1. Ammeter with phase selector switch
2. Voltmeter with phase selector switch
3. Wattmeter
4. Varmeter
5. Power factor meter Frequency meter
6. Temperature meter with selector switch for
stator temperature detectors
7. D.C. volmeter for excitation voltage
8. D.C. ammeter for field current
b. Stepup transformer.
1. Voltmeter on high voltage side with selector
switch
2. Ammeter with selector switch
3. Wattmeter
4. Varmeter
5. Power factor meter
c. Auxiliary transformer.
1. Switch
2. Voltmeter on low voltage side with selector
3. Ammeter with selector switch
4. Wattmeter
5. Varmeter
6. Power factor meter
d. Common.
1. Voltmeter with selector switch for each bus
2. Synchroscope
e. Integrating meters. The following integrating
meters will be provided but need not be mounted
on the control board:
1. Generator output watt-hour meter
2. Auxiliary transformer watt-hour meter for
each auxiliary transformer
Electrical Control System
For the integration of the electrical systems the
control system has to be designed to fulfill some
important requirements:
- Monitoring
• Monitoring of the electrical system has to be
possible at workplaces of the control room,
workplaces dedicated to control of the
electrical system and workplaces for
maintenance. Graphic displays have to be
available presenting the status of the overall
or parts of the electrical system.
• To be able to take immediate action in case
of disturbances, it is also important to be
aware of all alarms and have a quick
overview in which part / area alarms are
active.
- Manual or remote operation
• The manual (remote) operations of
electrical devices have to be supported by
consistent means; e.g., faceplates in the or
locally at the device cubicle using push-
buttons or control panels.
- Automatic operation
• From a power plant control system point-
of-view, automatic operation means that
electrical devices are part of automatic
control sequences executed in an
automation controller. This requirement
applies only for those devices that interact
with process control.
- Recording
• For purposes of disturbance analysis,
documentation, reporting and
optimization, the plant control system has
to be capable of recording electrical system
status signals, alarms, event and measured
values.