Bio Mid

Topics to cover
Slide 1
Slide 2
Slide 3
Slide 4
Book(s) Chapter Reviews/Summaries
Previous year questions
Figures for practice
Slides 1-3 (up to central dogma) notes
Slides 3 (from central dogma onwards) & 4 notes
Notes (seniors)

Short Questions
● What happens to our body's enzyme activity during fever?
Answer:
● Increased Enzyme Activity: In some cases, a moderate fever can
actually increase the activity of certain enzymes. Enzymes are
biological molecules that speed up chemical reactions in the body.
The higher temperature during a fever can make these enzymes
work more efficiently for a short time.
● Enhanced Immune Response: Fever is often a response to
infection or illness. Elevated body temperature can stimulate the
immune system's response to infections. Some enzymes involved
in the immune response may become more active, helping the
body fight off the invading pathogens.
● Protein Denaturation: However, if the fever becomes very high or
prolonged, it can have negative effects. Extremely high
temperatures can denature (unfold and deactivate) certain
enzymes and proteins in the body, which can disrupt normal
cellular processes.
● Metabolic Changes: Fever can also lead to increased
metabolism, which can affect the activity of enzymes involved in
various metabolic pathways. This increased metabolic rate is part
 ●

of the body's attempt to generate more energy to combat

infection.
● Body's Response: Overall, the body's response to fever is
complex and can involve changes in enzyme activity. While some
enzymes become more active to aid in the immune response,
excessively high or persistent fever can have detrimental effects
on enzyme function and the body's overall physiology.

● How can antibodies play roles in our safety and protection?

Answer:
● Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are protein molecules
that are produced by the immune system in response to foreign
substances such as bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens.
Specifically, they are composed of four polypeptide chains, two
heavy chains and two light chains. These chains are folded into a
unique three-dimensional structure that allows them to bind
specifically to a specific antigen, the substance that the body
recognises as foreign. Because of this specific structure,
antibodies are able to recognise and neutralise pathogens, making
them a crucial part of the immune system's defence against
disease. Additionally, Antibodies are also composed of amino
acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. Therefore, it can
be said that antibodies are proteins.
● Antibodies are proteins inside the body that fight against
infection. If a foreign molecule enters the body, the immune
system responds by producing antibodies to destroy the germs.
The stronger the immune system, the greater the number of
antibodies produced. Immune system can be weak because of
genetic makeup or immune-suppressive drugs. These drugs are
consumed by asthmatic patients or people who have had organ
transplant.

● Why prokaryotic cells are known as primitive cell?

Answer:
● Prokaryotes:
○ Bacteria
○ Archaea
◆ Lives in earth’s extreme environments
. Single-celled
. Microscopic
. Typically within 10-100 µm diameter
. Simple
 . Nucleus not well defined/doesn’t contain a nucleus
. No internal membrane system
. No membrane-bound organelles

● What is the difference among starch, glycogen, and cellulose?

Answer:
● Storage
○ Starch
◆ Plants
◆ Surplus starch as granules within chloroplasts
◆ Simplest form of starch is amylose
◆ Branched polymers of α-glucose used for energy storage
○ Glycogen
◆ Animals
◆ Liver & muscle cells
○ Both starch and glycogen are polymers of glucose, but their
structures are different
● Structural
○ Cellulose
◆ Plants
◆ Major component of the tough cell wall
◆ Unbranched chains of β-glucose that are not easily
digested
○ Chitin
◆ structural support of the fungi cells;
◆ surgical threads
● α-Glucose (abundant; glycogen & starch) vs β-Glucose
(cellulose & chitin)
● We can easily digest starch, but we can’t digest cellulose
(vegetable)
● Homo polysaccharides- Starch, glucose, and glycogen
● Energy production- glucose is burned as a fuel
Difference:
Storage Structural
Support
Starch Glycogen Cellulose
found in plants animals plants
stored in chloroplasts liver & muscle cell walls
cells
functions storage of storage of structural
energy energy support
(carbohydrate (carbohydrate
) )
found in plants animals plants
stored in chloroplasts liver & muscle cell walls
cells
functions storage of storage of structural
energy energy support
(carbohydrate (carbohydrate
) )
solubility typically more soluble Insoluble in
insoluble in than starch aw
cold water
sub-unit α-glucose α-glucose β-glucose
branches amylose- straight long short, many
unbranched, unbranched branched
coiled chain; chain chain
amylopectin-
branched, of
which some
are coiled
Digestion can easily can’t digest
digest starch cellulose

● Which biomolecule do you feel is most important and why?

Answer:
Nucleic acid. Because
● Nucleic acid is also called information molecule
● No organism can survive without information molecule
● Carries information inside cells
● Increase longevity of the cell
● Allows cell division
● DNA contains genetic information
● RNA transfers that genetic information out of nucleus and
translates that code into protein

● What do you understand by industrial biotechnology?/What is

industrial biotechnology? Give two examples of industrial biotech
products.
Answer:
Industrial biotechnology, also known as white biotechnology, is the
application of biological principles, processes, and systems to
develop and manufacture products for industrial use. It involves the
use of microorganisms, enzymes, and other biological systems to
create, modify, or enhance products and processes in various
industries. Industrial biotechnology has a wide range of applications
and contributes to sustainable and environmentally friendly
manufacturing practices. Two examples of industrial biotech products
are:
. Biofuels
. Bioplastics

● Industrial biotechnology
○ Energy production
○ New materials

● What is the difference between single cell organism and multi-

cellular organism?
Answer:
● Prokaryotes:
○ Bacteria
○ Typically within 10-100 µm diameter
○ Archaea
◆ Lives in earth’s extreme environments
○ Single-celled
○ Microscopic
○ Simple
○ Nucleus not well defined/doesn’t contain a nucleus
○ No internal membrane system
○ No membrane-bound organelles
● Eukaryotes
○ Typically within 1-10 µm diameter
○ Includes
◆ Fungi
◆ Animalia
◆ Protists
◆ Plantie
○ DNA is in nucleus
○ Has compartmentalisation
○ Has membrane-enclosed organelles
◆ Largest- nucleus
○ Three multicellular kingdoms
. Plants
. Fungi
. Animals
● Asexually (binary fission) vs sexually (meiosis)
● Single cell vs multiple cells
● Simple & small vs complex & large
Difference:
 Single cell Multicellular
Organism Organism
diameter 10-100 µm 1-10 µm
no. of cells single (one) multiple (more than
one)
nucleus absent/not well present
defined
internal membrane absent present
system
membrane-bound absent present
organelles
cellular structure simple & small complex & large
domains bacteria, archea plants, fungi,
animals, protists
reproduction asexual (binary) sexual

● How do you justify that antibodies are protein?

Answer:
● Antibodies are proteins because they are composed of amino
acids linked together in a specific sequence to form a polypeptide
chain, and they exhibit the characteristic biochemical properties
and functions of proteins. Antibodies, like proteins, can identify
pathogens, and can bind with them. Antibody is also amphoteric
like protein. Hence, antibody can be called protein.

● Write the clinical significance of saturated and unsaturated fat?/

fats & oils?
Answer:
● Two types of fatty acids
○ Saturated
◆ Solid at room temperature
◆ Most animal fats
◆ Maximum number of hydrogen bonds possible
◆ No double bonds
◆ Cardiovascular diseases
○ Unsaturated
◆ Vegetable oil, fats, marine fish, small fish
◆ Essential elements like ω3, ω6 is better for the body
◇ Protect against cardiovascular diseases
◆ One or more double bonds
 ◆ Certain unsaturated fats are not synthesised in the human
body
◇ They must be supplied in the diet
Difference between them
Saturated Fats Unsaturated Fats
made from saturated fatty made from unsaturated fatty
acids acids
solid at room temperature liquid at room temp
mostly animal fats mainly oils
no double bonds double bonds
max no. of hydrogen bonds one or more double bonds
possible; no double bonds
harmful for body- not harmful; can even save
cardiovascular disease risk from cardiovascular disease
eg- butter, animal fats eg- fish oil, plant fats, fish fats

● "Genetic codes are universal,” What does it mean?

Answer:
● The genetic code is nearly universal, shared by the simplest
bacteria to the most complex animals.
● Genes can be transcribed and translated after being transplanted
from one species to another.
● Universality – the genetic code is the same in almost all living
organisms, from bacteria to mammals
● The genetic code is the same in almost all organisms. The
universality of the genetic code is among the strongest evidence
that all living things share a common evolutionary heritage.
Because the code is universal, genes can be transferred from one
organism to another and can be successfully expressed in their
new host (coloured pig, fluorescent plant). This universality of
gene expression is central to many of the advances of genetic
engineering.
● The same genetic code is used by all the species on our planet.
Thus the code must be an ancient one that has been maintained
intact throughout the evolution of living organisms.

Broad Questions
● How does insulin maintain glucose level?/How does glucose level
 ●
is maintained in our body?
Answer:
Biru Answer:
Insulin is a hormone secreted from the pancreas. It is also called anti-
diabetogenic hormone. Because at times of diabetes, the glucose
level of our body goes out of our control and the value increases
many fold from the normal value. What insulin does is convert this
glucose into glycogen. This glycogen can be stored in muscle, or
liver. This process is called glycogenesis. Another important task
insulin does is insert this extra glucose inside the cells. By this
process, glucose uptake of the cell increases. Cells will start to
receive and store more and more glucose, glucose metabolism will
increase in cell. By this process, glucose will be lesser in blood.

When we eat, carbohydrate in food is digested to form glucose.

Glucose increases the sugar level in blood that makes the blood
thicker. Thick blood hampers oxygen transport and transport of other
important molecules. That is why, insulin maintains the blood glucose
at a steady level. Insulin inserts glucose inside body cells to be used
as fuel for energy.

● Explain how enzymes function as molecular catalysts.

Answer:
Enzyme catalysis. Enzymes are biological catalysts that facilitate
specific chemical reactions. Because of this property, the appearance
of enzymes was one of the most important events in the evolution of
life. Enzymes are three-dimensional globular proteins that fit snugly
around the molecules they act on. This fit facilitates chemical
reactions by stressing particular chemical bonds.
● enzyme activation energy komay dey, ei activation energy komay
dite parle tomar reaction rate baire jabe, and catalyst hishebe kaaj
hoye jay

● Write the differences between animal cell and plant cell structure.
Answer:
Comparison among Prokaryotic, Animal, and Plant Cells
Prokaryotes Animal Cell Plant Cell
Exterior
Structures
Cell Wall Present Absent Present
(polypeptide) (cellulose)
Cell Present Present Present
Membrane
 Prokaryotes Animal Cell Plant Cell
Exterior
Structures
Cell Wall Present Absent Present
(polypeptide) (cellulose)
Cell Present Present Present
Membrane
Flagella May be May be Mostly Absent
Present Present
Interior
Structures
Endoplasmic Absent Usually Usually
reticulum present present
Ribosomes Present Present Present
Microtubules Absent Present Present
Centrioles Absent Present Present
Golgi Absent Present Present
apparatus
Nucleus Absent Present Present
Mitochondria Absent Present Present
Chloroplasts Absent Absent Present
Chromosomes Single; circle Multiple; Multiple;
of DNA DNA-protein DNA-protein
complex complex
Lysosomes Absent Usually Present
Present
Vacuoles Absent Absent or Present
small (huge)
Food intake parasitic- feed depends on prepares its
on others the foods own foods
prepared by
the plants
**Must take a look at the drawn figure**

● What are membrane lipids? How are they arranged in cell

membrane.
Answer:
● When phospholipids are added to water, they self-assemble into a
bilayer, with the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the interior and
the hydrophilic head to the exterior
● The structure of phospholipids results in a bilayer arrangement
 ●
found in cell membranes
● **Must take a look at the drawn figure**

● Write the characteristics of DNA double helix structure.

Answer:
● Each pair consists of a purine and a pyrimidine, so they are the
same width, keeping two opposite strands at equal distances
from each other
● Major and minor grooves
● Non-identical strands, but complementary
● Repeat about 40%
○ Repetition is problematic
● 3.4Å, 36Å, 20Å
● Base pair are held together by hydrogen bonds
● Strands run in the opposite direction
● Each pair consists of a purine and a pyrimidine, so they are
the same width, keeping the two strands at equal distances
from each other
● Stores genetic information which controls cell functions
● Inside nucleus
● A, G, C, T

● What are the functions of protein?

Answer:
. Building blocks for life
. Regulates most function in a cell
. Glycoproteins (antigens)
. Combines with DNA—>chromosomes
. Turns gene on & off (insulin- not always required)
. Antibodies (WBC {β-lymphocytes/β-cells} create antibodies)
. Structure & strength
. Transports molecules in & out of cells
. Fight or flight (pale/blush)
. Act as hormones i.e. insulin
. Enzymes speed up reactions (amylase)
. Hemoglobin transports O2

● Muscle fibre - provides structure and strength

● Antigens - are glycoproteins that are attached to the outside of
cells so that the immune system can recognise the cells as body
cells and not attack them. Germs have foreign antigens on their
 ●

cells that are recognised by the immune system as foreign.

● Antibodies - are proteins inside the body that fight against
infection. If a foreign molecule enters the body, the immune
system responds by producing antibodies to destroy the germs.
● Enzymes – are proteins that speed up reactions inside the body,
eg. amylase
● Hormones – are proteins required for many different functions.
Eg. growth hormones are secreted by the pituitary gland to control
the growth of the body. Insulin is secreted by pancreas to regulate
the blood glucose level in the body.
● Haemoglobin – a protein that transports oxygen to all parts of the
body
● The DNA is wrapped around certain proteins to make
chromosomes. This holds the DNA in place inside the nucleus.
● Albumin - a carrier protein needed for the transport of certain
molecules like hormones and vitamins.

● ‘Bangladesh is lacking behind in biotechnology.’ Give your opinion.

Answer:
Not enough funding. Overtly expensive equipments. Stuffs ordered
from abroad become extremely expensive when they enter the
country- due to taxes and other illegal channels. Lack of proper
enthusiasm, time, effort and whatnot.

● “Living systems show hierarchical organisation,” briefly explain.

Answer:
● Life can be studied at different levels, from molecules to the
entire living planet
● The study of life can be divided into different levels of
biological organisation
● The biosphere > ecosystems > communities > species >
populations > organism > organs & organ systems > tissues >
cells > organelles > macromolecules > molecules > atoms
● Hierarchy
○ The cellular level
◆ Atoms
◆ Molecules
◆ Macromolecules
◆ Organelles
◆ Cells
○ Bacteria- single celled; most fungi & algae- multicellular
○ The organismal level
 ◆ Three levels of organisation
◇ Tissues
◇ Organs
◇ Organ systems

● Briefly discuss the scopes of biology.

Answer:
● Scopes of biology
○ Biostatistics
○ Biochemistry
○ Biophysics
○ Psychology
○ Veterinary medicine
○ Forensic science
○ Biomedical engineering
○ Bioinformatics
○ Biotechnology
◆ Medical
◇ Diagnostics
◇ Therapeutics
◇ Vaccines
◆ Agricultural
◇ Plant agriculture
◇ Farms
◇ Food processing
◆ Environmental
◇ Cleaning through bioremediation
◇ Preventing environmental problems
◆ Forensic
◇ Paternity tests
◇ Scientific investigations
◆ Industrial
◇ Energy production
◇ New materials

● What are structural polysaccharides? Stating examples write their

function and commercial use?/What is cellulose and chitin? Write
their commercial importance.
Answer:
● Cellulose
○ Plants
○ Major component of the tough cell wall
 ○ Unbranched chains of β-glucose that are not easily digested
● Chitin
○ structural support of the fungi cells
○ surgical threads

● Commercial Use of cellulose: Cellulose has several commercial

uses. It is the primary component of wood and is used in the
production of paper and cardboard. Cellulose derivatives like
cellulose acetate and cellulose nitrate are used in the manufacture
of films, plastics, and fibres (e.g., acetate fibres for clothing).
Additionally, cellulose is used in the food industry as a dietary
fibre additive.

◆ Paper and Cardboard Production: Cellulose is the

primary component of plant cell walls, and it is a key raw
material in the paper and cardboard industry. It provides
the structural integrity and fibre needed for paper
products.
◆ Textiles: Cellulose-based fibres are used in the textile
industry to make fabrics. For example, cotton is a natural
cellulose fibre widely used in clothing and textiles.
◆ Food Industry: Cellulose derivatives, such as cellulose
gum (carboxymethyl cellulose or CMC), are used as food
additives. They serve as thickeners, stabilisers, and
emulsifiers in a variety of food products, including sauces,
ice cream, and baked goods. Cellulose can also be used as
a dietary fibre supplement in food products.
◆ Pharmaceuticals: Cellulose can be used in the
pharmaceutical industry as a binder in tablet formulations,
as a coating material for drug delivery systems, and as
an excipient in oral medications.
◆ Biofuel Production: Cellulose is a potential feedstock for
biofuel production. Enzymatic processes can break down
cellulose into sugars, which can then be fermented into
biofuels like ethanol.

● Commercial Use of chitin: Chitin and its derivatives have various

commercial applications. Chitosan, a derivative of chitin, is used in
wound dressings and as a dietary supplement for weight
management. Chitin is used in water purification as a natural
adsorbent to remove pollutants. It is also explored for its potential
 applications in agriculture as a biopesticide and in the textile
industry to produce biodegradable fabrics.

◆ Medical Applications: Chitin and its derivative, chitosan,

have various medical applications. They are used in wound
dressings and as homeostatic agents due to their ability
to promote blood clotting. Chitosan is also explored for
drug delivery systems and tissue engineering.
◆ Water Purification: Chitin and chitosan can be used as
natural adsorbents for water purification. They can remove
heavy metals, dyes, and other pollutants from water,
making them valuable in environmental and industrial
settings.
◆ Agriculture: Chitin and chitosan are being studied for their
potential use in agriculture. They can act as natural
biopesticides, helping to protect crops from pests and
diseases. They may also have applications in soil
improvement and plant growth enhancement.
◆ Cosmetics: Chitosan can be found in cosmetic products,
such as skin creams and shampoos, due to its
moisturising and film-forming properties.
◆ Biodegradable Materials: Chitin and chitosan can be
used in the development of biodegradable plastics and
packaging materials, offering more environmentally
friendly alternatives to traditional plastics.

● What is “central dogma of molecular biology”? Briefly discuss

different events of this pathway.
Answer:
● Francis Crick named it
● Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
● Transcription, Translation
● The whole process of creating proteins from DNA via
transcription and translation is called central dogma of
molecular biology
● The central dogma of molecular biology states that DNA encodes
RNA, and RNA encodes proteins.
● Proteins do not encode proteins, RNA, or DNA.
● **Must take a look at the drawn figure**

● “Meiosis cell division leads to genetic diversity,” Explain with

diagram.
Answer:
● Three ways genetic diversity is increased by meiosis
○ 2 parents contribute half of the genetic material to offspring
○ Crossing-over in Prophase I
○ Chromosome alignment Metaphase I
● **Must take a look at the drawn figure**

● What are the differences between DNA & RNA?

Answer:
DNA vs RNA
RNA DNA
Stands for Ribonucleic Acid Deoxyribonucleic
(RNA) Acid (DNA)
no. of strands One Two
nitrogen bases Adenine, Guanine, Adenine, Guanine,
present Cytosine, Uracil Thymine, Cytosine
functions 1. Transfer genetic Stores genetic
code out of information which
nucleus, controls cell
2. Translate genetic functions
codes into proteins
(chain of amino
acids)
where found? Nucleus & outside Inside Nucleus
nucleus
major types mRNA- messenger, -
tRNA- transport,
rRNA- ribosomal
sketch of molecule At a Glance At a Glance
**Must take a look at the drawn figure**

● What are the differences between mitosis & meiosis?

Answer:
Mitosis vs Meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
2n 1n
clone daughter cells different from
parent cell and from each
other
same genetic information in daughter cells have half of the
parent & daughter cell no. of chromosomes as
clone daughter cells different from
parent cell and from each
other
same genetic information in daughter cells have half of the
parent & daughter cell no. of chromosomes as
somatic cell
same to same as the previous shuffling the genes (mixing
one up)
**Must take a look at the drawn figure**