Biology Booklet

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 1
ᶳᶪᶪᶹᶴᶽᶵᶭᶮᶱᶮᶨ
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

INDEX
1. Living World – 5
2. Biological Classification – 10
3. Plant Kingdom – 17
4. Animal Kingdom – 26
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

LIVING WORLD
1. Ernst Mayer, has been called “The Darwin of 20th century”. Mayer
was awarded the three prized widely regarded as “Triple crown of
Biology”.
B – Balzan Prize (1983)
I – International Prize (1994)
C – Crafoord Prize (1999)
2. Growth, Reproduction, self organise, ability to sense environment,

mount a suitable response, metabolism, ability to self replicate, interact
and emergence as unique features of living organisms.
3. Multicellular and unicellular both organism grow by cell division but
only one difference arises that in unicellular organism growth and
reproduction are synonymous process.
4. Non-living organism also grows eg.– Mountains, Boulders and sand

mounds.
5. Many organism do not reproduce like mules, sterile worker bees,

Infertile human couples. Hence reproduction cann’t be all inclusive
defining character of living
6. Metalobilism : Sum total of all the chemical reactions occuring in our

body.
7. Metabolism is defining feature of all living organism without exception.

[NEET-2011] [NCERT-5]
• Isolated metabolic reaction in vitro are not living things but surely
living reactions. [NEET-2011]
8. “Self conciousness” is the only character of “Human Beings” but

conciousness is the defining feature of living organism.
9. All living organism present, past and future, are linked to one another
by the sharing of the common genetic material but to varying degree.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

10. The number of species that are known and described ranges between
1.7 – 1.8 million. This refers to Biodiversity.
11. ICBN – International code for Botanical Nomenclature.
ICZN – International code of Zoological Nomenclature.
12. Each Biological name has two components – Generic name and
specific epithet. [NEET-2019] [NCERT-7]
13. This system is called Bionomial Nomenclature. Given by Carolus

Linnaeus. [NEET-2019] [NCERT-7]
14. Name of the author appears after specific epithet.

15. Biological names are generally in Latin & written in italics. Ist word
represents Genus while second component denotes species epithet.
• When handwritten, both words are separately underlined.
16. Classification is the process by which anything is grouped into

convenient categories based on some easily observable character.
17. External & internal structure, along with the structure of cell,
development process & ecological information of organism are essential
& form the basis of modern taxonomics studies.
18. Taxonomy include - characterisation, Identification, classification &

Nomenclature.
19. Linnaeus used “Systema Naturae” as the title of his publication.
20. Category is a part of overall taxonomic arrangement, it is called

taxonomic category & all category together constitute taxonomic
hierarchy.
21. Plant families like convolvulaceae, solanaceae are included in the order
polymoniales mainly based on floral characters.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

22. As we go higher from species to kingdom number of common

characteristics goes on decreasing.
23. Ascending : Species  Genus  Family  Order  Class  Phylum/

Division  Kingdom. [NEET-2022] [NCERT-10]
24. Housefly belongs to order diptera and class insecta, genus Musca
• Division in case of plants and phylum in case of animals.
Note - Suffix ‘ales’ is used for order and sufix ‘acae’ is used for family
in case of plants.
25. Mango  Family  Anacardiaceae
Mango  Order  Sapindales
Mango  Fruit  Drupe [Develop from monocarpellary superior ovary]
26. Herbarium is a store house of collected plant specimens that are

dried pressed & preserved on sheets.
• Herbarium general sheet size = 29 × 41.5 cm.

[NEET-2013, 2016, 2018] [NCERT-11]
Note Plant height is not considered.
27. Botanical Garden are specialised for collection of living plants

• Famous Botanical Garden are at kew (England)
• Indian Botanical Gardn, Howrah (India)
• National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow (India)
28. Museum have collection of preserved plant & animal specimens for
study & reference. [NEET-2019] [NCERT-12]
29. Keys : Based on contrasting characters generally occurs in a pair

called couplet. Each statements in key is called a lead. Generally
analytical in nature. [NEET-2013, 2018] [NCERT-13]
30. Flora contains the actual account of habitat and distribution of plants
of a given area. These provide the index to plant species found in
particular area.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

31. Manuals are useful in providing information for identification of name
of species found in an area.
32. Monographs contain information on any one taxon.
33. Catalogue is a list that enumerates methodically all the species found
in an area with brief description aiding identification
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

• Which page has the maximum –
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
1. Biological classification of plants and animals was first proposed by

Aristotle on the basis of simple morphological character.
2. Aristotle classify plants into trees, shrubs and herbs. He also divided
animals into two groups on the basis of presence / absence of RBCs.
3. Linnaeus gives two kingdom system of classification included Plantae
and Animalia on the basis of cell wall.
4. R.H.Whittaker proposed five kingdom classification in 1969.
• Three kingdom of classification – Haeckel (added new kingdom
protista)
• Four kingdom classification – Copeland (added monera).
Main criteria for classification 1. Cell structure
2. Body organisation
3. Mode of nutrition
4. Reproduction
5. Phylogenetic relationship
5. Unicellular Prokaryotes – Monera
Unicellular Eukaryotes – Protista [NEET-2020] [NCERT-20]
Heterotrophic Eukaryotes (Saprophytic or Parasitic) – Fungi
Autotrophic Eukaryotes – Plantae
Heterotrophic Eukaryotes (Holozoic or Saprozoic) – Animalia
6. Bacteria are the sole members of kingdom monera. Bacteria are
grouped under four categories on their shape. They are most abundant
micro organisms and are cosmopolitan.
Spherical – Coccus
Rod shaped – Bacillus
Comma shaped – Vibrium
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Spiral – Spirillum
7. Bacteria as a group show the most extensive metabolic diversity.

Fungi show extensive habitat diversity.
8. Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria on the basis of different cell

wall structure and this features is responsible for survival in extreme
conditions. [NEET-2014, 2022] [NCERT-19]
9. Some cyanobacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialised cell

called heterocysts. e.g., Nostoc and Anabaena.
[NEET-2012, 2010] [NCERT-19]
10. Bacteria are photosynthetic autotrophs, chemosynthetic autotrophs
and heterotrophs.
• Heterotrophic bacteria are most abundant in nature.

11. Mycoplasma : – Prokaryotes
– Completely lack cell wall
– Smallest living cells

– Can survive without oxygen

[NEET-2015, 2017] [NCERT-20]
• Mycoplasma can pass through 1 micron. [NEET-2022] [NCERT-20]
• Size of mycoplasma is 0.3 m.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

– Pathogenic to plants and animals
12. Boundaries of kingdom protista are not well defined they show
connection to three kingdom – Plantae, Animalia and Fungi.
• All protista are single celled i.e., unicellular.
13. Diatoms (Chrysophytes) cell walls form two thin overlapping shells,
which fit together as in a soap box. The walls are embedded with silica
and walls are indestructible. [NEET-2015] [NCERT-20]
14. Chrysophytes are microscopic and float passively in water currents.
15. Diatoms are chief producers in the oceans.[NEET-2018] [NCERT-20]
16. Dinoflagellates (Fire algae)
– Mostly marine and photosynthetic.
Red dinoflagellates (Gonyaulax) undergo rapid multiplication that
they make the sea appear red (Red tides). Release toxin that may kill
other marine.
Red sea is caused by Trichodesmium erythrium
17. In Euglenoids instead of a cell wall, they have a protein rich layer
called pellicle which makes their body flexible. Nutrition-Mixotrophic
(Photosynthetic + Heterotrophic).
18. Euglena are connecting link between plants and animals.
19. Under favourable condition slime moulds (Saprophytic protists) form
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

aggregation called plasmodium and during unfavourable condition
plasmodium differentiate and form fruiting bodies bearing spores at
thir tips. Spores posses true walls and dispersed by air current.
20. Primitive relatives of animals are protozoans. All protozoans are

heterotrophs protozoa classify into four groups on the basis of
locomotary structure.
Amoeboid : Amoeba and Entamoeba
Flagellated : Trypanosoma
Cilliated : Paramaecium [NEET-2018] [NCERT-22]
Sporozoans : Plasmodium
(Should be italicised)
21. Cell wall of fungi is composed of chitin and polysaccharides fungi are
saprophytes, parasites and symbiotics. [NEET-2016] [NCERT-22]
Chitin is homopolymer..
22. Symbionts – in association with algae as lichen and with roots of

higher plants as mycorrhiza.
23. In fungi sexual cycle involve – Plasmogamy, Karyogamy and Meiosis

in zygote.
24. Dikaryophase found in Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes.
25. Yeast are used to make bread and beer [NEET-2012] (NC-I-22)
Botanical name of yeast is saccharomyces cerevisiae.It is known

as bakers as well as brewers yeast. It is member of ascomycetes.
It is member of arcomycetes. It is the only unicellular and non-
filamentous fungi.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

26. Fungi are Filamentous with the exception of yeasts which are unicellular
[NEET-2015] (NC-I-22)
27. Fungi bodies consist of long, slender thread like structure called
hyphae. The network of hyphae is known as mycelium
[NEET-2019] (NC-I-22)
Note :- (i) Early blight of potato - Alternaria (Deuteromycetes)
(ii) Late blight potato - Phytopthara (Phycomycetes)
28. Ascomycetes are mostly multicellular eg. Penicillium or rarely

unicellular eg. yeast [NEET-2015] (NC-I-23)
29. In ascomycetes asexual spores are conidia produced exogenously

on the special mycelium called conidiophores. [NEET-2019] (NC-I-24)
30.
31.
In all three classes of fungi mycelium is septate and branched but in
phycomycetes it is aseptate and unbranched and coenocytic.
Edible fungi are morels and truffles, are the members of

ascomycetes. [NEET-2019] [NCERT-24]
32. Neurospora is used extensively in biochemical and genetic work.

• It is known as Drosophilla of plant kingdom. Neurorpora is member

of ascomycetes.
33. Agaricus (mushroom) is an example of Basidiomycetes.

[NEET-2015] (NC-I-24)
34. Some members of deuteromycetes are saprophytes or parasites while

large no. of them are decomposer of litter and help in mineral cycling.
[NEET-2015] (NC-I-24)
• Examples of deutromycetes are Trichoderma, Alternaria and
Colleotrichum.
35. Example of Deuteromycetes are Alternaria, Trichoderma and
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Colletotrichum. [NEET-2015] (NC-I-24)
36. Kingdom animalia lacks cell walls [NEET-2014, 2015] (NC-I-25)
37. M.W. Beijerinek (1898) demonstrated that extract of the infected plant
of tobacco cause infection in healthy plants and called the fluid as
contagium vivum fluidium (infectious living fluid)
[NEET-2015] (NC-I-26)
38. Viruses are obligate parasites [NEET-2015] (NC-I-26)

39. Capsomere are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric forms
[NEET-2012] (NC-I-26)
40. In viruses protein coat called capsid whose smaller sub unit called
capsomere [NEET-2010, 2014] (NC-I-26)
41. Viruses cause disease in plants, the symptoms can be mosaic
formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing
and stunted growth [NEET-2015] (NC-I-26)
42. In 1971 T.O. Diener discovered new infections agent called viroid
[NEET-2016] (NC-I-27)
43. Viroid lacked the protein coat [NEET-2017] (NC-I-27)
44. Viroid are smaller than viruses and caused potato spindle tuber disease.
Free RNA of low molecular weight. [NEET-2015] (NC-I-27)
45. Prions consisted of abnormally folded protein [NEET-2020] (NC-I-27)
• Prions are similar in size with virus.
46. The most notable diseases caused by prions are BSE (Bovine spongiform
encephalopathy) commonly called mad cow disease in cattle and its
analogous variant Cr-Jacob disease (CJD) in humans.
[NEET-2019] (NC-I-27)
47. Lichens are symbiotic association i.e. mutually useful association b/
w algae and fungi [NEET-2012] (NC-I-27)
48. In lichen algae component is phycobiont and fungal component called
mycobiont.
Lichens are pollution indicator. [NEET-2019] (NC-I-27)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

PLANT KINGDOM
1. Artificial Systems gave equal weightage to vegetative & sexual
characteristic, this is not acceptable since the vegetative characters
are more easily affected by environment. This system Given by
Linnaeus
2. Natural classification system for flowering plants was given by George
Bentham & Joseph Dalton Hooker & is based on natural affinities
among the organisms & consider not only external features but also
internal features.
3. Numerical taxonomy is based on all observable characteristics. In
this way each character is given equal importance & at the same time
hundreds of characters can be considered.
4. Cytotaxonomy is based on cytological information like chromosomes
number, structure, behaviour.
5. Chemotaxonomy uses the chemical constituents of plant to resolve
confusions.
6. At present Phylogenetic classification system based on evolutionary
relationship between the various organisms are acceptable.
7. Algae
• Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic & largely
aquatic organism. They occurs in a variety of other habitats. The
form & size of algae is highly variable like colonial volvox, filamentous-
ulothrix & spirogyra.
• Sexual reproduction in algae takes place through fusion of gametes.
Gametes can be
• At least a half of total CO2 fixation on earth is carried out by algae
through photosynthesis.
Isogamous : Flagellated & similar in size e.g. Ulothrix
Non-flagellated and similar in size e.g., Spirogyra
[NEET-2013,2014] [NC-I-30]
Anisogamous e.g., Eudorina
8. In oomycetes, male gamete is smaller and motile, while female
gamete is larger and non-motile [NEET-2013][NC-I-30]
Oogamous e.g., volvox & fucus
9. Colonial alga is volvox. [NEET-2017][NC-I-30]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

10. Most common Asexual reproduction via a spore called zoospore.
11. At least half of the total carbon dioxide fixation on earth is carried by
alga through photosynthesis.
12. Chlorella and Spirulina are protein rich unicellular algae.
[NEET-2020][NC-I-32]
13. Many species of porphyra, Laminaria & Sargassum are among the 70
species of marine algae used as food.
14. Certain marine brown algae (Algin) & Red algae (carragen) produce
large amounts of hydrocolloids (water holding substance) used
commercially. Gelidium & Gracilaria are used to grow microbes & in
preparation of ice-creams & jellies. Agar also optained from Gelidium &
Gracilaria [NEET-2021, 2022] [NC-I-32]
15. Polysiphonia is an example of red algae and red algae has no motile
gametes. [NEET-2018][NC-I-32, 33]
16. Chlorophyceae are grass-green due to the dominance of pigments
chlorophyll a & b various shape of chloroplast are found.
Most of the members have one OR more storage bodies called pyrenoids
(contain proteins besides starch) located in the chloroplast.
17. Green algae usually have a rigid cell wall made up of inner cellulose &
an outer layer of pectose. Number of flagella are 2-8, equal & apical.
18. Store food in Green algae are starch OR in the form of oil droplets
Phaeophyceae (Brown algae)
19. Primarily in marine habitats. They show great variation in size & form
simple branched, filamentous form - Ectocarpus & profusely branched
form - kelp (may reach a height of 100 meters).
20. Dominant pigment chlorophyll a,c, carotenoids & xanthophylls. Food
stored as complex carbohydrates like mannitol & laminarin & no. of
flagella are 2, unequal & lateral. [NEET-2021][NC-I-33]
21. Plant body is usually attached to the substratum by a Hold fast, & has
a stalk, the stripe & leaf like photosynthetic organ - frond.
22. Zoospore & gametes both laterally attached & pear shaped.
Rhodophyceae (Red Algae)
23. Red algae are red due to predominance of red pigment, r-phycoerythnin
majority are marine with greater concentrations found in warmer areas.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

24. Dominant pigments are chlorophyll a,d & phycoerythrin & stored food
are floridean starch (similar in structure to amylopectin and glycogen).
Cell wall are made up of cellulose, pectin & polysulphate esters.
[NEET-2020][NC-I-33]
25. They reproduce asexually by non-motile spores & sexually by non-
motile gametes. Sexual reproduction is oogamous & accompained by
complex post fertilisation development.
26. Ulothrix is an example of green algae and mannitol is the storage
product of brown algae. [NEET-2022][NC-I-33]
Bryophytes
27. Bryophytes are also called amphibians of plant kingdom because these
plants can live in soil but are dependent on water for sexual reproduction.
First plant group in which Embryo is found.
28. In bryophytes and pteridophytes, transport of male gamete requires
water. [NEET-2016] [NC-I-35]
29. Rhizoids are both unicellular (liverworts) & Multicellular (Mosses).
30. They lack true roots, stem OR leaves, they possess root like, leaf-like
& stem like structure. Sex organ are multicellular.
31. The main plant body are haploid, it produce gametes hence called
gametophytes.
32. Mosses along with lichen are the first organism to colonise rocks, and
hence are of great ecological importance.
33. Mosses form dense mats on the soil, they reduce the impact of falling
rain & prevent soil erosion.
34. Sphagnum is responsible for peat formation that has been used as
fuel and as packing material for trans shipment of living material because
of their capacity to hold water. [NEET-2014][NC-I-35]
• Sphagnum is only bryophyte to have economical importance.
• Bryophytes are of little economic importance but of great ecological
importance.
Liverworts
35. Plant body is thalloid. The thallus is dorsiventral & closely oppressed to
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

the substrate.
36. The leafy members have tiny leaf-like appendages in two rows on the
stem-like structures.
37. Asexual reproduction : Via Fragmentation OR by formation of
specialised structures called gemmae.
38. Gemmae are green, multicellular, Asexual buds, which develops on
small receptacles called Gemma cup, located on thalli.
[NEET-2021] [NC-I-35]
39. Sporophytes is differentiated into a food, seta & capsule. Sporophytes
are totally dependent on gametophytes.
Mosses
40. Gametophytes consists of two stages
Protonema stage - Develop directly from a spore, creeping, green,
branched, frequently filamentous.
Leafy stage - Development from secondary protonema as a lateral bud.

This stage bears sex organ, upright, slender axes, bearing sprially
arranged leaves.
41. Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation & budding in the secondary

protonema.
42. After fertilisation zygote develops into sporophytes, consist of foot, seta
& capsule. The capsule contains spore. Mosses have elaborate
mechanism of spore dispersal.
• Sporophyte of mosses is more elaborated than liverworts
43. Sporophytes are partially dependent & partially independent or semi-

parasite on gametophytes.
44. Male and female gametophytes are independent and free living in
Sphagnum. [NEET-2010] [NC-I-35]
45. Archegoniophore is present in Marchantia. [NEET-2011] [NC-I-34]
Pteridophytes
46. Evolutionary, they are the first terrestial plants to possess vascular tissues
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
like xylem & phloem contains spore.
47. Main plant body are sporophytes & posses true root, stem & leafs.
48. Leaves in pteridophytes are small (Microphyll) as in selaginella OR

large (Macrophylls) as in fern.
49. Sporophylls may form distinct compact structure called strobill OR cones
eg: selaginella & equisetum. [NEET-2020] [NC-I-36]
50. Prothallus are inconspicuous, small, multicellular, free-living, mostly

photosynthetic thalloid gametophytes.
51. Compared with the gametophytes of the bryophytes, the gametophytes

of vascular plants tend to be Smaller and to have smaller sex organs.
[NEET-2011] [NC-I-38]
• Pteridophytes is limited and restricted to narrow geographical regions.
• In majority of pteridophytes all spores are of similar kinds, such plants are
called homosporous.
Heterospours : - Produce two kinds of spores - macro (large) and micro

(small) spores, selaginella and salvinia.
52. Origin of seed habit can be traced in heterospous pteridophytes.

[NEET-2012] [NC-I-38]
• This step is considered to be an important step towards evolution.
53. Majority of pteridophytes are Homosporous. Genera like selaginella &

salvinia are Heterosporous (produce two kinds of spores)
[NEET-2021] [NC-I-38]
• Algae and bryophytes are homosporous.
• Pteridophytes are both homosporous (mostly) and heterosporous.
• Angiosperms and gymnosperms are only heterosporous.
54. In Heterosporous pteridophytes female gametophytes retained on the

parent sporophytes for variable periods. Development of the zygotes
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

into young embryos takes place within female gametophytes. This is

precursor to seed habit. Considered as important step of evolution.
[NEET-2019] [NC-I-38]
Gymnosperms
Gymmo - Naked
Sperma - Seeds
55. The gametophyte in pteridophytes is known as prothallus.
56. In gymnosperms ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall & remain
exposed, both before & after fertilisation while in angiosperms ovules
are covered by ovary wall.
57. Tallest free species - Sequoia sempervirens (giant coast red wood tree).
58. Roods are generally tap roots. In Pinus Mycorrhizal roots are present
but in cycas coralloids root (associated with N2-fixing cyanobacteria)
are present.
59. The stems are unbranched in cycas & Branched in Pinus & cedrus
60. The leaves in Gymnosperms are well-adapted to with stand extremes of

temperature, humidity & wind.
61. In conifers, the needle-like leaves reduce the surface are, their thick
cuticle & sunken stomata also help to reduce water loss.
[NEET-2016] [NC-I-38]
62. Sequoia, member of gymnosperm is one of the tallest trees.
[NEET-2016] [NC-I-39]
63. All Gymnosperms are Heterosporous, along with angiosperms, while
pteridophytes are both homosporous and heterosporous.
64. The male OR female cones OR strobili may be borne on same tree
hence called monoecious plant eg - Pinus
65. The male cones and megasporophylls are borne on different trees hence
called Dioecious plant e.g., - Cycas.
66. The gametophyte is not an independent, freeliving generation in Pinus.
[NEET-2011] [NC-I-39]
• In gymnosperms only mode of spore dispersal is by wind currents.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
• Pollination with air is Anemophlly.
67. Winged pollen grains are present in Pinus. [NEET-2018] [NC-I-39]
• Pinus pollengrain show sulphur shower.
68. Endosperm in Gymnosperm is Haploid , tissue found before fertilization
while in angiosperms (3N) Triploid.
69. The male & female gametophytes do not have independent free-living
existence.
70. Pinus is monoecious. Male and female cones are borne on same
tree. [NEET-2017] [NC-I-38, 39]
• Pollination in pinus is anemophilous.
• Wings of pollen grain help in pollination.
• Plant life cycle & Alternative of Generations.
1. Haplontic life cycle - Mostly in algae
But some exceptions are there.
Brown Alga : Fucus - Diplontic life-cycle
71. Cycas and Adiantum resemble each other in having Motile sperms.
[NEET-2012] [NC-I-39]
• Brown Alga : Ectocarpus & kelp.

Red Alga : Polysiphonia
Meiosis in zygote result in the formation of Haploid spores.
72. Zygotic meiosis is characteristic of algae. e.g., Chlamydomonas.

[NEET-2017] [NC-I-42]
2. Haplodiplontic life cycle
All Bryophytes & pteridophytes exhibit this condition.
3. Diplontic life-cycle
All seed bearing plants like Gymnosperms & Angiosperms follow

this pattern.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

73. Life cycle of Ectocarpus and Fucus respectively are Haplodiplontic,

Diplontic. [NEET-2017][NC-I-43]
74. Plant with the kind of life cycle it exhibits. [NEET-2022][NC-I-43]

(a) Spirogyra – Dominant haploid free-living
gametophyte
(b) Fern – Dominant diploid sporophyte
alternating with reduced
gametophyte called prothallus
(c) Funaria – Dominant haploid leafy gametophyte
alternating with partially dependent
multicellular sporophyte
(iv) Cycas – Dominant diploid sporophyte
vascular plant, with highly reduced
male or femeal gametophyte
75. The sporophyte of mosses is more elaborate than liverworts.
In pinus male and female cones are borne on same tree. i.e.,
monoecious. [NEET-2011] [NC-I-36, 38, 39]
Angiosperm -
76. Microscopic angiosperm tree : wolffia
77. Tallest angiosperm - Eucalyptus regnans (over 100 metres)
78. Most reduced male gametophyte or minimum no. of cells in male
gametophyte is present in angiosperm. (3 celled male gametophyte).
79. Double fertilization : An event unique to angiosperm.
80. The synergids and antipodals degenerate after fertilization.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

ANIMAL KINGDOM
1. All animals are multicellular.
2.
3.
Organ system level of organisation, Bilateral symmetry and True
coelomates with segmentation of body – Annelida, Arthropoda and
Chordata [NEET-2019][NC-I-49]
4. *Echinodermata exhibit radial/ Bilateral symmetry depending on the
stages of life.
5. Body organisation
1. Protoplasmic level e.g.,: Protozoa
2. Cellular level e.g.,: Porifera
3. Tissue level e.g.,: Coelenterata & ctenophora
4. Organ/ organ system level e.g.,: Platyhelminthes to chordata
6. Incomplete digestive system have only single opening outside the
body. e.g:- Platyhelminthes, coelenterata & ctenophora
[NC-I-47]
• Excretory system started from platyhelmenthes.

7. One example of animals having a single opening to the outside that
serves both as mouth as well as anus is Fasciola. [NEET-2010]
8 Complete digestive system has two opening. e.g:- Aschelminthes
to chordata
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

9. Mode of Respiration can be via body surface, cutaneous, Branchial &
pulmonary.
10. Open circulatory system:- Arthropoda, mollusca, Echinodermata,
hemichordata
11. Closed circulatory system :- Annelida & Chordata
12. In Diplobastic Animals an undifferentiated layer, Mesoglea is
present in between Ectodem and Endoderm.
13. Flat worms are triploblastic. [NEET-2010] [NC-I-49]
• All worms are triploblartic but all triploblartics are not flatworms.
14. Metamerism (metameric segmentation) present in Annelida,
Arthrodpoda & chordata.
15. Metagenesis refers to Alternation of generation between asexual and
sexual phases of an organism. [NC-I-48]
Ex : obelia
16 Notochord is a mesodermally derived rod-like structure formed on
the dorsal side during embryonic development in chordates.
Porifera
17. Generally marine but spongilla is fresh water, having water canal system
OR water transport system.
• Water vascular system is possesed by Echinodermata.
18. Body having meshwork of cells, internal cavities lined with food filtering
flagellated cells and indirect development are the characteristics of
phylum Porifera. [NEET-2015] [NC-I-49]
19. Central cavity – Spongocoel, choanocytes OR collar cells lined the

spongocoel & canals. [NEET-2017, NC-I-49]
20. Body is supported by a skeleton made up of spicules/ Spongin fibres.
21. Sponges are hermaphrodites, Digestion are intracellular.
Examples : Sycon (Sypha), Spongilla (Fresh water sponge), Euspongia

(Bath sponge)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Coelentrata (Cnidaria)
22. Mostly marine, name cnidaria derived from the cnidoblasts/Cnidocytes

present on the tentacles & body wall.
23. Cnidaria represents both marine and fresh water species.
[NEET-2014] [NC-I-50]
• Cnidoblasts are the most specialised cells in animal kingdom.
• Corals have skeleton made of calcium carbonate.
24. Central gastro-vascular cavity with a single opening, mouth on
hypostome present.
25. They exhibit two basic forms called polyp & medusa.
Poly e.g :- Hydra & Adamsia
Medusa e.g :- Aurelia/ Jelly fish
26. Metagenesis : Polyps produce medusae asexually & medusae form
the polyps sexually.e.g:- Obelia
e.g:- Physlia (Portuguese man-of-war), Pennatula (Sea-Pen), Adamsia
(Sea anemone) , Gorgonia (Sea-fan), Meandrina (Brain Coral)
27. Sea-fan (Gorgonia) completely lacks a cell wall.

[NEET-2014] [NC-I-50]
Ctenophora
28. Commonly known as sea walnuts / comb Jellies.
29. Exclusively marine. Body bears eight external rows of ciliated comb
plates, help in locomotion.
30. Comb plates, help in locomotion
31. Bioluminescence property is well- marked.
Eg:- Pleurobranchia, Cternoplara
Platyhelminthes
32. They have dorso-ventrally fattened body hence called flatwoms.
• Flame cells for excretion.
• Have high regeneration capacity. (planaria)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

33. Mostly endoparasite, hooks & suckers are present in parasitic forms.
34. Specialised cells called. flame cells help in Osmoregulation &
excretion.
35. Planaria possess high regeneration capacity. [NEET-2014, NC-I-51]
Eg:- Taenia (Tapeworm), Fasciole (liver fluke)
36. Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and acoelomate animals –

Platyhelminthes [NEET-2020] [NC-I-51]
Aschelminthes
37. Body is circular in cross-section hence called Round worms.
38. Alimentary canal is complete with a well- developed muscular pharynx.
39. Dioecious animal. An excretory tube removes body wastes from the
body cavity through the excretory pore.
40. Female are longer than males. Sexual dimorphism is seen here.
Eg:- Ascaris (Roundworm), Wuchereria ( Filaria worm) Ancylostorm (hook

worm)
Annelida
41. Metameric segmented body. Excretion & osmoregulation by Nephridia.
• Possess longitudinal and circular muscles help in locomotion.
42. Aquatic annelids like Nereis possess lateral appendages called

parapodia. Earth worm bosses setae. [NEET-2016] [NC-I-52]
43. Neural system consists of paired ganglia connected by lateral nerves to

a double ventral nerve cord.
44. Nereis – Dioecious

Earthworm
& Leeches
Eg:- Nereis, Pheretima (Earthworm)
Hirudinaria (Blood sucking leech)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Arthropoda
45. Largest phylum of Animalia. Its largest clas is insecta. Over two-
thirds of all named species on earth are Arthropods.
46. Body covered by chitinous exoskeleton. Body posses head, Thorax

& Abdomen. They have jointed appendages.
47. Exoskeleton is mainly responsible for diversification of insects on land.
[NEET-2015] [NC-I-53]
48. Respiration by Gills, Book gills, Book lungs OR Tracheal system.
49. Sensory organ like Antennae, eyes (simple & compound), statocysts.
(balancing organ).
50. Excretion by malpighian tubules.
Examples
Economically important insects –Apis (Honeybee), Bombyx (Silkworm)
Laccifer (Lac insect)
Vectors – Anopheles, culex, Aedes (Mosquitoes)
Gregarious Pest – Locusta (locust)
Living fossil – Limulus (king crab)
51. House fly, butterfly, tsetsefly, silverfish- Insecta[NEET-2013] [NC-I-53]

52. Prawn, Scorpion, Locusta animals belong to the arthropoda.
[NEET-2013][NC-I-53]
53. One of the representatives of Phylum Arthropoda is silverfish.
[NEET-2013][NC-I-53]
Mollusca
54. Second largest animal phylum.
55. Body covered by a calcareous shell & is unsegmented with a distinct

Head, muscular foot & visceral hump.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
56. A soft & spongy layer of skin forms a mantle over the visceral hump.
The space between the hump & the mantle is called mantle cavity in
which feather like gills present.
• Gills for respiration and excretion.
57. Mouth contain a file-like rasping organ for feeding called Radula.
58. Example:- Pila (Apple snail), pinctada (Pearl oyster), sepia (Cuttle
fish), Loligo (squid), Octopus (Devil fish), Aplysia (Sea- hare), Dentalium
(Tusk shell), Chaetopleura ( chiton).
Echinodermata
59. Endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles, All are marine.
60. Adult Echinodermates are radially symmetrical & larvae are bilaterally
symmetrical.
61. Most distinctive feature is presence of water vascular system, which
help in locomotion to capture and transport of food and for respiration.
62. An excretory system is absent.
63. Example: Asterias (star fish), Echinus (Sea urchin), Antedon (Sea lily),
Cucumaria (Sea cucumber), Ophiuria (Brittle Star)
Hemichordata
64. Earlier placed as a sub-phylum under chordata, but now it is placed as
a separate phylum under non-chordata.
65. Have a rudimetary structure in collar region called stomochord,
similar to noto chord.
66. Small group of worm-like marine animals. Body is cylindrical & composed
of proboscis, collar & Trunk.
67. Excretion by proboscis gland
Example:- Balanoglossus, Saccoglossus
68.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

69. Assertion (A): All vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not
vertebrates.
Reason (R) : Notochord is replaced by vertebral column in the adult
vertebrats. [NEET-2022] [NC-I-55]
Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
70. In Vertebrata notochord is present during the embryonic period
only, Central nervous system is dorsal and hollow in chordata.
[NEET-2020] [NC-I-55]
71.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

72. Urochordata – Notochord only in larval tail. Example - Ascidia, Salpa,
Doliolum
73. Cephalochordata – Head to tail & Persistent throughout their life.
Examples: Branchiostoma (Amphoxious OR Lancelet)
74.. The notochord is replaced by a cartilaginous OR Bony vertebral column

in the adult So, All Vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not
Vertebrates.
Class- Cyclostomata
75. Ectoparasite on some fishes. Elongated body bearing 6-15 pairs of

gill slits.
76. Sucking & circular mouth without jaw Scales & paired fins are absent.
77. Cranium & vertebral column are cartilaginous.
78. Cyclostomes are marine & migrate for spawning to fresh water & after
spawning within few days they die. their larva after metamorphorsis,
return to the ocean.
E.g:- Petromyzon (Lamprey), Myxine (Hag fish)
79. Petromyzon is a jawless fish, which lays eggs in fresh water and
whose ammocoetes larvae after metamorphosis return to the ocean.
[NEET-2015] [NC-I-56]
Class– chondrichthyes
80. Cartilagionous endoskeleton, mouth ventral, Notochord persistent

throughout life
81. Operculum absent Skin & Teeth are modified placoid scales.
82. Due to absence of air bladder, they have to swim constantly to avoid
sinking.
NOTE : Air bladders are found in orteichthyes but airsacs are found in
aves.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

83. In male pelvic fins bear claspers. [NEET-2011] [NC-I-57]
84. Many of them are viviparous.
Examples:- Scoliodon (Dog fish), Pristis (saw fish), Carcharodon (Great

white shark), Trygon (Sting ray), Electric organ (Torpedo)
[NEET-2014] [NC-I-57]
Class-Osteichthyes
85. 4 pair gill slits present, operculum present, skin is covered by cycloid
or ctenoid scales. Air bladder is present to regulate buoyancy.
86. Mostly oviparous
Examples: Marine – Exocoetus (Flying fish), Hippocampus (Sea horse);
Freshwater – Labeo (Rohu), Catla (Katla), Clarias (Magur);
Aquarium – Betta (Fighting fish), Pterophyllum (Angel fish).
Class Amphibia
87. Body divided into head & trunk. Neck & tail absent. but tail. May be
present in some.
88. Skin moist without scales.

89. Alimentary canal, urinary & reproductive tracts open into common
chamber and opening is called cloacal aperture.
90. Example:- Bufo (Toad), Rana (Frog), Hyla (Tree frog), salamandra
(Salamander) Ichthyophis (limbless amphibia)
Class– Reptilia
91. Creeping OR Crawling mode of locomotion.
• 12 pair of cranial nerves.
92. Skin is dry & cornified, epidermal scales OR Scutes present.
93. Snake & Lizards shed their scales as skin cast.
Examples:- Chelone (Turtle), Testudo (Tortoise), Chameleon (Tree
lizard), Calotes (Garden lizard), Crocodilus (Crocodile), Alligator
(Alligator), Hemidactylus (Wall lizard).
• Only crocodiles have 4 chambered heart.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Aves :-
94. Aves are characterized by crop and gizzard in its digestive system.
• Skin is dry with oil glands at base of trail.[NEET-2018], [NC-I-58]
Note - Reptiles, Aves and Mammals are amniotes.
95. Chelone or turtle is are reptiles hence poikilotherms.
[NEET-2018], [NC-I-58]
96. Pavo, Psittacula, Corvus – are aves and hence digestive tract has
additional chambers like crop and gizzard [NEET-2022], [NC-I-58]
97. Neophron is a member of aves and bears hollow and pneumatic long
bones. [NEET-2021], [NC-I-58]
• Bones are pneumatic bones (air cavities) helps to make body light.
Class-Mammalia
98. Most unique mammalion character is presence of mammary gland.
99. Skin is unique is possessing hair.
100. Different types of teeth are present in jaw.
101. Viviparous with few exception.
102. Birds are oviparous. [NEET-2016][NC-I-60]
Examples: Oviparous– (egg laying mammales)
eg. Ornithorhynches (Platypus)
Few are marssupials – Pouched mammals with brood pouches

macropus (Kangaroo) [NEET-2015][NC-I-60]
Viviparous – Macropus (kangaroo), Pteropus (flying fox), Camelus

(Camel), Macaca(Monkey), Rattus (Rat), Canis (Dog), Felis (Cat),
Elephas (Elephant), Equus (Horse), Delphinus (Common Dolphin),
Balanoptera (Blue Whale), Panthera tigris (Tiger), Panthera leo (Lion).
103. Chondrichthyes : possess cartilaginous endoskeleton
[NEET-2011][NC-I-57, 58, 60]
104. Trichinella spiralis is an endoparasites of humans and show viviparity.
[NEET-2015][NC-I-59]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
105. Mammary gland; hair on body pinnae; two pairs of limbs is
characteristics of Mammalia. [NEET-2015][NC-I-57, 58, 59]
Summary of this chapter
106. External fertilisation occurs in :

a. Coelentrata
b. Ctenophora
c. Annelida
d. Hemichordata
e. Osteichthyes
f. Echinodermata
g. Amphibia
107. Circulatory system first time came in phylum annelida.
Two chamber Heart eg: Fishes
Three chamber Heart eg: Amphibians, Reptiles
Four chamber Heart eg: Aves, Mammals, Crocodiles
108. Aves & Mammals are homoiothermous (Warm-blooded), rest of all are
Poikliothermous (Cold-Blooded)
109. Respiratory system first time came in phylum Arthropoda.
110. Exclusively marine Animals present in :-

a. Ctenophora
b. Echinodermata
c.
111. Spongilla has special collared cells called choanocytes.
[NEET-2010][NC-I-49, 52, 59]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

112. Salamandra an Amphibian has tympanum which represent ear and

has external fertilisation. [NEET-2011][NC-I-50, 52, 57]
113. 6–15 pairs of gill slits – Cyclostomes [NEET-2020] [NC-I-57]
Heterocercal caudal fin – Chondrichthyes
Air Bladder – Osteichthyes
Poison sting – Trygon

114. Gregarious polyphagous pest – Locusta
Adult with radial symmetry and larva with bilateral symmetry –Asterias
Book lungs – Scorpion
Bioluminescence – Ctenoplana
[NEET-2020][NC-I-50, 53, 54]
115. Metamerism – Annelida [NEET-2021] [NC-I-49, 50, 51, 52]
Canal system – Porifera
Comb plates – Ctenophora
Cnidoblasts – Coelenterata
116. Physalia – PortugueseMan of War
Limulus – Living fossil [NEET-2021] [NC-I-50, 53]
Ancylostoma – Hookworm
Pinctada – Pearl oyster
117. Metamerism is observe in chordata, annelida and arthropoda.
Round worms have organ - system level of organisation
[NEET-2021] [NC-I-51, 52, 54]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

INDEX
1. Morphology of Flowering Plants - 5-16
2. Anatomy of Flowering Plants - 17-26
3. Structural org. in Plant and Animal - 27-39
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

• Which page has the maximum
75, 76, 73 = 3 Pages
40% QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

Root
1. The direct elongation of the radicle leads to the formation of primary
root
2. Lateral roots referred to as secondary, tertiary, etc. roots.
3. In roots of absorption of water and mineral mostly occur in region of
maturation. [NEET–2017, NCERT-67]
4. Primary roots & its branches constitute tap root system.
Example : Mustard Plant
5. Fibrous root system :- Originate from the base of stem. [NEET–2020]
Example : Wheat Plant [NCERT–66]
6. Adventitious roots:- Root arises from the part of plants other than
radicle.
Example: Grasses, Monstera & Banyan tree.
7. Regions of the Root
Root Cap – Protect the root
Region of meristematic – Cells of this region very small, thin walled
zone & dense protoplasm, divide repeatedly
Region of meristematic – Max. growth occurs
zone
Region of maturation – Root hair present in this zone. Root hairs
zone are unicellular out growth of epidermal
cells [NEET–2017, NCERT-67]
8. Modification of Roots :-
For food storage eg:- Carrot, turnip (Tap root), sweet Potato
(Adventitious root)
[NEET–2018, NCERT-67]
For Support eg:- Banyan tree ( Prop root),
Maize and Sugarcane (Stilt Root)
For Respiration Pneumatophores eg:- Rhizophora, grown in
swampy areas.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

9. Pneumatophroes occur in halophytes. [NEET–2018, NCERT-67]

10. In pistia, roots play significant role in absorption of water.
Stem
11. Develop from plumule of the embryo of a germinating seed stem bears
nodes & internodes. It also bears buds, which may be terminal OR
Axillary
12. Main function of stem –
• Spreading out branches bearing leaves, flowers & friuts.
• Conduct water, mineral & Photosynthates
13. Modification of stem
1. For Food Storage – Under ground stem eg :- Potato, Ginger, Turmeric,
Zaminkand, Colocasia. [NEET–2014, NCERT-68]
2. Stem Tendrils – Help plants to climb
Eg:- Gourds (Cucumber, Pumpkins, watermelon) & Grapevines
Note:- Stem tendrils and leaf tendrils are analogus.
3. Thorns – Protects plant from browsing animals, modification of axillary
bud of stem. eg:- Citrus & Bougainvillea [NEET–2017, NCERT-68]
4. Phylloclade – Perform photosynthesis [NEET–2016, NCERT-68]
eg:- Opuntia (Flat), Euphorbia (Cylindrical)
Note: Phyllode is modification of petiole.
5. Offset eg:- Pistia & Eichhornia
6. Sucker eg:- Banana, Pineapple, crysenthemum
7. Runner eg:- Grass & Strawberry

8. Stolon eg:- Mint and Jasemine
LEAF
14. Originate from shoot apical meristem & arrange in an acropetal manner
15. A typical leaf consists of three main parts.
1. Leaf base – Leaf attached main parts.
2. Petiole – Hold the blades of light
3. Lamina or Leaf blace - Veins & veinlets present.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

16. Sheathing present in monocotyledons.

& Pulvinus present in some leguminous plants.
17. Venation –
• Reticulate (Veninlets form network) eg :- Dicots
• Parallue (Vein rum parallel to each other) eg:- Monocots
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

18. Modification of leaves

1. Tendril – For climbing eg :- Pea
2. Spine – For defence eg :- Cacti, Opuntia
[NEET–2017, 2015, NCERT-71]
3. Food Storage – eg:- Onion & Garlic (Fleshy leaves).
4. Petiole perform photosynthesis eg:- Australian acacia- (phyllode)
5. To trap the insect eg:- Pitcher plant & venus fly trap
19. The arrangement of flowers on the floral axis is termed as
Inflorescence
Racemose Cymose
20. An inflorescense with younger flowers at base and older one at apex is
known as cymose [NEET–2017]
21. Cymose inflorescense is present in solanum.[NEET–2012, NCERT-72]
Flowers
22. Reproductive unit in angiosperms.
Note:- Stalk of flower –pedicle.
23. Swollen end of the stalk OR Pedicle, called thalamus OR Receptacle
24. Four different kinds of whorts of a typical flower
Calyx, Corolla, Androecium & Gynoecium
25. A flower having either only stamen or only caples is unisexual
ex:- cucumber, maize, papaya [NEET–2015, NCERT-72]
[NEET–2011, 16, 22, NCERT-72]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

26. Reduced leaf is called Bracts.

27. Flowers found at the base of pedicel.
28. Flower is tulip is modified shoot [NEET–2011, NCERT-71]
29. In plum and rose ovary is half in inferior

[NEET–2010, 11, 15, 2020, NCERT-73]
30. In Guava and say florect of symflower ovary is inferior.
[NEET–2015, 2020, NCERT-73]
31. In chira rose, flowers are actinomorphoic hypogymous with twisted
aestivation [NEET–2013, NCERT-73, 74]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

32. Generally, sepals are green, leaf like & protect the flower in bud stage
33. Petals are usually brightly coloured to atlract insect for pollination. Petals
are of variosu shapes.
34. The standard petals of papileonaceous corolla is also called as Vexillum.
Aestivation
The mode of arrangement of sepals OR Petals in floral bud with respect
to the other members of the same whorl.
[NEET-2010, NCERT-77]
35. Standard petal of a papilionaceous corolia is called vexillum.
36. When the margins of sepals or petals overlap one anothers without any
particular direction, the condition is known as imbricate.
Androecium : Composed of stamens
1. Epipetalous : (Stamers are attached to the petals) eg : Brinjal
2. Epiphyllous : (Stamers are attached to the perianth) eg: Lily
3. Polyandrous (stamens remain free)
4. Monoadelphous (Stamens united into one bundles) eg: china
rose [NEET–2010, 21, NCERT-75]
5. Diadelphous (Stamens united into two bundles) eg: Pea
[NEET–2021, 22, NCERT-75]
6. Polyadelphous (Stamens united into more than two bundles)
eg: Citrus. [NEET–2016, NCERT-75]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

37. There may be a variation in the length of filaments within flower

eg:- Salvia & Mustard, radish, turnip [NEET–2016, NCERT-75]
Note: Remember, it is salvia not salvinia (member of pteridophyte).
38. Sterile stamen is called staminode [NEET–2014, NCERT-75]
Gynoecium
39. Female reproductive part of the flower.
40. Carpel consist of three parts
Stigma – Receptive surface of pollen grain
Style – Elongated tube
Ovary – Elongated basal part
41. Apocarpous : When more than one carpel is present, they may be free
eg:- Lotus & Rose, Michellia
42. Syncarpous: When more than one carpel is present, they may be
fused eg:- Mustard & Tomato
PLACENTATION
43. Marginal : Pea
44. Axile : China, Rose, Tomato, Lemon [NEET–2012, 2015, NCERT-75]
45. Parietal : Mustard, Argemome.
46. Basal: Sunflower, Marigold.
47. Free central: Dianthus, Primrose. [NEET–2016, NCERT-75]
48. Placentation in which ovules develop on inner wall of ovary or in peripheral
part is parietal [NEET–2019, NCERT-75]
49. In unilocular ovary with a single ovule the placentation is basal.
FRUIT
50. Mature or ripened ovary, developed after fertilisation
51. Parthenocarpic fruit : It a fruit is formed without fertilisation of the ovary
52. Fruit wall is called pericarp.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
53. If Pericarp thick & fleshy, it differentiated into three part

Epicarp – Outer
Mesocarp – Middle
Endocarp – Inner
54. Placenta and pericarp are both edible portions in tomato
55. In Mango & Coconut , the fruit is Drup develop from monocarpellary
superior ovary & is one seeded.
56. Mango (Mesocarp fleshy – Edible)
Coconut (mesocarp Fibrous – used commercially)
Seed (Fertilised ovule)
One cotyledon – Wheat & Maize
57. Cotyledon of mazie is known as scutellum [NEET–2010, NCERT-77]
Two Cotyledon – Gram & Pea
58. Outermost covering of a seed – Seed Coat –
Two layer (a) Outer – Testa (b) Inner – Tegmen
59. Generally, monocotyledonous seeds are endospemic but some as in
orchids are non-endospermic.
60. Membranous seed coat found in Maize
61. Outer covering of endosperm seperates the embryo by a proteinous
layer called Aleurone layer
62. One large shield shaped cotyledon known as scutellum in
monocotyledon.
63. Floral formula of Cruciferae (Brassicaeae) eg:- Mustard
K2+2 C4 A2+4 G(2)

64. Aggregate fruit develops multicarpelary apocarpus, gynoeceium
Ex. Raspberry. [NEET–2014, NCERT-76]
65. Groundnut, Gram, maize have thin membranous seed coat while coconut
have thick membranous seed coat. [NEET–2013, NCERT-76]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

FAMILIES
Fabaceae Solanaceae Liliaceae
1. Inflorescence – 1. Solitary, axillary 1. Solitary / Cymose
Recemose Cymose in Solanum Umbellate clusters
(NEET–2012, NCERT-72)
2. Flower – Zygomorphic 2. Actinomorphic 2. Actinomorphic
3. Calyx – Sepal five, 3. Sepal five, united, 3. Tepal six (3+3),
gamosepalus Persistant united into tube
4. Cordolla – Petal five, 4. petal five united 4. .............
Polypetalous
papilionaceous
A Posterior
standard
Two lateral wings
Two Anterior keels
•••• Keel is characteristic of the flowers of family fabaceae.
[NEET-2010, 15, NCERT-74]
5. Androecium – 5. Stamen five, 5. Stamen six
Ten, Diadelphous epipetalous (3+3)
Dithecous
6. Gumpecium – Superior 6. Bicarypellary, 6. Trilocularpellary,
ovary, Mono carpellary Syncarpous, syncarpous, Superior
Unicelluar Superior ovary, ovary, Trilecular
bilocular, [NEET-2016]
Swollen palcenta, [NCERT-81]
oblique ovary
7. Fruit : 7. Berry/capsule, 7. Capsule, rarely
Non-endospermic, endospermic Berry endospermic,
legurme, Marginal Axile placentation Axil Placentation
placentation
8. Floral Formula(2021) : 8. K(5)C(5) A(5) G(2) 8. P3+3 A3+3 G(3)
K(5)C1+2+(2) A(9)+1 G1 [NEET-2011, 15] [NEET-2021]

[NEET-2021, NC-80, 81] [NCERT-80] [NCERT-80, 81]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

9. Economic Importance: 9. Source of food – 9. Omamentals –
Source of pulses – Tomato, Brinjal Tulip, Gloriosa
Gram, Arhar Potato
Sem, soyabean Spiec – Chilli Vegetables–
Edible Oil – Sayabean, Medicine - Belladona Asparagus
Ground nut & Ashwagandhya Colchine
Dye – Indigofera Fumigatory – Tobacco (Colchicum
Fibres – Sunhemp Ornamentals - petunia Automales)
Fodder – Sesbania,
Trifolium
Ornamental – Lupin,
sweet pea
Medicine – Muliathi
66. Tetradynamous stamens are characteristic of Brassicacae
67. Tricarpellary syncarpous gynoceium is found in flowers of lilacea
68. In hypogynous flower, ovary is superior
Ex:- mustard, china rose, brinjal, potato, onion, tulip
[NEET–2015, NCERT-80, 81]
IMPORTANT POINTS
69. Leaves in fabacae are stipulate while in solancacae and liliacae ex-
stipulate.
70. Inflorescence is racemose in fabacae but cymose in liliacae and
Solanacae. Often umbellate clusters are found in liliacae.
71. Flower is zygomorphic in fabaceae and actionomorphic in solanacae
and liliacae.
72. In fabaceae, valvate/imbricate aestivation of calyx is found, while in
solanacae and aestivation of tepal in liliacae is valvate.
73. In fabacae, polypetalus condition is found, while in solanacae it is
gamopet- alous.
74. Vaxillary aestivation is characteristic of fabacae family.
75. In fabacae, non-endorpermic seed is found while in solanace and liliacae,
endorpermic seed is found.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

76. In fabacae, marginal placentation is found but in solanacae and liliacae,

axile placentation is found.
77. The name of fruit of of fabacae is legume and its name in solanacae is
berry capsule and in liliacae – rarely berry.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

89, 91, 96 = 3 Pages
54.8% QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

1. A tissue is a group of cells having a common origin & usually
performing a common function.
2. Tissues classified into two main groups based on division of power.
1. Meristematic tissue [NEET-2021, NCERT-84]
2. Permanet tissue
3. Apical meristems : Meristems which occurs at the tips of roots &
shoots & produce primary tissue.
4. During the formation of leaves & elongation of stem, some cells
"left behind" from shoot apical meristem, constitute Axillary bud.
5. Meristem which occurs between mature tissue known as Intercalary
meristem
6. Intercalory meristems occurs in grasses & regnerate part remove by
grazing herbivorous.
7. Both Apical & Inter calary meristem are Primary meristem.
8. Lateral meristem are cylindrical.
Example :- Fascicular vascular cambium

Interfascicular cambium
Cork cambium
They are responsible for the producing secondary tissues.
9. In the dicot stem, vascular cambium is partly primary & partly secondary
in origin.
10. In the dicot Root, vascular combium is completely secondary in origin
Permanent tissue : Cells that do not divide further having all cells
similar in structure & function called Simple tissue & having many
different types of cell called complex tissue [NEET-2021, NCERT-86]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Simple Tissues
Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclrencyma
• Forms major • Occours in hypodermis • Long, Narrow

component of Dicot plants cells with thick
& lignified Cells
wall having pits.
• Generally • Cells are much • Dead & without
isodiametric thickned at the corner protoplast
due to deposition
• Having various of cellulose, • They may either
shpae Hemi cellulose fibres OR
& Pectin Sclereids
• Walls are thin • Intercellular • Provide mechanical
& cellulosic spaces support
are absent (Non-living-
• Either closely • Provide mechanical mechanical)
packed OR support
having small (Living mechanical)
intercelular
Spaces
• Function :
Photosynthesis
Food Storage,
secretion
11. Fibres : Thick – Walled , elongated & pointed cells, generally occuring
in the groups.
12. Sclereids : Spherical, oval OR cylindrical, Highly thickned dead cells

with very narrow lumen. [NEET-2021, NCERT-86]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Found in Fruit walls of nut, pulp of fruits like guava, Pear, sapota,
seed coat of legumes & leaves of tea.
COMPLEX TISSUE
Xylem Phloem
• Conducts water • Transports food materials usually form

& minerals from roots Leaves to other parts of the plant.
to the stem & leaves
• Four Kinds of Elements • Four kinds of elements
Tracheids Sieve tube elements
Xylem fibres Phloem parenchyma
Xylem parenchyma Phloem fibres – Dead

– Living
• Character of Angiosperm • Gymnosperm lack sieve tube &
& Absent in companion cells they have
Gymnosperms Albuminous cells & sieve cells.
Vessels [NEET-2012, 19, NCERT-87]
• Tracheids are unicellular,
vessels are multicellualr
• Tracheids & vessels are
main water tansporting
Elements in flowering
Plants
• Tracheids are elogated • Mature sieve tube lacks Nucleus, the
vessels are long cylindrical function of sieve tubes are controlled
tube like by nucleus of companion cells.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

• Xylem parenchyam store

Food material in the form of
Starch, Fats & Tannins
• Radial conduction of • Companion cell – specialised
water takes place by ray Parenchymatous cells, closely
parenchyma associated with sieve tube elements.
• Priamry Xylem is two • Phloem parenchyma store food
types material & other substances like Resin,
Protoxylem (First formed) Latex & mucilage.
Metaxylem (Later formed)
• Endarch protoxylem • Phloem parenchyma absent in most
found in stems. of the monocotyledons.
& Exarch protoxylem • Phloem fibres (Bast fibres) made up
found in Roots. of sclencymatous cells.
Phloem fibres absent in Primary
phloem but present in secondary
pholem.
• Phloem fibres of jute, Flax & Hemp are
used commercially.
13. The balloon - shaped structures called tyloses are extensions of xylem
parenchyma cells into vessels. [NEET-2016, NCERT-87]
The Tissue System
Three types –
1. Epidermal
2. Ground OR Fendamental
3. Vascular OR Conducting
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

1. Epidermal tissue System

14. Outermost covering and comprises Epidermal cells, stomata &
Epidermal appendages – Trichomes & Hairs.
15. Epidermis is usually single – layerd
16. Epidermal cells are parenchymatous, cytoplasm in small amount,
vacuole are large. Outside waxy cuticle layer present. Which prevent
water loss, Cuticle absent in roots.
17. Stomata regulate process of tanspiration & gaseous exchanges.
18. Bean shaped guard cell found in Dicot & Dumb-bell shaped found in
monocot.
19. Stomatal Apparatus comparises
Stomatal Aperatus
Guard cells
Subsidiary cells.
20. In land plants, gaurd cells contain chloroplasts.
21. The root hairs are unicellular, elongation of Epidermal cells & help in
mineral, water absorption
22. Stem hairs (Trichormes), usually multicelluar, Branched OR unbranched
may even secretory. Prevent water loss due transpiration.
2. Ground Tissue [NEET-2011, NCERT-89]
23. It consists of simple tissue such as –
Parenchyma, Collenchyam & sderenchyma.
24. Ground tissue of leaves is called Mesophyll (Chloroplast containing)
3. Vascular tissue [NEET-2021, NCERT-90]
25. Open vascular Bundle – Cambium present
Eg: Dicot stem
26. Close vascular Bundle – Cambium Absent
Eg: Monocot stem
[NEET-2012, 18, 18, 19, NCERT-90]
27. Radial vascular Bundle – Xylem & phloem at alternate radii
Eg: Roots
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
28. Conjoint vascular Bundle – Xylem & phloem at same radii

eg:- Stem & Leaves
Anatomy of Dicot Root
29. Endodermis comprises single layer of barred-shaped cells without any
intercellular space.
30. Endodermal cells of roots are barrel shaped having casparian strips on
radial & tangential walls. These strips are of a waxy-material suberin.
31. Cortex is the region found between epidermis and stele.
32. In Roots conjunctive tissue is present between xylem & phloem.
33. Initiation of lateral roots & vascualr cambium during secondary growth
takes palce by Pericycle.
34. Two to four xylem & phloem bundle present
35. Pith is small OR inconspicuous.
36. Stele : All tissue inside of the endodermis such as pericycle, vascular
bundles & pith.
Anatomy of monocot Root
37. Same as dicot root in many respect
38. Polyarch condition found (more than six xylem bundle)
39. Pith is large & well developed
40. Secondary growth absent
Anatomy of Dicot stem
41. Hypodermis – Collenchymatous
42. Endodermis are rich in starch grains so called starch sheath
43. Pericycle made up of sclerenchymatous & arrange in the form of semi-
lumar patches.
44. Vascular bundle are arranged in a Ring. (Characteristic of Dicot stem)
45. Vascular bundle are conjoint, open with endarch protoxylem
46. Pith are present
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Anatomy of monocot stem [NEET-2020, NCERT-93]
47. Hypodermis – Sclererchymatous
48. Vascular bundle are scattered, surrounded by sclerenchymatous bundle
sheath
49. Vascular bundle are conjoint & closed.
50. Phloem parenchyma is absent. Water containing cavity are present in
vascular bundle. [NEET-2012, NCERT-93]
Anatomy of monocot leaf
51. Isobilateral leaf (stomata same on both surface of epidemis)
52. Mesophyll not differentiated
53. Bulliform cells : Present in Grasses [NEET-2018, NCERT-89]
Certain adaxial epidermis modified into large,
empty, colourless cells.
54. Bulliform cell turgid – Stomata open & Flaceid – Stomata close (minimise
water loss) [NEET-2019, NCERT-94]
Anatomy of Dicot leaf
55. Dorsiventral leaf (Stomata more on abaxial surface than adaxial)
56. It has two type of cells –
1. Palisade parenchyma – Adaxial surface, made up of elongated cells,
vertically arranged
2. Spongy parenchyma – Abaxial surface, oval OR round, loosly
arragned, Air cavities are present.
57. Size of vascular bundle depends upon the size of vein.
58. Vascular bundles are surranded by a layer of thick walled bundle sheath
cells.
Secondary Growth
59. Two lateral meristem involve in secondary growth
1. Vascular
2. Cork Combium
60. Intrafascicular cambium (Primary) – Present between primary xylem &
primary phloem
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

61. Interfascicular cambium – Due to meristematic of medullary ray.
[NEET-2013, 21, NCERT-95]
62. Cells cut off towards pith mature into secondary xylem & cells cut off
towards periphery mature into secondary phloem.
[NEET-2017, 18, NCERT-95]
63. Cambium is more active towards innerside so amount of secondary
xylem produced more than secondary phloem.
64. At some places, the cambium forms a narrow band of parenchyma,
which passes through the secondary xylem & secondary phloem in
radial directions called Secondary medullary rays
Spring wood/ Early wood Autumn wood/ Late wood
• Cambium is very active • Cambium is less active
• large number of xylary element • Fewer xylary elements
• Vesses with wider cavity • Narrow vessels
• Lighter in colour • Dark colour
• Lower density • Higher density
65. Two kinds of wood (Spring + Autumn) that appear as alternate concentric
rings. Constitute on Annual ring.
66. Annual Ring estimate the age of the tree. [NEET-2013, NCERT-96]
67. The activity of cambium is under the control of many physiological &
environmental factors.
68. In temperature regions, the climatic conditions are not uniform throughout
the year. [NEET-2019, NCERT-96]
69. Heart Wood
Hard, durable & resistant to the attacks of micro-organisms & insects
due to deposition of organic compound like tannins, resins, oils, gums,
aromatic substances & essential oils in the central part]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
70. Dead & highly lignified.

71. Non -conducting & only provide mechanical support
Sap wood
72. Peripheral region of secondary xylem. [NEET-2020, NCERT-96]
73. Lighter in colour
74. Conduction of water & minerals from root to leaf [NEET-2017, NCERT-96]
75. Cork is impervious to water due to suberin deposition in the cell wall.
76. Bark Non technical term
All tissues outside to the vascular combium
Like – Secondary phloem
– Periderm
Early bark are soft Bark & late bark are hard bark
77. Lenticells Formed by rupturing of parenchymatous cells of epidermis
Lens-shaped opening
Permit exchange of gases [NEET-2013, 21, NCERT-97]
Occurs in most woody trees.
78. Compelimentary cells of lenticels are derived from phellogen
79. In the begining, vasular cambium is wavy, which later becomes circular
in the dicot root.
80. Secondary growth also occurs in stems & roots of gymnosperms ,
secondary growth does not occurs in monocotyledons.
81. Wood is actually a secondary xylem.
82. There are different types of wood on the basis of their composition &
time of production
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

ᶳᶪᶪᶹᶴᶽᶵᶭᶮᶱᶮᶨ 101, 102 = 2 Pages

27.6% QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS

Animal Tissue
1. A tissue is defined as group of cells along with intercellular substances
having similar origin & performing similar function.
2. Animal tissue are broadly classified into four types.
• Epithelial Tissue • Connective Tissue • Muscle Tissue • Neural Tissue
Epithelial Tissue
3. Has a free surface, which faces either a body fluid or the outside
environment and providing covering, complactly packed cells with little
intercellular space.
4. Simple epithelium is composed of a single layer of cells and functions
as a lining for body cavities, ducts, and tubes.
Squamous epithelium Cuboidal epithelium Columner epithelium
(NEET 2014) (NEET 2014, 2020) [NEET-2020]
[NCERT-101]
• Thin layer of flattened • Cube like cells • Tall and Slender cells,
cells with irregular their nuclei are located
boundaries. at the base.
• Functions like forming a • Functions are secretion • Functions are secretion

diffusion boundary. & Absorption & Absorption
e.g., Found in – e.g.-Ducts of glands e.g., Lining of stomach
– Walls of Blood vessels – Tubular parts of nepthron & Intestine.
–Air sacs of lungs
[NEET-2010, NC-101]
5. Cilliated Epithelium : If columnar or cuboidal cells bear cilia on their
free surface. Their function is to move particles or mucus in a specific
direction over the epithelium. [NEET 2019, 2014, NCERT-101]
e.g., present in – Inner surface of hallow organ
like – Bronchioles and follopion tube. [NEET-2011, NCERT-101]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
6.
Compound Epithelium
• Mode of more than one layer (multi-layered) cells.
• Limited role in secretion and absorption.
• Main function is to provide protection against chemical and
mechanical stresses.
Present in – Dry surface of skin.
Moist surface of buccal cavity, pharynx, inner lining
of ducts of salivary glands and pancreatic ducts.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

7. Connective tissue are most abundant & widely distributed in the

body.
8. Function – Linking & support other tissue/organ.
9. In all connective tissue except, Blood, the cells secrete fibres like
collagen, elastic & recticular.
10. The fibres provide strength, Elasticity & Flexibility to the tissue
11. These cells also secrete modified polysaccharides which accumulate
between cells & fibres which acts as matrix (ground substance)
12. Loose connective tissue are Areolar & Adipose, present beneath the
skin.
13. The excess of nutrients which are not used immediately are coverted
into fats & store in Adipose tissue.
14. Regularly arrange fibres (Dense Regular connective tissue) found in
Tendons ( attach skeletal muscles to Bones) & Ligament (Attach
one bone to another bones).
15. Irregularly arrange fibres (Dense irregular connective tissue) found in
skin
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

16. Muscles Tissue
• Made of many long, cylindrical fibres arranged in parallel arrays.
• Their action moves the body to adjust to the changes in the environment
and to maintain the positions of the various parts of the body.
17. Neural tissue exerts the greatest control over the body’s responsiveness
to changing conditions.
18. Neurons, the unit of neural system are excitable cells.
19. Neuroglial cell, constitute the rest of the neural system protect and
support neurons and make up more than one half the volume of neural
tissue in our body.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
EARTHWORM
Pheretima Posthuma
20. Raddish Brown terrestrial invertebrates.
21. Common indian earthworms are – Pheretima, Lumbricus
22. Earthworms have long chlindrical body.
23. Body divided into 100–120 segments.
24. Dorsal surface is marked by a Dark median mid-dorsal line (Dorsal
blood vessels)
25. Ventral surface distinguished by presence of gential opening (pores).
26. Prostomium – A lobe, cover mouth, sensory in function.
[NEET 2021, NCERT-106]
27. First body segment is called peristomium (Buccal segement)
28. Clitellum (prominent dark band of glandular tissue), segement 14-16.
29. Spermathecal apertures situated on ventro-lateral sides of intersegmental
grooves i.e 5th – 9th segment (4 pairs)
30. Male genital pores – One pair (ventro-lateral) on 18th segment
31. Female genital pores – single (mid -ventral) on 14th segment.
32. Setae S-shaped, present in each body segment except :
First, last & Clitellum (Help in locomotion)
33. Earthworm consists of cuticle (Non-cellular), epidermis, muscular layer,
& coelomic epithelium (columnar cells)
34. Circular & longitudinal muscles layer are present in the muscles layer.
which help in locomotion.
35. Alimentary canal is a straight tube & rans between first to last segment
1. Buccal cavity ( 1–3 segment)
2. Pharynx (4–5 segment)
3. Oesophagus (6–7 segment)
4. Gizzard (8– segment)
5. Stomach (9–14 Segment)
6. Intestine (15 to last)
36. The characteristic feature of the intestine after 26th segment except the
last 23rd – 25th segment is the presence of interral median fold of dorsal
wall called Typhlosole . (Increase effective area of Absorption in the
intestine) [NEET 2011, NCERT-108]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
••• Pheretima derive nourishment from decaying fallen leaves and soil
organic matter. [NEET 2012, NCERT-108]
37. Calciferous glands,present in the stomach, neutrlise the humic acid
present in the stomach.
38. Blood vascular system – Closed type.
39. Blood glands are present on the 4th, 5th & 6th segments. They produce
blood cell & Haemoglobin which is dissolved in blood plasma.
40. Earthworms lack specialised breathing devices. Respiratory exchanges
occurs through moist body surface into their blood stream.
41. Excretory organs occurs as segementally arranged coiled tubules called
Nephridia : Three types rephridia
1. Septal Nephridia : 15 segment to last segment
2. Integumentary Nephridia : 3 segment to last segment
3. Pharyngeal Nephridia : Three paired on 4th, 5th & 6th segment
42. Nephridia regulate volume & composition of the body fluid.
43. Nervous system is basically represented by Ganglia arranged segment
wise on the ventral paired nerve cord.
44. The nerve cord in the anterior region (3rd & 4th segments) bifurcates, to
laterally encircling the pharynx & joins the cerebral ganglia dorsally to
form a nerve ring.
45. Earthworm is hermaphrodite (Bisexual)
Male organs
1. Testies – Two pair (Segments 10 & 11)
2. Seminal vescles (Segments 11 & 12)
3. Accessory glands (Segments 17 & 19)
4. Genital papillae (Segments 17 & 19)
5. Prostate papillae (Segment 17 – 20)
6. Male genital apertures (Segment 18)
Female organs
1. Ovary – one pair (Segment 13)
2. Female genital pore (Segment 14)
3. Spermatheca (Segment 6,7,8,9)
(4 Pair)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

46. Mature sperm & egg cells & Nutritive fluid are deposited in cocoons
produced by the gland cells of clitellum.
47. Fertilisation & development occurs within the cocoons which are
deposited in soil. [NEET 2018, NCERT-111]
48. After about three weeks, each cocoon produce two to twenty baby
worm with an average of four
49. Earthworms are known as “Friends of farmers” because they make
burrows in the soil & make it porous.
The process of increasing fertility of soil by eathworms is called
vermicomposting. [NEET 2021, NCERT-111]
COCKROACH
50. Brown or black coloured bodied animals included in class Insecta of
Phylum Arthropoda.
51. Their size ranges from ¼ inches to 3 inches (0.6-7.6 cm).
52. Nocturnal, Omnivores
53. Periplaneta americana are about 34-53 mm long with wings that
extend beyond the tip of the abdomen in males.
54. The entire body is covered by a hard chitinous exoskeleton (brown in
colour).
55. In each segment, exoskeleton has hardened plates called sclerites
(tergites dorsally and sternites ventrally) that are joined to each other
by a thin and flexible articular membrane (arthrodial membrane).
56. The body of the cockroach is segmented and divided into three distinct
regions – head, thorax and abdomen
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

HEAD THORAX ABDOMEN

• Triangular in shape & at • Thorax consists of three parts - • Consists of 10 segments.
right angle. 1. Prothorax
2. Mesothorax
3. Metathorax
• Formed by fusion of six • W alking legs 3 pair arising Female : [NEET 2021]
segment & show great from each thorasic segment. [NCERT-112]
mobility in all direction. • 7th sternum is boat shaped
and togather with 8th and
9th sterna forms a brood or
genital pouch
• A pair of compound eye • W ings - 2 pair, 1st pair arises Male :
present. from mesothorax and 2nd pair • Genital pouch formed
from metathorax. dorsally by 9th and 10th
terga and ventrally by 9th
sterna.
• Antennae - one pair • Forwings (Mesothoraxis) • Anal style - Male
called tegmina (Dark & [NEET-2012, 18]
Leathery) [NEET-2022] [NCERT-112]
• Mouth part Biting & • Hind wings - Transparent • Anal cerci - Both male and
Chewing types (in Anterior membranous, used in female present at 10th
end of head) flight. segment
[NEET-2021, 2018]
[NCERT-112]
• Mouth Part -
A labrum (Upper lip)
A pair of mandible
A pair of maxillae
A labium (lower lip)
• Tongue (Hypopharynx) (A
median flexible lobe)
[NEET-2021][NCERT-114]
57. Alimentary canal – three part.

1. Foregut
2. Midgut
3. Hind gut
58. Correct sequence of organs in the alimentary canal starting from Mouth
Pharynx  Oesophagus  Crop  Gizzard  Ileum  Colon  Rectum
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

59. Food storing structure  Crop (Sac like structure).

60. Gizzard or Proventriculus : Outer layer of thick circular muscles and
thick inner cuticle forming six highly chitinous plate called teeth.
Gizzard helps in grinding the food particles. [NEET-2011, NCERT-113]
61. Entire foregut is lined by cuticle [NEET-2021, NCERT-113]
62. Gastric caeca or Hepatic caeca is present at the junction of foregut

and hindgut, ring of 6-8 blind tubules and secrete digestive juice.
63. Malpighian tubules, ring of 100-150 yellow coloured thin filamentous

at the junction of midgut and hindgut.
64. Malpighian tubules help in removal of excretory products from

haemolymph (Each tubules is lined by glandular and ciliated epithelium).
65. Hindgut differentiated into Ileum. colen and rectum.
66. Blood vascular system – open type.

67. Blood vessels are poorly developed and open into space (Haemocoel).
68. Heart consists of 13 chamber.
69. The respiratory system consists of a network of trachea, that open
through 10 pairs of small holes called spiracles (Lateral side).
70. Exchange of gases take place at the tracheoles by diffusion.
71. Insect is called uricotelic (Nitrogenous waste product convert into uric
acid). [NEET 2015, NCERT-114]
72. In addition, the fat body, nephrocytes and urecose glands also help in
excretion.
73. The nervous system consist of a series of fused, segmentally arrange
ganglia. Three ganglia in the thorax and six in the abdomen.
74. The nervous system is spread throughout the body. Head holds a bit of
a nervous system while the rest is situated along the ventral (belly-side)
part of its body. So, it head of cockroach is cut off, it will still live
for as long as one week. [NEET 2020, NCERT-114]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
75. Brain represents – Supra-oesophageal ganglion which supplies nerves

to antennae and compound eyes.
76. Sense organs are Antennae, Eyes, Maxillary palps, Labial palps, anal
cerci.
77. Each eye consists of about 2000 hexagonal ommatidia ommatidium.
78. Vision – Mosaic vision with more sensitivity but less resolution, being
common during night.
79. Cockroaches are dioecious and well developed reproductive organs.
80. Male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes in 4th -6th

abdominal segments.
81. Male accessory reproductive gland present in the 6th-7th abdominal
segment called mushroom gland.
82. External genitalia are represented by male gonapophysis or phallomere

(chitinous asymmetrical structures, surrounding the male gonopore).
83. Sperms are stored in the seminal vesicles and glued together in the
form of bundles called spermatophores which are discharged during
copulation. [NEET 2016, NCERT-114]
84. Female reproductive sysytem consists of two large ovaries at 2nd – 6th
abdominal segments.
85. A pair of spermatheca is present in the 6th segment which opens in

the genital chamber.
86. Sperms are transferred through spermatophores fertilised eggs are

encased in capsules called oothecae.
87. Ootheca is a dark reddish to blackish brown capsule, about 3/8" (8

mm) long.
88. On an average, females produce 9-10 oothecae, each containing 14-

16 eggs.
89. Development of P. americana is paurometabolous (development

through nymphal stage). Nymphs look very much like adults.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

90. Nymph grows by 13 moulting to reach the adult form.
91. Only adult cockroach have wings. [NEET-2013, NCERT-113]
92. They are pests because they spoil food and contaminate it with their
smelly excreta.
FROG
Class – Amphibia
Phylum – Chordata
93. The most common species of frog found in India is Rana tigrina.
94. Cold blooded or poikilotherms animals.
95. They have the ability to change the colour to hide them from their enemies
(camouflage). This protective coloration is called mimicry.
96. Summer sleep called aestivation and winter sleep called Hibernation.
97. Skin is smooth and slippery due to the presence of mucus and always
moist.
98. Colour of dorsal side of body is generally olive green with dark irregular
spots and ventral side is pale yellow.
99. Forelimbs and Hind limbs help in swimming, walking, leaping and
burrowing.
100. Hind limbs end in five digits and they are larger and muscular than
forelimbs that end in four digits.
101. Male frogs can be distinguished by the presence of sound producing
vocal sacs and also a copulatory pad on the first digit of the fore limbs
which are absent in female frogs.
102. Alimentary canal of frog is short because frog are carnivores hence
the length of intestine is reduced.
103. Frogs respire on land and in the water by two different methods. In
water, skin acts as aquatic respiratory organ (cutaneous respiration).
104. On land, the buccal cavity, skin and lungs act as the respiratory organs.
The respiration by lungs is called pulmonary respiration
105. During aestivation and hibernation gaseous exchange takes place
through skin. (Cutoneous respiration)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
106. Frogs have a lymphatic system also and Renal portal system.
107. Heart are three chamber, two Atria and one ventricle. A triangular
structure called sinus venosus joins the right atrium.
108. Ventricle opens into a sac-like structure called conus arteriosus on

the ventral side of the heart.
109. RBCs are nucleated and contain haemoglobin.
110. Two ureters energs from the kidneys in male frog the ureters acts as
urogenital duct which opens into the cloaca.
111. In females the ureters and oviduct open seperately in the cloaca.
112. Frog have ten pairs of cranial nerves arising from the brain.
113. Correct route for the passage of sperms in male frogs.
114. Testies  Vasa efferentia  Kidney  Bidder’s canal  Urogenital

duct  Cloaca.
115. Male reproductive system has functional connection with kidney but
female reproductive system has no functional connection with kidney.
116. Mature female can lay 2500 – 3000 ova at a time.
117. The fertilisation and development both are external.
**************×**************×**************
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

INDEX
UNIT-III : CELL : STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
1. Cell – The unit of life - 2-14
2. Biomolecules - 15-25
3. Cell Cycle and Cell Division - 26-30
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

133, 134 = 2 Pages
35.2 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

CELL– THE UNIT OF LIFE

1. Cell is the fundamental structural & functional unit of all living
organisms
2.
3.
4. All scienertists of this chapter [NCERT-125]

1. Robert Hook – Discovered first cell (Dead)
2. Anton von Leewenhoek – First Live cell
3. Robert Brown
4. Flemming
5. Cell Theory –
– Discovered Nucleus (1831)
– Give the Name chromation
• Mattias Schleiden
• Theodore Schwann [NCERT-126]
6. Rudolf virchow – Omnis -celluale - cellulae (1855)
[NEET 2019] [NCERT-132]
7. Singer & Nicolson – Fluid mosaic model (1972)
[NEET 2012] [NCERT-132]
8. Camillo Golgi – Golgi Bodies (1898) [NCERT-133]
9. George Palade – Ribosomes (1953) [NCERT-136]
5.
6. Cytoplsam – Main arena of cellular activities

7. Membrane bound organelles present only in Eukaryotes but non –
membrane bound organells present in both prokaryotes & Eukaryotes
eg :- Ribosomes. [NCERT 2015, 2012] [NCERT-126]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
8. Smallest Cells – Mycoplasma [NCERT-126, 127]

Largest Cells – Ostrich egg
Longest cell – Nerve cell
9. Size : [NCERT-127]
Mycoplasma – 0.3 m
Bacteria – 3 to 5 m
RBCs – 7.0 m
Typical Eukaryotic Cell – 10 – 20 m
Typical Bacteria – 1– 2 m
Viruses – 0.02 – 0.2 m
[NCERT-128, 129]
10. Pili & fimbrae are also suface structure of bacteria but do not play role
in motality. [NCERT-129]
[NEET 2016]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

11. Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA & form a chain called
polyribosomes OR Polysomes
12.
[NEET 2015,2020]
Eg:- Phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules, Glycogen granules.
13. Gas Vacuoles found in Blue green & purple & Green photosynthetic
bacteria [NEET 2016] [NCERT-129]
ᶳᶪᶪᶹᶴᶽᶵᶭᶮᶱᶮᶨ [NCERT-132]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

14. Cis & Trans faces of the organelles are entirely different, but
interconnected
15. Golgi apparatus remain in close association with the endoplasmic
reticulum.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Plastids
16. Found in all plant cells & in Euglenoids
17. They are large
18 On the basis of presence or absence of pigments & types of pigments,
plastids are of 3 types.
1. Chloroplast
2. Chromoplast
3. Leucoplast
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

19. Consist of two parallel membrane & space between both the membrane
is called Perinuclear space.(10–50nm)
20. Nuclear envelope in intrupted by minute pores formed by fusion of both
the membrane.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

21. Movement of RNA & Protein takes place between cytoplasm & Nucleus
through pores. [NEET 2021][NCERT-138]
22. Outer membrane remain continuous with ER. [NEET 2015][NCERT-138]
23. Normally one nucleus per cell but in some organism more than one
nucleus per cell eg:- Paramecium, Liquid edosperm of coconut
etc.
24. Some mature cell lack nucleus.
eg:- RBCs of many mammals
Sieve tube cells of vascular plants [NEET 2021][NCERT-138]
25. Nucleus of a cell when it is not dividing = Interphase Nucleus
Microbodies
26. Membrane bound minute vesides.
27. Contain various enzyme
28. Present in both Plant & Animal cell [NEET 2021][NCERT-140]
*******×*******×*******
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

148 = 1 Pages
14.3 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

BIOMOLECUES
1. Relative abundance of carbon & Hydrogen with respect to other elements
is higher in any living organism than in earth’s crust. [NCERT-142]
2. All the carbon compound that present in living tissue is called
Biomolecues. [NCERT-143]
3. [NCERT-147]
4. [NCERT-142, 146]
5. Amino acid Substituted methane [NCERT-143]
6.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

7. Based on nature of “R” group

There are many amino acids but those which occurs in proteins are
only of twenty types. [NCERT-143]
If – R group is : –H : Glycine
[NEET 2020] – CH3 : Alanine [NCERT-144, 145]
– CH2OH : Serine
8.
9.
10. Fatty acid has a carboxyl group attached to an R-group.[NEET 2021]

R–group have 1 carbon to 19 carbon
11. Fatty acid could be saturated OR unsaturated [NEET 2021, 2022]
12. Fatty acid are estirified with glycerol, can be mono, di, triglyceride.
13. Fatty acid also called Fats & oils based on their melting point.
eg:- Gingely Oil - lower melting point, hence remain oil in winter
14. Lecithin – Phospholipids – Found in cell membrane.[NEET 2012,2021]
[NCERT-144]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

• Some secondary metalbolites –
15. Protein : Heteropolymer of Aminoacid linked by peptide bonds.

[NEET 2021,2020][NCERT-147]
16. Collagen is the most abundant protein in Animal world
[NEET 2020,2012][NCERT-148]
17. RuBisco is the most abundant in whole Biosphore .
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Structure of Proetin
18. Primary structure : Linear chain of polypeptide
[NCERT-149] Left end : 1st Aminoacid, N– terminal
Right end : Last Aminoacid , C–terminal
19. Secondary structure : –Helix & –plated sheet
20. Tertiary structure : 20 structure folded to form hollow wollen ball

[NEET 2016]
21. Quaternary structure : Structure like cube OR Plate
[NCERT-150] Eg: Adult Human Haemoglobin  4 sub units
• 2-type • 2-type 
22. Tertiary structure of protein absolutely nescessary for the many biological
activities of protein.
23. Some proteins & their functions –
[NCERT-147]
Polysaccharides :
– Long chains of sugar
– Building blocks of monosaccharides.
e.g. Cellulose (Polymer of Glucose) [NEET 2016]
Starch (Polymer of Glucose)
Inuline (Polymer of Fructose)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

[NCERT-148]
24. Exoskeletons of Arthropods have a complex polysaccharides called

chitin [NEET 2015,2020,2013, 2022]
25. Chitin are mostly Homopolymer. [NCERT-149]
26.
27. Double Helical structure – Given by “Watson–Crick”

28. More than a dozen form of DNA named after English alphabets with
unique structural features. [NCERT-151]
29. Peptide bond, Glycosidic bond etc. are fomed by Dehydration
(Elimination of water molecules)
30. [NCERT-152]
31. Majority of metabolic reaction do not occurs in isolated but alwlays

linked to some other recations as a series of linked reactions called
metabolic pathway (similar to Automobile trafic either linear OR
Circular)
32. Every chemical reaction is a catalysed reaction. No uncatalysed metabolic
reaction in living systems. [NCERT-152]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

33. Catalyst which hasten the rate of a given metabolic conversion are also
proteins. Proteins with catalytic power are named enzymes.[NCERT-154]
34. Simple structure complex structure (Anabolic) synthesis
Complex structure Simple structure (Catabolic) Degradation
35. Blood concentration of glucose in a normal healthy individual is 4.2–

6.1 mmol/L & Harmones would be in nanograms/mL. [NCERT-153]
36. Steady state is a non-quilibrium state. System at equilibrium cannot
perform work. [NCERT-152]
37. The living state is a non-equilibrium steady-state to be able to perform
work. Living state & metabolism are synonymous. without metabolism
there cannot be a living state. [NCERT-152]
38. Enzyme Almost all enzyme are protein, some are nucleic acid
Eg:- Ribozyme [NCERT-154]
39. Tertiary structure of enzyme felds upon itself, chain criss-cross itself
hence many crevices or pockets are made. Such pockets are called
“Acitve site”
40. Substrate fits in Acitve site [NEET 2014][NCERT-157]
41. Inorganic catalyst work efficienty at high temperatures (Above 400C)
42. Enzyme isolated from organisms who normally live under extremly high
temperature (Eg:- Hot vents & Sulphur springs) are stable & retain
catalytic power even at high temperature (upto 800–900C).[NCERT-154]
43. Rate can also be called velocity if the direction is speficfied.[NCERT-154]
44. A general rule of thumb is that rate double OR decrease by half for
every 100C change in either direction. [NCERT-155]
45. Catalysed reactions proceed at rates higher than that of uncatalysed
ones. [NCERT-155]
eg:- CO2+H2O H2CO3 [NCERT-155]
46.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

47. Enzyme accelerated the reaction rate by about 10 million times

48. Concept of Activation energy– [NEET 2016, 2010][NCERT-155]
49. ES–Complex are unstable & Transient [NEET 2013][NCERT-156]

50. Formation of the ES complex is essential for catalysis
51.
E+S ES EP E+P
[NCERT-157]
52. Enzyme normally function in a narrow range of temperature & pH.

[NEET 2013][NCERT-157]
53. Activity decline below & Above the optimum value.
54. Low temperature – Enzyme temporararily inactive
55. High temperature – Deraturation of protein (Destorys enzymatic activity)
56. Vmax Maximum rate of reaction when the enzyme is saturated with
substrate.
57. When the binding of the chemical shuts off enzyme acitvity, the process
is called Inhibiton & the chemical is called on Inhibitor.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

58. Some competitive inhibitor are often used in the control of Bacterial
pathogens [NCERT-158]
59. Enzymes are divided by into 6 classes each with 4–13 subclasses &
named accordingly by a four digit number. [NCERT-158]
1. Oxidoreductase/dehydrogenase Catalyse oxidoreduction
2. Transferases Catalysing a transfer of a group (others than
Hydrogen)
3. Hydrolases Catalysing hydrolysis.
4. Lyases Catalysing removal of group leaving double bond.
5. Isomerases Catalysing inter-conversion of optical, geometrical

OR Position Isomers
6. Ligases Catalysing the linking togather of 2 compound.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

ᶳᶪᶪᶹᶴᶽᶵᶭᶮᶱᶮᶨ *******×*******×*******
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

168, 163 = 2 Pages
64 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

1. The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesis
the other constituent of cell & divide into two daughter cells is called
Cell Cycle. [NCERT-162]
2. Typical Eukaryotic cell (Human cell) cell cycle complete in 24 hours
& yeast takes about 90 minutes. [NCERT-163]
[NCERT-163]
Inter phase (Resting phase) M-Phase (Mitosis phase)
– Lasts more than 95% duration – Lasts less than 5% duration
– Cell is preparing for division – Actual phase when division
– Phase between two succesive – Most dramatic period
M-Phase – Reorganisation of virtually
all component of the cell
• 3 Phase • Two Phase
. – G1–Phase – Karyokinesis
– S–Phase – Cytokinesis
– G2– Phase
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
G1-Phase S-Phase G2-Phase GO-Phase
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Internal b/w DNA replication Protein Cell which do not
mitosis & DNA but no. of formed for divide further eg.-
replication chromosomes mitosis Heart cell
Cell is metaboli-
remain same Cell growth Metabolically
-cally active Centriole dupli- contineus active but no
(NEET-2021) cate in cytoplasm (NEET-2015) longer prolife-
[NCERT-163] (NEET-2014,2021 rate
2016, 2015, 2022) (NEET-2021)
[NCERT-163] [NCERT-164]
_____________________________________________________
3. In Animals, mitotic cell division is only seen in the diploid somatic

cells. There are few exceptions in which haploid cells divide by mitosis
eg. Male Honey bees. [NCERT-164]
4. The number of chromosomes in the parents & progency cells is the
sme. [NCERT-164]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

[NCERT-163]
• Prophase (2017) [NCERT-164]

5. Follows S & G2 phases of interphase
6. Initiation of condensation of chromosomal material
7. Chromosomes are seen to be two chromatids attached togather at
centre more bigins to move towards opposite pole.
8. Two asters + spindle fibres = mitotic apparatus.
9. Cells at the end of prophase, do not show golgi complex, endoplasmic
recticulum, Nucleous & Nuclear envelope.
• Metaphase [NCERT-165]
10. Complete disintegration of Nuclear envelops
11. Condensation of chromosomes completed
12. Morphology of chromosomes studied
13. Spindle fibre attached with kinetochore (small disc-shaped
structure) (NEET-2016, 2013, 2022)
14. Chromosomes lies at equation.
• Telophase (2013) [NCERT-166]
15. Chromosomes decondense & lose their individuality

16. ER, GC, Nucleolus & Nuclear envelop reformed.
• Cytokinesis (2013) – Division of cytoplasm
 – Animal cell  cell furrow method
 – Plant cell  cell plate method
Cell plate represents the middle lamella between the walls of two
adjacent cell and plastids.
17. At the end of cytoplasmie division, orgameels like mitochondria get
distributed b/w two daughter cells.
18. In some organism karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis. So
multinucleated condition arises called system
e.g. Liquid endosperm of coconut.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Significance of mitosis : [NCERT-167]
19. Production of diploid daughter cells with identical genetic
complement.
20. Growth of multicellular organisms.
21. Cell growth result in disturbing the ratio b/w nucleus & cytoplasm.
22. Cell repair e.g., Cells of upper layer of the epidermis.
Cells of the lining of Gut
Blood cells
23. Mitotic division in the meristematic tissue- the Apical & Lateral
combium
24. Kinds of cell division that reduces the chromosomes number by
half result in production of Haploid daugher cells.
25. Meiosis  Production of haploid phase
26. Fertilisation  Restore diploid phase
27. Cytokinesis & Karyokinesis  Two times but DNA replication  single
[NCERT-168]
• Prophase-I : Subdivided into five phases based on chromosomal
behaviour.
• Leptotene
28. Chromosomes become visible under light microscope.
29. Compactation of chromosomes continue.
• Leptotene
30. Chromosomes start pairing togather  synapsis [NCERT-168]
(2016, 2015, 2020, 2012, 2022)
31. Synaptonemal complex formed called Bivalent or Tetrad (2013)
• Pachyteve
32. Bivalent or Tetrad clearly visible
33. Appearance of recombination nodules
34. Crossing over occurs b/w non-sister chromatids of homologons
chromosomes.
35. Recombination completed at the end of this phase, leaving the
chromosomes linked at the site of crossing over.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
• Diplotene [NCERT-168]
36 Recognised by dissolution of synaptonemal complex (2020)
37. Homologous chromosomes of bivalent seperate (2018)
38. X–shaped structures, chiasmata formed (2020)
39. Diplotene last for months or year in Oocytes of some vertebrates.
• Diakinesis
40. Final stage of prophase-I (2020, 2016)[NCERT-168]
41. Terminalisation of chiasmata occurs (2021)[NCERT-168]
42. Chromosomes are fully condensed
43. Mitotic spindle prepare the homologons chromosomes f or
seperation.
44. Nucleolus & Nuclear envelops disappear at the end.
45. Represents transition to metaphase.
• Metaphase- I
46. Bivalent chromosomes align on equatorial plate [NCERT-168] (2016)
47. Spindle fibre at tached to the kinetochore of homologous
chromosomes.
• Anaphase- I :
48. Homologous chromosomes seperate while sister chromatids remains
associated at the centromeres (2015, 2012)[NCERT-169]
• Telophase- I :
49. Nuclear envelop and nucleolus reappear.
50. Cytokinesis follows & called as dyad of cells.
51. Stage between two meiotic division called Inter Kinesis
(DNA replication absent).
• Prophase- II
52. Chromosomes become condensed & Nuclear envelop
disappear.
• Metaphase- II : Chromosomes lies at equator and microtubules from
opposite poles of spindle get attached to the kinetochores of sister
chromatids.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
• Anaphase- II
53. Splitting of centromere of each daugher chromosomes
(2015, 2021)[NCERT-169]
54. Daughter chromosomes moves towards opposite poles.
• Telophase- II
55. Meiosis ends with telophase II
56. Two groups of chromosomes once again get enclosed by nuclear enve-
lope.
57. Four haploid daughter cell formed at end.
• Significance of Meiosis [NCERT-170]
58. Conservation of specific chromosomes number of each species is
achieved across generation in sexually reproducing organism.
59. Increase the genetic veriability in the population from one
generation to next.
60. Variation are very important for the process of evolution.
*******×*******×*******
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

INDEX
UNIT IV : PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
1. Transport in Plants – 3-11
2. Mineral Nutrition – 12-17
3. Photosynthesis in Higher Plants – 18-22
4. Respiration in Plants – 23-28
5. Plant Growth and Development – 36-36
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

186, 187, 190 = 3 Pages
55.4 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
1. In a flowering plant the substances that would need to be transported
are water, mineral nutrients, organic nutrients and plant growth
regulators.
2. Transport :
• Small distance : Diffusion, Facilated Diffusion, Active transport.
• Long distance : Translocation.
3. Water and mineral moves unidirectional but organic substance –
multidirectional.
4. When any plant part undergoes senescence, nutrients may be
withdrawn from such region and moved to the growing part.
5. Diffusion :
• Movement is passive
• Short distance
• No energy expenditure takes place
• Molecules move in random fusioh from higher concentration to
lower.
• Slow process and not depends on living system.
• Rate of diffusion depends on : –
• Conc. gradients.
• Membrane permeability
• Temperature
• Pressure
6. Facilitated Diffusion : [NEET-2022, 2013][NCERT-176]
• Gradient must already present.
• Diffusion depends on solubility in lipids, major constituent of
membrane (lipid soluble substance diffuse faster).
7. Special proteins help move substances across membranes without
expenditure of ATP energy.
8. Transport rate reaches a maximum when all of the protein transporters
are being used (saturation).
9. Some carrier or transport proteins allow diffusion only if two types of
molecules move together.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
10. Symport : Both molecules cross the membrane in the same direction;
Antiport : they move in opposite directions. [NEET-2022][NCERT-177]
Uniport : Single molecule moves across a membrane.
11. Porins : Proteins
• Form large pores in the outer membrane of the plastids and
mitochondria and some bacteria.
• Allowing molecules upto size of small proteins to to pass through.
• Made up of eight different type of aqua porins water channel.
12. Active Transport : Uses ATP energy to transport and pump molecules
against a concentration gradient
13. Transport substances from a low concentration to a high concentration
(‘uphill’ transport).
14. Both Active Transport and facilated diffusion ‘shows’ -
• Liable to saturate, respond to inhibitors and are under hormonal
regulation.
15. Water :
• Essential for all physiological activities of the plant.
• Provides medium in which most substances dissolved.
• Watermelon has over 92 per cent water.
• Herbaceous plants have 85-90 % of water.
• Seed may approximatly dry but it still has water.
• Mustard plant absorbs water equal to its own weight in about 5
hours.
• Corn plant absorbs almost three litres of water in a day.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

16. Water Potential [NEET-2022][NCERT-179]

w = s + p w = Water Potential (Zero / negative)
s = Solute Potential (always negative)
p = Pressure Potential (usually negative)
17. Greater the concentration of water in a system, the greater is its kinetic
energy or ‘water potential’.
18. Two systems containing water are in contact, random movement of
water molecules will result in net movement of water molecules from
higher energy to lower energy or higher water potential to lower water
potential.
19. Water potential of pure water at standard temperatures, which is not
under any pressure, is taken to be zero. [NEET-2017][NCERT-179]
20. If some solute is dissolved in pure water, concentration of water
decreases, reducing its water potential.
21. For a solution at atmospheric pressure, water potential = Solute
potential.
22. Osmotic pressure = Positive but Osmotic Potential = Negative.
23. Osmosis :
• Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
• Water move from higher chemical potential to lower chemical
potential.
• Osmosis occurs spontaneously in response to a driving force.
• Net direction and rate of osmosis depends on Pressure gradient
and concentration gradient
24. Isotonic – If external solution balance, the osmotic pressure of
cytoplasm.
Hypotonic – If external solution more dilute them cytoplasm.
Hypotonic – If external solution more concentrated then that of
cytopolasm [NEET-2019][NCERT-182]
25. Cells swell – Hypotonic Solution
Shrink – Hypertonic Solution
26. Cell flacid in isotonic, Turgid in Hypotonic and plasmolysed in
Hypertonic.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

st
27. In plasmolysis, water move out 1 lost from cytoplasm and then from
vacuole.
28. Spaces occupied between cell wall and shrunken protoplast in
plasmolysed cell is Hypertonic solution.
29. Turgor Pressure : Water diffuses into the cell causing the cytoplasm
to build up a pressure against the wall.
30. Pressure Potential : The pressure exerted by the protoplasts due to
water against the rigid walls.
31. Because of the rigidity of the cell wall, the cell does not rupture. This
turgor pressure is ultimately responsible for enlargement and extension
growth of cells.
32. Imbibition : Special type of diffusion, water absorbed by solids –
(colloids) – causing them to increase in volume.
e.g., Absorption of water by seeds and dry wood.
33. The pressure that is produced by the swelling of wood had been used
by prehistoric man to split rocks and boulders.
34. Water potential gradient between the absorbent and the liquid imbibed
is essential for imbibition.
35. Water and minerals, and food are generally moved by a mass or
bulk flow system.
36. Mass flow is the movement of substances in bulk or en masse from
one point to another due to which pressure differences between two
points.
37. Bulk flow can be achieved either through a positive hydrostatic pressure
gradient (e.g., a garden hose) or a negative hydrostatic pressure
gradient (e.g., suction through a straw).
38. Translocation : Bulk movement of substances through the conducting
or vascular tissues of plants.
39. Xylem : Associated with translocation of mainly water, mineral salts,
some organic nitrogen and hormones, from roots to the aerial parts of
the plants.
40. Phloem : Translocation of a variety of organic and inorganic solutes,
from leaves to other parts of the plants.
41. Water is absorbed along with mineral solutes, by the root hairs, purely
by diffusion. It can move deeper into root layers by two distinct
pathways: (Apoplast pathway and Symplast pathways).
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

42. Apoplast pathway : [NEET-2022][NCERT-184]

• System of adjacent cell walls that is continuous except at the
casparian strips of the endodermis.
• This movement occurs through intercellular spaces and walls of
the cells. [NEET-2022][NCERT-184]
• Does not provide any barrier to water movement and water
movement through mass flows.
• Most of water flow in the roots occurs via Apoplast.
• Fast movement (Passive)
43. Symplastic :
• System of interconnected protoplasts through plasmodesmata.
• Slow movement.
• Symplastic movement may be aided by cytoplasmic streaming.
• In Hydrilla leaf; the movement of chloroplast due to streaming is
easily visible.
• Movement of water through the root layers is ultimately symplastic
in the endodermis.
• Pinus seeds cannot germinate and establish without the presence
of mycorrhizae.
44. Root Pressure : [NEET-2015][NCERT-186]
• Pushing up water to small heights in the stem.
• Effects of root pressure is observable at night and early morning
when evaporation is low.
• Greatest contribution of root pressure may be to re-establish the
continuous chains of water molecules in the xylem which often
break under the enormous tensions created by transpiration.
[2015] [NCERT-186]
45. Guttation : Water loss in its liquid phase. [2020] [NCERT-186]
Transpiration pull : Most plants meet their need by this method.
46. Cohesion - tension - transpiration pull model of water transport.
47. Less than 1 percent of water reaching the leaves is used in
photosynthesis and plant growth.
• Most of it is lost through stomata in the leaves called transpiration.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

48. Less than one per cent of the water reaching the leaves is used in
photosynthesis and plant growth. Mostly lost through the stomata in
the leaves. This water loss is called transpiration.
49. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the leaf also occurs through
pores called stomata. Stomata normally open in the day time and
close during the night.
50. Inner wall of guard cells, towards the pore is thick and elastic.
[2017] [NCERT-187]
51. Opening of stomata is due to turgity in guard cell and orientation of
microfibrils. Cellulosic microfibrils oriented radially rather than
longitudinally.
52. When guard cells loss turgidity, due to water stress, inner wall regain
their shape, guard cell flaccid and stoma close.
53. External factors which affect transpiration are temperature, light,
humidity, wind speed. Plant factors that affect transpiration are number
and distribution of stomata, number of stomata open, water status of
the plant, canopy structure etc
54. Transpiration depends upon following physical properties of water
Cohesion, Adhesion and Surface Tension.
[NEET-2021, 22] [NCERT-188]
55. These properties give water high tensile Strength (an ability to resist
a pulling force) and high cuapillary (ability to rise in thin tube)
56. Forces generated by transpiration can create pressures sufficient to
lift a xylem sized column of water over 130 metres high.
57. Transpiration and Photosynthesis – a Compromise
Transpiration has more than one purpose it
• creates transpiration pull for absorption and transport of plants
• supplies water for photosynthesis
• transports minerals from the soil to all parts of the plant
• cools leaf surfaces (10 to 15 degrees)
• maintains the shape and structure of the plants by keeping cells
turgid
58. C4 plants are twice as efficient as C3 plants in terms of fixing carbon
dioxide (making sugar). However, a C4 plant loses only half as much
water as a C3 plant for the same amount of CO2 fixed.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

59. Minerals are present in the soil as charged particles (ions) which cannot
move across cell membranes and concentration of minerals in the soil
usually lower than the concentration of minerals in the root.
60. Most minerals must enter the root by active absorption into the cytoplasm
of epidermal cells. Some ions also move passively.
61. The endodermal cells have many transport proteins embedded in their
plasma membrane.
62. Transport proteins of endodermal cells are control points, where a
plant adjusts the quantity and types of solutes that reach the xylem.
63. Root endodermis because of the layer of suberin has the ability to
actively transport ions in one direction only.
64. The chief sinks for the mineral elements are
• growing regions of the plant, (Apical and Lateral meristems).
• young leaves.
• developing flowers, fruits and seeds, and the storage organs.
65. Unloading of mineral ions occurs at the fine vein endings through
diffusion and active uptake by these cells.
66. Mobilised elements are phosphorus, sulphur, nitrogen and potassium.
Some elements that are structural components like calcium are not
remobilised.
67. Food (sucrose), is transported by the vascular tissue phloem from a
source to a sink
68. Source (synthesises food) and sink (the part that needs or stores the
food).
69. Source and sink may reversed depending on the season.
70. Source and sink relationship is variable, the direction of movement in
the phloem can be upwards or downwards (Bi-directional)
[NEET-2019] [NCERT-191]
71. Phloem sap is mainly water and sucrose, but other sugars, hormones
and amino acids are also transported or translocated through phloem.
72. Pressure flow or Mass flow Hypothesis.[NEET-2022][NCERT-191]
• Accepted mechanism used for the translocation of sugars from source
to sink.
• Sucrose move into the companion cells then into the living phloem
sieve tube cells by active transport. (Loading)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
• Water in the adjacent xylem moves into the phloem by osmosis.

• Loading and unloading both are active process.
73. Girdling experiment used to identify the tissues through which food
and transported (Phloem is the tissue responsible for translocation of
food and transport takes place in one direction.
74. Apoblastic pathway [NEET-2022][NCERT-184]
75. Solute potential [NEET-2022][NCERT-179]
76. Facilitative Diffussion [NEET-2022][NCERT-177]
*************×*************×*************
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

198, 201, 202 = 3 Pages
56 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

MINERAL NUTRITION
1. In 1860 julius von sachs (German Botanist) demonstrated 1st time
that plants could be grown to maternity in a defined nutrient soln in
complete absence of soil. (Hydroponics)
2. Hydroponics has been successfully employed as a technique for the
commercial production of vegetables such as Tomato, seedless
cucumber & lettuce.
3. More than sixty elements of 105 discovered found in different plants.
Some plants species accumulate. Selenium, some other gold while
some plants growing near nuclear test sites taks up Radioactive
strontium.
4. Criteria for Essentiallity.
1. Elements which required for growth & Reproduction, in the absence of
the element the plants do not complete their life-cycle OR set of seeds.
2. Defficienty of any one element cannot be met by supplying some other
element.
3. Element must be directly involved in the metabolism of the plant.
5. Micronutrients (Large amount, excess of 10 m mole kg–1 of dry matter)
eg: C, N, O, H, P, S, K, Ca, Mg (NEET-2016, 2015) [NCERT-196]
6. Micronutrients or Trace elements (small amount, less than 10 m
mol kg–1 of dry matter) e.g.: Fe, Mn, Cu, Mo, Zn, B, Cl, Ni.
7. Beneficial elements eg: Na, Si, Co, Se (Required by higher plants)
8. Essential elements (4 categories) on the basis of their diverse
functions.
1. Component of Biomolecules (structural elements of cell)
e.g. : C, H, O, N
2. Component of energy-related chemical compound in plants.
e.g.: Mg in chlorophyll, phosphorous in ATP.
3. Activate or inhibit enzyme.
e.g.: Mg++– Activator of RuBP & PEP (Critical enzyme photosynthetic
carbon fixation)
Zn2+ – Activator of Alcohol dehydrogenase
Mo – Nitrogenase during Nitrogen metabolism
4. Potassium play role in opening & closing of stomata.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
9. Role of Essential elements: Permeability of cell membrane, maintain

osmotic concentration of cell sap & co-enzyme.
10. Functions of Mineral elements
1. Nitrogen: Required by plants in greatest amount. Absorbed mainly
as NO–3. Some also by NO–2 or NH4+. Required by all part of plant
such as meristermatic tissues, metabolically active cells.
Major constituents of protein, Vitamins & Hormones.
2. Phosphorous: Absorbed in the form of H2 PO–4 or HPO3–4. constituent
cell membrane, certain protein. All nucleic acid, nucleotides & required
for all phosphorylation reactions.
3. Potassium: Absorbed as K+ required in more abundant quantity in the
meristematic tissues, buds, leaves & root tips. Help in maintaining
anion-cation balance. Protein synthesis, opening & closing of stomata
& maintain turgidity of cells. (NEET-2018) [NCERT-197]
4. Calcium: Absorbed as Ca++. During cell division it is used in synthesis
of cell wall. Particularly as calcium pectate in the middle lamella.
Also needed during formation of mitotic spindle. Accumulate in
older tissue.
5. Magnesium: Absorbed as Mg2+. Activates enzyme for respiration.
Photosynthesis & involved in the synthesis of DNA & RNA. Constituent
of the ring structure of chlorophyll & maintain the ribosomes
structure.
6. Sulphure: Absorbed as SO42–. Present in two amino acid cystein &
Methinine & main constituent of several coenzymes, vitamines
(thiamine, Biotin, Co-enzyme-A) & Ferredoxin.
7. Iron : Absorbed as Fe3+. Required in large amount in comparison to
other micronutrients. Involved in transfer of electrons like Ferrendoxin
& cytoctromes. Reversible oxidised from Fe2+ to Fe3+. Activate catalase
enzyme & essential for the formation of chlorophyll.
(NEET-2020, 2018) [NCERT-197]
2+
8. Manganese: Absorbed as Mn . Activate many enzyme involved in
Photosynthesis, Respiration & Nitrogen metabolism. Best defined
function of manganese is in the splitting of water to liberate oxygen
during photosynthesis. (NEET-2020, 2015) [NCERT-198]
9. Zinc: Absorbed as Zn2+. Activate carboxylase enzyme. Needed in
synthesis of Auxin. (NEET-2020) [NCERT-198]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

10. Copper :Absorbed as Cu++. Essential for overall metabolism in plants.
Associated with certain enzymes involved in Redox reactions &
reversibly oxidised from Cu+ to Cu++.
11. Boron: Absorbed as Bo33– or B4O72–. Required for uptake & utilisation
of Ca++. membrane functioning pollen germination, cell elongation,
cell differentiation & carbohydrates translocation.
(NEET- 2020)[NCERT-198]
2+
12. Molybdenum : Absorbed as MoO . Involved in nitrogenase and nitrate
2
reductase both of which participate in nitrogen metabolism.
13. Chlorine: Absorbed as Cl–. Along with Na+ & K+, it help in determining
the solute concentration & Anion-cation balance Essential for water-
splitting reaction in photosynthesis. (NEET-2015) [NCERT-198]
11. Concentration of essential elements below which plant growth is retarted
is termed as critical concentration.
12. The part of the plants that show deficiency symptoms also depend on
the mobility of the elements in the plant.
13. Actively mobilised elements (N, Mg, K) deficiency symptoms tends
to appear first in older tissues. (2014) [NCERT-198]
14. Immobialised elements (S & Ca), deficiency symptoms first appears
in younger tissues.
15. Chlorosis (loss of chlorophyll leading to yellowing in leaves) caused
by deficiency of N,K,Mg,S,Fe,Mn. Zn & Mo.
16. Necrosis (Death of tissue) : Particularly leaf tissue.
Due to deficiency of Ca, Mg, Cu, K.
17. Inhibition of cell division: Lack or low level of N,K,S,Mo.
18. Delay of flowering: N,S,Mo (low concentration).
19. Any mineral ion concentration in tissues that reduces the dry weight
of tissues by about 10 percent is considered as toxic.
20. Toxicity symptoms are difficult to identify and vary for different plants.
21. Manganese toxicity(excess of Mn) induce deficiency of Fe, Mg & Ca.
The prominent symptom of this toxicity is the appearence of brown
spots surrounded by chlorotic veins.
22. Mn completes with Fe & Mg for uptake & with Mg for binding with
enzyme.
23. Mn also inhibits calcium translocation in shoot apex.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

24. Absorption of ions – Both active & passive (mainly active) two phases
of Absorption of ions.
1. First phase – Entry of ions in apoplast (Passive movement)
2. Second phase – Entry of ions in symplast (Both Active & Passive)
25. Component of fertilisers, both Macro-nutrients (N,P,K,S) &
micro-nutrients (Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe).
26. Nitrogen fixation : Conversion of Nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3).
27. Nitrification:
2NH3+ 3O2  2NO2  2H  2H2 O..........(1) (NEET-2022)[NCERT-202]
2NO2  O 2  2NO3 ..........(2) (NEET-2021) [NCERT-201]

Step (1) by bacteria nitrosomonas/Nitrococcus & step (2) by bacteria
Nitrobacter. These nitrifying bacteria are chemoautrotrophs.
28. Only certain prokaryotic species are capable of fixing nitrogen.
29. Reduction of Nitrogen to ammonia by living organism is called
Biological nitrogen fixation by enzyme Nitrogenase.
30. Free living Nitrogen fixing aerobic microbes – Azotobacter,
Beijerinkia. (NEET-2022) [NCERT-202]
31. Free-living anaerobic – Rhodospirillum.
32. Free living Nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria – Anabaena & Nostoc.
33. Symbiotic Nitrogen fixing microbes – Rhizobium & Frankia.
34. Frankia fix nitrogen in non-leguminous plants – Alnus & Casuarina.
35. Denitrificaction NO–3  N2. (NEET-2021, 2019) [NCERT-201]
Bacteria: Pseudomonas & thiobacillus.
36. Rhizobium – in legumes like alfalfa, sweet clover, garden pea, lentils,
broad bean, clover beans etc. (NEET-2021) [NCERT-202]
37. The root nodules in legume plants are Red/Pink due to presence of
leg-haemoglobin (oxygen scavenger) which protect the nitrogenase
enzyme from oxygen). (NEET-2022, 2015) [NCERT-202]
38. Nitrogenase enzyme is a Mo-Fe protein.
39. In biological nitrogen fixation 8 ATP are required for each NH3 production.
40. In symbiotic nitrogen fixation this energy is obtained from the respiration
of the host cells.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

41. Reductive amination:
Glutamate
  Ketoglutaricacid  NH4  NADPH 
Dehydrogenase

Glutamate + H2O + NADP.

42. Transamination: Formation of other amino acids from glutamic acid
enzyme transaminase catalyses all such reactions.
43. Two most important amides – Asparagin & Glutamine
44. Amides are transported to other parts of the plants via xylem vessels.
45. In soyabean, nitrogen is transported as ureides. These compounds
also have high nitrogen to carbon ratio.
46. 1st stable product of fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in legume plants
is Ammonia. (NEET-2020, 2013) [NCERT-204]
***********––––––***********––––––***********
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

218, 220 = 2 Pages
38 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS

1. Green plants carry out ‘photosynthesis’, a physico-chemical
process.
2. Half-leaf experiment shows that CO2 is required for photosynthesis.
3. Joseph Priestley – Prooposed the concept of gaseous exchange by
plants with the help of bell jar experiment.
4. Jan Ingenhousz – showed the importance of sunlight and green colour
in photosynthesis by using similar setup as the one used by priestley.
5. Julius von Sachs – provided evidence for production of glucose and
Glucose is usually stored as starch.
6. T.W Engelmann – First action spectrum of photosynthesis was
described resembles roughly the absorption specta of chlorophyll-a
and b using green alga, Cladophora, placed in a suspension of
aerobic bacteria.
7. Cornelius van Niel – Suggested that O2 evolved during photosynthesis
comes from H2O, not from CO2. Experiment on purple and green
sulphure bacteria.
8. In chloroplast membranous system reponsible for trapping the light
energy and also synthesis of ATP and NADPH.
9. Division of labour present in chloroplast, Grana thylakoid and stroma
lamellae is responsible for light reaction and stroma is the place
for dark reaction. [NEET 2015][NCERT-209]
10. Seperation of leaf pigment of any green plant through paper
chromatography.
11. Chlorophyll-a (Bright or Blue green)
Chlorophyll-b (Yellow green)
Xanthophyll (Yellow)
Carotenoids (Yellow to yellow orange)
12. Pigments are substances that have an ability to absorb light, at specific
wavelength.
13. Most of the photosynthesis takes place in blue and red region of the
spectrum. [NEET 2019] [NCERT-210]
14. Chlorophyll-a is the major pigment and chlorophyll-b, xanthophyll and
carotenoids are accessory pigment (protect chlorophyll-a from photo-
oxidation)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

15. One molecule of chlorophyll-a (reaction centre) + Antennae molecules

= Photosystem.
16. PS I – reaction centre (Chl “a” 700, P700) and PS II – reaction centre
(Chl “a” 680 P680).
17. Non-cyclic photophosphorylation is called Z-scheme (due to its
characteristic shape on a redox potential scale).
18. Water splitting (photolysis of water) occurs on the inner side (lumen)
of the thylakoid membrane.
19. Products of non-cyclic photophosphorylation – ATP, NADPH and H+
20. Products of cyclic photosphosphorylation – ATP
21. Products of light reaction which utilise in dark reaction – ATP, NADPH
and H+. [NEET 2022, 2018][NCERT-213]
22. In Grana thylakoid both cyclic and non-cyclic process occurs.
23. Membrane or lamellae of grana have both PS I and PS II.
24. Stroma lamellae membrance lack PS II as well as NADP reductase
enzyme so only cyclic photophosphorylation occurs.
25. Primary electron acceptor from PSI : Fe–S protein.
26. Primary electron acceptor from PS II : Pheophytin.
27. The chemiosmotic hypothesis has been put forward by peter mitcheli
to explain the mechanism of ATP synthesis in chloroplast
(Photophosphorylation and Mitochondria) (Oxidative phosphorylation)
[NEET 2012] [NCERT-213]
28. According to this hypothesis, ATP synthesis is linked to development
of a proton grodient across a membrane.
29. Creation of proton grodient in chloroplast – low pH in thylakoid lumen
(more H+) . [NEET 2022, 2016] [NCERT-214]
30. Chemiosmosis requires – a membrane, a proton pump, a proton
gradient and ATPase.
31. Melvin calvin C14 radioactive to workout the complete pathway of
hexose formation from CO2. (Calvin cycle) or (C3 cycle).
32. Calvin cycle occurs in all photosynthetic plants (C3, C4 and CAM plants)
33. Calvin cycle has three stages – Carboxylation, Reduction and
Regeneration.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

34. Carboxylation is the most crucial step of calvin cycle.
35. In reduction step utilisation of 2ATP + 2NADPH + H+ for 1 CO2
molecule.
36. In regeneration step 1 ATP required for phosporylation to form RuBP.
37. For each CO2, 2NADPH2 + 3ATP are required in calvin cycle.
38. To make one molecule of glucose, 6 trans of calvin cycle are required
(18 ATP and 12 NADPH2).
39. In C3 pathway first CO2 fixation product is PGA (3C) and In C4 pathway
first CO2 fixation product is OAA (4C). [NEET 2021] [NCERT-216]
40. In C4 plant primary acceptor of CO2 is PEP (3C) and in C3 plants
primary CO2 acceptor is RuBP (5 Carbon ketose sugar).
[NEET 2022, 2017] [NCERT-216]
41. C4 plants are adapted to dry tropical regions. These plants have
Kranz anatomy in their leaves.
42. Bundle sheath cells or Kranz anatomy are characterised by large
number of chloroplast, thick walls impervious to gaseous exchange
and no intercellular spaces. [NEET-2022] [NCERT-216]
43. In C4 plants, PEPcase is found in mesophyll cell and RuBisCO in
bundle sheath cells.
44. In C4 plants, CO2 transported in the form of malic acid (4C) or aspartic
acid (4C) from mesophyll cell to bundle sheath cell.
[NEET-2022] [NCERT-216]
45. RuBisCO that is the most abundant enzyme in the world, its active
site can bind to both CO2 and O2.
46. RuBisCO has a much greater affinity for CO2 when the CO2 : O2 is
nearly equal. This binding is competitive.
47. In C3 plants same O2 does bind to RuBisCO hence CO2 fixation is
decrease.
48. Photorespiration : RuBP + O2  PGA (3C) + Phosphoglycolate (2C)
[NEET 2020] [NCERT-220]
49. In C4 plants, photorespiration does not occurs because they increase
the concentration of CO2 in bundle sheath cells by pumping it in the
form of C4 acids. [NEET 2016, 2012] [NCERT-220]
50. Photorespiration is wasteful process (Neigther synthesis of sugar
nor of ATP and NADPH2)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

51. Productivity and yield of C4 plants are better, these plants show
tolerance to higher temperature.
52. Example of C4 plants – Maize and sorghum
53. Photosynthesis is under the infleuence of several factors both internal
(plant) and external.
54. Plant factors includes (Internal)– Number, size, age, orientation of
leaves, mesophyll cells, chloroplast, internal CO2 concentration and
amount of chlorophyll.
55. Plant factors are dependent on the genetic predisposition and growth
of the plants.
56. External factors – Availability of sunlight, temperature, CO 2
concentration and water.
57. At any point the rate will be determined by the factor available at sub-
optimal levels.
58. Law of limiting factors (1904) by Blackman’s.
59. CO2 is the major limiting factor for photosynthesis.
60. Light saturation occurs at 10 percent of the full sunlight. Except for
plants in shade or in dense forests, light is rarely a limiting factor in
nature.
61. CO2 saturation for C4 plants at about 360 lL–1 and for C3 plants at
beyond 450 lL–1. [NEET 2017], [NCERT-223]
62. Current availability of CO2 levels is limiting to the C3 plants.
63. C3 plants respond to higher CO2 concentratin by showing increase
rates photosynthesis leading to higher productivity (Experiments on
green house crop such as tomatoes and bell peppers).
64. Dark reactions being enzymatic are temperature controlled.
65. C4 plants respond to higher temperatures and show higher rate of
photosynthesis.
66. Water stress causes the stomata to close hence reducing the CO2
availability.
67. Water stress also make leaves wilt thus reducing the surface area of
the leaves and their metabolic activities as well.
***********×***********×***********×***********
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

230, 233 = 2 Pages
46 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
1. All the food that is respired for life processes comes from
photosynthesis.
2. Breaking of the C–C bonds of complex compounds through oxidation
within the cells, leading to release of considerable amount of energy is
called Respiration.
3. ATP - Energy currency of the cells.
4. Reason behind absence of specialised respiratory organ in plants.
i. Each plant part takes care of its own gas exchange needs, very
little transport of gases from one plant part to another.
ii. Plants respire at rates for lower than animals do.
iii. In plants, most of the living cells located quite close to the surface
of the plants.
5. Glycolysis : Breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid.
i. Also called EMP pathway (E=Embden, M=Meyerhof, P=Parnas).
ii. Common pathway in both Aerobic and Anaerobic.
iii. Occurs in cytoplasm of all living organisms.
iv. Glucose undergoes partial oxidation to form two molecules of
pyruvic acid.
v. Neither use of O2 nor release of CO2.
vi. Total ATP gain = 8, and net ATP gain = 2 (By SLP)
[NEET-2022] [NCERT-229]
vii. Pyruvic acid is the key product of Glycolysisl.
Steps of Glycolysis– [NEET 2018, 2019][NCERT-229]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

6. Fermentation takes place under anaerobic conditions in many

prokaryotes, unicellular eukaryotes and in germinating seeds.
7. In fermentation, incomplete oxidation of respiratory substrate.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

8. Alcoholic fermentation : In yeast, enzyme – pyruvate decarboxylase

and alcohol dehydrogenase.
Pyruvic acid Ethanol + CO2 (With CO2)
9. Lactic acid fermentation :
In some bacteria and in muscles enzyme – Lactate dehydrogenase.

[NEET 2014] [NCERT-230]
Pyruvic acid Lactic acid (without CO2)
10. In both lactic acid and alcohol fermentation not much energy is released
less than 7% of the energy is released. [NEET-2022] [NCERT-230]
11. Yeast poison themselves to death when the concentration of alcohol
reaches about 13 per cent.
12. Net or Total or Direct gain of ATP = 2 ATP
13. Conversion of pyruvic acid to acetyl CoA (Link reaction) is an oxidative
decarboxylation catalysed by Pyruvate dehydrogenase enzyme.
14. The complete oxidation of pyruvate by the stepwise removal of all the
hydrogen atoms, leaving three molecules of CO2. (takes place in
matrix of mitochondria).
15. The passing on of the electrons removed as part of the hydrogen atoms
to molecular O2 with simultaneous synthesis of ATP. (takes place in
innermembrane of mitochondria).
16. Kreb’s Cycle
i. Also called TCA cycle (Tri-Carboxylic acid cycle)
[NEET-2022] NCERT-232]
ii. Occurs in matrix of mitochondria.
iii. Start with the condensationof acetyl group with OAA and water to
yield citric acid. [NEET 2017] [NCERT-232]
iv. During conversio of succinyl Co-A to succinic acid, A molecule
of GTP is synthesised (via SLP). [NEET 2020] [NCERT-232]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
v. Three points in the cycle where,
and one point where, 2
vi. It involve two decarboxylations (Removal of CO2) steps.

vii. It involves 4C, 5C (single) and 6C containing compound.
17. ETS (Electron Transport System) [NEET 2018, 2013][NCERT-233]
i. Present in Inner mitochondrial membrane. [NEET 2019][NCERT-233]
ii. Five complex involve – [NEET-2022]
• NADH dehydrogenase • FADH2
• Cytochrome bc1 • Cytochrome a, a3 and 2 Copper
• ATP synthase centre[NEET 2021] [NCERT-233]
iii. Oxygen acts as the final hydrogen acceptor and it get reduce
to water.
vi. Oxidation of one molecule of NADH give 3 molecules of ATP and
oxidation of one molecule of FADH give 2 molecule of ATP.
v. Energy of oxidation – Reduction utilised in production of proton

gradient to synthesise ATP (Oxidative phosphorylation).
[NEET 2018, 2016] [NCERT-234]
vi. Mobile electron carrier – Cytochrome “C” and Ubiquinone (UQ) /

Co-Q [NEET 2022][NCERT-234]
vii. Net gain of 36 ATP molecules during aerobic respiration of one

molecule of glucose.
18. Interrelationship among metabolic pathways showing respiration
mediated breakdown of different organic molecules to CO2 and H2O.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

19. Because respiratory pathway is involved in both Anabolic and
Catabolic, hence be better to consider the respiratory pathway as an
amphibolic pathway rather than as a catabolic one.
20. Respiratory Quotient or Respiratory ratio (RQ)
During aerobic respiration O2 is consumed and CO2 is released.
21. The respiratory quotient depends upon the type of respiratory substrate
used during respiration.
Substrate RQ
• Carbohydrates 1
• Protein 0.9
• Tripalmitin (Fattyacid) 0.7 [NEET 2019][NCERT 236]
• Organic acid More than one
22. Pure proteins and fats are never used as respiratory substrates.
************×************×************×************
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

248, 250, 252 = 3 Pages
55 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

1. All cells of a plant are descendents of zygote.
2. Development is the sum of two process – Growth and
Differentiation.
3. Growth can be defined as an irreversible permanent increase in
size of an organ or its parts or even of an individual cell.
4. Generally, growth is accompained by metabolic processes (both
catabolic and anabolic), with expense of energy.
5. Plant growth generally is indeterminate.
6. Plant show open form of growth – new cells are always being added
to the plant body.
7. Growth, at a cellular level is principally a consequence of increase in
the amount of protoplasm.
8. Growth is measured by a variety of parameters shuch as –
Increase in fresh weight, dry weight, length, area, volume and cell
number.
9. Growth of a pollen tube is measured in terms of its length.
10. Phases of growth : three phases – Meristematic, Elongation,
Maturation
11. Cells in meristematic phase of growth rich in protoplasm, posses
large conspicous nuclei, cell wall are primary in nature, thin and
cellulosic with abundant plasmodesmatal connection.
12. Elongation phase : Increase vacuolation, cell enlargement and new
cell wall deposition.
13. Maturation phase : Cells attain their maximum size in terms of wall
thickening, protoplasmic modification.
14. Increased growth per unit time is termed as growth rate.
15. The growth rate shows an increase that may be arithmetic or
geometrical.
16. In arithmetic growth only one daughter cell continuous to divide while
other differentiate and matures.
17. Rooth elongation at constant rate is the expression of arithmetic growth.
18. Linear gorwth curve can be expressed as Lt = Lo + rt
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

19. In Geometrical growth both daughter cell continuosly divide.

It has three phases –
i. Lag phase
ii. Log (Exponential) phase (max-growth occurs) [NEET 2020][NCERT 243]
iii. Stationary phase
20. Sigmoid or S-curve is obtained if we plot the parameter of growth
against time. [NEET 2015][NCERT 243]
21. Exponential growth can be expressed as W1 = Woert
Here “r” is relative growth rate and also measured the ability of plant to
produce new plant material refered, Efficiency index.
22. Quantitative comparisons between growth of living system can also
be made in two ways –
i. Absolute growth rate : Measurement and comparision of total
growth per unit time.
ii. Relative growth rate : Growth per unit time with respect to initial
parameter.
23. Essential elements for growth – Water, Oxygen, Nutrients.
24. Plant growth and furthers development is intimately linked to the water
status of plant.
25. Oxygen – Help in releasing metabolic energy.
26. Water – Provide medium for enzymatic activities needed for growth.
27. Nutrients – for synthesis of protoplasm and act as source of energy
Undifferentiate cells. (shoot and root apical meristem)
 [NEET 2022][NCERT 243]
Defferentiated cells (Parenchyma, collenchyma, Sclerenchyma,
(Division ability loss) Primary xylem and phloem)

Dedifferentiated cells (Interfascicular cambium cork cambium)
(Division ability regain)

Redifferentiated cells (Secondary xylem and phloem, cork,
(Division ability permanently lost) secondary cortex)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

28. Development includes all changes that an organism goes through
during its life cycle from germination of seed to senescence.
29. Plasticity – Plants follow different pathways in response to environment
or phases of life to form different kinds of structures. [NEET 2021, 22]
e.g., Heterophylly in cotton, coriender and larkspur [NCERT 246]
30. Different in shapes of leaves produced in air and those produced in
water. e.g., Buttercup.
31. Development in plants is under the control of intrinsic and extrinsic
factors.
Intrinsic (Intracellular) : Genetic – PGR
Extrinsic (Intercellular) : Light, Temperature, Water, Oxygen, Nutrients
32. Plant growth regulators (PGRs) :
– Small, simple molecules of diverse chemical composition.
– Auxins – indole compound
– Cytokinins – Adenine derivatives
– Gibberellins – Terpenes
– Abscisic acid – Carotenoids
– Ethylene – Gases
33. Growth promoting activities: Cell division, cell enlargement, pattern
formation tropic growth, flowering, fruiting, seed.
34. Growth Promoter Harmones : Auxins, Gibberelins, cytokins
formation.
35. Growth Inhibiting activities: Dormancy, Abscission & Responses
to wound & stresses.
36. Growth Inhibitor Harmones : Abscisic acid.
37. Ethylene is both promoter & Inhibitor but largely inhibitor of growth.
38. Auxin: Isolated by F.W. went from tip of coleoptite of oat seedling
(NEET-2016)[NCERT 246]
39. Bakane (Foolish seedling) disease of rice seedling caused by pathogen
(NEET 2014) [NCERT 248]
Gibberella fujikuroi E. Kurosawa identified & discovered Gibberline.
40. Skoog & Miller, identified & crystallised the cytokinins promoting
active substance fermed as Kinetin.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

41. Three different kinds of Inhibitors, Inhibitor-B, Abscission II & Dormin
are chemically identical & named ABA (During mid-1960).
42. Cousins : Release of a volatile substence from ripened orange &
identified as Ethylene.
Auxins:
43. 1st isolated from Human urine
44. Produced by growing apices of stems & roots.
45. Natural – IAA & IBA (NEET-2013)[NCERT 248]
46. Synthetic – 2,4-D & NAA
47. Functions
 Initiate rooting in stem cutting
 Promote flowering eg: In Pineapples (NEET-2019)[NCERT 248]
 Prevent fruit & leaf drop at early stages (NEET-2017)[NCERT 248]
 Promote the Abscission of older mature leaves and fruits.
48. Apical dominance : Growing apical bud inhibit the growth of lateral
buds. [NEET-2022][NCERT 246]
49. Decapitation : Removal of shoot tips (Result in growth of lateral buds)
used in Tea plantation, Hedge making.
50. Auxine also induce parthanocarpy in Tomatoes.
51. Used as Herbicides, 2,4-D kill docot weeds(NEET-2021)[NCERT 249]
52. Used to prepare weed free lawns, also controls xylem differentiation &
help in cell division.
Gibberellins
53. More than 100 gibberellins reported from fungi & higher plants.
54. GA3 was the first gibberellins to be discovered.
55. All GAs are acidic.
56. They increase the length of grapes stalks, causes fruits like apple to
elongate & improve its shape.
57. Delay senescence, the fruits can left on the free longer.
58. Speed up the malting process in brewing industry.
59. Gibbereline caused increase the yield by as much as 20 tonnes per
acre . (NEET-2020)[NCERT 249]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

60. Promotes bolting (Internodal elongation just prior to flowering) in beet,
cabbages & many plants with rosette habbit.
Cytokinins
61. Kinetin : A modified form of adenine (purine) from the autoclaved herring
sperm DNA. Not occurs naturally in plants.
62. Zeatin (From corn-kernels & coconut milk) natural substances with
cytokinin like activities.
63. Natural cytokinins are synthesised in regions where rapid cell division
occurs like root apices, developing shoot buds, young fruits.
64. Promotes new leaves, chloroplast in leaves, lateral shoot growth &
adventitious shoot formation.
65. Overcome the apical dominance.
66. Promote nutrient mobilisation which helps in the delay of leaf
senescence.
Ethylene
67. Synthesed in large amount by tissues undergoing senescence &
ripening fruits.
68. Ethylene leads to :
–– Horizontal growth of dicot seedling.
–– Swelling of axis
–– Apical hook formation
69. Promotes senescence & abscission of plant organ specially of leaves
& flowers.
70. Highly effective in fruit ripening by enhances respiration rate
(Respiratory climatic)
71. Rapid Internode & petiole elongation in deep water rice plants.
[NEET 2022]
72. Promotes root growth & root hair formation, helping the plants to
increase their absorption surface.
73. Initiate flowering & synchronisation of fruit setting in pineapple
74. Induce flowering in mango.
75. Most widely used PGR in Agriculature.
76. Most widely used form of Ethylene compound is Ethaphon.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
77. Hastens fruit ripening in Tomatoes & Apples.
78. Accelerates Abscission in flowers & fruits (thining of cotton, cherry,
walnut).
79. Promote female flowers in cucumbers. [NCERT 2022]
Abscisic Acid (ABA) : Stress Hormones (NEET-2013)[NCERT 250]
80. General plant growth inhibitor & inhibitor of plant metabolism.
81. Inhibits seed germination, stimulate closure of stomata.[NEET 2022]
82. Increases the tolerance of plants to various kinds of stresses
83. Play important role in : Seed development, malturation, dormancy.
84. ABA helps seeds to withstand desiccation & other factors unfavourable
for growth.
85. ABA acts as an antogonist of GAs (NEET-2012)[NCERT 251]
86. Role of PGR could be complimentary or antaganistic.
87. Role of PGR could also be individualistic or synergistic
88. Events where more than one PGR interacts to attect :
 Dormancy of Seed/Buds
 Abscission
 Senescence
 Apical dominance
89. Photoperiodism:
1. Plants requires a periodic exposure to light to induce floweringd.
2. SDP: Needs light exposure less than critical light period.
3. LDP: Needs light exposure more than critical light period
4. DNP: No correlation between exposure of light duration & induction
of flowering.
5. Duration of light & Dark duration are equally important (Relative
duration)
6. Site of perception of light/dark duration are the leaves
(NEET-2021, 2019)[NCERT 251]
7. Hypothetically, there are hormonal substance which migrates from
leaves to shoot apices to induce flowering.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Vernalisation:
90. Plants for which flowering is either quantitatively or qualitatively
dependent on exposure to low temperature.
91. It prevents precocious reproductive development late in the growing
season.
92. It enables the plants to have sufficient time to reach maturity.
93. Some important plants produce two kinds of variety at which
vernalisation applicable are wheat, Barley, Rye.
94. Vernalisation also seen in bienial plants (monocarpic) eg: sugarbeet,
cabbages, carrots. (NEET-2012)[NCERT 252]
95. Seed dormancy:
1. Certain seeds which fail to germinate even when external conditions
are favourable.
2. Impermeable & Hard seed coate, presence of chemical inhibitors
such as Abscissic acid, phenolic acid & paraoscorbic acid &
immature embryo which causes seed dormancy.
3. Dormancy can be overcome by:
• Natural means & various man-made measures.
• By mechanical abrasion using knives, sandpaper, vigrous shaking.
• Chilling condition or applicable of certain chemicals like Gibberelic
acid & Nitrates.
• Changing the environmental condition such as light & temperature.
*****×*****×*****×*****
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

INDEX
UNIT V : HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
1. Digestion and Absorption - 3-8
2. Breathing and Exchange of Gases - 9-13
3. Body Fluids and Circulation - 14-19
4. Excretory Products and their Elimination - 20-25
5. Locomotion and Movement - 26-32
6. Neural Control and Coordination - 33-40
7. Chemical Coordination and Integration - 41-48
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

158, 162, 1964= 61.1%
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

1. Food Major component  Carbohydrate, proteins and Fat
Small quantities  Vitamins and Minerals
2. Digestion  Mechanical & Biochemical Method
3. Thecodont  Tooth embedded in a socket of jaw bone
4. Diphydont  Majority of Mammals  two sets of teeth during their
life, a set of temporary milk or deciduous teeth replaced by a set of
permanent or adult teeth.
5. Heterodont  Adult human has 32 permanent teeth  Incisor, carine,
pre-molar, molar
6. Dental formula of Adult (2123 / 2123)
7. Tongue  attach to floor of oral caviaty by Frenulum. Small projection
called papillae, some of which bear taste buds.
8. Pharynx  common passage for food and air..
9. Cartilaginous flap called epiglottis prevents the entry of food into glottis
- (opening of wind pipe) during swallowing.
10. Muscular sphincter (gastro - oesophageal) reglate the opening of
oesophagous into stomach.
11. Stomach & Major part  Cardiac, fundic, Body (main central region),
Pyloric.
12. Small Intestine (3 Regions)  Duodenum (c-shape), Jejunum (long
coiled), Ileum (highly coiled)
13. Large Intestine  Caecum, Colon, Rectum
14. Opening of stomach into duodenum is guarded by pyloric sphincter.
15. Vermiform appendix  vestigial organ, arises from caecum
(NEET-2020) [NCERT-259-260]
16. Wall of alimentary canal oesophagous to rectum - 4 layer
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

17. Microvilli  give brush border appearance  increase surface area.

18. Mucosal epithelium has goblet cell  secrete mucus.
19. Mucosa form  glands in stomach (NEET-2019)[NCERT-260]
 Crypts in between the bases of villi in intestine.
20. Slivary gland - 3 pair  Parotid (cheeks),
 Submaxillary / Mandibulan (Lower Jaw)
 Sub lingual (Below tongue)
21. Liver  largest gland (it has two lobe),
 Hepatic lobule are structural and functional unit,
 Each lobule covered by thin connective tissue sheath 
Glisson’s capsule.
22. Bile  secreted by hepatic cell (store and concentrate by Gall Bladder)
23. Duct of gall bladder (cystic duct)  Duct from liver (Hepatic
duct)  join to form  common bile duct.
24. Common bile duct  pancreatic duct  Common hepato pancreatic
duct.  Open in duodenum [NCERT-261]
 gaurded by sphincter of oddi (NEET-2016, NEET-2021)
25. Pancreas(both)  Exocrine  secrete alkaline pancreatic juice (enzyme),
 Endocrine  Hormones (Insulin and glucagon)
26. Saliva  contain electrolyte (Na+,k+, Cl–, HCO3– enzyme (salivary
amylase)
27. Chemical process of digestion start in oral cavity by action of
carbohydrate splitting enzyme
28. Mucosa of stomach  has gastric gland  3 major type of cell

• Mucus Neck cell  secrete mucus (NEET-2015)[NCERT-262]
• Peptic or chief cell  secrete proenzyme pepsinogen (NEET-2017)
• Parietal or oxynitic cell  secarete HCl & Intrinsic factor (absorption
of vit. B-12) (NEET-2018, 2019) [NCERT-262]
29. Mixing of food by acidic gastric juice of stomach by churning movement
of its muscular wall  this food is called chyme.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
30. In stomach
31. Rennin is a proteolytic Enzyme found in gastric juice of infants help in

digestion of milk proteins (NEET-2015. 2014, 2019)[NCERT-262]
32. Pancreatic juice contain inactive enzyme  Trypsinogen,
chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidases, amylases, lipases,
nucleases. (NEET-2017) [NCERT-251]
33. Trypsinogen activated by an enzyme  (enterokinase  secreted by
intestinal mucasa) into active trypsin  which activate others enzyme
(NEET- 2020, 2019)[NCERT-262]
34. Bile contain – Bile pigment (Bilirubin and Bili-verdin), bile salts,
cholesterol and phospholipid but no enzyme.
35. Bile help in emulsification of fat and activate lipases.
36. Enzyme of pancreatic juice 
 Pr otein 
 Peptones  
Tryp sin/ chymotryp sin

  carboxypeptidase Depeptides
Pr oteases 
Amylase
Polysaccharides   Disaccharides 
lipases
Fat    Monoglycerides 
 Diglycerides 
Nucleases
Nucleic acid  Nucleotides  Nucleasides 
37. Intestinal juice  disaccharidases, dipeptidases, lipases,

nucleasidases by action of Intestinal juice (succus entericus)
(NEET-2016, NEET-2015) [NCERT-262]
dipeptidases
Dipeptides   A mino acid  Nucleasides 
Maltase
Maltose   A min o acid  Glucos e  Glu cos e 
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Lactase
Lactose   Glu cos e  Galactose 
38. Digestion of disoccharides is not porformed by secretion from salivary

glands. [NEET-2022][NCERT-263]
Nucleotidases
[Nucleotides 
Nucleotidases
 Nucleasides  sugar  Base ]
[Di and Monoglycerides

39. Fatty acid and glycerol can not be absorbed by blood.
40. No significant digestive activity occure in large Intestine.
41. Ileo-caecal valve – prevent back flow of faecal matter
42. Physiologic value  actual amount of energy cambustion of 1 gram of
food. For carbohydrate (4 kcal/g), protein (4.0 kcal/g), Fat (9 kcal/g)
43. Absorption
 Simple diffusion – Small amount glucose and amino acid + Cl–
 Facilitated diffusion – Some substance like glucose and amino acid
 Active transport – Amino acid + Glucose + Na+
44. Specialised lymphatic capilaries called lacteals carry chylomicrons into
lymphatic vessels and ultimately into blood.[NEET-2022][NCERT-264]
45. Fatty acid & glycerol  Micelles  reform into very small protein
coated fat globules  chylomicrons. [NEET-2022][NCERT-265]
46. Maximum absorption occurs in small intestine.
47. Mouth  absorption of certain drug
Stomach  water, sugar, alcohol.
Large Intestine  Water, mineral and drugs
48. Jaundice  liver affected, skin and eye turn yellow due to deposit of
Bile pigment. (NEET-2010)[NCERT-265]
49. Vomiting  Feeling of nausea precedes vomiting (vomit
center  medulla)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

50. Constipation  Faeces retained within colon.

51. Diarrhoea  Reduce absorption of food. Increase liquidity of faecal
discharge.
52. Indigestion  cause of Indigestion  Inadequate enzyme secretion
anxiety, over eating, food poisoning and spicy food.
(NEET 2012)[NCERT-266]
53. Marasmus Kwashiorkar
– Deficiency of protein and – Protein deficiency
calories
– Infant less than one year – More than one year age
– Extreme emaciation of – Unlike manasmus some fat is
bodies and thining of limbs still left under skin more over
result skin becomes dry extensive oedema and swelling.
thin, wrinkled.
– Development of brain impaired.
[NEET-2022]
******×******×******
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

272, 274, 275 = 3 Pages
70 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

BREATHING AND EXCHANG OF GASES

1. Mechanism of Breathing depend – Habitat, level of organisation
Invertebrate
– Spongs, coelentrates, flatworms – exchange O2 with CO2 by
simple diffusion over body surface.
– Earthworm – by moist cuticle
– Insert – Network of tube (tracheal tube)
– Aquatic arthropods & Molluses – gills (Bracheal Respiration)
– Terestial forms use – lungs (Pulmonary Respiration)
Vertebrates
– Fishes use – gills
– Amphabians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals – lungs.
2. Amphabians like frog can respire by moist skin (Cutaneous R.)
3. External nostrils  Nasal passage  Nasal chamber  Trachea
 Larynx  Pharynx
4 Epiglottis – thin elastic cartilaginous flap called epiglottis, cover glottis
during swallowing to prevent entry of food into larynx..
5. Trachea divide at level of 5th thoracic vertebra into right and left primary
bronchi
6. Primary bronchi  2 o  3 o Bronchi  initial Bronchioles 
Alveoli  Terminal Bronchioles
7. We have 2 lungs  cover by double layered pleura with pleural fluid
between them.
8. External nostril to terminal Bronchioles  conducting part conducting
part function– Transport air to alveoli
– clear from foreign particle [NEET-2022][NCERT-270]
– Humidifies and Bring air to Body Temprature
9. Alveoli and their duct  Respiratory or exchange part.
Function  Actual site of diffusion of O2 and CO2
(NEET-2013)[NCERT-270]
10. Thoracic chamber  form dorsally by vertebral column, ventrally by
sternum, laterally by ribs and lower side by diaphragm (dome - shape)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

11. Inspiration – pressure with in lungs (Intra-pulmonary pressure) less

than atmospheric pressure then inspiration occure.
12. Expiration – when intra-pulmonary pressure more than atmospheric
pressure.
13. Inspiration initiated by contraction of diaphragm which increase volume
of thoracic chamber in arterior-posterior axis. contraction of external
inter-costal muscle lift up the ribs and sternum causing an increase in
volume of tharacic chamber in dorso-ventral axis
Overall tharacic volume increase  similarly pulmonary volume
increase.
This is Inspiration, Which force air from outside to lungs, Intra-
pulmonary pressure decrease (NEET-2019)[NCERT-270-271]
14. Volume of air involved in breathing estimated by – spirometer.
Respiratory Volume Value
Tidal Volume (TV.) 500 ml (6000 – 8000 ml air per minute)
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) 2500 to 3000mL (NEET-2018)
15.
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) 1000 to 1100 mL
Residual Volume(RV) 1100 to 1200 mL (NEET-2017, 2016)
[NCERT-271]
16. Ca pa city Value

Inspiratory capacity TV + IRV
Expiratory capacity TV + ERV (NEET-2019)

Functional Residual capacity ERV + RV
Vital capacity ERV + TV + IRV
Total lungs capacity or Vital
RV + ERV + TV + IRV
Capacity + Residual Volume
[NCERT-272]
17. Exchange of Gases  Alveoli are primary site for gaseous exchange.
18. Exchange of Gases depend (occure by simple diffusion)
– pressure / concentration gradient
– solubility of gases
– thickness of membrane
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
19. Partial Pressures (in mm Hg) of O2 and CO2 at Different Parts
(NEET-2016, 2021)[NCERT-272]
20. Solubility of CO2 is 20–25 time higher than O2 hence diffuse faster.
21. Diffusion membrane (3 layer) (total thickness much (less than 1
milimeter)
– Thin squamous epithelium of alveoli
– Endothelium of alveolar capillaries
– Basement substance. (NEET-2016) [NCERT-273-274]
22. Transport of gas
O2 – 97%  Transport by RBC CO2 –70%  as bicarbonate
–3%  dissolve state through – 20–25%  by RBC
plasma – 7%  dissolve in
plasma
23. Transport of oxygen – Haemoglobin (Red colour –Iron containing
pigment) [Haemoglobin + oxygen  oxyhaemoglobin]–reversible
manner bonding.
24. Binding of (O2+Hb) – primarily depend or partial pressure of O2
25. Sigmoid curve obtain when percentage saturation of Haemoglobin
with O2 is plotted against pO2, (oxygen dissociation curve)
26. In alveoli  High PO 2, low pCO 2, lesss H + concentration, low
temperature. (NEET-2021, 2020)[NCERT-273-274]
favour the formation of oxyhaemoglobin
In tissue  Low PO 2, high pCO 2, high H + concentration, high
temperature. (NEET-2021, 2020)[NCERT-273-274]
favourable for dissociation of oxygen
27. Every 100mL of oxygenated blood deliver around 5 mL of O2 to tissue
under normal physiological condition. [NEET-2022][NCERT-273]
28. Transport of CO 2  carried by haemoglobin as carbamino-
haemoglobin
– PO2 is major factor which affect this binding.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
29. At tissue  pCO2 high and PO2 low more binding of CO2 occure
– at alvedi – pCO2 low,PO2high dissociation of CO2 occure.
30. RBC contain very high concentration of enzyme carbonic anhydrase
and minute quantities of same is present in plasma too.
 
   
hence form CO2 and int o blood and form bicarbonate
H2O
–Thus CO2 trapped as bicarbonate at tissue level and transported to

alveoli is released out as CO2
31. Every 100 mL of deoxygenated blood deliver 4 mL of CO2 to alveoli.
32. Special centre present in medulla of brain which is primarily responsible
for regulation of respiration – Respiratory rythm centre.
33. Another centre present in pons which moderate the function of
respiratory rythm center  Preumotaxic centre.
34. Chemosenstive area adjacent to rythm centre senstive to  CO 2,H+
35. Role of oxygen in Regulation of respiratory rythm insignificant.
Asthma : difficulty in breathing due to inflamation of bronchi and
bronchioles (NEET-2018, 2016)[NCERT-276]
Emphysema : Alveolar wall get damaged and respiratory surface
decrease (NEET-2022, 2018, 2015)[NCERT-276]
Occupational Respiratory Disorder : People working certain industry
involve grinding or store breaking suffer to much.
Long exposure give rise inflammation leads to fibrosis cause lung
damage. (NEET-2018, 2015)[NCERT-276]
*****×*****×*****×*****
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

279, 280 = 2 Pages
71.8 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

BODY FLUID AND CIRCULATION

1. Blood Special connective tissue, compose of fluid matrix, plasma,
formed Element [NEET 2015][NCERT-278]
2. Plasma 55% of blood (90-92% water, 6-8% protein)
3.
4. Factor for coagulation present in plasma in an inactive form.

5. Plasma without clotting factors is called serum.[NEET 2016][NCERT-279]
6.
[NCERT-279-280]
7. Blood group
(i) ABO Antigen chemical that induce immune
Response. Antigen Blood group
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Blood group A B AB O
Antigen on RBCs A B A,B Nil [NEET-2012,2014]
Antibody in Plasma Anit-B Anti-A Nil Anit A,B [NCERT-280]

Donor’s group A,O B,O O,AB O
A,B
• (Blood group O universal donar) (AB- Universal recipients)
[NEET 2021] [NCERT-281]
(ii) Rh-grouping - Rh-positive (Rh-antigen present)
Rh-Incompatibility (Foetus -Rh positive, mother-Rh-negative)
• 1st pregnancy is normal In case of 2nd pregnancy Rh-incompatibility
seen.
• Death of foetus due to jaundice and anaemia known as Erythroblastosis
foetalis.
(This can be avoided by giving anti Rh-antibody to motherimmidiately
after dilivery of first child.)
8. Coagulation of blood An injury stimulate platelets in blood to release
certain factor which activate mechanism of coagulation.
[NEET 2021] [NCERT-281]

• Clot/Coagulum form by network of thread called fibrin.
[NEET 2022] [NCERT-281]
• Calcium ion play a very important role in clotting.
9. Lymph Fluid present in lymphatic system called lymph,
Colourless and responsible for immune response of body..
It is also known as tissue fluid responsible for exchange of nutrients

gases etc between blood and cell. And it has same mineral
distribution as plasma.
10.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

11. Fishes 2 chamber heart (1A+1v) Single Circutation
Amphibia, Reptiles (Except crocodile) 3 chamber heart + (2 Auricle
+ 1 ventricle) Incomplete double circulation.
Birds, Mammals, crocodile 4 chamber Heart (2A+2V)
[NEET -2015][NCERT-282] Complete double circulation
12. Heart Mesodermal origin, protected by double walled membranous
bag pericardium enclose the pericardial fluid.
13. Thin muscular wall inter atrial septum seprate left and right atria whereas
thick walled inter -ventriculuar septum seprate left and right Ventricle
14. Atrium and ventricle of same side seprated by thick fibrous tissue called
atrio-ventricular septum.
15. Right A and Right V guarded by valve form of 3 muscular flap or cusps
called tricuspid valve while biscupid value or mitral valve guard
opening of left atrium and left ventricle. [NEET-2018][NCERT-283]
16. Sino-atrial node (SAN) A path of nodal tissue present in right upper
corner of Right Atrium called SAN.
• SAN can generate maximum number of action potential 70-75/min
responsible for initiate and maintain contraction of heart hence called
pace maker.
• AVN (atrio-ventricular node) lower left corner of right Atrium.
17. Cardiac Cycle
Joint diastole – all four chamber relaxed, bicuspid/tricuspid valve open,
semilunar valve close.
• Blood flow from pulmonary vein and vena cava to left and right atria
respectively then to left and right ventricle goes Respectively..
[NEET 2022] [NCERT-284]
Atrial systole Simultaneous contraction of both atria
flow of blood in ventricle increase by 30 %
Ventricle systole Atrial relaxation coinciding with ventricular systole
which increase ventricular pressure cause closer of tricuspid and biscuspid
and open semilunar valve (guarding pulmonary artery and aorta)
Ventricular diastole Now ventricular pressure fall down cause
Semiunar valve close and tricuspid and bicuspid open.
18. Duration of cardiac cycle = 0.8 second
19. Stroke volume Each ventricle pump out 70 ml blood during a cardiac
cycle.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
20. [NEET-2019]
21. First Heart sound (Lub) associated with closure of tricuspid and
bicuspid valve.
22. 2nd Heart sound (dub) Closure of semilunar valve. [NEET-2013]
23. Electrocardio graph (ECG) [NCERT-285]
P wave Excitation (or depolarisation) of atria leads to contraction of
both atria. [NEET-2019, 18][NCERT-285]
QRS complex depolarisation of ventricle, Contraction start after Q
and mark the beginning of systole. [NEET-2020,2019][NCERT-285]
T–wave Return of ventricle from excited to normal state end of T wave
mark of end of systole.
• Heart beat rate determine by counting number of QRS complex.
24. Each artery and vein consist of 3 layer –
• Tunica media thin veins as compare to Artery[NEET-2013][NCERT-286]
25.
26. Hepatic portal system (Blood flow from Intestine to liver) [NEET 2017]
27. Regulation of Cardiac activity [NCERT-286]
• Heart is auto regulated (myogenic)
• Medulla can moderate function of Heart by Autonomic nervous system
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

28. High blood pressure (Hypertension) [NCERT-287]
• Normal blood pressure (BP)
• BP over 140/90 show hypertension

• High BP leads to heart disease also affect vital organ Brain & kidney.
29. Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) also known as atherosclerosis
Lumen of arteries get narrower due to deposition of Ca++, fat cholesteral
and fibrous tissue.
30. Angina acute chest pain when no enough oxygen is reaching the
heart muscle. [NEET 2022] [NCERT-288]
31. Heart failure when heart not pump blood effectively enough to meet
the need of body (sometime called congestive heart failure)
32. Cardiac arrest Heart stop beating.
33. Heart attack When heart muscle suddenly damaged by inadequate
blood supply.
*****×*****×*****×*****
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

293, 294, 297 = 3 Pages
65 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

1. Ammonia  most toxic farm  Require large amount of water folr its
excretion.
Uric acid  least toxic  Require minimum water..
2. Terestrial adaptations neccessitated the production of lesser toxic
nitrogenous waste like urea and uric cid. [NEET-2022][NCERT-290]
3. Type of Animal: (2019, 2012, 2011) [NCERT-290]
Ammonotelic Ureotelic Uricotelic
• Excretary Product • Urea • Uric acid
Ammonia
• No role of kidney • kidney play role • Kidney play role
e.g., Many bony e.g.,Terrestial e.g., Reptiles, Birds,
fishes, aquatic amphibians, land snails, Insects
insects marine fishes
4. Nitrogenous waste is excreted in the form of pellet or pest by Pavo(Birds).
5. Excretary structures : (2013) [NCERT-291]
• Protorephridia (flame cells) : Platyhelminthes, rotifers, some annelids
and cephalochardate (Amphioxus) •
• Nephridia : Earthworm and other annelids.
Malpighian tubule: Most of insects.
Antennal gland or green gland: Crustaceans like prawns.
6. Kidneys are situated between the level of last thoracic and third lumbar
vertebra close to dorsal inner wall of abdominal cavity.
7. Kidney : Inner side – two zone – outer  cartex
Inner  Medulla
Medulla : divided into few conical masses (Medullary puramid) projecting
into calyces (Sing: Calyx)
Cartex: Extend in between medullary pyramid as renal column called
columns of Bertini.
8. Each kidney has nearly 1 million complex tubular nephron (functional
unit)
9. Nephron (2 part) :
(a) Glomerulus : tuft of capilaries form by afferent arteriole
 Blood from glomerulus is carried away by Efferent arteriole.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
(b) Renal tubule : It begins with a double walled cup-like structure

called Bowman’s capsule which enclose glomerulus
[Glomerulus +Bowman’s Capsule = Malpighian body or Renal
Carpuscle]
10. Tubule  PCT  Descending HL  Ascending HL  DCT-CT
-CT
Medullary pyramid  Renal pelvis.
11. Malpighian Carpuscle, PCT and DCT of kidney are situated in cartical
region. [NCERT-292-293]
12. Corticle Nephron (2013) Medullary rephron
Majority of nephron, loop of Some of nephron, loop of Henle is
too shart and Extend is very long and run dip in Medulla
very little in medulla called juxta medullary nephrons.
13. Efferent arteriole emerging from glomerulus form a fine capllary network
around renal tubule called peritubular capillaries.
14. Minute vessel of this network run parallel to Henle’s loop forming U shape
vasa recta. Vasa recta absent or highly reduced in cartical nephron.
15. Urin formation : 3 step [NCERT-293-294]
(a) Glomerular filtration : filtration of blood by glomerulus (2018)
• 1100 – 1200 ml of blood filtered by kidney per minute.
• Glomerular capillary blood pressure cause filtration of blood
through 3 layer
 Endothelium of glomerular blood vessels (2011)
 Epithelium of Bowman,s capsule
 Basement membrane in between two layer
• Epithelium of bowman,s capsule called podocytes are arrange in
intricate manner leave some minute space called filtration slits.
• Blood filtered so finally that almost all constituents of plasma
Except proteins pass onto lumen of Bowman,s capsule.
• Glomerular filtration Rate (GFR) 125 ml/minute or 180 ltr/day.
• Juxta glomerular apparatus: form by cellular modification of
distal convoluted tubule and afferent arteriole at location of their
contact.
A fall in GFR activate JG cell to release renin which can stimulate
glomerular blood flow and there by the GFR back to Normal.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
(b) Reabsorption: 180 litre form per day but we release 1.5 litre it
suggest that nearly 99 percent of filtrate reabsorbed
• Active Absorption : Glucose, Amino acid, Na+.
• Passive Absorption : Nitrogenous waste, water.
(c) Selective secretion : during urin formation tubular cell secrete
substance like H+, K+, ammonia into filtrate.
Tubular secretion also important to maintain ionic and acid-base balance
during urin formation
16. Proximal Convoluted tubule (PCT) : line by simple cuboidal brush
border epithelium, nearly all essential nutrients, 70-80% Electrolyte and
water reabsarbe. (2015, 2012, 2015 Cancelled) [NCERT-294]
• Selective secretion of H + & NH3 into filtrate and absorption of HCO3–
from it.
17. Henle’s Loop : (2017)[NCERT-294]
• Descending limb of loop of Henle
• Permiable to H2O and almost impermiable to electrolyte.
. • Ascending limb of loop of Henle
• Minimum reabsorption occure
• Impermiable to water but allow transport of Electrolyte actively
or passively.
18. Distal Convoluted tubule (DCT): [NCERT-294]
+
• Conditional reasorption of Na and H2O take place. (2016)
–
• Also reabsorption of HCO 3
• Selective secretion of H+, K+ and NH3 to maintain pH & Na–K

balance in blood.
19. Collecting Duct: Large amount of water could be reabsorbed from this
region to produce concentrated urin.
• Large amount of water could be reabsorbed from this region to
produce concentrated urin.
• Allow small amount of urea into medullary interstitium to keep up
osmolarity.
20. Mechanism of concentration of urin: [NCERT-295-296]
• Henle’s loop and vasa reacta play a significant role in this (2018)
• Proximity between henle’s loop and vasa recta as well as counter
current in them help in maintaing an increasing osmolarity toward
inner medullary interstitium (300 mOs mol L–1 in cartex to 1200
mOs mole–1 in inner medulla. (2019)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
• Gradient mainly cause by NaCl and urea.
• NaCl transported by ascending limb of Henle and Exchange by
descending limb of vasa recta.
• Human kidney can produce nearly 4 time concentrate urin than
filtrate.
21. Regulation of kidney function:
(a) By Hypothalamus: Excessive loss of body fluid volume activate
receptor  which activate hypothalamus to releas ADH
(vasopression)
• ADH facilitate water reabsorption from latter part of tubule and
prevent diveresis. (2020)[NCERT-297]
• ADH also function as constrictory effect on blood vessels  Blood
Pressuare increase thereby GFR 
• JGA : Fall in GFR activate JG cell to release renin which convert
Angiotensinogen in blood to angiotensin-I and further
angiotensin-II. (2012)[NCERT-297]
• Angiotension II act as powerful vasocontrictor which increase
glomerular blood pressure and there by GFR.
• Angiotensin II also act on adrenal cartex to release aldosterone
• Aldosterone cause reabsorption of Na+ and H2O from DCT and
increase GFR (this mechanism known as Renin Angiotensin
mechanism. (2014) [NCERT-297]
(c) by Heart: an increase in blood flow of atria cause release of Atrial
Natriuretic factor (ANF) cause vasodilation and decrease BP.
• ANF mechanism check renin - angiotensin Mechanism. (2017)
22. Micturition: Urine store in urinary bladder till voluntary singnal is given
by CNS.
• Signal initiated as urinary bladder get filled with urine.
• Process of release of urin (when urethral sphincter relax) is called
micturition and neural mechanism causing it called micturition
reflex.
• An adult human Excrete 1 to 1.5 litre of urin per day.
• Urine is slightly acidic (pH=6.0). On an average 25-30 gm urea
Excreted out per day.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

23. Presence of glucose (Glycosuria) and ketone bodies (ketonuria) in urine

are indicative of diabetes mellitus. (2018)[NCERT-298]
24. Our lungs remove large amount of CO3 (200 mL/minute) and H2O.
25. Liver secrete bile containing substance like bilirubin, biliverdin cholesterol,
degraded steroid hormone, vitamins and drugs.
26. Sweat produced by sweat glands is watery fluid containing NaCl small
amount of urea, lactic acid.
27. Sebaceous gland eliminate certain substance like sterols, hydrocarbon
waxes through sebum.
28. Uremia: accumulation of urea in blood which is very harmful and may
lead to kidney failure (Urea remove by Hemodialysis)
• Dialysing fluid have same composition as that of plasma Except
nitrogenous waste.
• Kidney transplantation is ultimate method in correction of acute
renal failure (kidney failure)
29. Renal Calculi: Stone or in soluble mass of crustallised salt (oxalate)
formed with in kidney. (2018) [NCERT-298-299]
30. Glomerulonephritis : Inflammation of glomeruli of kidney. (2018)
[NCERT-298-299]
******×******×******
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

310, 312 = 2 Pages
62.4 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

LOCOMOTION & MOVEMENT

1. All locomotions are movements but all movements are not locomotion
so locomotion & movement can not be studied seperately.
2.
3. Muscles : Mesodermal in origin
 40–50% of body weight
Property: contractility, excitability, extensibility, elasticity.
4.
Detail of skeletal muscles

5. Made up of a number of muscles bundles or fascicles held togather
by a common collagenous connective tissue layer called Fascia
6. Muscles bundle contains a number of muscles fibres.
7. Muscles fibre is syncitium (multinucleated)
8. Sarcoplasmic reticulum are Store house of calcium ions.
9. Many Paralle arranged filaments are present in sarcoplasm called
myofilaments or myofibrils. [NCERT-304]
10. Each myofibril has alternate dark & light band on it (NEET-2021)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

11. Light bond or I-Band or Isotropic band contain actin protein.

12. Dark band or A-Band or Anisotropic band contain myosin protein.
13. Z-line (elastic fibres) found in the centre of each I-Band.
14. M-line (thin fibrous membrane) found in middle of A-Band.
15. Functional unit of muscles contraction is sarcomere (portion of myofibril)
between two successive Z-line) (NEET-2021)[NCERT-305]
16. Central part of thick filament, not overlapped by thin filament is called.
H-zone (NEET-2013)[NCERT-306]
17. Structure of contractile proteins:
1. Each actin (thin) filament is made up of two “F” (Filamentous)
actins.
2. Each “F” actin is a polymern of monomeric “G” (Glabular) actins.
3. Tropomyosin (Filamentous protein, two in number) run close to
“F” actin through out its length.
4. Troponin (complex protein) distributed at regular intervals on
the tropomyosin.
5. Myosin have actin binding site & actin have myosin binding site.
6. Meromyosin: Two components:
• A Globular head with shoot arms (HMM)
• A tail (MM)
7. Globular or Head is an active ATPase enzyme & has binding
site for ATP & active site for actine.
Mechanism of muscles contraction: [NCERT-306]
18. Best explained by the sliding filament theory (NEET-2015)
19. Contraction of a muscles fibre takes place by the sliding of the thin
filaments over the thick filaments.
20. Muscles contraction is initiated by a signal sent by the central nervous
system via a motor neuron.
21. Motorneuron + muscles fibres = Motor unit.
22. Neutromusculor junction or motor end plate  Junction between
motor neuron & sarcolemma of the muscles fibre. (NEET-2014).
23. Action potential spreads through the muscles fibre & causes release
of Ca++ level. Increases it leads to binding of Ca++ with subunit of troponin
on actin filament remove masking of active sites on actin to form a
cross-bridge (NEET-2018)[NCERT-307]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
24. Actin filaments move towards the centre of “A” band.

25. Shortening of the sarcomere (contracation).
26. I-band get reduce, whereas. A-bands retain the length.
27. The myosin releasing ADP & ‘P’ (Phosphorous) goes back to its relaxed
stage.
28. Reaction time of the fibres can very in different muscles.
29. Repeated activation of muscles can lead to the accumulation of lactic
acid due to anaerbic breakdown of glycogen – Muscles fatigue.
Skeletal System
30. Consists of frame work of bone & a few cartilages
31. This system is madeup of 206 bones.
Axial skeleton
32. Cranial bones are 8 in number : Frontal (1), Parietal(2),
Temporal(2), Occipital(1), sphenoid(1), Ethmoid(1)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

33. Facial bones are 14 in number : Mandible(1), Turbinal (2),

zygomatic(2), Lacrimal(2).
34. Middle ear : 3 bone (In each ear) Malleus, Incus, stapes
35. A single U-shaped bone called Hyoid is present at the base of buccal
cavity.
36. Vertebral column:
Formed by 26 serially arranged bone(NEET-2021)[NCERT-309]
Cervical (7), Thorasic (12), Lumber (5), Sacral(1), Coccygeal (1).
37. Skull articulate with the superior region of the vertebral column with the
help of two occipital condyles (dicondylic skull).
38. Number of cervical vertebrae are seven in almost all mammals including;
human beings.
39. Each vertebrae has a central hollow portion (Neural canal) through
which spinal cord posses. [NCERT-310]
39. Cartilage is present between the adjacent bones of the ventrical column.
40. Sternum is a flat bone on the ventral midline of thorax (NEET-2021)
41. Ribs : 12 pair (Thin flat bone, connect dorsally by vertebral column &
ventrally by sternum).
42. Ribs have two articulation surface on its dorsal end & hence called
Bicephalic. [NCERT-310]
43. 1st 7 pair Ribs  (Vertebrostenal Ribs) – True Ribs) (NEET-2020)
8th, 9th & 10th pairs of Ribs  (Vertbro-chondral Ribs) – Falsh Ribs)
11th & 12th pairs of Ribs  (Vertbro Ribs) – Floating Ribs
44. Ribcage: Thorasic vertebrae, Ribs & sternum (NEET-2017)
Appendicular skeleton: [NCERT-311]
45. Bones of limb along with their girdles.
46. Forelimbs (Each) 30 (bones): Humerus (1), Radius (1), Ulna(1), Carpals
(wrist) (8), Metacarpals (Palmbones -5), Phalanges (digits-14).
47. Hind limbs (Each (30 bones) : Femur (thigh bone – longest bone
(1), Tibia(1), Fibula(1), Torsals (ankle bone-7), metatarsal(5),
phalanges (digits -14).
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
48. A cup shaped bone called Patella cover the knee ventrally (kee
cap).
49. Petoral girdle (Each) : Scapula, Clavicle (coller bone)
50. Scapula : Large, Triangular, Flatbone, situated dorsally of the thorax
between 2nd & 7th ribs.
51. Acromion: Flat, expanded process of spine**.
Process : Clavicle articulate (NEET-2020)[NCERT-311]
**Spine – Triangular body of scapula has slightly elevated ridge.
52. Glenoid cavity : Below the acromion, articulate with the head of
humerous to form shoulder joint. (NEET-2015)[NCERT-311]
53. Pectoral Girdle : (consist of two coxal bones)
54. Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of three bones : Ilium, Ischium
& Pubis.
55. Acetabulum : Fusion of Ilium, Ischium & Pubis, Thigh bone articulate.
56. Pubic symphysis : Containing fibrous cartilage.
[NCERT-311-312]
57. Disorders :
1.Myasthenia gravis : [NEET-2022][NCERT-311]
• Auto immume disorder,
• Affecting neuromuscular junction leading to fatigue, weakening &
paralysis of skeletal muscles.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

2.Muscular dystrophy :
• Progressive degeneration of skeletal muscles.
• Genetic disorder (NEET-2022, 2021, 2013, 2012)[NCERT-312]
3.Tetany: Rapid spasm (wild contraction) in muscles due to low Ca++
level in body fluid (NEET-2022, 2016)[NCERT-312]
4.Osteoporosis :
• Age related disorder(NEET-2022, 2016, 2013, 2012)[NCERT-312]
• Decrease bone mass & increase chance of fracture
• Decrease level of estrogen in common cause
5.Gout :
• Inflammation of joints [NEET-2022][NCERT-312]
• Due to accumulation of uric acid crystals. (NEET-2013,2012)
ᶳᶪᶪᶹᶴᶽᶵᶭᶮᶱᶮᶨ ************×************×************
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

321, 324 = 3 Pages
55 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION

1. Neural system provide an arganised network of point to point connection
for quick co-ordination Endocrine system provide chemical integration
through hormone.
2. Human neural system divided into 2 part
a. CNS (Central Neural System) include brain and spinal card.
b. PNS (Periferal Neural System) Comprise of all the nerve of
body associated with CNS.
3. Nerve fiber of PNS are two type :
a. Afferent fibers
Transmit impulse from tissue / organ CNS
b. Efferent fibers
From CNS Periferal tissue/organ
4. PNS divided into two parts:
a. Somatic neural system
Relays impulse from CNS Skeletal muscle
b. Autonomic neural system
From CNS Involuntary Organ and smooth muscle
NOTE : Visceral nervous system also part of PNS in which impulse
travel from CNS to viscera and viscera to CNS also.
5. Neuron – 3 major part (Cell body, dendrites, axon)
Cell body – Contain cytoplasm with cell arganelles and Nissl’s granules.
Dendrites – Also contain nissl’s granule and transmit impulse toward.
cell body.
Axon – distal end branched, each branch terminate as bulb like
structure called synaptic knob (which posses synaptic vesicle)
• Axon transmit signal away from cell body.
6. Type of Neuron (on basis of number of axon and dendrites)
a. Multipolar – 1 axon + 2 or more dendrites Ex- Cerebral Cortex
b. bipolar – 1 axon + 1 dendrites Ex- Retina of eye.
c. Unipolar – 1 axon only found Ex- Embryonic stage
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
7. Myelinated nerve fiber Non myelinated Nerve fiber

[2017] [NCERT-317]
• Enveloped with & schwan • Envelop by schwan cell but not form
cell which form myelinated myelin sheath around axon.
sheath around axon
• Found in spinal and cranical • Found in somatic and autonomic neural
Nerve system.
8. Gap between two adjacent myelin sheath called node of Ranvier.
9. When neuron is not conducting any impulse (Resting) the axonal
membrane is more permiable to K+ ion and nearly impermiable to Na+.
[2011][NCERT-317]
• Membrane is also impermiable to negatively charge protein found in
axoplasm.
• Hence inside axon (axoplasm) [2013] [NCERT-317]
High concentration of K+, protein
Low concentration of Na+.
10. Ionic gradient across resting membrane maintain by active transport of
ion by Na/K pump (3 Na+ outwards and 2K+ into cell)
11. Hence
Note: The electrical potential difference resting membrane Resting

Potential
12. When a stimulus is applied at any site an polarise membrane it become
freely permeable to Na+ this leads to rapid influx of Na + followed by
revesal of polarity at that site. i.e
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Outer surface become -ve charged

Inner surface become +ve charged
13. Electrical potential across plasma membrane at stimulus site Action
potential (or nerve Impuluse)
14. As a result
Current flow Outer surface B to A
Inner surface A to B
15. Nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another through junction
called synapse.
Synapse form by
Pre-synaptic neuron
Post synaptic neuron
both may or may not be separted by synaptic cleft.
16. Electrical synapse Chemical synapse
• Pre and post synaptic neuron • Fluid filled synaptic cleft present
Very close to each other between pre and post neuron.
• Electrial current flow directly • Chemical called neurotranmitter
from one neuron to other involve in transmisson of Impulse.
• Rare in our system [NEET-2022][NCERT-319]
17. When impulse arrive at axon terminal it stimulate the movement of
synaptic vesicles (filled with neurotransmitter) towards membrane where
they fuse and release neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft [2013]
18. The released neurotransmitter bind to specific receptors present on
post synaptic membrane. [2017][2013][NCERT-319]
19. Human brain protected by skull. Inside skull the brain covered by cranial
meninges.
• Cranial meninges
Outer – Dura Mater
Middle – Arachnoid (Very thin)
Inner – Pia mater (Contact with brain tissue)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

20. Brain can be divided 3 major parts

a. Forebrain consist of cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus
• Cerebrum major part of human brain
• A deep cleft divides the cerebrum longitudinally into two halves which
are termed as the left and right cerebral hemisphere
[2018][2015] [NCERT-321]
• Layer of cell which cover cerebral hemisphere called cerebral cortex
and thrown into prominant folds.
• Cerebral cortex contain motor area, sensary area and large area that
are neither sensory nor motor in function called Association Area.
• Function of Association area are memory communication, intersensary
association.
• Hypothalamus lie at the base of thalamus and it controls the body
temperature, urge of eating and drinking .[2019, 2014, 2010][NCERT-321]
• Inner part of cerebral hemisphere and a group of associated deep structure
like amygdala, hippocampus etc form a complex structure called limbic
lobe or lymbic system.
• Limbic system with hypothalamus regulate sexual behaviour.
Expression of emotional reactions (Excitement, pleasure, rage, fear
etc)
b. Mid brain – Located between thalamus/ Hypothalamus of forebrain
and pons of hindbrain
• Dorsal portion of midbrain consist mainly of four round swelling (lobe)
called carpora quadrigemina.
c. Hind brain – Comprise of pons, cerebellum and medulla [2012]
• Cerebellum has very convoluted surface in order to provide the additional
sapce for many more neuron.
• Medulla contain centres which control respiration, cardiovascular reflex
and gastric secretion. [2018][NCERT-321]
21. Three major region make up brain stem (midbrain, pons, medulla) Brain
stem form connection between brain and spinal card.
22. Reflex action – Entire porcess of response to peripheral nervous
stimulation that occure involuntarily i.e. without conscious effort or though
and require the involvement of part of CNS.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
23. Reflex pathway comprises at least one afferent neuron (receptor) and
one efferent (effector) neuron arrange in series.
24. Nose contain mucus coated receptors which are specialised for receiving
the sense of smell and called olfactory receptors.
25. Tongue detect taste through taste buds containing gustatory receptor
both nose and tongue detect dissovled chemicals.
26. Eyes are located in socket of skull called orbits.
27. Eye ball composed of 3 layer.
a. Outer – Sclera
• Compose of dense connective tissue [2019][NCERT-322]
• Anterior portion called cornea.
b. Middle – Choroid
• Contain blood vessels and look bluish
• Thin over posterior 2/3rd of eye ball and thick in anterior part to
form ciliary body [2013][NCERT-323]
• Ciliary body form pigmented and opaque structure called iris
visible coloured portion of eye.
Note : Eye ball contain a transparent crystelling lens which is held in
place by ligament attach to ciliary body [2018][NCERT-323]
c. Inner – Retina – It contain 3 layer of neural cell from inside to
Outside – Ganglion cell, bipolar cell and photoreceptor cell.
28. Photoreceptor cell 2 type (Rods and cones)
• Daylight (photopic) vision and colour vision are function of cone
• Twilight (Scotopic) vision is function of rods.
• Rod contain a purplish-red protein called rhodospin or visual purple which
contain a derivative of vitamin A [2017][NCERT-324]
29. Blind spot - A point medial to and slightly above the posterior pole of
eye ball where photareceptar cell are not present.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
30. Fovea – lateral to blind spot there is a yellowish pigmented spot called
macula lutea with a central pit called fovea. [2015][NCERT-324]
• Fovea is a thinned-out portion of retina where only cone are densely
packed and this is the place where visual activity (Resolution) maximum.
31. Aqueous chamber – Space between cornea and lens (filled with watery
fluid called aqueous humor.)
32. Vitreous chamber – Space between lens and retina filled with
transparent gel called vitreous humor.
33. Photopigments in human eyes is composed of opsin (a protein) and
retinal (an aldehyde of vit A) [2016][2014] [NCERT-324]
34. Light induce dissociation of retinal from opsin resulting in change in
opsin which cause membrane permeability change as a result potential
difference generated in photorecpto cell. [2014][NCERT-324]
35. Ear 3 major section
a. Outer Ear – consist of pinna and external auditary meatus (Canal)
• External auditary metus extend upto tympanic membrane (ear drum)
• Tympanic membrane composed of connective tissue covered with
skin outside and with mucus membrane inside.
b. Middle Ear – Contain 3 ossicles called malleus, incus, stepes.
• Malleus attach to tympanic membrane and stepes attach to oval
window of cochlea [2020][NCERT-324-325]
• Ear oscicle increase the efficiency of transmission of sound wave
to inner ear.
• Eustachian tube connects the middle ear cavity with pharynx and
help in equilising pressure on either side of ear drum.
[2020] [NCERT-324-325]
c. Inner ear Fluid filled inner ear called labyrinth consist of 2 part.
i. Bony labyrinth – Series of channel Inside these channels lie
membranous labyrinth
ii. Membranous labyrinth – filled with fluid called endolymph and
surrounded by fluid called perilymph.
36. Coiled portion of labyrinth is called cochlea.[2020][NCERT-324-325]
37. Membrane constituting cochlea, the reissner’s and basilar divide the
surrounding perilymph filled bony labyrinth into an upper scala vestibuli
and lower scala tympani.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
38. Space within cochlea called scala media filled with endolymph.
39. At base of cochlea scala vestibuli end at oval window while scala tympani
terminate at round window which open to middle ear.
40. Organ of corti is structure located on basilar membrane which hair cell
act as auditory receptors. [NEET-2022][NCERT-325]
41. Above the row of hair cell is thin elastic membrane called tectorial
membrane.
42. Vestibular apparatus is composed of 3 semi-circular canal and otolith
organ each semi-circular canal lies in different plane at right angle to
each other.
43. Base of canal is swollen and is called ampulla which contain projecting
ridge called crista ampullaris which has hair cell.
44. Saccule and utricle contain projecting ridge called macula.
45. Crista and macula are specific receptor of vestibular apparatus
responsible for maintenance of balance of body and posture.
[2019, 2015][NCERT-325]
46. Movement of basilar membrane bend the hair cell pressing the against
tectorial membrane as a result nerve impulse are generated in the
associated afferent neurons.
******×******×******
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

332, 335 = 2 Pages
42.9 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

CHEMICAL CO-ORDINATION AND INTEGRATION

1. Endocrine gland lack duct hence called Ductless gland & their secretion
are called hormones.
2. Hormones: Non-nutrient chemicals, acts as intercellular messengers
& produced in trace amounts. (NEET-2013)[NCERT-331]
3. Invertebrates: Very simple endocrine system with few harmones.
4. Vertebrates : Well developed endocrine system with Harmones
5. Hypothalamus:
1. Basal part of Diencephalon (Forebrain)
2. Contain several group of neurosecretory cells called Nuclei
(Produce Hormone).
3. Hormone produced by Hypothalamus are two types.
Releasing hormone (Stimulate synthesis of pituitory hormones)
eg: GnRH.
4. The posterior pituitory is under the direct neural regulation of the
hypothalamus, but Anterior pituitary connect to the hypothalmus
via portal circulatory system (NEET-2016, 2015)[NCERT-332]
Pituitary Gland
6. Located in a bony cavity called sella tersica
7. Divided Anatomically into Adenohypophysic & Neurohypophysis.
8. Adenohypophysis :
• Pars distalis Neurohypophysis  Pars nervosa
• Pars intermedia.
9. Pars distalis produce “6” Hormone : LH, PRL, TSH, ACTH, LH, FSH
• LH, FSH  Gonadotrophins(NEET-2017)[NCERT-333]
10. Pars Intermedia produce one Hormone – MSH
11. Pars nervosa (Posterior pituitary) store & release two harmones called
oxytocin & vasopressin, actually synthesized by Hypothalamus &
transported axonally to neurohypophysis. (NEET-2014, 2015)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

12. Growth Hormone (GH): • Hypersection : Child : Gigantism

(NEET-2017, 2013) Adult : Acromegaly (NEET-2013)
[NCERT-333] • Hyposecretion : Child : Dwarfism
13. Prolactin (PRL) : Regulate growth of mammary gland and formation of
milk in them.
14. TSH : Stimulate synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormone.
15. ACTH : Stimulate synthesis and secretion of steroid hormones called
Glucocorticoids.
16.. LH (in males) Stimulate synthesis and secretion of androgens.
(in females) induce ovulation of fully mature graffion follicles and
maintain cropus luteum.. [NCERT-333]
17. FSH (in males) with Androgen regulate spermatogenesis.(NEET-2013)
(in Females) stimulate growth & development of ovarian follicles.
18. MSH: Acts on melanocytes & regulate pigmentation of skin.
19. Oxytocin: Acts on smoooth muscles & stimulate contraction of uterus
at the time of child birth & milk ejection from mammary gland.
20. Vasopressin (ADH) : Mainly acts at kidney & stimulate reabsorption
of water & electrolytes by distal tabules & reduce water loss through
urine (Diuresis) (NEET-2020)[NCERT-333]
Pineal Gland
21. Located on the dorsal side of fore brain
22. Secrete Melatonin harmone
23. Melatonin regulate – 24 hour (diurnal) rhythm of our body
– sleep-wake cycle (NEET-2022, 2014)
– Body temperature [NCERT-334]
– Metabolism, pigmentation, Menstrual
cycle, our defence capability.
Thyroid Gland
24. Composed of two lobes & are located on either side of trachea
25. Both lobes are inter connected with a thin flap of connective tissue
Isthmus
26. Thyroid follicle composed of follicles & stromal tissues
27. Thyroid follicle composed of follicular cells, enclosing a cavity
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
28. Follicular cells synthesise two harmones:
1. Tetraiodotheyronine or thyroxine (T4) (NEET-2013)[NCERT-335]
2. Triiodothyronine (T3)
29. Deficiency of Iodins in our diet results in Hypothyrodism.
30. Enlargement of thyroid gland commonly called goitre.
31. Hypothyrodism [NCERT-335]
Child: Cretinism (NEET-2013) Adult : Myxoedema
During pregnancy causes defective Goiter (NEET-2013)
development & maturation of the [NCERT-335]
growing bady (stunted growth),
mental retardation, low intelligence
quotiant, Abnormal skin, Deaf mutism.
Hypothyrodism [NCERT-335]
Exopthalmic Goitre Graves Disease) (NEET-2017, 2020)
32. Enlargement of thyroid gland, protrusion of eyeballs, increase basal
metabolic rate, weight loss.
Thyroid Hormone play important role in:
33. Regulate BMR
34. Support RBCs production
35. Control carbohydrates, proteins & fat metabolism.
36. Maintain water & electrolyte balance
 Thyroid gland also secrete a protein harmone called Thyrocalcitonin
(TCT) which regulates the blood calcium levels.
 TCT (Hypocalcimic harmone)
Parathyroid Gland:
37. Four parathyroid glands are present on the back side of thyroid gland
38. Secrete a peptide harmone called parathyroid harmone (PTH)
39. PTH regulated by the circulating level of calcium ions.
40. Function of PTH
– Increase Ca++ level in blood (Hypercalcimic)
– Acts on bones & stimulate bone reabsorption (dissolution /
Demineralisation. – Increase reabsorption of Ca++ from renal tubutes
& digested Food. – PTH & TCT play role in Ca++ metabolism
(Antagonistic) [NEET-2022][NCERT-335]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Thymus Gland
41. Lobular structure located b/w lungs behind sterum on the ventral side
of aorta.
42. Play major role in development of the immune system.
43. Secretes the peptide harmones Thymosins.
44. Function of Thymosin
– Differentiation of T-lymphocytes, provide CMI
– Promote production of Antibodies provide humoral immunity.
45. Thymus degenerated in old individuals (Decrease production of
thymosins) as a result, immune responses of old persons become
weak.
Adrenal Gland
46. One pair, one at the anterior part of each kidney
47. Dineded in to two part – Adrenal cortex (outer)
– Adrenal medulla (Inner) (NEET-2013)
[NCERT-336]
48. Adrenal medulla
1. Secretes two hormones –
2. These hormones rapidly secreted in reponse to stress and during

energency hence called emergency or Fight or Flight hormones
3. Functions (NEET-2012)[NCERT-336]
– Increase alertness, pupilary dilation, Piloerection, Sweating,
Increase Heart beat, strength of heart contraction & rate of
respiration.
– Stimulate breakdown of Glycogen (Blood glucose conc. increase),
lipids & proteins.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Hyposecretion of Adrenal cortex (Addison,s disease) (NEET-2020, 2019)
– Alternate carbohydrate metabolism causing acuate weakness &
fatigue [NCERT-337]
Pancrease
49. Composite gland, acts as both execrine & endocrine
50. Endocrine pancrease consists of “Islets of langerhans” (1 to 2 million)
representing only 1 to 2 percent of panereatic tissue.
51. Main two type of cells –  - cells (Secrets Glucagon)
–  - cells (Secrets Insulin)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

 Dibetes mellitus : (NEET-2020)[NCERT-338]

– Due to prolonged hyperglycemia
– Complex disorder
– Association with loss of glucose through urine & formation of
harmful compounds k/a ketone bodies
 Diabetic patients are successfully treated by insuline therapy.
52. Hormones are also secreted by some tissue which are non-
endocrine tissue. [NCERT-339]
Heart Kidney (JG cells)
ANF (NEET-2014) 1. Erythrop oietin (formation RBC
Decrease B.P. 2. Renin : Increase reabsorption of water
Dilation of Blood vessels) & Na+ in renal tubules
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Mechanism of Hormone Action

• Protein Hormone Action:
53. Interact with membrane bound receptors & forms hormone receptor
complex leads to certain biochemical changes in the target tissue.
54. These hormone do not enter target cell but generate second messenger
like cAMP, IP3 & Ca++ etc. (NEET-2019)[NCERT-339-340]
55. Examples: Insuline, Glucagon, Pituitery harmones, Hypothalmic.
Hormones & epinephrine (NEET-2012)[NCERT-339-340]
• Steroid Hormone Action
56. Interact with intracellular receptors (mostly nuclear)
57. Examples: Cortisel, Testosterone, Estradiol, Progestron & Thyroid
Hormones. (NEET-2012) [NCERT-339-340]
******×******×******
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

INDEX
UNIT VI : REPRODUCTION
1. Reproduction in Organisms 3-8
2. Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 9-17
3. Human Reproduction 18-25
4. Reproductive Health 26-30
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

7, 8, 12 = 3 Pages
52.8 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISM
1. Life span : The period from birth to the natural death of an organism. Life
span of organism are not necessarly correlated with their size.
2. Reproduction : Biological process in which an organism gives rise to
young ones (offspring) similar to itself.
3. Reproduction enables the continuity of the species, generation after
generation.
4. The organism’s habitat, its internal physiology and several other factors
are collectively responsible for how it reproduces.
5. Asexual reproduction : Offspring produced by single parent with or
without the involvent of gamete formation.
6. Sexual reproduction : Two parents (opposite sex) participate in
reproductive process and involve fusion of both gametes.
7. In Asexual reproduction, the offspring that are produced are not only
identical to one another but are also exact copies of their parent.
8. Clone : Morphologically and genetically similar individuals.
[NEET 2016] [NCERT-5]
9. Asexual reproduction is common among single-celled organisms, such
as plants and animals with relatively simple organisations. e.g.,
Protista & Monera.
• In which cell division is itself a mode of reproduction.
10. Asexual reproductive structure
• Zoospores – Chlamydomonas
• Conidia – Penicillium [NEET 2016] [NCERT-6]
• Budding – Yeast & Hydra [NEET 2015, 12] [NCERT-6]
• Gemmules – Sponges
• Binary Fission – Amoeba & Paramecium [NEET 2015] [NCERT-6]
11. Amoeba : Unfavourable condition – Withraw its pseudopodia and
secretes 3 layer hard covering called encystation.
Favourable condition – Multiple fission and sporulation.
12. In plants, units of vegetative propagules –
Runner, Rhizome, Sucker, tuber, Offset, Bulb
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

13. Offset – Water hyacinth [NEET 2015] [NCERT-7]

Leaf bud – Bryophyllum
Eye – Potato
Bulbil – Agave
Rhizome – Ginger [NEET 2015] [NCERT-7]
14. Water hyacinth (Terror of Bengal) – Most invasive weeds found standing
water, It drains oxygen from water & leads to death of fishes.
[NEET 2016] [NCERT-8]
15. Asexual reproduction is common in relatively simple organism like Algae
and Fungi and they shift to sexual mode of reproduction just before onset
of adverse condition.
Sexual Reproduction [NEET 2016] [NCERT-8]
16. Elaborate, complex and slow process, because of fusion of male and
female gametes, sexual reproduction results in offspring that are not
identical to the parents.
17. Period of growth is called Juvenile phase and It is known as vegetative
phase in plants.
18. Plants – Annual and Biennal type, show clearcut vegetative,
reproductive and senescent phase but in perreripal species it is very
difficult to clearly define these phase.
19. Bamboo species – Flower only once in their life time, generally after 50-
100 years, produce large number of fruits and die.[NEET 2018] [NCERT-9]
20. Strobilanthus kunthiana (Neelakuranji), flowers once in 12 years during
September-October and found in hilly areas in Kerala, Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu.
21. Birds in poultry farms can be made to lay eggs throughout the years this
laying eggs is not related to reproduction but a commercial exploitation
for human welfare.
22. Oestrus cycle : In non-primate like cows, sheep, rats, deers, dogs,
tiger, etc., (Seasonal breeders)
23. Menstrual cycle : In primates like monkey, apes and human
(Continuous breeders).
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

24. Events in sexual Reproduction
1. Pre-fertilisation – Gametogenesis, Gamete transfer.
2. Fertilisation
3. Post fertilisation – Zygote, Embryogenesis.
25. Pre-Fertilisation
Isogametes (Homogametes) – In some algae the two gametes are
similar in appearance e.g., Cladophora.
Heterogametes : Majority of sexually reproducing organism. In such
organism the male gamete is called Anthrozoid / Sperm and female
gamete is called egg/ovum. e.g., Fucus (Algae) and Human beings.
26. Monoecious and Homothalic – Denotes bisexual condition e.g., Several
fungi and Plante.
27. Dioecious and Heterothalic – Denotes unisexual condition.
28. In flowering plants, the unisexual male flower is staminate and while
female flower is pistillate.
29. Monoecious Plante – Cucurbits and coconut
30. Diocious Plants – Papaya and Date plam [NEET 2015] [NCERT-11]
31. Bisexual (Hermaphrodites) Animals – Earthworm, Sponges, Tapeworm
and Leech.
32. Unisexual animals – Cockroach
33. Organism with haploid plant body – Monera, Fungi, Algae, Bryophytes.
34. Organism with diploid plant body – Pleridophytes, Gymnosperm,
Angiosperms and Human beings.
35. In Diploid organisms, speciallised cells called meiocytes (gamete mother
cell) undergo meiosis. [NEET 2013] [NCERT-13]
36. Chara – Monoecious plants
– Upper – Oogonium
– Lower – Anthridium
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

37. Chromosome Numbers in Some Organisms
38. In several simple plants like Algae, Bryophytes and Pteridophytes, water
is the medium for gamete transfer.
39. In seed plants, pollen grain are carried of male gametes and ovule have
the eggs.
Fertilisation :
40. Most vital events of sexual reproduction is perhaps the fusion of gametes
(Syngamy). Results in formation of zygote.
41. Term syngamy and fertilisation are interchangeably.
42. Parthenogenesis – Female gametes undergoes development to form
new organism without fertilisation. e.g., Rotifers, Honeybees, some lizards
and Birds(Turkey) [NEET 2019] [NCERT-14]
43. External fertilisation occurs in – Majority of Algae, Fishes (Bony) and
Amphibians.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

44. Internal fertilisation occurs in – Fungi, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals,

Bryophytes Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
Post fertilisation events
45. Formation of dipole zygote is universal in all sexually reproducing
organism.
46. Zygote is the vital link that ensure continuity of species between
organisms of one generation and the next. [NEET 2013] [NCERT-15]
47. Embryogenesis – Process of development of embryo from the zygote.
48. Zygote undergoes cell division (mitosis) and cell differentiation.
49. In oviparous animals like reptiles and birds, the fertilised egg covered
by hard calcareous shell are laid in a safe place in the environment.
50. Because of proper embryonic care and protection, the chance of survival
of young once is greater in viviparous organism.
51. In plants, zygote develops into the embryo, ovules develop into the seed
and ovary develops into the fruits and ovary wall develops into fruit wall
pericarp.
52. After dispersal, seeds germinate under favourable condition to produce
new plants.
******×******×******×******
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

28, 29, 35 = 3 Pages
34.1 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

1. Flowers are morphological & embryological morvels & the site of sexual
reproduction.
2. Several hormonal & structural changes leads to the development of floral
primodium.
3. A flower is a modified shoot for reproduction.
4. A typical stamen has two part.
1. Filament (Long & stender stalk)
2. Anther (Terminal, generally bilobed structure)
5. The proximal end of the filament is attached to the thalamus or
Patal opf the flower (NEET-2016) [NCERT-21]
6. The number & length of stemens are varable in flowers of different species.
7. Angiospermic Anther: Bilobed, Dithecous & Tetrasporangiate
(NEET- 2019) [NCERT-21]
8. Bilobed nature of an anther is very distinct in the transverse section.
9. Structure of Microsporangium: Surrounded by four wall layer.
10. Microsporogenesis: Cells of the sporogenous tissue undergo meiotic

divisions to form microspore tetrads. Each micros pore mature into pollen
grain.
11. As the anther mature & dehydrate, the microspore dissociate from each
other & develop into pollen grains.
Pollen grain: Represents Male gametophytes.
12. Generally spherical, about 25–50 micrometer in diameter.
13. It has prominent two wall layer, Exine & Intine.
Exine: Outer, made up of sporopollinine (most resistent organic
material) (NEET-2013, 2012) [NCERT-23]
14 Can withstand high temperature & strong acids & alkali. No enzyme that
degrades sporopollinin. (NEET-2013) [NCERT-23]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
14 Exine has prominent aperturs called germpores where sporopollinin
is absent. (NEET-2012) [NCERT-23]
15 Pollen grains are well-preserved as fossils because of the presence of
sporopolline (NEET-2018) [NCERT-23]
16. Exine exhibits a fascinating arry of patters & designs.

1. Intine: Inner, thin & continuous, made up of cellulose & pectin.
17. Mature pollen grain contain two cells  Vegetative cells
 Generative cells
Generative cells : Small & Float in the cytoplasm of vegetative cell. It
is spindle shaped with dense cytoplasm & Nuclus.
Vegetative cells : Bigger, Abundant food reserve and large irregular
shape of nucleus.
2-Celled stage : In over 60% of angiosperm (one vegetative + one
generative).
3-Celled stage : 40% of Angiosperm (Generative cell divides mitotically
to give rise to two male gametes) (one vegetave cell + 2 male gametes)
18. Pollen grain of many species causes severe allergies & bronchial
afflictions leading to chronic respiratory disorder like Asthma &
Branchitis. (NEET-2015) [NCERT-23]
19. Parthenium (carrot grass) came into india as a contaminated with
imported wheat, causes pollen allergy.
20. Pollen grains rich in nutrients & use as pollen tablets as food supplements
(to increase the performance of athlets & race horses)
(NEET-2015, 2014) [NCERT-24]
21. Viability of pollen grain is highly variable & depends on temperature
& Humidity.
22. Some cereals (Rice & Wheat) pollen grain lose viability within 30 minuts
23. Resaceae, Leguminaceae,Solanaceae maintain viability for
months (NEET-2021) [NCERT-24]
24. Pollen grain stored in liquid Nitrogen at – 196oC(NEET-2018) [NCERT-24]
25. Each Pistil has three parts – stigma, style, ovary
26. Stigma, serve as landing platform of pollen grains.
27. Style – elongated stender part beneth the stigma.
28. Ovary – Basal bulged part of the pistil.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
29. Inside the ovary is the ovarian cavity (locule). Placent located inside the
ovarian cavity.
30. Megasporangia commonly called ovules. (NEET-2013) [NCERT-25]
31. Structure of typical Angiosperm ovule:
1. Ovule is small structure attached to the placenta by means of
stalk called Funicle.
2. Body of the ovele fuses with funicle in the region called Hilum.
3. Junction between ovule & female – Hilum
4. One or two protective envelop of ovule called Integument
5. Micropyle: Small opening of the ovule at the tip where integument
absent.
6. Opposite the micropyle is the Chalaza (Basal part of the ovule).
32. Nucellus: Mass of cells have abundant reserve food materials.
33. Embryosac/Female gametophytes: Located in the nucellus.
Megasporogenesis: Process of formation of megaspore from megaspore
mother cell. (MMC) (NEET-2013) [NCERT-25]
34. Ovule differentiated at Micropylor region of the nucellus.
35. MMC undergoes meiotic division & results in the production of four
megaspore.
36. In a majority of flowering plants, one of the megaspore is functional
while other three degenerate.
37. Functional megaspore develops into Female gametophytes (Embryosac)
(NEET-2017) [NCERT-26]
38. Nucleus of the functional megaspore divided by 3 mitotic division to
form 2-nucleated, 4-nucleated & 8-nucleated stage of the embryo sac.
39. Mitotic division are strictly free nuclear, not followed immediately by cell
wall formation.
40. Six of the eight nuclei are surrounded by cell walls & organised into
cells, remaining two nuclei called polar nuclei.
41. Distribution of cells within embryo sac.
1. Eggaparatus (3) 2. Antipodals(3)
• Synergids(2) 3. Central cell (single & large containing two
• Egg cell (1) polar nuclei)
42. Synergids: Play important role in guiding the pollen tube into the
synergids.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
43. A typical angiosperm embryo sac, at maturity, through 8-nucleated

& 7-celled.
• Pollination
44. Transfer of pollen grain from anther to stigma of the pistil.
45. Kinds of pollination: depending on the source of pollen, divided into
three types.
• Autogomy
46. Pollination is achieved within the same flower
47. Flower which opens & exposes the anthers & stigma, complete autogamy
is rather rare
48. Viola(Common pansy), Oxalis &Commelina produce two types of
flowers  Chasmogamous
 Cleistogamous
49. Chasmogamous (open flowers) & cleistogamous (close flowers)
50. Cleistogamous flowers are invariably autogamous, there is no
chance of cross-pollen landing on the stigma & produce assured seed-
set even in the absence of pollinators
(NEET-2022, 2013, 2012) [NCERT-28]
• Geitonogamy
51. Transfer of pollen grain from anther to stigma of another flower of same
plants.
52. Geitanogamy is functionally cross-pollination & genetically similar to
autogamy.
3. Xenogamy
53. Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of a different
plant. (NEET-2021) [NCERT-28]
54. Only type of pollination which brings genetically different types of pollen
grain to the stigma.
Agents of pollinations:
1. Biotic (Animals) : Majority of plants use
2. Abiotic (wind & water) : Only small proportion of plant use
55. Pollination by wind is more common amongest abiotic pollinations
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
56. Wind pollination Requires:

1. Light pollen grain & Non-sticky
2. Well exposed stemen
3. Large & feathery stigma
4. Single ovlle containing (NEET-2017, 2012) [NCERT-29]
57. Wind pollination is quite common is grasses.
58. Pollination by water: Quite rare in flowering plants & limited to about
30 genera, mostly monocotyledons [NEET-2022] [NCERT-29]
59. Water Pollinated Plants
Fresh water : Vallisneria & Hydrilla (NEET-2019)[NCERT-29]
Marine water : Zostera
60. Not all aquatic plants use water for pollination.
61. Majority of aquatic plants such as water hyacinth & water lily, pollination
takes place by insects or wind. (NEET-2020, 2016) [NCERT-29]
62. Pollen grains in many such species are long, Ribbon like & carried,
passively inside the water,.
63. Most of the water-pollinated species, pollen grains are protected from
wetting by mucilaginous covering.
64. Both wind & water pollinated flowers are not very colourful & do not
produce nector.
65. Animals as pollinating:
Bees, Butterflies, Flies, Beetles, wasps, Ants, moths, Birds (Sunbird &
humming Birds) & Bats.
66. Among the animals, insects (Bees) are dominant biotic pollinating agents.
67. Even larger animals as pollinating agents – Primates (lemurs), Arboreal
(tree-dwelling) rodents, reptiles (gecko lizard & garden lizard)
68. Insect-pollinated flowers are: large, colourful, Fragrant & rich in nector.
69. The flowers pollinated by flies & beetles secrete foul odours to attract
these animnals. (NEET-2022, 2015) [NCERT-30]
70. Floral rewards: Nectar, pollen grain & Egg laying space
(NEET-2017, 2015) [NCERT-30]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
71. Tallest flower: Amorphophallus (6 Feet in height)

Moth & yucca plants can not complete their life-cycles without each
other
72. Outbreeding Devices (Prevent selt pollination)
1. Non-synchronisation : Pollen release & stigma receptivity are
not synchronise
2. Different position of anther & stigma
3. Self-incompatibility: Genetic mechanism, prevent self pollination
4. Unisexual flowers: Prevent self-pollinations.
73. Monoecious plants prevent autogamy but not geitonogamy eg: castor &
Maize.
74. Dioecious plants (each plant is either Male or Female) prevent both
Autogamy & geitemogamy but not xenogamy
(NEET-2019, 2017, 2013) [NCERT-31]
75. Pollen-Pistil Interaction: Pistil has the ability to recognise the pollen
1. Pollination does not gurantee the transfer of the right type of pollen.
2. It right type  Pistil accept the pollen  Promotes post
pollination events  Leads to fertilisation
3. If wrong type  Pistil reject the pollen  Prevent Post pollination
events  Fertilisation prevented
76. Study of pollen germination by dusting some pollen from flowers such as
of sugar solution (about 10 percent). About after 15–30 minuts observe
the slide under low power lens of the microscope.
77. Artificial hybridisation is one of the major approaches of crop
improvement programme. This experiment is important to make sure
that only desired pollen grains are used for pollination & stigma is protected
from contamination. This is achieved by Emasculation & Bagging
techniques.
Emasculation: Produces unisexual flowers
Bagging: Prevent unwanted pollen (contamination)
78. If the female parent produce unisexual flowers, there is no need of
emaseculation only bagging occurs before the flowers open.
Double fertilisation
79. Syngamy + Triple fusion (NEET-2019, 2018) [NCERT-34]
80. One male gamete + egg cell nucleus  fuse  syngamy, leads to
formation of zygote (2n)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

81. Another male gamete + two polor nuclei  fuse  Triple fusion, leads
to formation of primary endospen Nuclus (3n)
82. Primary endosperm cell (PEC) develop into Endosperm & the zygote
develops into Embryo.
Endosperm
83. Endosperm development Preecdes embryo development because it
provide nutrition to the developing embryo.
84. In the most common type of endosperm development, the PEN undergoes
successive nuclear division to give rise to free nuclei called Free nuclear
endosperm.
85. Coconut: Cellular endosperm (white kernel)
Nuclear endosperm (Free nuclear) (NEET2016,2015)
(coconut water) [NCERT-35]
86. Endosperm may either be completely consumed by developing embryo
before seed maturation or may persist in mature seed.
87. Endospermic seed: Castor, Coconut, Wheat, Maize, Barley
88. Non-endospermic seed: Pea, Groundnut, Beans.
Embryo
89. Most zygote divide only offer certain amount of endosperm is formed, an
adaptation to provide assured nutrition to the developing embryo.
90. Early stages of embryogeny are similar in both monocotyledon &
dicotyledons.
91. Stages of embryogeny in a dicotyledonous embryo
Proembryo  Globular  Heart – shaped  Mature embryo
Dicotyledonous embryo consists of:
1. Embryonal axis
2. Cotyledons (two)
92. In the grass family the cotyledon is called Scutellum that is situated
towards one side (lateral) of the embryonal axis.
93. Coleorrhiza: undifferentiated sheath
94. Coleoptile: Hollow foliar structure.
SEED : Final product
95. Fertilised ovule
96. In some seeds, remnants of nuclellus are also persistent, this residual
& Persistant nucelluls called Perisperms. eg: Black pepper Beet.
(NEET-2019, 2013) [NCERT-36]
97. Integaments of ovules harden as tough protective seed coats.
98. Small pore of seed coat – Mycropyle
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
99. Micropyle facilitates entry of oxygen & water into the seed during
germination.
100. As the seed matures, its water content is reduced & seed become
relatively dry (10–15 percent moisture by mass)
101. Transformation of ovules into seeds & ovary develops into fruit proceeds
simultaneously.
102. Pericarp  wall of fruits
 May be dry (Groundnut, Mustard)or may fleshy (Guava,
Orange & Mango)
103. Falsh Fruit: Fruit develop not from ovary [NEET-2022] [NCERT-37]
eg: Apple, strawberry, cashew (thalamus contribute in fruit formation)
104. Pathenocarpic fruit: Fruit develop without fertilisation–
eg: Banana (NEET-2015) [NCERT-37]
105. Seed have better adaptive strategies for dispersal to new habitats &
help the species to colonise in other area.
106. Being product of sexual reproduction (seed), they generate new genetic
combinations leading to variations.
107. Lupin (Lupinus arcticus): From Arctic Tundra, Oldest, Dormany is
10,000 years.
108. Phoenix dactylifera (Date palm) : From king Herod’s palace near the
Dead sea Dormancy 2000 years.
Apormixis
109. Production of seed without fertilisation (NEET-2016) [NCERT-38]
110. Eg: Asteraceae & Grasses
111. Apomixis is a form of Asexual reproduction that mimics sexual
reproduction.
112. Diploid egg cell is formed without reduction division & develop into embryo
without fertilisation.
Polyembryony
113. Occurance of more than one embryo in a seed.
114. Eg: Citrus & Mango
Hybrid seed (sexual)
115. Increased productivity
116. Problem – produce every year
117. Progency will segregate & do not maintain hybrid character
118. Costly
Apomictic seed (Asexual)
119. No segregation of character
120. Do not buy every year
******×******×******×******
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
51, 53 = 2 Pages
33.4 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

HUMAN REPRODUCTION
1. Reproductive Events –
Gametogenesis Insemination Fertilisation

Implantation (Gestation) Embryonic development
Parturition
2. Sperm formation continues even in old man but formation of ovum ceases
in women around the age of 50 years.
3. Male reproductive system located in pelvic region and include a pair of
testis, accessary duct, glands, external genitalia.
4. Scrotum help in maintaining the low temprature of testes (2-2.50C) lower
than normal body temprature [2011] [NCERT-43]
5. Testis is situated outside abdominal cavity and each testis has 250
compartment called testicular lobule and each lobule contain 1-3 highly
coiled seminiferous tubule in which sperm are produced.
6. Seminiferous tubule lined inside by 2 type of cell[2010] [NCERT-43]
a. Male germ cell (spermatogonia) – undergo meiotic divisions and

form sperm.
b. Sertoli cell – Provide nutrition to germ cell.
7. Region outside seminiferous tubule called interstitial space contain
blood vessels and interstitial cell (leydig cell)
8. Leydig cell synthesis and secrete testicular hormone called Androgen
[2020][2012] [NCERT-43]
9. Male sex accessory duct include rate testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis
and vas deferens.
10. Path of sperm [2019,2016,2011] [NCERT-44]
S.T Rate testis Vasa efferentia Epididymis Vas deferens
11. Vasa efferentia leave the testis and open into epididymis located along
posterior surface of each testis.
12. Epididymis leads to vas deferens that ascend to the abdomen and loop
over urinary bladder. It receives a duct from seminal vesicle and open into
urethra as ejaculatory duct.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
13. Ejaculatory duct store and transport sperm.

14. Male accessary gland include paired seminal vesicles, a prostate gland
and paired bulbourethral gland, secretion of these gland constitute seminal
plasma rich in fructose, calcium and certain enzyme[2010] [NCERT-44]
15. Secretions of bulbourethral gland also help in lubrication of penis.
16. Female reproductive system consist of a pair of ovaries along with a
pair of oviduct, uterus, cervix, vegina and external genitalia located in
pelvic region.
17. Ovaries are primary female sex organ that produce the female gamete
(ovum) and several steroid hormone (ovarian Hormones)
18. Each ovary is covered by thin epithelium which enclose the ovarian stroma.
The stroma is divided into two zone-a peripheral cortex and an Inner
Medulla.
19. Oviduct (fallopian tube), uterus and vegina Female accessary duct
Fallopian tube 3 part –
a. Infundibulum – Part closer to ovary and funnel shape also the edge
of this posses finger like projections called fimbriae Collect ovum
b. Ampulla – Infundibulum leads to wider part of oviduct called Ampulla
c. Isthmus – Last part of oviduct, narrow lumen and it join the uterus.
20. Uterus is single and it is also called womb (shape like Inverted pear).
Uterus is attached to pelvic wall by support of ligament.
21. Uterus open into vegina through narrow cervix, the cavity of cervix i.e.
cervical canal alongwith vegina form birth canal.
22. Wall of uterus – (3)
a. Perimetrium – External, thin membranous.
b. Myometrium – Middle, thick layer of smooth muscle.
c. Endometrium – Inner, glandular layer, line the uterine cavity.
23. Female external genitalia include mons pubis, labia majora, labia
minora, hymen and clitoris [2016] [NCERT-46]
24. Labia majora are fleshy fold of tissue which extend down from the
mons bubis and surround the veginal opening.
25. Clitoris is a tiny finger-like structure which lies at the upper junction of
two labia minora above the urethral opening.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

26. Mammary gland – glandular tissue of each breast divided into 15-20
mammary lobe, containing clusters of cell called alveoli. The cell of alveoli
secrete milk which is stored in the cavities of alveoli.
27. Alveoli Mammary tuble M. duct Ampulla Lactiferous duct
Path of milk
28. Primary sex organ – the testis in male and ovaries in the female produce
gamete i.e. sperm and ovum.
29. Spermatogenesis – In testis immature male germ cell (spermatogonia)
produce sperm by spermatogenesis that begins at puberty
[2018] [NCERT-47]
30. Order of spermatogenesis – [2022] [2013] [NCERT-49]
• Spermatid are transformed into spermatozoa (sperm) by the process
called spermiogenesis [2022] [2018] [NCERT-49]
• Sperm head become embedded in sertoli cell and finally released from
seminiferous tubule by the process called spermiation.
[2022] [NCERT-47]
• Spermatogensis start at the age of puberty due to significant increase in
secretion of GnRH (Gonadotropin releasing Hormone) act at anterior
pituitary gland and stimulate secretion of LH and FSH.
• LH act on leydig cell and stimulate synthesis and secretion of androgen
which stimulate process of spermatogenesis. [2022] [NCERT-47]
• FSH cat on sertoli cell and stimulate secretion of some factor which help
in process of spermiogenesis. [2016] [NCERT-47]
31. Sperm – Microscopic structure, compose of Head, neck, middle piece
and tail, a plasma membrane cover whole body of sperm.
• Sperm Head contain an elongated haploid nucleus, anterior partion of
which is covered by a cap-like structure Acrosome.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
• Acrosome filled with enzyme that help in fertilisation[2010] [NCERT-48]

• Middle piece posses mitochondria which produce energy that help in
sperm motality essential for fertilisation
• Human male ejaculate 200-300 million sperm during a coitus of which
for normal fertility at least 60 percent sperm must have normal shape
and size and at least 40 percent of them must show vigoruos motility
• Secretion of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle and prostate are
essential for maturation and motality of sperms.
• Seminal plasma along with sperm constitute the Semen.
32. Oogenesis – Oogenesis initiated during embryonic development stage
no more oogonia (gamete mother cell) are formed after birth. [2022]
• These cell start division and enter into prophase-I of meiotic division and
get temrorarily arrested at that stage, called primary oocytes.
• Each 1o oocyte then get sorrounded by a layer of granulosa cells and is
called primary follicle.
• At puberty only 60-80 thousand 1o follicle left in each ovary.
• The primary follicle get surrounded by more layer of granulosa and a new
theca and are called secondary follicle.
• 20 follicle soon transform into a tertiary follicle which are characterised
by a fluid cavity called Antrum. [2016] [NCERT-48]
• Theca layer is arganised into inner theca interna and outer theca externa.
• Primary oocyte within tertiary follicle undergoes to 1st meiotic division
(unequal) resulting in formation of haploid 20 ooctyle (ovum) from ovary
by process called ovulation.
33. Menstrual Cycle First menstrual cycle begins at puberty called
menarche.
• Phase 1 (Menstrual phase) when endometrium line break and its
blood vessel which form liquid that comes out by vagina.
• Menstruation occure if released ovum is not fertilised.
• It last for 3-5 days, Lack of menstruation may be indicative of pregnancy
but it may also occure due to poor Health, stress etc.
Phase 2 (fallicular or proliferative phase) – 1o follicle in ovary grow to
become a fully mature graffian follicle and simultaneously the endometrium
of uterus regenerate by proliferation.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
• These change in the ovary and the uterus are induced by change in the
levels of pituitary and ovarian hormones.
• The secretion of gonadotropins (LH & FSH) increase gradually during the
follicular phase and stimulate follicular development as well as secretion
of estrogen by growing follicle.
Phase 3 (ovulation) – Both LH and FSH attain a peak in middle of cycle
(14th day)
• Rapid secretion of LH leading to its maximum level during the mid-cycle
called LH surge induce rupture of graffian follicle and there by release of
ovum. [2016, 2011] [NCERT-51]
Phase 4 (luteal phase or secretory phase) – After ovulation remaining
part of graffian follicle transform as corpus luteum.
• Carpous luteum secretes large amount of progestrone which is essential
for maintenence of endometrium, b/c it is necessary for implantation of
fertilised ovum. [2018, 2014, 2013, 2012] [NCERT-51]
34. In human being menstrual cycle ceases around 50 year of age that is
termed as menopause.
35. Fertilisation can occure only if ovum and sperm are transported
simultaneously to ampullary region [2016] [NCERT-51]
36. During fertilisation sperm come in contact with zona pellucida layer of
ovum and induce change in membrane that block entry of additional
sperm and Insure only 1 sperm fertilise with ovum.[2017, 2020] [NCERT-51]
37. The secretion of acrosome help the sperm enter into the cytoplasm of
ovum through the zona help the sperm enter into the cytoplasm of
completion of meiotic division of the 20 oocyte.
38. The 2nd meiotic division is unequal form 2nd polar body and ovum (ootid)
soon, the haploid sperm and ovum fuse to form zygote (Nucleus fuse)
39. Mitotic division start as zygote move through the isthmus of oviduct called
cleavage towards uters and form 2,4,8,16 daughter cells called
blastomeres.
40. Embryo with 8 to 16 blastomere called Morula and morula continues to
divide and transform into blastocyst as it move further into uterus.
41. Blastomere in blastocyst are arrange into an outer layer called trophoblast
and an inner group of cells attached to trophoblast called inner cell mass.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

42. Trophoblast layer get attach to endometrium and inner cell mass get
differentiated as embryo.
43. Blastocyst become embedded in the endometrum of uterus called
implantation and leads to pregnancy.
44. After implantation finger like projections appear on trophoblast called
chorionic villi which are sorrounded by uterine tissue and maternal blood
45. Chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigited with each other and
jointly form structural and functional unit between developing embryo
and maternal body called placenta.
46. Placenta facillitate the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo and
also revomal of excretory / waste material of foetus.
• Placenta is connected to embryo through and umbilical cord which
help in transport of substance to and from embryo.
47. Placenta also act as endocrine tissue and produce many hormone hCG,
hPL, estrogen, progestogen, relaxin. [2020, 2018, 2016] [NCERT-53]
• hCG, hPL and relaxin only produced in woman during pregnancy.
• During pregnancy estrogen, progestogens, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxin
increased several fold in maternal blood which is essential to support
foetal growth, matabolic changes in mother and maintain pregnancy.
48. Immediately after implantation inner cell mass (embryo) differentiate
into outer layer (Ectoderm) and inner layer (Endoderm), mesoderm soon
appear between ectoderm and endoerm.
• Inner cell mass contain certain cell called stem cell which have potency
to give rise to all tissue and organ.
49. After 1 month of pregnancy – Embryo’s heart is formed.
End of 2nd month – foetus develops limbs and digits.
End of 12 week (first triminster) – Most of major organ system are
form (Example Limbs and external genital organs)
During 5th month – first movement of foetus, hair on head.
[2010] [NCERT-54]
End of 24 week (2nd trimester) – Body covered with fine hair, eyelid
seprated and eyelashes are formed.
End of 9 month – Foetus is full developed and ready for delivery.

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
50. Signal for parturition originate from fully developed foetus and placenta
which induce mild uterine contraction called foetal ejection reflex. and
this trigger the release of oxytocin
51. Oxytocin act on uterine muscle and cause stronger uterine contractions
which in turn further stimulate oxytocin secretion.
52. Mammary gland of female undergo differentiation during pregnancy and

starts producing milk towards the end of pregnacy by the process called
lactation.
53. Milk produced during initial few days of lactation called colostrum which
contain several antibody essential for developing resistance in new born
babies.
ᶳᶪᶪᶹᶴᶽᶵᶭᶮᶱᶮᶨ ******×******×******×******
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

60, 64 = 2 Pages
50 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
1. According to WHO reproductive health means total well being in all aspect
of reproduction i.e., physical, emotional, behavioural and social.
2. “Family Planning” were initiated in 1951 in India.
3. Improved programmes covering wide reproduction related areas are
currently in operation under the popular name Reproductive and child
health care (RCH) programmes.
4. Statutory ban on amniocentesis for sex-determination to ugally check
increasing menace of female foeticides.
5. In amniocentesis some amniotic fluid of developing foetus is taken to
analyse the fetal cell and dissolved substances.
6. Use of Amniocentesis – to check genetic disorder (Haemophilia, down
syndrome etc) and determine survivality of foetus.
[2016, 2013, 2010] [NCERT-58]
7. Saheli – a new oral contraceptic for female which was developed by
scientists at Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI) in Lucknow, India.
8. World Population – 2 billion (1900)6 billion (2000)7.2 billion (2011)
9. India Population –350 million  1 billion  1.2 billion
(time of Independance) (2000) (2011)
10. According to 2011 census report the population growth rate was less
than 2 percent i.e., 20/1000/year.
11. Statutary raising of marrigeable age of female to 18 years and for male to
21 years.
12. Ideal Contraceptive – User friendly, easily available, effective, reversible
with no or least side effects.
13. Type of Contraceptive Method –
a. Natural  Periodic abstinence – Couple avoid from coitus from day
10 to 17 of menstrual cycle.
 Withdrawl or coitus interruptus – Male partner withdraw
his penis from vegina jus before ejaculation.
 Lactational amenorrhea – (Absence of menstruation) –
Based on the fact that ovulation and therefore cycle do not
occur during period of intense lactation after parturition.
[2022] [NCERT-60]
 This method is effective only upto a maxmum period of 6
months.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
b. Barrier  Sperm and ovum are prevented from physical meeting.

 Condoms are made of thin rubber/latex sheath that are
use to cover penis of male or vegina and cervix in female.
 Diaphragm, cervical cap, vaults are also barrier made of
rubber inserted in female reproductive tract and are reusable.
 Spermicidal creams, Jellies and foams are usually used
alongwith these barriers to increase their contraceptive
efficiency. [2022] [NCERT-60]
c. Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs) – 3 Type
[2022, 2019, 2016, 2014] [NCERT-61]
i. Non-medicated – Lippes loop [2022]
ii. Copper releasing – (CuT, Cu7, Multiload 375)
iii. Hormone releasing – Progestasert, LNG-20
NOTE • IUDs – Increase phagocytosis of sperm within uterus.
[2019] [NCERT-61]
• Cu Ion – Supress sperm motality and fertilising capacity
of sperm. [2018] [NCERT-61]
• Harmonal IUDs – has additional role make uterus
unsuitable for implantation and cervix hostile to sperms.
[2016] [NCERT-61]
NOTE • IUDs are ideal contraceptives for female who want to delay
pregnancy and / or space children. It is one of most widely
accepted method of contraception of India.
d. Oral administration (Pills) – Either progestogen or progestogen -
estrogen combination is another method use by female.
[2022] [NCERT-61]
Function – Inhibit ovulation and implantation as well as alter quality of
cervical mucus to prevent / retard entry of sperm.
• Pills have to be taken daily for a period of 21 days starting
preferably within the first five days of menstrual cycle.
NOTE • Saheli – New oral contraceptive for female (non-steroidal)
– Once a wek pill.
e. Injection or Implants – Same combination as pills and work also
same as pills but effective period is longer.
NOTE : Administration of progestogens or progestogen - estrogen
combination or IUDs within 72 hour of coitus act as
emergency contraceptive.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

14. Surgical method also called sterilisation are generally advised for male/
female partner as a terminal method to prevent any more pregnancies.
Vasetomy (Male) Tubectomy (Female)
• Small part of vas deferens is • Small part of fallopian tube
removed or tied up by small removed or tied up through small
incision on the scrotum. incision in abdomen or through
vegina.
15. Contraceptive are not regular requirement for maintenence of reproductive
health because their possible ill effects like nausea, abdominal pain,
break through bleeding, irregular menstrual bleeding etc.
16. Intensional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is called
medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or induce abortion.
• Nearly 45 to 50 million MTPs are preformed in a year all over the world
which is about 1/5th of total conceived pregnancies in a year.
• Government of India liglise MTP in 1971.
• MTP are considered safe during first tremester i.e., upto 12 week of
pregnancy. [2011] [NCERT-62]
• Why MTP ? Answer is to get rid of unwanted pregnancies either due
to casual unprotected intercourse or failure of the contraceptive used
during coitus or rapes.
17. Infections or disease that are transmitted by sexual intercourse are
collectively called Sexual Transmitted Injections (STI) or Veneral
Disease (VD) or Reproductive Tract Infections (RTI).
• Gonorrhoea, syphilis, genital herpes, chlamydoiasis, genital warts,
hepatitis-B, trichomoniasis, HIV leading to AIDS are common STIs.
• Some of these infections like hepatitis B and HIV can also be
transmitted by sharing of injection needles, surgical instruments etc
with infected person, transfusion of blood or from infected mother to
foetus too.
18. Except Hepatitis-B genital herpes and HIV injection, other disease are
completely curable if detected early and treated properly.
[2019] [NCERT-63]
19. Early symptoms of most of STIs are itching, fluid discharge, slight pain,
swelling etc.
20. Inhability to conceive or produce children even after 2 years of unprotected
sexual cohabitatin is called injectility.
• The reason could be many physical congenital, disease, drug
immunoligical and even psychological.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
21. Couple could be assisted to have children through certain special

technique (in case of infertility) known as Assisted reproductive
technologies (ART)
22. In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF) - Fertilisation outside the body of almost
similar conditon as that in body followed by embryo transfer. This method
commonly known as test tube body programme.
23. Zygote Intra Fallopion Transfer (ZIFT) – Zygote or early embryo (upto
8 blastomere) could be transferred into fallopian tube.
[2020, 2014, 2010] [NCERT-64]
24. IUT (Intra Uterine Transfer) – Embryo mare than 8 blastomere transfer
into uterus. [2016] [NCERT-64]
25. Embryo form by in-vivo fertilisation (fusion of gamete within the female)
also could be used for such transfer to assist those female who can not
conceive.
26. GIFT (Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer) – Transfer of an ovum collected
from a donor into fallopian tube of another female who can not produce
one but can provide suitable environment for fertilisation and further
development. [2015, 2011] [NCERT-64]
27. ICSI (Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection) : Produce embryo in lab in
which sperm is directly injected into ovum.
28. Artificial Insemination – If male partner is unavailable or have very low
sperm count then this technique used.
In this semen collected from husband or healthy donor is artificially
introduced into vegina or into uterus (IUI – Intra uterine insemination)
of female. [2017, 2013] [NCERT-64]
******×******×******×******
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

INDEX
UNIT VII : GENETICS AND EVOLUTION
1. Principles of Inheritance and Variation
2. Molecular Basis of Inheritance

-
-
3-12
13-28
3. Evolution - 29-36
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

77, 89 = 2 Pages
27.3 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

1. Genetics deals with the inheritance as well as variation of characters
from parents to offsprings.
2. Inheritance is the process progency differs from their parents.
3. Variation is the degree by which progency differs from their parents.
4. Indian breeds (Sahiwal cows) develop in Punjab.
5. Gregor mendel conducted hydridisation experiment on Garden Peas
for seven year (1856-1563) & proposed laws of inheritance in living
orgnaisms. [NEET 2017][NCERT 70]
6. Mendal selected 14 true-breeding pea plant varieties.
[NEET 2020] [NCERT 70]
7. Seven pairs of contrasting traids studied by mendal on pea plants
Character Dominant traid Recessive traid
[NEET 2017,2015] [NCERT 71]
Seed shape Round Wrinkled
Seed colour Yellow Green
Flower colour Voilet White
Pod shape Full Constricted
Pod colour Green Yellow
Flower position Axial Terminal
Stem Height Tall Dwarf
8. Genes – unit of inheritance, contain the information that is required to
express a particular traid.
9. Mendal called factors (Gene)
10. Allels – Genes which code for a pair of contrasting traids, they are
slightly different forms of the same gene.[NEET 2022, 2015][NCERT 72]
11. Punnett square – Graphical representation to calculate the probability
of all possible genotypes of offspring in a genetic cross.
• Devloped by a british geneticist, Reginald C. Punnet.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
12. Monohybrid cross

• Study of inheritance of one character at a time in an organism
• Phenotypic ratio = 3 : 1
• Genotypic ratio = 1 : 2 : 1
13. Based on his observation on monohybrid crosses mendal proposed two
general rules. These rules are called principles or law of interitance.
1. Law of Dominance
2. Law of Segregation
14. Law of Dominance [NEET 2018,2016] [NCERT 75]
1. Characters are controlled by discreat units called factors.
2. Factors occur in pairs
3. In a dissimilar pair of factors one member of the pair dominantes &
other recessive.
• Law of Dominance used to explain the expression of only one of the
parental characters in monohybrid cross in F1 & expression of both
in F2.
15. Law of Segregation
• This law is based on the fact that the allels do not show any blending
& both character are recovered as such in the F2 generation.
• The factors or allets of a pair segregate from each other such that
a gamete receive only one of the two factors.
• Law of Dominance have two exceptions
1. Incomplete Dominance
2. Co-dominance
Incomplete Dominance [NEET 2019, 2016, 2012, 2018] [NCERT 76]
• F1 phenotype did not resemble either of the two parents & was in
between the two
• Phenotypic ratio change from 3 : 1 to 1 : 2 : 1
• Phenotypic & Genotypic ratio = 1 : 2 : 1
• Examples : Flower colour in the dog flower (Snapdragon or
Antirrhinium sps) & Starch grain size [NEET 2018]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
16. Co-dominance [NEET 2015, 2018, 2016] [NCERT 77]

• F1 Phenotype resembles both parents [NEET 2013] [NCERT 77]
• Phenotypic & Genotypic ratio = 1 : 2 : 1
• Eg: AB blood group ( IAIB) [NEET 2013] [NCERT 77]
17. ABO blood group in human Beings [NEET 2020, 2018] [NCERT 77]
• ABO blood group controlled by the gene i.
• Gene i has three alleles IA, IB & i
• IA & IB produce slightly different form of sugar while allels i doesn’t
produce any sugars.
Genetic Basis of Blood Groups in Human population
•

• ABO Blood grouping also provides a good example of multiple alleles
[NEET 2015,2018][NCERT 78]
• Phenotype = 4, Genotypes=6, Alleles = 3 [NEET 2017] [NCERT 77]
• An individual only two alleles can present, multiple alleles can be
found only when population studied are made.
• Pleiotropy : A single gene product may produce more than one
effect
Eg: Starch synthesis in pea seeds [NEET 2016] [NCERT 78]
18. Dihybrid cross
• Study of inheritance of two characters at a time.
• Phenotypic ratio = 9:3:3:1
• Genotypic ratio = 1:2:2:4:1:2:1:2:1
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
19. Law of Independent Assortment states that, “when two pairs of traids
are combined in a hybrid, segregation of one pair of characters in
independent of the other pairs of characters”. [NEET 2022] [NCERT 80]
20. Important formula
• Type of gamete/type of phenotypes = 2n ( n= no.of Heterozygous.)
• Type of genotypes = 3n
21. Test cross : It is used to find out the genotype of F1 individual.
[NEET 2012, 2016] [NCERT 74]
• F1 individual crossed with homozygous recessive parent.
• Test cross ratio : Monhybrid 1:1
Dihybrid 1:1:1:1
• Mendel published his work on inheritance of characters in 1865 but
if remained unrecognished till 1900 due to several reason.
1. Communication was not easy in those day.
2. His concept of genes as stable & discrete unit
3. Use mathematics to explain biological phenomenone
22. In 1900, de vries, correns & Von tschermak independently
rediscovered mendel’s results on the inheritance of characters.
23. Walter sutton & Theodore Boveri noted that behavior of chromosomes
was parallel to the behavior of genes & used chromosomal movement
in 1902.
24. Experimental varification of the chromosomal theory of inheritance
given by Thomas Hunt Morgan & his colleagues.
25. Morgan work on fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) due to following
reason
• Grow in simple synthetic medium in lab.
• Life cycle complete in two weeks
• Many type of herediatary variation
26. Linkage & Recombination
• Physical association or linkage of two genes called linkage &
Recombination of describe the generation of non-parental gene
combination. [NEET 2015] [NCERT 83]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
• In linkage, the proportion of parental gene combination are much

higher than non-parental type.
• Tighly linked gene shows very low recombination while lossly linked
genes shows higher recombination
27. Alfred sturtevant : Distance betwen genes & mapped their position of
chromosome [NEET 2019] [NCERT 83]
• Linkage 1/Distance b/w genes 1/ Recombination
• Recombination Crossing over
28. Sex determination
• Henking (1891) experiments carried out in insect & named X-Body.
but on investigation by other scientist, conduded that X-Body of
Henking are X-chromosomes.
29. Sex determination in –
• Most Insects (Grass hopper) : XO type – Male heterogametic
(Determine sex of baby) [NEET 2022, 2018] [NCERT 86]
• Birds : ZW type – Female heterogametic (Determine sex of baby)
• It is also evident that in each pregnacy there is always 50% probability
of either a male or a female child.
30. Sex determination in honey bee
• Based on number of sets of chromosomes in individual receives.
• Honey bee colony have –
Queen, worker – Female (Diploid 32 chromosomes)

Drones – Male (16 chromosomes, Haploid)
• Known as haplo-diploid sex-determination system
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Mutation
• Results in alteration of DNA sequences & results in changes in
genotype & phenotype of an organism & leads to variation in DNA
• Mutation are due to loss (Deletions) OR Gain (insertion/
(Duplication) of a segment of DNA result in alteration in
chromosomes.
• Chromosomal alteration result in abnormalities/Aberrations.
• Chromosomal aberrations are commonly oberved in Cancer cells.
Point mutation – due to change in single base pair of DNA
eg – Sickle cell Anaemia.
Frame shift mutation – Deletions or insertions of base pairs of DNA.
31. Pedigree Analysis
• Study of the family history about inheritance of a particular traid
provides an alternative.
• Pedigree analysis provides a strong tool, utilised to trace the
inheritance of a specific traid, abnormality or disease.
32. Symbols used in human pedigree analysis.
: Male
: Female
: Sex unspecified
: Affected Individuals
: Mating
: Mating between relatives
(consanguineous mating)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

33. Colour blindness : sex-linked recessive disorder due to defect in

either red or green cone of eye resulting in failure to discriminate between
red & green colour [2022, 2012] [NCERT 89]
• Occurs in about 8 percent of males & only about 0.4 percent of
female. [NEET 2016, 2014] [NCERT 89]
34. Haemophilia : sex-linked recessive disorder, transmission from
unaffected carrier female to some of the male progency
[NEET 2022, 2020, 2016, 2013] [NCERT 90]
• A single protein that is a part of cascade of proteins invelved in the
clothing of blood is affected.
• Possibility of female becoming a haemophilic is extremely rare.
• Queen victoria – carrier of the disease.
35. Sickle-cell Anaemia : Autosomal linked recessive disease.
[NEET 2022, 2021, 2020, 2016] [NCERT 90]
• Disease occurs when both partner are heterozygous (carrier)
• Three pair of Alleles
HbAHbA Normal
A S
Hb Hb Carrier
HbSHbS Disease
• Defect is caused by substitution of Glutamic acid (Glu) by valine
(val) at the six position of beta globin chain of Hb molecules.
• Change takes place from GAG to GUG
• Shape of RBCs changes from Biconcave disc to elongated sickle
shaped due to low oxygen tension.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
36. Phenylketonuria : Inborn error of metabolism, Autosomal recessive

traid.
• Affected individual lack the enzyme phenylalanin hydroxylase
(that convert phenylalanine into tyrosin)
• Due to lack of this enzyme phenylalanine  Phenyl pyruvic acid
• Mental retardation, Hair loss & skin pigmentation takes place.
37. Thalassemia : Autosomal linked reccesive blood disease
[NEET 2022, 2020, 2013] [NCERT 91]
• Disease takes place when both partner are carrier
• Defect could due to either delection/Mutation of globin molecule.
• Anaemia is the characteristic of this disease.
• Two types
1. - Thalasemia ( -globin chain affected)
2. - Thalasemia ( -globin chain affected)

• -Thalasemia – 16th chromosomes, controlled by two closely
linked gene. HBA1 & HBA2
• 1th chromosomes, controlled by one linked gene

-Thalasermia – 11
HBB.
• Thalasemia differs from sickle cell anaernia is that thalasemia is
quantitative problem & sickle cell anaemia is qualitative problem of
Haemoglobin molecules. [NEET 2017][NCERT 91]
38. Chromosomal disorders –
• Caused due to absence or excess or abnormal arrangement of
one or more chromosomes.
• Aneuploidy : Gain or loss of chromosomes due to failure of
segregation of chromatids.
Down’s syndrome : First described by Langdon down (1866)
• Trisomy of 21th chromosomes [NEET 2016, 2013] [NCERT 92]
• Affected individual shows – Short statured with small round head,
furrrowed tongue, partially open mouth, palm broad with crease.
congential heart disease physical, psychomotor & mental retardation
takes place.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
39. Klinefelter’s chromosomes [NEET 2019, 2016] [NCERT 92]

• Additional copy of X-chromosomes (47,XXY)
• Such individual has –
Overall masculine development
Faminine development (Gynacomastia)
Sterile individuals.
40. Turner syndrome [NEET 2019][NCERT 92]
• Absence of one of the X-chromosomes. (45+XO)
• Such female are sterile
• Rudimentary ovary
• Lack of secondary sexual characters.
41. Polygenic inheritance [NEET 2016] [NCERT 85]
• Single traid controlled by three or more genes
• Dark skin colour (Dominant) controled by three genes – AABBCC
• Light skin colour (Recessive) controlled by three genes - aabbcc
• Intermidiate skin coloure also present
• Examples : Human height & Human skin colour.
*******************×*******************×*******************
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

117 = 1 Pages
% QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE

1. Nucleic acid: Polymer of Nucleotides eg: DNA & RNA
2. Nitrogen Base + Pentose sugar + Phosphate = Nucleotide
3. Nitrogen Base + Pentose sugar = Nucleoside
4. Nitrogenous bases : Purines (Adenine & Guanine) (NEET-2019) [NCERT 96]
Pyrimidines (Cytocine, Uracil and Thymine)

5. Thymine only present in DNA. Uracil present in RNA at the place of
Thymine.
DNA: Long polymer of deoxribonucleotides.
6. Acidic substance present in nucleus, 1 st identified by Friedrich
Meischer in 1869 & named as Nuclein.
7. In 1953, James Watson & Francis Crick, based on X-ray data
diffraction (produced by Maurice wilkins & Rosolind Franklin)
proposed a very simple & Famous Double Helix model for the structure
of DNA.
8. Chargaff Rule: Ratio between Adenine & Thymine & Guanine & Cytocin
are constant & equals one. For dsDNA.(NEET-2021, 2015) [NCERT 97]
9. Complimentary: If the sequence of base in one strand is known then
the sequence in other strand can be predicted.
10. Salient features of ds DNA
1. Made up of two polynucleotide chain, backbone constituted sugar-
phosphate & base projected inside.
2. Two chains have anti-parallel polarity.
3. Bases in two strands paired through hydrogen bond. A=T & G  C
(NEET-2020) [NCERT 97]
Always a purine comes opposite to pyrimidine (generate appx. uniform
distance between the two strands of the helix)
4. The two chains are coiled in a right-handed fashion.
Pitch of helix = 3.4 nm & roughly 10 bp in each tum.
Distance b/w a bp  0.34 nm.
5. The plane of one base paair stacks over the other in double helix.
(confers stability of the helical structure)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

11. Central Dogma proposed by Francis crick. which states that genetic
information flows from DNA  RNA  Protein.(NEET-2021, 2013) [NCERT 98]
12. In some viruses the flow of information is in reverse direction, that is

from RNA to DNA
13. Another chemical name of Thymine is 5-methyleracil
Packaging of DNA Helix
1. Length of DNA Helix = Total number of base pair X distance b/w two
consecutive bp. (NEET-2022) [NCERT 99]
2. Length of DNA is Typical mammalian cell = 2.2 meters.
(NEET-2020) [NCERT 99]
3. Length of DNA in E.celi = 1.36 mm.
14. In Prokaryotes “Nucleoid” fterm is used at the place of nucleus.
DNA in nucleoid is a organised in large loops held by proteins.
15. In Eukaryotes
Histone : Positively charge & Basic (NEET-2021) [NCERT 99]
DNA : Negatively charge & Acidic
• Histone are rich in Basic amino acid Lysines & Arginines
(NEET-2022, 2021) [NCERT 99]
• Histones are organised to form a unit of eight molecules called
Histone Octamer (H2A, H2B, H3& H4)
• Nucleosome: Negatively charged DNA is wrapped around the
positively charged histone octamer. [NEET 2022] [NCERT 99]
• A typical nucleosome contain 200 bp of DNA helix. [NEET 2022]
• Nucleosomes constitute the repeating unit of a structure in nucleus
called chromatin. (thread like stained body seen in nucleus)
• Nucleosomes in chromatin are seen as “Beads-on-string” structure
when viewed under microscope.
• Packaging of chromatin at higher level requirs additional set of protein
that refferred to as Non-histone chromosomal (NHC) proteins.
• Loosely packed (Light strain) = Euchromatin (Active)
Densely packed (Dark strains) = Heterochromatin (Inactive)
[NEET 2022] [NCERT -99, 100]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

16. Bacterophage  ×174 = 5386 nucleotides

Bacteriophage lamda = 48502 base pair
Escherichia coli = 4.6×106 base pair
Human (Haploid) = 3.3×109 base pair
Transforming principle (NEET-2014) [NCERT 100]
17. Frederick Griffith (1928). experiments on Streptococus pneumoniae
bacteria
18. Bacteria grown on a culture plate produce
1. Smooth shiny colonies (s) – Mucous (Polysaccharides)
coat (Virulent)
2. Rough colonies (R) (Non-virulent)
19. S strain  injected into mice  Mice die
R strain  injected into mice  Mice live
S strain  injected into mice  Mice live
s strain(Heat killed)
R strain(live)
[Recovered living S bacteria from dead mice]

20. Conclusion: Some transforming principle, transferred from the heat
killed “S” strain, had enabled the “R” strain to synthesise a smooth
polysaccharides coat & become virulent due to transfer of genetic
material.
21. Biochemical nature of genetic material was not defined from his
experiment.
Biochemical characterisation of transforming principle
22. Done by Oswald Avery, colin Mac Leod & Maclyn Mecarty.
23. They purified biochemical nature of protein, DNA & RNA & find that
DNA alone from S bacteria caused R Bacteria to become transformed.
24. Also, protein digesting enzyme (Protease), RNA digesting enzyme
(RNAes) did not affect transformation, so transforming substance are
not protein & RNA.
25. Digestion with DNase did inhibit transformation so, DNA caused the
transformation. They concluded that DNA is the genetic material but
not all biologists were convinced.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Herchey-chase experiment (1952)

26. The unequivacal proot that DNA is the genetic material comes
from this experiment.
27. They worked with viruses that infect bacteria called Bacteriophages.
28. They used E.coli bacteria
29. Viruses grow on medium
 contain radioactive phosphorous (DNA  Radioactive)
 contain radioactive sulphur (Protein  Not radioactive)
30. Bacteria which was infected with viruses that had radioactive DNA were
radioactive, indicating that DNA was the material that passed from virus
to bacteria.
31. Steps: Infection  Blending  Centrifugation
32. Protein did not enter the bacteria from viruses.
33. DNA is therefore the genetic material that passed from virus to bacteria
Properties of Genetic material
34. Above experiments proof that DNA is the genetic material but in some
viruses RNA is the genetic material eg: Tobaco mosaic viruses,
QB bacteriophage.
35. Criteria for genetic material (NEET-2016) [NCERT 103]
(i) Should be able to generate its replia (Replication)
(ii) Should be Chemically & structurally stable
(iii)Should provide the scope for slow changes (Mutation) that requires
for evolution.
(iv) Should be able to express itself in the form of “Mendelian
characters”
36. Both the nucleic acid (DNA & RNA) have the ability to direct their
duplications.
37. Genetic material should be stable enough not to change with different
stages of life cycle, age or with change in the physiology of the
organism.
38. Two strands being complementary, if seperated by heating come togather
when appropriate conditions are provided.
39. 2’–OH group present at every nucleotide in RNA is reactive group &
make RNA labile & easily degradable.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
40. RNA are catalytic & Reactive as compared to DNA (less reactive &
more stable).
41. Both DNA & RNA are able to mutate. RNA being unstable & mutate at
a faster rate.
42. Viruses having RNA genome & having shorter life span mutable & evolve
faster.
43. Among two nucleic acid (DNA & RNA) DNA is the better genetic
material.
44. RNA can directly code for protein synthesis & DNA depends on RNA
for synthesis of protein.
45. For storage of genetic information – DNA & for transmission of
genetic information RNA is better.
46. RNA was the first genetic material & essential for life process such
as metabolism, Translation, splicing evolved around RNA.
47. Semi conservative model for DNA replication was given by Watson &
Crick.
48. DNA replicate semiconservatively was proposed by–
(NEET-2018) [NCERT 104]
1. Mathew Meselson & Franklin stahl (E. Coli) (1958)
2. Taylor & colleagues (Vicia faba) (1958)
Meselson & stahl experiments (NEET-2016) [NCERT 105]
49. Used heavy isotope of (N15) not radioactive.
50. Grew E.coli in NH4Cl medium.
51. DNA centrifugation by CsCl (Distinguse of heavy DNA from normal DNA)
52.
[NEET 2022] [NCERT 105]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

53. E. coli divide in 20 minutes.
Taylor experiments
54. Use of radioactive thymidine
Machinery & Enzymes for Replication
55. Replication in E.coli requires a set of enzyme.
56. Main enzyme for replication is DNA dependent DNA polymerase
(NEET-2016) [NCERT 106]
57. DNA dependent DNA polymerase – Highly efficient enzyme & catalyses
polymerisation in very short time.
58. Replication time in E. coli is 18 minute.
59. Average rate of polymerisation is appox. 2000 bp per second (with
high degree of acuracy)
60. Energetically replication is very expensive process
61. Deoxyribonucleosite triphosphate serve dual purpose.
1. Acts as substrate
2. Provide energy for polymerisation. (NEET-2014) [NCERT 106]
62. DNA dependent DNA polymerase catalyses the polymerisation in only
one direction that is 5 '  3 '
63. One strand (the template with polarity 3 '  5 ' ) replication is continuous
& other (template with polarity 5 '  3 ' ) it is Discontinuous.
(NEET-2017) [NCERT 106]
64. Discontinuous synthesised fragments are jointed by the enzyme DNA
ligase.
65. Replication does not initiate randomly at any place in DNA, a definite
region in E. coli where replication originate called origin of replication.
66. Replication of DNA takes place at S-phase of the cell cycle.
Transcription
67. Process of copying genetic information from one strand of the DNA into
RNA.
68. Principle of complimentarity governs the process of transcription
except Adenosin now forms base pair with uracil instead of
thymine. (NEET-2018) [NCERT 108]
69. In transcription only a segment of DNA & only one of the strands of
DNA is copied into RNA.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
70. If both strands copied during transcription them
1. They would code for RNA molecule with different sequences & one
segment of DNA would be coding for two different protein (complicates
genetic information transfer mechinery)
2. Two RNA molecules forms Ds RNA & prevent splicing (Protein
synthesis).
Transcription Unit]
1. A promoter (5’ end)
2. The structural gene
3. A terminator (3’ end)
71. Enzyme for transcription DNA dependent RNA polymerase.
72. This enzyme catalyses the polymerisation in only one direction
5'  3'
73. Polarity 3 '  5 ' reffered to template strand. (NEET-2014) [NCERT 108]
74. Polarity ( 5 '  3 ' ), sequerce same as RNA (except thymine at the
place of uracil). is displace during transcription.
75. Strand which do not code for anything is reffered to as coding strand.
76. Schematic structure of a transcription unit
77. All the reference point while defining a transcription unit is made
with coding strand.
78. Promoter: is a DNA sequence that provides binding site for RNA
polymeras
79. Terminator: usually defines the end of the process of transcription.
80. Cistron: As a segment of DNA coding for a polypeptides
(NEET-2016) [NCERT 109]
81. Structural gene: Monocistronic (mostly Eukaryotes)
Polycistronic (mostly prokaryotes OR Bacteria)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

82. The gene is Eukaryotes are split.
83. Intron: Also called Intervening sequence, do not appear in mature or
processed RNA
84. The split-gene arrangement further complicates the definition of a gene
in terms of a DNA segment. (NEET-2021) [NCERT 109]
85. Inheritance of a character is also affected by promoter & regulatory
sequences of a structural gene.
Type of RNA & process of transcription:
86. In Bacteria:
• Three major type of RNAs: mRNA, tRNA & rRNA.
• All three RNAs are needed to synthesise a protein in a cell.
• mRNA: Provides template, tRNA– brings amino acid & reads genetic
code & rRNA play structural & catalytic roll during translation.
• Single DNA dependent RNA polymerase catalyses transcription of
all types of RNA in bacteria.
• RNA polymerase binds to promoter & initiate transcription.
• Three steps in transcription
1. Initiation
2. Elongation
3. Termination
• It uses nucleoside triphosphates as substrate & polymerise in
template dependend fashion.
• At terminator region, the nascent RNA falls off, so also RNA
polymerase (terminator)
87. RNA polymerase catalyses all three steps. It associated transiently
with initiation-factor (  ) & terminator factor() to initiate & terminate
the transcription. (NEET-2021) [NCERT 110]
88. In Bacteria, mRNA does not require any processing. Since transcription
& translation take place in same compartment.
89. Transcription & translation can be coupled in Bacteria.
Transcription in Eukaryotes
90. Two additional complexities
1. Three RNA polymerase present in nucleus.
• RNA polymerase I : rRNAs (28s, 18s, 5.8s)(NEET-2021)[NCERT 111]
• RNA polymerase II :mRNA (hnRNA)
• RNA polymerase III :tRNA (5 sr RNA, sn RNA)(NEET-2021)[NCERT 111]
2. Primary transcripts contain both the exon & Intron & are non-
functional.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
91. Splicing: Removal of intron & joining of Exon.(NEET-2012) [NCERT 111]

92. hn RNA undergoes two additional processing – capping & Tailing
Capping: Unusual ncleotide (methyl guanosine triphosphate) are added
at 5’end of m RNA (NEET-2021) [NCERT 111]
Tailing: Adenylate residus (200–300) are added at 3’–end in
tempelate independent manner.
93. Fully processed hnRNA now called mRNA, transported out of nuclus
for translation.
Genetic code (NEET-2021) [NCERT 111]
Translation led to the proposition of a genetic code that could direct the
sequence of amino acid during the synthesis of proteins.
94. The proposition & deciphering of genetic code were most challenging.
Genetic code given by a Physicist George Gamow, who argued that
only 4 bases & code for 20 amino acid.
95. He suggested that in order to code for all 20 amino acids, the code
should be made up of three nucleotides.
96. More daunting task  codon was triplet.
97. Chemical method developed by Har Gobind khorana was in
strumental in synthesising RNA molecules with defined combinations
of bases (Homopolymers & copolymers).
98. Marshall Nirenberg’s cell free system for protein synthesis finally
helped the code to be deciphered.
99. Severo ochoa enzyme (Polynucleotide phosphorylase) help in
polymerising RNA with defined sequences in template independent
manner.
100. Salient features of genetic code (NEET-2019, 2013) [NCERT 112]
1. Codon is triplet. 61 codons code for amino acid. 3 codons do not
code for any amino acids, functions as stop codon (UAA, UAG,
UGA)
2. One codon codes for only one amino acid  unambiguous &
specific
3. Codon is read in mRNA in a contiguons fashion, no punctuations.
4. The codon is nearly universal
5. AUG has dual functions (Also acts as initiator codon)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
101. From bacteria to human UUU code for phenylalanine.
102. Insertion or deletion of one or two bases changes the reading frame
from the point of insertion or deletion.
103. Insertion or deletion of three or its multiple bases or delete one or
multiple codon, reading frame remains unaltered from that point onwards.
Refferred to as Frame-shift insertion or deletion mutation.
(NEET-2019, 2017) [NCERT 113]
tRNA (Adapter molecule): Given by Francis Crick
104. He postulated the presence of an adapter molecule that would on one
hand read the code & on other hand would bind to specific amino acids.
105. The tRNA, called sRNA (soluble RNA)
106. tRNA has an anticodon loop, an amino acid acceptor end.
107. For initiation, there is another specific tRNA reffered to an initiator tRNA.
108. There is no tRNA for stop codons.
109. Secondary structure of tRNA look like a clover-leaf
110. Acatual structure, the tRNA is compact molecule looks like inverted L.
TRANSLATION
111. Process of polymerisation of amino acids to form a polypeptide.
112. The order & sequence of amino acids are defined by the sequence of
bases in the mRNA.
113. Formation of a peptide bond requires energy (NEET-2022, 2020) [NCERT 114]
114. Charging of tRNA or aminoacylation of tRNA– Aminoacids itself

activated in the presence of ATP & linked to their cognate tRNA.
115. It two charged tRNA are brought close ennough the formation of
peptidebone between them would be favoured energetically.
116. The presence of a catalyst would enhance the rate of peptide bond
formation.
117. Ribosomes in its inactive state consists of two sub unit
– Larger subunits
– Smaller subunits
118. Also some additional sequences that are not translated that is UTR.
(untranslated regions)
119. UTRs present at both 5”–end (before start codon) & 3’–end (after
stop codon required for efficient translation process.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

120. Three steps : Initiation, Elongation, Termination

121. Ribosomes moves from codon to codon along the mRNA –
Translocation
122. Translation dictated by DNA & represented by mRNA.
123. Termination: Release factor bind to the stop codon & releasing the
complete polypeptide from the ribosomes.
Regulation of Gene Expression
124. Very broad term that may occur at various levels
125. In Eukaryotes it regulated at several levels.
1. Transcriptional level (Formation of primary transcript)
2. Processing level (Regulation of splicing)
3. Transport of mRNA from nuclus to cytoplasm
4. Translational level
126. The development & differentiation of embryo into adult organism are
results of the coordinated regulation of expression of several sets of
genes.
127. In prokaryotes, control of the rate of transcriptional initiation is the
site for control of gene expression.
128. Lac operon
1. Given by Geneticist, Francois Jacob & a biochemist, Jacque
Monod. (NEET-2018) [NCERT 116]
2. Lac reffers to Lactose (Inducer) (NEET-2016) [NCERT 116]
3. Consists of three structural gene & one regulatory gene
Regulatory gene: “i” gene (inhibitor)
Structural gene :Z-gene code for beta-galactosidase (  -gal)
(NEET-2019) Y -gene code for permease(NEET-2022,2014)
a-gene code for transacetylase [NCERT 116]
129.  -galactosidase responsible for the hydrolysis of the disaccharides,
Lactose into monomeric units Glucose & Galactose.
130. Permease, increase permeability of cell to  -galactosides.
131. All three genes products in lac open are required for metabolism of
lactose.
132. In the absence of Inducer (Lactose) repressor binds to operator region
& prevents RNA polymerase from transcribing the operon.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

133. In the presence of Inducer repressor protein inactive, operator gene
Free for transcription & translation process.
134. A very low level of expression of lac operon has to be present in the cell
all time otherwise lactose cannot enter the cells.
135. Glucose or Galactose cannot act as inducer for lac operon.
136. Regulation of lac operon by repressor is refferred to as Negative
regulation (NEET-2015) [NCERT 117]
Lac operon is under control of positive regulation as well.
HGP. (Human Genome Project) : Mega Project.
137. H.G.P. a very ambitious project of sequencing human genome, launched
in 1990 & completed in 2003, it is a 13 year project.
138. Human genome have appx. 3×109 bp & cost of sequencing required
is US $ 3 per bp.
139. Total estimated cost of project would be appx. 9 billion us dollers
140. HGP was closely associated with the rapid development of new area in
biology called Bioinformatics.
Goals of HGP
141. Approx 20,000 – 25,000 genes in human DNA.
142. Determine the sequences of the three billion chemical base pair that
make up human DNA.
143. Store this information in databases.
144. Improve toos for data analysis.
145. Transfer related technique to other sectors (like industries).
146. Adress the ethical, Legal and social issues (ELSI) that may arises
from the project.
• HGP was co-ordinated by US department of energy and National
Institute of Health.
• During early years of HGP, the wellcome trust (U.K.) become a
major partner additional contributions come from Japan, France,
Germany, China and others.
• Many non-human model organisms, such as –
Bacteria, yeast, Caenorhabditis elegans (a free living non-pathogenic
nematode), Drosophila (fruit fly), plants (rice and Arabidopsis), etc.,
have also been sequenced.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Methodologies : Two major approaches –

i. Expressed sequence Tags (EST) [NEET 2019] [NCERT 119]
ii. Sequence Annotaion (SA)
147. Identifying all genes that expressed as RNA – EST.
148. Sequencing the whole set of genome that contains all the coding and
non-coding sequence, and different regions in the sequence with
functions. – SA. [NEET-2022] [NCERT 119]
149. Commonly used host – Bacteria and Yeast.
150. Vectors are – BAC (Bacterial artificial chromosomes)
– YAC (Yeast artificial chromosomes)
151. Frederick Sanger, credited for developing method for determination of
amino acid sequence in proteins and Also the fragments were sequenced
using automated DNA sequences.
152. The sequence of chromosomes 1 was completed only in May 2006.
Salient Features of Human Genome
153. Human genome contains 3164.7 million nucleotide bases.
154. Average gene consists of 3000 bases. Largest known human gene
Dystrophin (2.4 million bases)
155. Total number of genes is estimated at 30,000 – much lower than previous
estimates of 80,000 to 1,40,000 genes.
156. All most all (99.9%) nucleotide bases are exactly the same in all peoples.
157. Functions are unknown for over 50 per cent discovered genes.
158. Less than 2 percent of the genome codes for proteins.
159. Repeated sequences make up very large portionof human genome.
160. Chromosome 1 has most gene (2968) and Y has the fewest (231)
161. Scientist have identified about 1.4 million locations where single base
DNA differences (SNPs – Single Nucleotides Polymorphism) occurs
in human.
• DNA Fingerprinting : Technique developed by Alec Jeffreys.
162. Involves identifying differences in some specific region of DNA sequence
called as Repetitive DNA. (a small streteched of DNA repeated many
times).
163. Repetitive DNA seperated from bulk genomic DNA as different peaks
during density gradient centrifugation.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
164. The bulk DNA forms a major peak and other small peaks are reffered to
as satellite DNA.
165. Satellite DNA classified into many categories based on
• Base composition (A : T rich or G : C rich)
• Length of segment.
• Number of repetitive units.
166. Satellite DNA
• Micro-satellite
• Mini-satellite
167. These sequences normaly do not code for any proteins but they form a
large protein of human genome and show high degree of polymorphism
and forms basis of DNA fingerprinting. [NEET 2015] [NCERT 121]
168. DNA from every tissue (like blood, hair follicles, skin, Bone, saliva,
Sperm etc) from an individual show the same degree of polymorphism.
(Useful in identification in forensic applications).
169. Polymorphisms are inheritable from parents to children.
[NEET-2022] [NCERT 122]
170. DNA fingerprinting is the basis of paternity testing, in case of
disputes.
171. Allelic frequency greater than 0.01.
172. Alec Jeffreys used a satellite DNA as probe that shows very high
degree of polymorphism, called VNTR (Variable number of Tandem
repeats) [NEET 2018] [NCERT 122]
173. Involved southern blot hybridisation using radiolabelled VNTR as a
probe. It include –
1. Isolation of DNA
2. Digestion of DNA by restricted endonucleases.
3. Seperation of DNA fragments by electrophorosis.
4. Transferring (Blotting) of seperated DNA fragments to synthetic
membrane such as nitrocellulose or nylon.
5. Hybridisation using labelled VNTR probe.
6. Detection of hybrid DNA fragments by autoradiography.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

174. The VNTR belongs to a class of satellite DNA (mini-satellite)

175. The numbers of repeat show very high degree of polymorphism.
176. Size of VNTR varies from 0.1 to 20 kb.
177. After hybridisation with VNTR probe, the autoradiogram gives many
band of different sizes. (gives characteristic pattern of individual DNA)
178. This bands differs from individual to individual in a population except :
in case of monozygotic twins.
****************×****************×****************
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

131, 136 = 2 Pages
35.1 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

EVOLUTION
1. Evolutionary Biology is the study of histroy of life forms on earth.
2. Stellar distances measured in light years.
3. Origin of universe – almost 20 billion years old.
4. Huge clusters of galaxies comprise the universe.
5. Galaxies contain stars & clouds of gases & dust.
6. Big Bang theory explain the origin of universe.
7. Origin of earth about 4.5 billion years back.
8. Origin of life almost 4 billion years back.
9. Theory of panspermia – unit of life called spores were transfered to
different plantes including earth.
10. Theory of spontaneous generation – Life came out of decaying &
rotting matter like straw & mud etc.
11. Louis Pasteur experiment : Life comes only from pre-existing life.
• Uses Pre-sterilised flasks.
• Dismissed spontaneous generation
• This did not answer how the first life form came on earth.
12. Oparin of Russia & Haldane of England proposed that first form of
life could have come from pre-existing, non-living organic molecules.
and formation of life was preceded by chemical evolution.
13. Conditions on earth – High temperature, volcanic stroms, reducing
atomosphere, containing CH4, NH2 and water vapour (H2O)
14. S.L. Miller (American scientist),created similar conditions in laboratory.
15. He created Electric discharge, close flask containing CH4,H2, NH3, &
water vapour at 800oC. He observed formation of amino acids.
[NEET 2020] [NCERT-127]
16. Theory of Special creation : Three cannotations
1. All living organisms that wee see today were created as such
2. Diversity was always the same since creation & will be same in future.
3. Earth is about 4000 years old.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
17. Darwin (Sail ship : H.M.S. Beagle) conduded that existing living form
share similarties to varying degree not only among them selves but
also the life forms that existed millions of years ago.
18. Any population has built in variation in characteristics.
19. Acc. of Darwin, ultimately & only to reproductive fitness. These who
better fit in an enviroment, leave more progeny than others & hence
survive & selected by nature. (Natural Selection)
20. Alfred Wallace, a naturalist, worked in Malay Archepelago
21. The geographical history of earth closely correlated with biological history
of earth.
22. Earth is very old, not thousand of years old but billions of years old.
23. Fossils – Remained of hard parts of life-forms found in rocks.
24. Different aged rock sediments contain fossils of different life-forms who
probably died during the formation of particular sediment.
25. Study of fossils – Palentology
26. Divergent & Convergent evolutions –
Divergent evolution Convergent evolution
[NEET 2021] [NCERT-130] [NEET 2016,2021] [NCERT-131]
• Same structure developed • They are not anatomically similar
along different direction due Structure but they performs similar
to adaptation to different needs. functions.
• Structurs are Homologus. • Structurs are Analogous.[NEET-2022]
• Homology indicates • Different structures evolving for the
common ancestry same function & hence having
[NEET-2022] similarity
• Same Anatomical structure
but different function
Examples – Examples
1. Pattern of bone of forlimbs 1. Eye of octopus & Mammals
of mammals 2. Flippers of penguins & Dolphins[2022]
2. Vertebrates heart 3. Sweet potato & potato
3. Vertebrates Brain [NEET 2020,2013,2012] [NCERT-131]
4. Thorn of Baugainvillea &
Tendril of cucurbita
[NEET 2022, 2018,2016,2014,2012] [NCERT-130]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
27. Evolution by natural selection comes from England.

[NEET 2015] [NCERT-131]
1. Before industrialisation (1850s) – more white wings moths on
tree than dark-winged or melanic moths.
2. After industrialisation (1920) – more dark – winged moths in the
same area than white winged moths.
28. During post industrialisation period, the tree tranks became dark due to
industrial smoke & soots, in thin condition white winged moth does not
survie due to predators.
29. Lichens known as pollution indicators, they will not grow in polluted
area
30. Area where industrisation did not occurs (Rural area) count of melanic
moths was low.
31. In a mixed population, those that can better-adapt, survive & increase in
population size.
32. Excess use of herbicides, pesticides etc has only resulted in selection
of resistant varieties in much lesser time scale (Evolution by
Anthropogenic Action) Eg: Antibiotics OR Drugs against Eukaryotic
organims. [NEET 2020,2021] [NCERT-132]
33. Evolution is not a direct process, it is a stochastic process.
34. Adaptive Radiation [NEET 2021] [NCERT-133]
• Process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area
starting from a point & literally radiating to other geographical area.
[NEET 2012] [NCERT-133]
• Examples – Darwin finches & Australian narsupials.
35. Darwin Finches : Original seed-eating features change into
insectivorous & vegetarian forms. [NEET 2013] [NCERT-133]
36. When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occured in an
isolated geopraphical area – Convergent evolution
37. Convergent evolution of Australian Marupials & placental mammals.
Placental mammals Australian marsupials
Mole Marsupial mole
Anteater Numbat (Anteater)
Mouse Marsupial mosuse
Lemur Spotted cuscus
Flying squirrel Flying phalanger
Bobcat Tasmanian tigercat
Wolf Tasmanian wolf
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

38. Branching descent & natural selection are two key concepts of
Darwinian theory of evolution
39. French naturalist lamark – use & disuse of organs.
eg: Neck of Giraffes
40. Thomas Malthus work on populations influenced Darwin.
41. Natural resources are limited, populations are stable in size except :
For seasonal fluctuation.
42. Hugo de Vries (Twentieeth century) based on his work evening
primrose gives idea of mutation
43. According to Darwin, Mutation are directional, small & Gradual but
Acc. to Hugo de vries, Mutation are Random & directionless
[NEET 2018,2012] [NCERT-135]
44. De Vries believed that mutation caused Speciation & hence called
Saltation (Single step & large mutation) [NEET 2019] [NCERT-135]
Hardly-Weinberg principle
45. In a given population one can find out the frequency of occurance of
alleles of a gene or a locus. This frequency is supposed to remain fixed
& even remain the same through generations.
46. Allele frequncies in a population are stable & constant from generation
to generation.
47. Gene Pool : Total genes & their alleles in a population.
48. Genetic equilibrium : Gene pool remains constant
49. Sum total of all the allelic frequency is one.
50. p2+2pq+q2=1, Binomial expansion of (P+q)2.[NEET 2019,2014] [NCERT-137]
Here, P2 = Homozygous dominant
q2 = Homozygous recessive
Pq= Heterozygous [NEET 2016] [NCERT-137]
51. When frequency differs from expected values, indicates the extent of
evolutionary change.
52. Disturbance in genetic equilibrium or Hardy-weinberg equilibrium could
be interpreted as resulting in evolution.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

53. Five factors that affect Hardy-weinberg equilibrium

1. Gene migration or gene flow [NEET 2021,2013] [NCERT-137]
2. Genetic drift
3. Genetic recombination
4. Mutation
5. Natural selection
54. Gene flow : If gene migration happens multiple times.
55. Genetic drift : If same change occurs by chance.
[NEET 2016,2013] [NCERT-137]
56. Founder effect : The change in allelic frequency is so different in the
new sample of population that they become a different species. The
original drifted population become founders.
57. Natural selection can lead to –[NEET 2022, 2019,2017] [NCERT-137]
Stabilisation (In which more individuals aquare mean character value)
Directional (more individual aquares other than mean character value)
Disruptive (more individuals aquare peripheral character value) at both
ends of the distribution curve)
58. About 2000 million year ago (mya) the first cellular form of life
appeared on earth.
59. A sketch of the evolution of plant forms through geological periods
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

60. Innertebrates formed & Active = 200 mya
61. Jawless fishes probably evolved = 350 mya

62. Sea weeds & few plants existed = 320 mya
63. Fish with stout & strong fins could move on land & go back in water =
350 mya
64. First organism invaded land are plants.

65. In 1938, a fish caught in south Africa (Coelacanth) was throught to be
extinct, called lobefins evolved into first amphibians.
66. They (Coelacanth) were ancestors of modern day frogs & salamanders.
67. Amphibians evolved into reptiles (lay thick shelled eggs)
68. In 200 mya, reptiles of different shapes & size dominated on earth.
69. Gaint ferns (Pleridophytes) were present but they all fell to form coal
deposits slowly.
70. Some of these land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish like
reptiles probably 200 mya (Ichthyosaurs)
71. Tyrannoscurus rex ( Biggest reptiles) was about 20 feet in height &
had huge fearsome dagger like teeth.
72. Dianosours suddenly disappeared from the earth = 65 mya
73. First mammals – shrews (small sized fossils)

74. Due to continental drift, when south america joined north America
pouched mammals of Australia survived because of lack of competition
from any other mammals.
75. Some mammals live wholly in water – whales, dolphins, seals , sea
cows.
76. Most successful story is the evolution of man with language skills &
self-consciousness. [NEET 2012] [NCERT-140]
Origin & Evolution of man

77. Primates (Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus) existed about 15 mya.
78. Ramapithecus was more man-like & dryopithecus was more ape-like
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
79. Few fossils of man-like bones have been discovered in Ethiopia &
Tanzania.
80. Man-like primates walked in eastern africa about 3-4 mya, not taller
than 4 feet but walked up right.
81. Australopithecines probably lived in East African grasslands = 2 mya
82. Austrlopithecines hunted with stone weapons & eat fruits.

83. First human-like beings = Homo habilis, Brain capacities 650-800 cc
they did not eat meat [NEET 2019,2015] [NCERT-140]
84. Homo erectus,Fossils discovered in Java in 1891 .about 1.5 mya brain
capacities around 900cc, they eat meat [NEET 2019] [NCERT-140]
85. Neanderthal man with a brain size of 1400cc lived in near east &
central Asia between 1,00,000-40,000 year back. They used hides to
protect their body & buried their dead.
[NEET 2012,2019,2016] [NCERT-14]
86. Homo sapiens arose in Africa, ice age 75000-10,000 year ago, modern
homo sapiens arose.
87. Pre-historic cave art developed around 18000 year ago.

88. Agriculture came around 10,000 year back & human seltlement started
89. One such cave paintings by pre-historic human can be seen at Bhimbetka
rock shelter in Raisen district Madhya Pradish.
****************×****************×****************
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

INDEX
UNIT VIII : BIOLOGY IN HUMAN WELFARE
1.
2.
Human Health and Disease
Strategies for Enhancement in Food

- 3-12
- 13-21
Production
3. Microbes in Human Welfare - 21-28
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

147, 152 = 2 Pages
34.8 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE

1. Health does not simply mean absence of disease or physical fitness. It
could be defined as complete physical, mental, and social well being.
Health is affected by:
(i) genetic disorders (ii) Infections(iii) Life style including food and water.
2. When the functioning of one or more organs or systems of the body is
adversely affected, characterised by appearance of various signs and
symptoms i.e. we have disease.
3. Disease can be broadly grouped into infectious and non-infectious.
4. Disease which can easly transmitted from one person to another are
called infectious disease. (Common Cold, AIDS etc.)
5. Among non-infectious disease, cancer is major cause of death.
6. Disease causing organism are called pathogen. Most parasite are therefore
pathogen as they cause harm to host by living in (or on) them.
7. Pathogen have to adopt to life within the environment of the host of surviving
in the stomach at low pH and resisting various digestive enzymes.
8. Typhoid : Cause by bacteria, Salmonella typhi, Enter in small intestine
through food and water contaminated with them. (2020)[NCERT-146]
Symptoms : sustain high fever (39o to 40oC), weakness, stomach pain,
constipation, Headache, loss of apeptite etc.
Intestinal perforation and death may occure in severe case.
• Typhoid fever could be confirmed by widal test
(2012, 2019, 2020)[NCERT-247]
9. Pneumonia : Bacteria like Streptococcus preumoniae and
Haemophilus Influenzae are responsible, which infect the alveali of lungs.
(2020, 2021)[NCERT-247]
Alveoli get filled with fluid leading to severe problem in respiration.
Symptoms : Fever, chills, cough. Headache, severe case - lips and
nails turn gray to bluish in colour
• Healthy person acquire the infection by inhaling the droplet/aerosols
released by an infected person or sharing glasses and utensils with an
infected person. (2011)[NCERT-247]
10. Common Cold : Rhino viruses represent the group of viruses which
cause one of the most infectious human ailments - Common cold
(2011)[NCERT-247]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
• They infect nose and respiratory passage but not lungs.
(2012)[NCERT-247]
Symptoms : nasal congestion and discharge, sore throat, hoarseness,
cough headache etc. which usually last for 3 - 7 days.
• Droplet resulting from cough or sneezes of infected person are either
inhaled directly or transmitted through contaminated object can cause
infection in a healthy person.
11. Malaria : Cause by different species of plasmodium (P. vivax, P. malaria
P. falciparum). P. falciparum is most serious and be fatal.
(2020)[NCERT-247]
• Plasmodium enter in human body as sporozoits (infectious form) through
the bite of infected female Anapheles mosquito. (2020)[NCERT-247]
• Rupture of RBCs is associated with release of a toxic substance,
Haemozoin, which is responsible for the chill and high fever.
(2010)[NCERT-247]
• Parasites multiply within the mosquito body to form sparozoites that are
stored in their slivary gland. (2012, 2011) [NCERT-247]
• Malarial parasite require two host – human and mosquitoes to complete
its life cycle, the female Anapheles mosquito is vector.
• Fertilisation and development take place in mosquito’s gut.
12. Amoebiosis (amoebic dysentery) : Cause by a protozoa Entamoeba
histalytica which is found in large Intestine of human.
(2021)[NCERT-248]
Symptoms: Constipation, abdominal pain, cramp, stool with Excess
Mucus and blood clots.
• House fly act as mechanical carrier and serve to transmit the parasite
from faeces of infected person to food and food products.
13. Ascariasis: Cause by intestinal parasite, Ascaris.
Symptoms: Internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anemia and blockage
of intestinal passage.
• Egg of parasite are excreted along with faces of infected persons which
contaminate soil, water, plants etc. (2013)[NCERT-249]
14. Elephantiosis or filariosis : Wuchereria (W. bancrofti and W. malayi),
the filarial worm cause slowly developing chronic inflammation of the
organ in which they live for many years. Usually lymphatic vessels of
lower limbs. (2013, 2020, 2021)[NCERT-249]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

• Pathogen are transmitted to a healthy person through bite by female
mosquito vectors.
15. Ringworm: Many fungi belonging to genera Microsporum,
Trichophyton and Epidermophyton responsible for ringworm.
Symptoms : appearance of dry, scaly lesions on various part of body
such as skin, nails, scalp.
• Heat and moisture help these fungi to grow
16. Public hygiene include proper of waste and excreta, periodic cleaning
and disinfection of water reservoirs, pools, cesspools and tanks these
measures are particularly essential where infectious agents are
transmitted through food and water such as typhoid, amoebiasis and
ascariasis.
17. In case of air born disease (Pneumonia, common cold) in addition to
above measures, close contact with infected persons or their belongings
should be avoided.
18. Fishes like Gambusia in pond feed on mosquito larvae.
19. Vector born disease : Dengu and Chickungunya (Ades mosquito)
20. To prevent these disease door and window should be provided with wire
mesh.
21. Immunity: Overall ability of host to fight the disease-causing organism
conferred by immune system is called Immunity.
Immunity 2 type:
[A] Innate Immunity: non specific type of defence, present at the time of
Birth.
Innate Immunity consists of 4 type of barriers
1. Physical barriers – Skin in our body in main barrier that prevent Entry of
microorganism.
2. Mucus coating of the epithelium, lining of respiratory gastrointestinal
and urogenital tracts also help in trapping microbes entering in body.
3. Physiological barrier : Acid in stomach, saliva in mouth, tears from
eyes - all prevent microbial growth.
4. Cellular barrier: Certain type of leukocyte (WBC) of our body like
polymarpho-nuclear leukocytes (PMNL-Neutrophils) and monocytes and
natural killer (type of lymphocyte) in blood as well as macrophase in
tissue can phagocytose and destroy microbes.
5. Cytokine barriers: Virus infected cell secrete proteins called interferons
which protect non-infected cells from further viral infection.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
[B] Acquired Immunity : Pathogen specific, characterised by memory.

1. When our body encounters a pathogen for first time it produce a response
called Primary response which is of low Intensity.
2. Subsequent encounter with the same pathogen elicits a highly intensified
secondary or anamestic response.
3. Primary and secondary response are carried out with the help of two
special types of lymphocytes presents in our blood i.e. B & T
lymphocytes.
4. B lymphocyte produce army of protein in response to pathogen in our
blood to fight with them (while T-lymphocyte not secrete antibody but
help B cell to produce them) called Antibody.
5. Each Antibody molecule has four peptide chain two small called light
chain and two longer called heavy chain (represented as H2L2).
6. Antibody found in blood and response is called as humaral Immune
response .
7. T-lymphocyte mediate Cell-Mediated Immunity.
8. The body is above to differentiate self and nonself and the cell-mediated
immune response is responsible for graft - rejection.
(2015, 2017,2019)[NCERT-152]
22. When host is Exposed to antigen (living or dead microbes, other protein)
antibody produced in host this type of Immunity - Active Immunity.
23. When ready-made antibodies are directly given to protect the body against
foreign agent it is called Passive Immunity.
• Yellowish fluid colostrum secreted by mother during initial few days of
lactation (IgA Antibody), foetus also receive some antibody from their
mother through placenta are Example of Passive Immunity.
(2015,2019)[NCERT-152]
24. Principle of immunisation or vaccination is based on property of memory
or immune system.
• In vaccination prepration of protein of pathogen or inactivated/weakend
pathogen (vaccine) are introduced into body, the antibody produced in
body against antigen neutrilise pathogenic agent during actual Infection.
• In case of tetanus, snakebite quick immune response hence preformed
antibodies give this type of immunisation called passive Immunisation.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
• Recombinant DNA technology has allowed the production of antigenic
polypeptide of pathogen in bacteria or yeast.
• Hepatitis B Vaccine produced from yeast.
25. The exaggerated response of immune system to certain antigens present
in environment is called allergy. Antibody produced are of IgE type.
• Common Examples of allergens are mites in dust, pollen, animal dander.
• Symptoms of allergic reactions include sneezing, watery eye, running
nose difficulty in breathing.
• Allergy is due to release of chemical (histamine, serotonin) from mast
cell.
• Drugs to reduce symptom of allergy – Anti histamine, adrenalin and
steroids.
• More children in metro cities of India suffer from allergies and asthma
due to sensitivity to the environment. (2007)[NCERT-153]
26. Memory-based acquired immunity evolved in higher vertebrates based
an ability to differentiate foreign organism (e.g. pathogen) from self cells.
• Sometime due to genetic and other unknown reasons, body attacks
self-cell. This result in damage to the body and is called auto-Immune
disease. Ex-Rheumatoid arthritis. (2022, 2016, 2018)[NCERT-153]
27. Immune System: It consist of lymphoid organ, tissue, cell and soluble
molecule like antibody.
28. Lymphoid organs: These are organs where origin and/or maturation
and proliferation of lymphocyte occure.
• Primary lymphoid organs : (Bone Marrow and Thymus) where in mature
lymphocytes differentiate into antigen-senstive lymphocytes.
• Secondary lymphoid organ like (spleen, lymph node, tonsils, payer’s
patches of small intestine and appendix) which then proliferate to
become effector cell.
• Bone marrow is main lymphoid organ where all blood cell including
lymphocyte are produced.
• Thymus is lobed organ located near the heat and beneath the breast
bone.
• Both bone marrow and thymus provide micro-environment for development
and maturation of T-lymphocyte.
• Spleen is a large bean shaped organ.
• Spleen mainly contain lymphocyte and phagocyte and act as filter of
blood by tropping blood-born micro-organism.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
• Spleen has a large reservoir of erythrocytes.
• Antigens trapped in lymph node (small solid structure located at different
point of lymphatic system) are responsible for activation of lymphocyte
present there and cause the immune response.
• Lymphoid tissue located within the lining of major tract (respiratory,
digestive, and urogenital tracts) called Mucosa Associated Lymphoid
Tissue (MALT). It constitute about 50% of lymphoid tissue of human
Body. (2017)[NCERT-154]
29. AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) : It is not a Congenital
disease, first reported in 1981.
• AIDS is caused by Human Immuno deficiency virus (HIV) a member of a
group of virus called retrovirus. (Have envelop enclosing RNA genome)
• There is always a time lag between the infection and appearance of AIDS
symptoms. This period may vary few month to many year (5-10 years).
• After getting into the body of person the virus enters into macrophoges
where RNA genome of virus replicates to form viral DNA with the help of
Enzyme Reverse transcriptase. (2016)[NCERT-154]
• These viral DNA get incorporated into host cell’s DNA and directs the
infected cell to produce virus particles.
• Macrophages act like HIV factory simultaneously HIV enter into helper
T-lymphocyte (TH) replicate and produce progeny virus.
• The progeny virus released in blood attack other helper T-lymphocytes.
Progressive decrease in TH of infected person cause bouts of fever
diarrhoea and weight loss. (2010, 2014, 2015)[NCERT-154]
• Widely used diagnostic test for AIDS is Enzyme linked immuno-sarbent
assay (ELISA)
• Treatment of AIDS with anti-retroviral drug is partially Effective.
• NACO (National AIDS Control Organisation), NGOs (non-governmental
organisations).
30. Cancer: In our body, cell growth and differentiation is highly controlled
and regulated. In cancer cells, there is breakdown of these regulatory
mechanism.
• Normal Cell show a property called Contact inhibition by virtue of which
contact with other cell inhibits their uncontrolled growth cancer cell appear
to lost this property. (2012, 2016)[NCERT-157]
• As a result this cancerous cell rest continue to divide give rise to mass of
cell called tumor.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
31. Tumors are two type:
(A)Benign tumor : Normaly remain confined to their original location
and do not spread to other part of body cause little damage.
(B)Malignant tumor : A mass of proliferating cells called neoplastic or
human cell, these cell grow very rapidly, invading and damaging the
surrounding normal tissue.
• As these cell actively divide and grow they also starve the normal cell by
competing for vital nutrients. Cell sloughed from such tumors reach distant
site by blood wherever they get lodged in body they start a new tumor,
this property called metastasis most feared property of malignant tumor.
32. Cause of Cancer – by physical, chemical, biological agent called
carcinogens which cause cancer.
[Ionising Radiation  X-ray and Gamma ray,,
Non-ionising Radiation  UV-rays]  Cause DNA damage leading to
neoplastic transformation.
• Cancer caujsing virus called oncogenic virus have gene called viral
oncogene.
• Several genes called cellular oncogene (C-onc) or proto oncogene have
been identified in normal cell which when activated under certain condition
could leads to oncogenic transformation of cells.
33. Technique like radiogrtaphy (use of X-ray), CT computed tomography
and MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) are very useful to detect cancer
of internal organs.
• Computed tomography use x-ray to generate 3D image of intarnal object.
• MRI use strong magnetic field and non-ionising radiations to occurately
detect pathological and physiological change in living tissue.
(2010)[NCERT-157]
• Anntibodies against cancer-specific antigens are also used for detection
of certain cancer.
34. Common approaches for treatment of cancer are surgery, radiation therapy
and immunotherapy.
• In radiotherapy tumor cell are irradiated lethally, taking proper care of
normal tissues surrounding the tumor mass.
• Chemotherapeutic drug are used to kill cancerous cell. Some are specific
for particular tumors.
• Most cancers are treated by combination of surgery, radiotherapy and
distruction by immune system.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
• Biological response modifiers such as  -interferon which activate

their immune system and help destraying the tumor.
35. Opioids : The drug which bind to specific opioid receptors present in our
central nervos system and gastrointestinal tract.
• Heroin commonly called smack is chemically diacetylmarphine which
is while, better crystalline compound, obtain by acetylation of morphinal
which is extracted from latex of poppy plant Papaver somni-
ferum. (2018, 2019)[NCERT-158]
• Heroin is depressant and slows down body functions taken by snorting
and injections.
36. Cannabinoids - group of chemicals which interact with cannabinoid
receptars present principally in the brain.
• Natural cannabinoids are obtain from inflorerescences of plant Cannabis
sativa.
• The flower tops, leaves and resins of cannabis plant use in various
combination to produce marijuana, hashish, charas and ganja.
• They effects on cardio vascular system of body and taken by inhalation
and oral ingestion.
37. Coca alkaloid or cocain : obtain from coca plant Erythroxylum coca
native to south america. It interferes with transport of neurotransmitter
dopamine.
• Cocaine commonly called coke or crack is usually shorted.
• It has a potent stimulating action on CNS, produce sense of Euphoria
and increased energy. Its excessive dose causes hallucination.
• Other well known plant with hallucinogenic properties are Atropa
Belladona and Datura. (2014)[NCERT-159]
38. Drug like barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines and other similar
drug that are normally used as medicine to help patients cope with mental
illnesses like depression and insomnia.
39. Marphine is a very effective sedative and pain killer and is very useful in
patients who have undergone surgery.
40. Tobacco contain a large number of chemical substance including nicotins,
an alkaloid. Nicotine stimulate adrenal gland to release adrenaline and
nor-adrenaline into blood circulation both of which raise blood pressure
and increase heart rate.
41. Smoking increase carbon monoxide (CO) content in blood and reduce
the concentration of Haembound oxygen. This cause oxygen deficiency
in the body.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
42. Smoking is associated with increased incidence and increase heart rate.
43. Adolescence means both a period and process during which a child
become mature in term of his/her attitude and beliefs for effective
participation in society. (period between 12-18 years of age)
44. Adolescence is a bridge linking childhood and adulthood.
45. The most important thing, which one fails to realise is the inherent addictive
nature of alcohol and drugs.
46. Addiction is a psychological attachment to certain effects such as
Euphoria and temparary feeling of well-being associated with drugs and
alcohols.
47. With repeated use of drugs, the tolerance level of receptors present in
our body increases. Consequently the receptors respond only to higher
doses of drugs or alcohol leading to greater intake and addiction.
48. Withdrawl syndrome : if regular dose of drugs / alcohol is abruptly
discontinued then this is characterised by anxiety, shakiness, nausea
and sweating.
49. Those who lake drugs intravenously (direct injection into the vein using a
needle and syringe) are more likely to acquire serious infections like
AIDS and Hepatitis B.
• Both AIDS and Hepatitis B infections are chronic infections and ultimately
fetal and both can be transmitted through sexual contact or infected
blood.
• Use of alcohol during aldolescence may also have long-term effect. It
could lead to heavy drinking in adulthood. The chronic use of drug and
alcohol damage nervous system and liver (cirrhosis).
(2012)[NCERT-162]
• Side effect of the use of anabolic steroids in female include masculinisatic
(feature like male), increased aggressiveness, mood swing, depression,
abnormal menstrual cycle, Excessive hair growth on face and body,
Enlargement of clitoris, dupening of voice.
• In male it include acne, increased aggressiveness, mood swings
depression, reduction of size of testicles, decreased sperm production
premature baldness, enlargement of prostate gland.
***********×***********×***********
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

176, 177 = 2 Pages
42.9 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCEMENT IN FOOD PRODUCTION

1. Biological principles as applied to animal husbandry and plant breeding
have major role in our efforts to increase food production.
2. Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising
livestock. Animal husbandry deals with care and breeding of livestock
like buffaloes, cow, pigs, horse, cattle etc. that are useful to human.
3. Fisheries include rearing, catching, selling, etc.. of fish, molluscs (shell-
fish) and crustaceans (prawns, crabs, etc.)
4. It is estimated that more then 70 percent of world livestock population
is in India and China. However, it is surprising to note that the contribution
to the world farm produce is only 25% the productivity per unit is very
low.
5. In dairy form management, we deal with process and system that increase
yield and improve quality of milk.
• Milk yield primarly dependent on the quality of breeds in the farm.
• Selection of good breeds having high yielding potential (under the
climatic condition of the area), combined with resistance to diseases
in very important
6. Poultry is the class of domesticated fowl (birds) used for food or for their
eggs. They typically include chicken and ducks and some times turkey
and geese.
• Ward poultry is often used to refer to the meet of only these birds but
in a more general sense it may refer to the meet of other birds too.
7. Breed: A group of animals related by descent and similar in most
characters like general appearance, feature, size, configuration etc.
8. When breeding is between animal of same breed it is called inbreeding
while crosses between different breeds are called outbreeding.
9. Inbreeding: Mating of more closely related individual within the same
breed for 4 - 6 generation, superior male and superior female of the same
breed are identified and mated in pair. (NEET- 2017)[NCERT-167]
• Superior male – Which give rise to superior progeny as compare to
those of other male.
• Superior female – In case of cattle, is the cow or buffalo that produce
more milk per lactation.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
• Inbreeding increases homozygosity. Thus inbreeding is necessary if

we want to evolve a pureline in any animal. Inbreeding expose harmful
recessive gene that are eliminated by selection.
(NEET- 2019)[NCERT-167]
• It also help in accumulation of superior gene and elimination of less
descrable gene.
• Continued inbreeding, especially close inbreeding usually reduces
fertility and even productivity. This is called inbreeding depression.
10. Out-breeding: Breeding of unrelated animal which may be between
individual of same breed but having no common ancestors for 4 - 6
generation (out-crossing) or between different breeds (cross-breeding) or
different species (inter-specific hybridisation).
(a) Out Crossing : Best breeding method for animal that are below average
in productivity in milk production, growth rate in beef cattle. A single
outcross often help to over come inbreeding dipression.
(NEET- 2015)[NCERT-168]
(b) Cross breeding: Superior male of one breed are mated with superior
female of another breed. Cross breeding allows the disirable quantities
of two different breed to be combined.
• Parogeny may be subjected to some form of inbreeding and selection
to develop new stable breed that may be superior to existing breeds.
• Hisardale is a new breed of sheep developed in Punjab by crossing
Bikaneri ewes and Marino rams. (NEET- 2020) [NCERT-168]
(c) Interspecific hybridisation: Male and female animal of two different
related species are mated. (NEET- 2016) [NCERT-168]
11. Controlled breeding Experiment are carried out by using artificial
insemination.
• Often success rate of crossing mature male and female animal is
fairly low even through artificial insemination is carried out.
12. MOET (Multiple Ovulation Embryo TransferTechnology): In this
method a cow is administered hormone with FSH like activity, to induce
follicular maturation and super ovulation – insted of one egg which they
normally yield per cycle they produce 6 - 8 eggs.
(NEET- 2021)[NCERT-168]
• The animal is either mated with elite bull or artificially inseminated.
The fertilised eggs at 8-32 cells stage are recovered non-surgically
and transferred to surrogate mothers. (NEET- 2021)[NCERT-169]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

13. Bee-keeping or apiculture is the maintenance of hives of honey bees
for the production of honey. There are several species of honey bees
which can be reared bu most common species is Apis Indica.
• Honey bee also produce beewax use in preparation of cosmetics and
polishes of different kind.
• Bees are pollinators of many of our crop species such as sunflower
Brassica, apple and pear. Keeping beehives in crop field during
flowering period increase polination efficiency and improve yield.
14. Fisheries: An industry devoted to catching, processing or selling of fish,
shellfish or other aquatic animal.
Fresh water fishes : Catla, Rohu, Common Carp
Marine fished that are eaten : Hilsa, sordines, Mackerel and Pomferts.
• Through aquaculture and pisciculture we have been able to increase
the production of aquatic plants and animals both fresh water and
marine.
15. Plant Breeding : Plant breeding as a technology has helped increase
yields to a very large Extent.
Green Revolution: Responsible for our country to not merely meet the
national requirements in food production but also helped us to export it.
16. Green revolution was dependent to a large extent on plant Breeding
technique for development of high-yielding and disease resistant varieties
in wheat, rice, maize etc.
17. Plant breeding is purposeful manipulation of plant species in order to
create desired plant type that are better suited for cultivation, give better
yields and are disease resistant.
• Conventional plant breeding has been practiced for thousand of year,
since the beginning of human civilisation recorded evidence of plant
breeding dates back to 9000–11000 years ago.
18. Classical Plant Breeding: Involve crossing or hybridisation of pure lines,
followed by artificial selection to produce plant with disirable traits of
higher yield, nutrition and resistance to disease.
19. Plant breeding programmes are carried out in a systematic way :-
(i) Collection of genetic variability: Genetic variability is the root of
any breeding programme.
Entire Collection (of plant/seeds) having all diverse allele for all gene
in a given crop is called germplasm collection.
(NEET-2011, 2013)[NCERT-171]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

(ii) Evaluation and selection of parents : Germplasm is evaluated so

as to identify plants with desirable combination of characters.
(iii) Cross hybridisation among selected parents: The desired
characters have very often to be combined from two different plant.
• This is possible by crossing hybridising the two parents to produce
hybrids that genetically combine the desired characters in one plants.
(iv) Selection and testing of superior recombinants: This step consist
of selecting, among the progeny of hybrids, those plants that have
desired character combination.
• This step yields plants that are superior to both of the parents (very
often more than one superior progeny plant may become available)
• These are self-pollinated for several generations till they reach a stage
of uniformity (Homozygosity) so that characters will not segregate in
the progeny. (NEET- 2016)[NCERT-171]
(v) Testing, release and commercialisation of new cultivers:
The evaluation is done by growing these in the research field and
recording these in the research field and recording their performance
under ideal fertiliser application, irrigation and other crop management
practice.
• Evaluation in research field done by testing the material informers
field for at least three growing seasons at several locations in the
country representing all the agroclimatic zone where the crops is
usually grown.
20. Agriculture accounts for approximately 33% of India’s GDP and employs
nearly 62% of population.
21. Green revolution phase: The development of several high yielding
varieties of wheat and rice in the mid 1960s as a result of various plant
breeding technique led to dramatic increase in food production in our
country.
22. Wheat Production Rice Production
1960 
 2000 1960 
 2000
11 million tonnes 75 million tonnes 35 
 89.5 million tonnes
• This was due to development of semi-dwarf varieties of wheat and rice
23. Nobel laureate Norman E. Barlaug at International Center for wheat
and maize improvement in Mexico, developed semi-darf wheat.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
24. In 1963 several varieties such as sonalika and Kalyan sona which were
high yielding and disease resistant were introduced all over the wheat-
growing belt of India.
25. Semi-dwarf rice varieties were derived from IR-8 (developed at International
Rice Research Institute (IRRI). Philippines and Taichung Native-1
(from Taiwan).
26. Later better yielding semi-dwarf varieties Jaya and Ratna were developed
in India. (NEET- 2011) [NCERT-173]
27. Saccharum barberi was ariginally grown in North India but had poor
sugar content and yield.
• Tropical cane grown in South India Saccharum officinarum had thicker
stem and high sugar content but did not grow well in North India.
• These two species were successfully crossed to get sugar cane
varieties combining the desirable qualities of high yield, thick stems,
high sugar and ability to grow in the sugar cane area of North India.
28. Millets: Hybrid Maize, Jowar and Bajra have been successfully developed
in India.
29. Resistance of host plant is the ability to prevent pathogen from crossing
disease and is determined by genetic constitution of host plant.
30. Some crop varieties bred by hybridisation and selection
Crop Variety Resistance to diseases
Wheat Himgiri Leaf and stripe rust,
hill bunt (NEET- 2011)[NCERT-174]
Brassica Pusa swarnim White rust
(Karan Rai)
Cauliflower Pusa shubhra Black rot and Curl
Pusa snowball K-1 blight black rot
Cowpea Pusa Komal Bacterial blight
Chilli Pusa sadabahar Chilly mosacic virus, Tobacco,
Mosaic virus and leaf curl.
31. Conventional breeding is often constrained by the availability of limited
number of disease resistance gene that are present and Identified in
various Crop varieties or wild relatives.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
32. It is possible to induce mutations artificially through use of chemicals or
radiations (like gamma radiations) and selecting and using the plants
that have desirable character as a source in breeding-this process is
called Mutation breeding (NEET- 2011)[NCERT-174]
Ex- Munga bean, resistance to yellow mosaic virus and Powdery Mildew
33. Resistance to yellow mosaic virus in Bhindi (Abelmoschus esculentus)
was transferred from wild species and resulted in new variety of A.
esculentus called Prabhani Kranti.
34. Plant breeding for developing resistance to insect pests:
• Hairy leaves in several plants are associated with resistance to insect
pests e.g. resistance to jassids in cotton and cereal leaf beetle in
wheat.
• In wheat solid stem leads to non-preference by stem swafly and smooth
leaved and rector-less cotton varieties do not attract bollworms.
• High aspartic acid, low nitrogen and sugar content in maize leads to
resistance to maize stem borers.
35. Crop Varieties bred by hybridisation and selection for Insect Pest
Resistance:
Crop Variety Insect Pests
Brassica Pusa Gaurav Aphids
(Rapeseed Musturd)
Flat Bean Pusa Sem 2, Jassids, aphids and fruit
Pusa Sem 3 borer
Okra (Bhindi) Pusa swani Shoot and fruit borer.
Pusa-A-4
36. More than 840 million people in the world do not have adequate food to
meet their daily food and nutritional requirement.
37. Biofortification: Breeding crops with higher levels of vitamins and
minerals, or higher protein and healthier fats.
(NEET-2010, 2021)[NCERT-176]
• Breeding for improved nutritional quality is undertaken with the
objectives of improving: - [NEET-2022] [NCERT-176]
(i) Preotein Content and quality
(ii) Oil content and quality
(iii) Vitamin content
(iv) Micronutrient and Mineral Content.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

38. In 2000 maize hybrid – have twice amount of amino acid Lysine and
Tryptophan compared to existing maize hybrid were developed.
• Wheat Variety (Atlas-66): have high protein content has been used
as a donar for improving cultivated wheat.
• Iron-fortified rice: Five time much iron than common varieties.
39. Indian, Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi also released
several vegetable crop that are rich in Vitamin and Minerals eg.
Vitamin A enriched 
 Carrots, spinach, pumpkin
Vitamin C enriched  Bitter gourds, bathua, mustard, tomato

Iron and Calcium  Spinach and Bathua

Protein enriched beans  Broad, lablab, French and garden peas.
40. More than 25% of human population is suffering from hunger animal and
human nutrition is Single Cell Protein (SCP)
• Blue-green algae like Spirulina can be grown easily on material like
waste water from potato processing plants (contain starch) straw,
molasses to produce large quantities and can serve as food rich in
protein, mineral, fats, carbohydrates and vitamins.
• Such utilisation also reduce environmental pollution.
41. Certain bacterial species like Methylophilus methylotrophus because
of its high rate of biomass production and growth can be expected to
produce 25 tonnes of protein (NEET-2012)[NCERT-176]
42. Tissue Culture:
• Whole plant could be regenerated from explant i.e. any part of plant
taken out and grown in a test tube under sterile conditions in special
nutrient media.
• This capacity to generate a whole plant from any cell/explant is called
totipotency. (NEET- 2021)[NCERT-177]
• Nutrient medium must provide a carbon source such as sucrose and
also inorganic salts, vitamin, growth regulators (auxin, cytokinins).
• This method of producing thousands of plant through tissue culture is
called micropropagation. Each of these plants will be genetically
identical to the original plant from which they were grown i.e. they are
somaclones (NEET-2013, 2015) [NCERT-177]
• Many important food plant like tomato, banana, apple etc. have
been produced on commercial scale using this method.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
43. Even if plant is infected with a virus, the meristem (apical and axillary) is
free of virus. Hence are can remove the meristem and grow it in vitro to
obtain virus-free plants. (NEET-2012, 2014, 2021)[NCERT-177]
44. Isolated single cell from plants after digesting their cell wall that have
been isolated naked protoplasts (surrounded by plasma membrane) from
two different varieties of plant (each have desirable character) can be
fuse to get hybrid protoplast. (NEET-2015)[NCERT-177]
45. These hybrid protoplast which can be further grown to form a new plant
these hybrid called somatic hybrid while process is somatic
hybridisation.
46. Protoplast of tomato is fused with that of potato and then they are grown
to form new hybrid plant combining tomato and potato resulting in
formation of pomato; unfortunately this plant did not have all desired
combination of characterstics for its commercial utilisation.
*******×*******×*******
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

186, 184 = 2 Pages
53.8 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE

1. Microbes are present everywhere – in soil, water, Air, inside our bodies &
that of other animals & plants. Even where no other life form would exist.
2. Microbes are diverse – Protozoa, Bacteria, Fungi & microscopic animal
& Plant.
3. Microbes like Bacteria & many Fungi can be grown on nutritive media to
from colonies that can be seen with the naked eyes.
4. Bacteria Magnification
Red shaped 1500 X
Spherical shaped 1500 X
Rod shaped Bacteria (Showing feagella) 50,000 X
TMV (Rod shaped) 1.00,000 – 1,50,000 X
Bacteria
5. Milk Curd
Lactobacillus
6. Lactobacillus (Lactic acid Bacteria) grow in milk & convert it to curd

7. During growth, the LAB produce acids the coagulate & Partially digest
the milk protein.
8. Curd, improves its nutritional quality by increasing vitamin
B-12 (NEET-2018)[NCERT-181]
9. In our stomach too, LAB play very beneficial role in checking disease
causing microbes.
10. Dough: used for making food such as Dosa & Idli (Fermented by
Bacteria)
11. The Puffed up appearance of dough is due to the production of CO2 gas.
12. A number of traditional drinks & foods are also made by fermentation by
microbes.
13. Today: Traditional Drink, Southern India, made by fermenting sap from
palm.
14. Microbes are also used to ferment fish, soyabean & Bamboo-shoot to
make foods.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
15. Propionibacterium sharmanii

• Bacteria
• Large holes in swisscheese are due to production of CO2.
16. Roquefort cheese are ripened by growing a specific Fungi on them.
which gives them a particular flavour.
17. Saccharomyces cervisial (yeast) called Backer’s / Brewer’s yeast.
used to make Bread, Beer, Wine, Rum, Wjhisky, Brandy.
18. Production on an industrial scale, requirs growing microbes in very large
vessels called fermentors.
19. Alcoholic Drinks:
• With Distillation : Whisky, Brandy, Rum
• Without Distillation: Wine & Beer
20. Antibiotics: Most significant discovery of 20th century.
• Produced by microbes.
• Chemical substances, which are produced by some microbes &
kill or retard the growth of other (disease-causing) microbes.
21. Discovered by Alexamder Fleming while working on Staphylococci
bacteria.
22. Antibiotics are Penicillin by Fungi Penicillium notatum
23. Full potential explored by Ernest chain & Howard Florey.
24. Used to treat American soldiers in World WarII
25. Fleming, chain & Florey awarded the Nobel Prize in 1945, for this
discovery
26. Antibiotics have greatly improved our capacity to treat deadly disease
such as plague, whooping cough (Kalikhasi), Diphtheria (Gal-ghotu),
Leprosy (Kusht rog)
• Aspergillus riger (Fungi) – Citric acid
Acetobacter aceti (Bacteria) – Acetic acid
Clostridium butylicum (Bacteria)– Butyric acid
Lactobacillus (Bacteria) – Lactic acid
[NEET-2021, 2020, 2019, 2017, 2016, 2015, 2013, 2012] [NCERT-183]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
27. Commercial production of Ethanol–yeast (Saccharomyces

cerevisiae) (NEET-2011, 2019, 2017, 2015, 1012) [NCERT-183]
28. Lipases (used in detergent formulation) – Remove oily strains.
29. Petinases & Proteases: Bottle Juice clearified.
30. Streptokinase (Streptococcus Bacteria)
(NEET-2019, 2016, 2015,2012) [NCERT-183]
• Modified by Genetic engineering
• Used as a Clot Busters
• Remove clot from the blood vesels of patients who undergone
myocardial infraction leading to heart attack.
31. Cyclosporin-A: Immunosuppressive agent in organ-trans plant
patients. (NEET-2022, 2019) [NCERT-183]
• Bioactive molecule
• Produced by Trichoderma Polysporum (Fungi)
32 Statins (yeast) : Monascus purpureus (NEET-2020, 2016, 2015, 2012)
• Blood-cholesterol lowering agent [NCERT-183]
• Acts by competitively inhibiting the enzyme responsible for
synthesis of cholesterol.
Microbes in Sewage Treatment
33. Sewage is treated in sewage treatment plants (STPs) make it less
polluting.
34. Treatment is done by Heterotrophic microbes (Naturally present in
sewage)
35. Primary treatment (Physical removal)
Secondary treatment (Biological removal)
Primary treatment:
36. Filteration: Floating debaries removed (NEET-2017)[NCERT-184]
37. Sedimentation: Grid (Soil & Small Pebbles) rare removed.
38. All solids that settle from the primary sludge & the supernatant form are
the effluent.
39. Effluent from primary settling lank is taken for secondary treatment.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Secondary Treatment (NEET-2020)[NCERT-184]

40. Primary Effluent  Large Areation tank  Secondary settling
tank  Araerobic sludge digestor..
41. Flocs: Masses of bacteria associated with fungal filaments to form
mesh like structure.
42. BOD is a measure of organic matter present in the water. Greater the
BOD of waste water, more is its polluting potential.
43. During the digestion, bacteria produce a mixture of gases such as CH4,
H2S & CO2. (NEET-2014)[NCERT-184]
44. Biogas: Mixture of gases (Predominantly CH4) produced by microbial
activity & which may be used as fuel (NEET-2012)[NCERT-184]
45. The ministry of Environment & Forests has initiated:
Ganga Action Plan & Yamuna Action Plan
to save these major rivers of our country from pollution.
Methanogenes (Methanobacterium)

Grow anaerobically on cellulosic material

Produce large amount of CO2 & H2 with CH4 (NEET-2015)[NCERT-185]
46. These bacteria are also present in the rumen (A part of stomach) of
cattle.
47. In Rumen, these bacteria help in the breakdown of cellulose & play an
important role in nutrition of cattle.
48. The Biogas plant consists of a concrete tank (10–15 feet deep) in which
bio-waste are collected & a slurry of dung is fed.
49. Biogas used as cooking & lighting
50. The technology of Biogas production was developed in India mainly due
to the efforts of:
IARI (Indian Agriculture Research Institute)
KVIC (Khadi & Village Industries Commission)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

51. Biocontrol: Use of Biological method for controlling plant disease &
pests.
52. Ladybird & Dragonflies are useful to get rid of Aphids & Mosquitoes.
53. Microbial Biocontrol agent that can be introduced in order to control
butterf ly caterpillars in the bacteria Bacillus thuringensis
(Bt) (NEET-2013)[NCERT-187]
54. Trichoderma
• Biological control agent, use in treatment of plant disease
• Free-living fungi
• Very common in root ecosystem
55. Baculoviruses: Pathogens that attack insects & other arthropods.
(NEET-2019, 2013)[NCERT-187]
• Biocontrol agents in Genus Nucleopolyhedrovirus
• Species-specific, Narrow spectrum insecticidal
• No negative impacts on plants, Mammals, Birds, Fish or even on
non-target insects.
• Specially desirable when benificial insects are being conserved to
aid in an overall Integrated Pest Management (IPM) OR when
an ecologically senstive area is being treated.
Organic Farming
• In which Biofertilisers are used
• Main source of Biofertilisers are Bacteria, Fungi & Cyanobacteria.
• Biofertilisers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of the
soil:
Bacteria that use as Biofertilisers (NEET-2017, 2012)
  [NCERT-188]
Free-living Symbiotic
• Azotobacters • Frankia
• Beijrinckia • Rhizobium
• Rhodospirillum
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Mycorrhiza
• Symbiotic association between Fungi & Roots of higher Plants.
• Many members of the Genus Glomus form Mycorrhiza.
• Fungi provide plants to phosphorus from soil, patyhogen resistance,
tolerance to salinity & drought & over all increase plant growth &
development.
• Plant provide to fungi – Sheltor & Carbon.
N2–fixing cyanobacteria or BGA (NEET-2012)[NCERT-188]
eg: Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria
• In Paddy field, cyanobacteria serve as an important biofertilisers.
• Cyanobacteria also add organic matter to the soil & increase
its fertility.
********×********×********
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

INDEX
UNIT IX : BIOTECHNOLOGY
1. Biotechnology : Principles and Processes 3-10
2. Biotechnology and its Applications 11-16
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

195, 198 = 2 Pages
37.2 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

BIOTECHNOLOGY : PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES

1. Biotechnology deals with techniques of using live organism or enzymes
from organisms to produce products & processes useful to humans.
2. Today genetically modified organism to achieve the same on large
scales.
3. In-vitro fertilisation leading to a test tube baby, synthesising a gene &
using it, developing DNA vaccine or correcting a defective gene, all are
part of biotechnology.
4. The European Federation of Biotechnology (FEB) given the definition
of Biotechnology & included both traditional view & modern.
molecular biotehnology
Defined as follows :-
“The integration of natural science & organisms, cell, parts there of &
molecular analogues for products & services.
5. Two core techniques:
1. Genetic engineering: Alter the chemistry of genetic material 
Introduce into the host organisms  Change the phenotype of the
host organism.
2. Bioprocess engineering: Maintenance of sterile (microbial
contamination free) ambience in chemical engineering process to
enable growth of only desirable microbes.
6. Traditional hybridisation: Inclusion & multiplication of undesirable
genes along with the desired genes.
7. Genetic engineering: Create recombinant DNA, used of gene
cloning & gene transfer. (NEET-2012)[NCERT 194]
• Allow us to isolate & introduce only one or a set of desirable genes
without introducing undesirable genes into the target organism.
8. The construction of the first recombinant DNA emerged from the
possibility of linking a gene encoding antibiotic resistance with native
plasmid of solmonella typhinurium by Stanley cohen & Herbert Bayer
in 1972. (NEET-2020)[NCERT 194]
9. Plasmid: Autonomously replicating circular extra-chromosomal
DNA. (NEET-2016)[NCERT 194]
10. Cutting of DNA at specific location become possible with Restriction
endonucleus (molecular scissors) & linking of cut DNA possible by
enzyme DNA ligase.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
11. The ability to multiply copies of antibiotic resistance gene in

E.coli was called cloning. (NEET-2018, 2015)[NCERT 195]
12. Three basis steps in genetically modified on organism:
1. Identification of DNA with desirable genes.
2. Introduction of identified DNA with the host
3. Maintenance of introduced DNA into the host & transfer of the DNA to
its progeny.
Tools of Recombinant DNA technology
• Enzyme (Restriction enzyme, polymerase enzyme, ligase)
• Vectors
• Host organism
13. In 1963, two enzyme responsible for restricting the growth of
Bacteriophase in Escheriehia coli.
1. Added methyl group to DNA
2. Cut DNA
14. First restriction endonuclease discovered was Hind-II.
15. Hind II always cut DNA molecules at a particular point by recognising a
specific sequence of six base pairs called recognition sequence.
16. Today we know more than 900 restriction enzyme, isolated from over
230 strains of bacteria each with different recognition sequences.
17. Convention for naming these enzymes. First letter comes from the genus
& second two letter comes from the species of prokaryotic cell. The
fourth letter indicates strain of bacteria. Roman number indicates the
order in which enzyme were isolated from that strain of Bacteria.
18. Restriction enzyme belong to a larger class of enzyme – Nucleases
Nucleases: Exonucleases (Remove nucleotides from the ends of
DNA) & Endonucleases (cuat at specific positions within
the DNA). (NEET-2020)[NCERT 196]
19. The restriction site of these enzyme is a specific pallindromic nucleotide
sequence in the DNA. (NEET-2022, 2019)[NCERT 196]
20. Restriction enzyme cut the strand of DNA either little away from the
centre of the pollindrome site or in the centre of palindrome site &
produce either sticky ends or Blunt ends of DNA.(NEET-2019)[NCERT 197]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

21. Polindromic DNA sequence: Read some on the two strands when
orientation of reading is kept the same.
eg: 5’ – GAATTC – 3’ (NEET-2022, 2021, 2020,2019,2012)
3’ – CTTAAG – 5’ [NCERT 197]
22. Stickiness of the ends facilitates the action of the enzyme DNA
ligase. (NEET-2017, 2020)[NCERT 197]
23. Restriction endonuclease are used in genetic engineering to form
“recombinant molecule of DNA, composed of DNA from different sources/
genomes.
Diagrammatic representation of recombinant DNA technology

24. Unless one cuts the vector & the source DNA with the some restriction
enzymes the recombinant vector molecule can not be created.
Seperation & Isolation of DNA fragments [NCERT 198]
25. DNA fragments can be seperated by Gel electrophoresis.(NEET-2013)
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
26. DNA fragments negatively charged & move toward the anode under
an electric field through a medium/matrix.(NEET-2019, 2017)[NCERT 198]
27. Most commonly used matrix is Agrose (Natural polymer extracted
from sea weeds).
28. DNA fragments seperate (resolve) according to their size through seiving
effect provided by the agrose gel.
29. Smaller the fragment size, the further its moves.(NEET-2019)[NCERT 198]
30. Seperated DNA fragments Ethidium bromide followed by exposure to
UV radiation. (NEET-2022, 2020, 2019, 2017)[NCERT 198]
31. Bright orange coloured bonds of DNA is a ethidium bromide stained
get exposed to UV light. (NEET-2022, 2021, 2017)[NCERT 198]
32. The seperated band of DNA are cut out from the agrose gel & extracted
from the get piece – Elution. [NEET-2022][NCERT 198]
33. Coloning vectors : Plasmids
Bacteriophage
34. Bacteriophage because of their high number per cell, have very high
copy number of their genome within the bacterial cells.
35. Some plasmids may have only one or two copies per cell whereas
other may have 15–100 copies per cells.
36. A vector must have following three featured :
1. Origin of Replication (Ori): Start replication & control copy number
of linked DNA [NEET-2022][NCERT 199]
2. Selectable marker : Identifying & eliminating non-transformant &
(NEET-2019) selectively permitting the growth of transform–
[NCERT 199] ants.
37. Transformation: Procedure through which a piece of DNA is introduced
in a host bacterium.
38. Genes encoding resistance to antibiotics that useful selectable marker
for E.coli Amphicillin, Chloram-phericol, Tetracycline, Keramycin.
(NEET-2022, 2012)[NCERT 199]
3. Cloning Sites: Vector needs to have veryfew, preferably single
recognition sites for commonly used restriction enzymes.
[NEET-2022][NCERT 199]
39. Presence of more than one recognition sites within the vector will generate
several fragments, which will complicates the gene cloning.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
(NEET-2021, 2012)[NCERT 199]
40. Rop codes for the proteins involved in the replication of the plasmid.
41. Differentiation of recombinants from non-recombinants on the basis of
their ability to produce colour in the presence of chromogenic
substance.
42. Presence of chromogenic substrate gives blue colored colonies if the
plasmid in the bacteria do not have an insert.[NEET-2022][NCERT 200]
43. Presence of insert results into insertional inactivation of the  -galactos-
idase gene & the colonies do not produce any colour, these are identified
as recombinant colonies. (NEET-2013)[NCERT 200]
44. Retroviruses in animals have the ability to transform normal cell into
cancerous cells. (NEET-2018)[NCERT 200]
45. DNA is the hydrophillic molecule, it can not be pass through cell
membrane.
46. In order to force bacteria to take up plasmid, the baderial cell must first
be made “competent” to take up DNA.
47. For making competent, treating them with a specific concentration of a
divalent cation, such as catcium (Increase efficiency with which DNA
enters the bacterium through pores in its cell wall).
48. Recombinant DNA placed 1st on ice then at 420C (Heat shock) and then
putting them back on ice. This enables the bacteria to take up
recombinant DNA.
49. Introduction of alien DNA into Host cell via:
Micro injection (For Animals) : Recombinant DNA directly injected
into the nuclus of an animal cell.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Biolistics or Genegun (for plants): Cells are bombarded with high

velocity micro-particles of Gold or Tungsten coated with DNA
(2012)[NCERT 201]
Disarmed pathogen: Allowed to infect the cell, transfer the recombinant
DNA into the host.
Processes of Recombinant DNA Technology
Steps:
1. Isolation of DNA
2. Fragmentation of DNA by restriction endonuclease
3. Isolation of desired DNA fragment
4. Ligation of DNA fragment into a vector
5. Transferring the recombinant DNA into the host
6. Culturing the ;host cells in a medium at large scale & extraction of
the desired product.
50. Bacterial cell wall isolated with enzyme – Lysozyme.
51. Plants cell isolated with enzyme cellulase
52. Fungus cell isolated with enzyme chitinase
53. Purified DNA ultimately precipitates out after the addition of chilled ethanol.
This can be seen as collection of fine thread in the suspension–
Spooling. (NEET- 2021, 2019, 2013)[NCERT 201]
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): Amplification of gene of Interest
Steps: Denaturation  Anneling  Extension.
(NEET-2022, 2021, 2018)[NCERT 202]
54. Multiple copies of gene (or DNA) of intrest is synthesised in vitro using
two set of primers (Small chemically synthesises oligonucleotides
that are complimentary to the regions of DNA) & enzyme DNA
polymerase.
55. If the process of replication of DNA is repeated many times, the segment
of DNA can be amplified to appx. Billion times (1 Billion copies).
56. Thermostable DNA polymerase, which remains active during the high
temperature induced denaturation of ds DNA.(NEET-2021)[NCERT 203]
57. Thermus aquaticus (Bacteria) active at high temperature.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
58. If any protein encoding gene is expressed in a heterologous host, it is

called Recombinant Protein.
• In continuous culture system, used medium is drain out from one side &
fresh medium is added from other side to maintain the cell in their
Physiologically most active log/exponential phase.
• To produce in large quantities, the development of Bioreactors are
required (NEET-2019)[NCERT 204]
• Large volumes (100 –1000 liters) of culture can be processed was required.
• Bioreactors: A vessels in which raw material are billogically converted
into specific products, individual enzymes etc, using microbial plants,
animal or Human cells.
59. A bioreactor provides the optimal conditions for achieving the desired
product by providing optimum growth conditions :-
Temperature, pH, Substrate, Salts, Vitamines, Oxygen.
60. The most commonly used Bioreactors are of stirring type.
62. A stirred tank reactor is usually cylindrical or with a curved base to
facillitate the mixing of the reactor contents (NEET-2016)[NCERT 204]
63. Stirrer facilitates even mixing & oxygen availability throughout the
bioreactars.
64. Bioreactoar has: Agitator system, oxygen delivery system, foam control
system temperature control system, pH control system, sampling ports.
65. After completion of Biosynthetic stage, the product has to be subjected
through a series of processes before it is ready for marketing process
are :– (NEET-2016, 2017)[NCERT 205]
Seperation, purification, Preservation, Clinical trials
66. Down stream processing & quality control testing very from product to
product.
****************×****************×****************
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

208, 209 = 2 Pages
47.6 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS

1. Application of biotechnology include therapettics, diagnostics,
genetically modified crops agriculture, processed food, bioremediation,
waste treatment and energy production.
2. Research area of Biotechnology are –
1. Providing the best catalyst
2. Optimum condition
3. Down stream processing.
3. Use of Biotechnology to improve the quality of human life, especially
in the field of food production and heat.
4. Three options that can be traight for increasing food production
1. Agro-chemical based agriculture
2. Organic agriculture
3. Genetically engineering crop-based agriculture.
5. Green Revolution succeeded in tripling the food suply but yet not
enough to feed the grawing human population.
6. To minimise the use of fertiliser and chemicals and their harmful effects
on the environment, use of genetically modified crops is a possible
solution.
7. Plants, Bacteria, fungi and animals whoes genes have altered by
manupulation are called Genetically modified organism (GMO).
8. Genetic Modification plants has
1. Made crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (Cold, Drought, Salt,
Heat)
2. Reduce reliance on chemical pesticides (Pest resistant plants)
3. Help to reduce post harvest losses.
4. Increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants.
5. Enhanced nutritional value of food.
(Golden rice – vitamin A enriched rice)
[NEET-2019, 2015, 2012][NCERT 208]
9. Bt toxin is produced by a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis.
10. Some strains of bacillus thuringiensis produce protein that kill cartain
insects such as –
Lepidopterans : Tobacco budworm, Armyworm
Coleopterans : Beetles
Dipterans : Flies, Mosquitoes
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
11. Bt form protein crystals, (Toxic insecticidal protein) during particular

phase of their growth.
12. Bt toxin protein exist as inactive protoxin but once an insect ingest the
inactive toxin it is converted into an active form of toxin due to alkaline
pH of the gut. [NEET 2019, 2015][NCERT 208]
13. The activated toxin binds to the surface of midgut epithelium cells
and create pores that causes cell swelling and lysis and eventually
cause death of the insect.
14. Specific Bt toxin genes were isolated from Bacillus thuringiensis into
the several crop plants such as cotton.
15. The choice of genes depends upon the crop and the targeted pest,
most Bt toxins are insect-group specific. [NEET 2020][NCERT 209]
16. The toxin is coded by a gene named cry. [NEET 2020][NCERT 209]
17. Proteins encoded by the genes cryIAc and cryIIAb control the cotton
bollworms and cryIAb controls corn borer.
Pest resistant Plants.
18. Several nematodes parasitise affect plants and animals.
19. A nematode Meloidegyne incognitia infects the root of tobacco
plants and reduce greatly the yields. [NEET 2016][NCERT 209]
20. To prevent infestation RNA interference (RNAi) strategy was adopted.
21. RNAi takes place in all eukaryotic organisms as a method of cellular
defence.
22. In this method nematode specific gene (DNA) that produce both sence
and anti-sence RNA was introduce into the host plant.
23. Silencing of a specific mRNA due to complementary dsRNA that binds
to and prevents translation of the mRNA (silencing). As a result parasite
could not survive in transgenic host plant.[NEET 2019, 2013][NCERT 209]
24. Recombinant therapeutics do not induce unwanted immunological
responces and in case of similar products isolated from non human
source.
25. At present, about 30 recombinant therapeutics have been approved
for human use world over and 12 of these in India.
Genetically Engineered Insulin
26. Insulin was earlier extracted from pancreas of slaughtered cattle and
pigs and caused some patients to develop allergy and other types of
reaction to the foeign protein. [NEET-2022][NCERT 210]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
27. Insuline consist of two short polypeptide chain linked by disulphide

bridge.
Chain - A [NEET 2021, 2020, 2016][NCERT 211]
Chain - B
28. In mammals, insulin is synthesised as a pro-hormone (contains A, B
and C peptide) during maturation “C” peptide is removed. So “C”
peptide is absent in mature insulin. [NEET 2022, 2021][NCERT 211]
29. The main challenge for production of insuline using r-DNA technology
was getting insulin into a mature form.
[NEET 2022, 2021, 2020][NCERT 211]
30. In 1983, Eli Lilly, an American company prepared two DNA sequences
A and B, chains of human insulin and introduced them in plasmids of
E. coli produced insulin chains.
31. Chains A and B were produced separately and combined by creating
disulphide bonds to form human insulin.[NEET-2022][NCERT 211]
32. Gene Therapy : Allows correction of a gene defect.
[NEET 2021, 2020][NCERT 211]
33. Involves delivery of a normal gene into the individual or embryo to take
over the function and compensate for the non functional gene.
34. The first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a 4 year old girl
was adenosins deaminase (ADA) deficiency.
[NEET 2016, 2012][NCERT 211]
35. The disorder caused due to the deletion of the gene for ADA.
36. ADA deficiency can be cured by
– Bone marrow transplantation
– Enzyme replacement therapy
in which functional ADA given to patient by injection, main problem is
that they are not completely curable.
37. Lymphocytes from the blood of the patient are grown in a culture outside
of the body, functional ADA cDNA (using retroviral vector) introduced
into the lymphocytes, subsequently returned to the patient.
38. These cells are not immortal, the patient requires periodic infusion of
such genetically engineered lymphocytes. [NEET-2022][NCERT 211]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
39. Permanent cure : Gens isolate from marrow cells producing ADA is
introduced into cells at early embryonic stages.
Molecular Diagnosis
40. Recombinant DNA technology, PCR, Enzyme linked immuno sorbent
Assay (ELISA), serve the purpose of early diagonosis.
[NEET 2021][NCERT 212]
41. Using conventional methods (serum and urine analysis) early detection
is not possible.
42. Very low concentration of a bacteria or virus (at a time when the symptom
of the disease are not yet visible) can be detected by amplification of
their nuclic acid by PCR.
43. PCR is used to detect HIV in suspected AIDS patients. PCR is also
used to detect mutation in genes of suspected cancer patients too.
[NEET 2021, 2020][NCERT 212]
44. Probe : A single stranded DNA or RNA, tagged with a radioactive
molecule is allowed to hybridised to its complementary DNA in a clone
of cells followed by detectio using autoradiography.
[NEET 2012][NCERT 212]
45. Clone having mutated gene will not appear on the photographic film
because the probe will not have complementarity with the mutated
gene. [NEET 2021][NCERT 212]
46. ELISA based on antigen antibody interaction.
47. Transgenic Animals –
48. Animals that have their DNA manipulated to passes and express on
extra (foreign) gene are known as transgenic animals.
49. Transgenic rats, Rabbits, Pigs, Sheep, Cows, and fish and over 95%
of all existing transgenic animals are mice. [NEET 2012][NCERT 212]
50. Transgenic Animals are developed for –
1. Study normal physiology and development
2. Study of disease
3. Biological products
4. Vaccine safety
5. Chemical safety testing
51. Today transgenic models exist for many human disease such as –
Cancer, Cystic Fibrosis, Rheumatoid arthritis, Alzheimer’s.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
52. Human protein (-1-antitrypsin) used to treat emphysema. Similar

attempts are being made for treatment of phenylketonuria (PKU) and
cystic fibrosis.
53. In 1997, first transgenic cow, Rosie produce human protein - enriched
milk (2.4 grams per lit) contains human alpha-lactalbumin.
54. Transgenic mice are used to developed testing the saftey of vaccines.
Ethical Issues
55. Genetic modification of organism can have unpredictable results when
such organisms are into the ecosystem.
56. Indian government has set up organisation such as GEAC (Genetic
Engineering Approval Committee) which will make decision regarding
the valadity of GM research and safety of introducing GM organisms for
public services. [NEET 2018, 2015] [NCERT 213]
57.
58.
There are on estimated 200,000 varieties of rice in India alone.
27 documented varieties of Basmati are grown in India for its unique
Aroma and Flavour. [NEET 2018][NCERT 214]
59. Biopiracy : use of bio resources by multinational companies and other
organisation without proper authorisation from the countries and people
concerned without comperisatory payment.
[NEET 2018, 2015][NCERT 214]
60. The Indian parliament has recently cleared the second amendment
of the Indian patents bill, including patent term emergency pravisions
and research and development initiative.
****************×****************×****************
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

:: IMPORTANT NOTES ::
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

TEST FRANCHISES
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

INDEX
UNIT X : ECOLOGY
1. Organisms and Populations
2. Ecosystem
3. Biodiversity and Conservation
4. Environmental Issues
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

226, 227, 232 = 3 Pages
38.4 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS

1. Ecology deals with the interactions among organism & between the
organism & its physical (Abiotic) environement.
2. Ecology basically concerned with 4 levels of Biological organisation–
Organism, Population, Communities, Biomes.
3. Biome distribution with respect to annual temperature and precipitation
4. Major Biomes in India: 1. Tropical Rain forest 3. Desert

2. Deciduous forest 4. Sea coast
5. Habitals : Sorching Rajasthan Desert, Perpetually rain soaked Meghalaya
forest, deep ocean trendhes, Torrential streams, permafrost polar regions,
High mountain tops, Boiling thermal springs, stinking compost pits, our
Intestine.
6. Niche : Each organism has an invariably defined range of condition that
it can tolerate diversity in the resources it utilises & a distinct functional
role in ecological system. (NEET-2018)[NCERT-221]
7. Abiotic factors (Physico-chemical) : Temperature, water, light, soil
Biotic factors : Pathogens, Parasites, Predators, Competitors
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
8. Temperature : Most ecologically relevant environmental factors.

1. Average temperature on land varies seasonally, decrease
progressively from equator towards the pole & from plains to mountain
tops.
2. Mango tree do not & cannot grow in temperate countries like Canada
& Germany.
3. Snow leopards are not found in kerala forests & Tuna fish are rarely
caught beyond tropiucal latitudes in the ocean.
4. A few organisms can tolerate & thrive in a wide range of temperature
– Eurythermal & vast majority of them are restricted to a narrow
range of temp – stenothermal
Water
9. Life on earth originated in water & is unsustainable without water.
10. The productivity & distribution of plants is also heavily dependent on
water.
11. For aquatic organisms the quality (Chemical composition & pH) of
water become important.
12. Salt concentration (measured as salinity in part per thousand), is
less than 5 percent in land waters, 30–35 percent in Sea & > 100 percent
in some hypersaline lagoons.
13. Some organism tolerant a wide range of salinities – Euryhaline &
other are restricted to a narrow range of salinities – Stenohaline
Light
14. Importance of light: • Photosynthesis
• Photopericodic requirement for flowering
• Diurnal & seasonal variations
15. Soil
1. Nature & properties of soil in different places vary, it is dependent on
– Climate, weathering process
2. Characteristics of soil : Soil composition, Grain size, Aggregation,
water holding capacity of the soil.
3. pH, mineral composition, Topography determine to a large extent
the vegetation in any area.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Diagrammatic representation of organismic response

16. Regulaters
1. All Birds & mammals, a very few lower vertebrate & invertebrates
species are indeed capable of such regulation (Thermoregulation &
osmoregulation).
2. Evolutionary Biologists believe that the “success of mammals” are
largely due to their ability to maintain constant body temperature.
17. Conformers
1. Majority (99 percent) of Animals & nearly all plants cannot maintain
a constant internal environment. Their body temperature change with
the ambient temperature.
2. Thermoregulation is emergetically expensive for many organism,
true for small animals such as shrews & humming birds.
3. Heat loss & Heat gain is a function of surface area, small animals
have a larger surface area relative to their volume, they tend to lose
body heat very fast when it is cold out side, they expant much energy
to generate their body temp. (thats why very small animals rarely
found in Polar area).
4. Migration : Temporarity movement from stressful habital to more
hospitable area & return when stressful period is over.
18. Every winter the famous keolado National Park (Bharatpur) in
Rajasthan host thousands of migratory birds coming from Siberia &
other extremly cold northern regions. (NEET-2014)[NCERT-225]
5. Suspend: In Bacteria, Fungi & lower plants, various kinds of thick
walled spore help then to survive unfavourable conditions.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
19. In Higher Plants: Seeds & some other vegetative reproductive structure
found.
20. In Animals. (if unable to migrate)
Bears: Go into Aestivation during winter (Escape in time)
Snails & Fish : Go into Aestivation during summer (Avoid summer
related problem – Head & desiccation)
Zooplankton (Found in Lake & Pond) : Enter diapause (suspended
development
Adaptations:
21. Any attribute of the organism (morphological, physiological, Behavioural)
that enables the organism to survive & reproduce in its habitat.
22. Many adoptations have evolved over a long evolutionary time & are
genetically fixed
23. Kangaroo Rat (North American deserts)
• External source of water absent
• Source of water – Internal fat oxidation (water by product)
• Ability to concentrate its urine
24. Desert Plants:
• Thick culticle on their leaf surface & stomata arrange in deep pits
to minimise water loss.
• CAM pathway occurs that enables their stomata close during
day.
25. Opuntia : No leaves – they reduced to spines
Photosynthetic function taken by flattened stem.
Allen’s Rule: Mammals from colder climates generally have shorter ear &
limbs to minimise heat loss. (NEET-2021)[NCERT-226]
26. In the polar seas aquatic mammals (seals) have a thick layer of fat
(blubber) below their skin that acts as an insulator & reduce loss of Body
heat.
27. Altitude sickness (> 3,500 m) symptoms include Nausia, Fatigue &
heart palpitation because in the low atmospheric pressure of high altitude
body does not get enough oxygen. (NEET-2021, 2012)[NCERT-226]
28. Body compensate low oxygen availability by increasing RBCs production,
decreasing the binding capacity of haemoglobin & increasing breathing
rate.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
29. Archaebacteria flourish in hot springs & deep sea hydrothermal vents
where temperature for exceed 100oC.
30. Behavioural responses: Desert lizards lack the physiological ability
that mammals have to deal with the high temperature of their habitat, but
manage to keep their body temperature fairly const by behavioural
means. (NEET-2021)[NCERT-226]
31. Population Attributes
Example of population: All the cormorants in a wetland, Rat in an
abandoned dwelling, Teakwood trees in a forest tract, Bacteria in a culture
plate, Lotus plants in a pond etc.
32. Population ecology: An important area of ecology because it link ecology
to population genetic & evolution.
33. An individual may have Births & Deaths but population has Birth
rates & Death rates.
34. If 8 drosophila in a laboratory population of 80 died during week, the
death rate in the population is 0.1 individual per; drosophila per week.
35. Population attribute Sex ratio.
36. Age pyramids: Shows age distribution of males & females in a combined
diagram.
37. Representation of age pyramids for human population
(NEET-2018, 2013, 2012)[NCERT-227]
38. Population density measured in – Size, Number and Biomass

39. Tiger census in our national parks & tiger reserves is often based on
Pugmarks & fecal pellets
Population Growth
Natality: Number of deaths Iin the population that are added to the
initial density (NEET-2018)[NCERT-228]
Mortality: Number of deaths in the population during a given period
Immigration: Number of individuals of the same species comes from
else where during time period.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Emmigration: Number of individuals who left & go elsewhere during

time period.
40. Births + Immigration, Increase population density.
41. Death + Emigration, Decrease population density.
42. Under normal conditions, Births & Deaths are the most important factors
influencing density.
43. If a new habitat is just being colonised, immigration may contribute more
significantly to population growth then birth rates.
Growth Models: Exponential growth & Logistic Growth OR
Geometric growth.
Exponential/Geometric growth: When resources in the habitate are
unlimited.
44. dN/dt = (b-d) × N Let (b-d) = r
then dN/dt = rN r  Intrinsic rate of natural increase
45. “r” values: Norway rat : 0.15
Flour beetle : 0.12
Human Population (1981) : 0.0205
46. If we plot curve between population density (N) Relation to time (t) then
J-shaped curve obtained
47. Integral form of this curve, Nt = Noert
e  The base of Natural logarithms
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
48. Logistic Growth: A population growing in a habital with limited

resources.
49. Initially lag phase, phase of acceleration, dealeration & finally an
asymptote. when the population density reaches the carrying
capacity. (NEET-2017)[NCERT-231]
50. A plot of N in relation to time (t) results in a sigmoid curve.
51. This population growth is called Verhulst – Pearl Logistic Growth
K = carrying capacity
52. Resources for growth for most animal population are finite & become
limiting sooner or letter, the logistic growth model is considered a
more realistic one Life History Variation.
53. Some organisms breed only once in their life time.
eg: Pacific salmon fish, Bamboo.
54. Some breed many times during their life time eg: Most Birds & Mammals
55. Some produce a large number of small-sized off spring eg: Oysters,
Pelagic fishes.
56. Some produce a small number of large-sized off spring eg: Birds &
Mammals.
Population Interactions (NEET-2021, 2018, 2016, 2015)[NCERT-232]
Predation
57. Transfer energy from lower trophic levels to higher trophic level fixed by
plants.
58. Sparrow eating any seed is no less than a predator
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

59. Predator keep pray population under control.

60. When certain exotic species are introduced into a geographical area,
they become invassive & start spreading fast because in that area natural
predator absent.
61. Prickly pear caters introduced into Australia in early 1920’s caused
havoc by spreading rapidly into millions of hectares of rangeland. Finally,
the invasive cactus brough under control only after a cactus-feeding
predator (a moth) introduced.
62. Biological control methods adopted in agriculture pest control are based
on the ability of the predator to regulate prey population.
63. Predator also help in maintaing species diversity by competetion.
64. In rocky intertidal communities of American Pacific coast the starfish
piaster is important predator. [NEET-2022] [NCERT-233]
65. In a field Experiment, when all starfish removed from an enclosed
area, more than 10 species of invertebrates become extinct within a
year, because of inter-specific competition.
66. Prey species have evolved various defenses to lessen the impact of
predation.
67. Some species of Insect & Frogs are cryptically – coloured
(camouflaged) to avoid being detected easily by the predator.
68. The Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to its predator (Bird) because
of a special chemical present in its body.
69. For Plants, Herbivoures are predators.
70. Nearly 25% of all insects are Phytophagous.
71. Plants evolved an astorishing variety of morphological & chemical
defences against herbivores.
72. Thorn (Acacia, cactus) most common morphological & chemical
defences against herbivores.
73. Many Plants produce & most store chemicals that make the herbivore
sick when they are eaten, inhibit feeding or digestion, disrupt its
reproduction or even kill it.
74. Calotropis produce highly poisonous Cardiac glycosides & thats
why you never see any cattle or goats browsing on this plants.
75. Wide variety of chemical substances we extract from plants on a
commercial scale – Nicotine, Caffeine, Quinine, Strychnine, Opium,
Produced by them actually as defences against grazers & browsers.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Competition
76. Darwin spoke: • Struggle for existence
• Survival of the fittest
He convinced that Interspecific competition is a potent force in organic
evolution.
77. He believed that competition ocurs when closely related species compete
for the same resources that are limiting but this is not entirely
true (NEET-2013)NCERT-234]
78. Totally unrelated species could also compete for the same resource.
eg: In some shallow South Americal lakes visiting flamingoes & Resident
fished compete for their common food (zooplankton)
79. Resources need not be limiting for competition to occurs
eg: Interference competition
80. Gause & other experimental ecologist did, when resources are limited
the competitively superior species will eventually eliminate the other
species.
81. Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos Islands become extinct within a
decade after goats were introduced on the island, due to greater
browsing efficiency of goats.
82. Competitive release: A species whos distribution is restricted to a
small geographical area because of presence of competitively superior
species but when the superior species removed, other speciesw expand
dramatically.
83. Connell’s elegant field Experiment
Rocky sea costs of scotland, the larger & competitively superior
barnacle Balemus dominantes the intertidal area, & excludes the
smaller barnacle Chathamalus from that zone.
84. In General, Herbivores & plants appear to be more adversely affected by
competition then carnivores.
85. Gause’s competitive Exclusive Principle (NEET-2016)NCERT-235]
States that two closely related species competing for the same resources
cannot co-exist indefinitely & competitively inferior one will be eliminated.
86. Mac Arthus (Resource partitioning) (NEET-2021, 2019)NCERT-235]
• If two species compete for the same resource, they could avoid
competition by choosing different times for feeding OR different foraging
pattern.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
• He showed that five closely related species of warblers living on the
same tree were able to avoid competition & co-exist due to behavioural
differences in their foraging activities.
Parasitism
87. Parasitic mode of life ensures –Free lodging & meals.
88. Parasite has to evolve mechanisms to counteract & neutralise them, in
order to be successful with the same host species.
89. Parasite evolve special adaptation such as –
• Loss of unecessary sense organ (NEET-2013)[NCERT-237]
• Presence of adhesive organs
• Loss of digestive system
• High reproductive capacity
90. Majority of parasite harm the host, they may reduce the survival, growth
& reproduction of the host & reduce its population density.
91. Ectoparasite: Feed on external surface of host organism
eg: Lice on humans & ticks on dogs.
Marine fish & copepods
Cuscuta on hedge plants.
Cuscuta: Lost its chlorophyll & leaves in the course of evolution. It derives
nutrition from the host plant which it parasitises.
92. Endoparasite: That live inside the host body at different sites.
• The life cycles of endoparasites are more complex because of their
extreme specialisation
• Their morphological & anatomical features are greatly simplified while
emphasising their reproductive potential.
93. Brood Parasitism: Eggs of the parasitic bird have evolved to resemble
the hosts egg in size & colour.
eg: Cuckoo (Koel) & Crow
94. Commensalism: One species benifits & other is neither harmed nor
benefited
1. Orchid growing as on Epiphytes on mango branch
2. Bramacles growing on the back of a whole (NEET-2019)[NCERT-236]
3. Cattle egret & grazing cattle (NEET-2019)[NCERT-236]
4. Sea anemone & clown fish (NEET-2019)[NCERT-236]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
95. Mutualism: Both the interacting species are benefits

eg:- Lichen (Fungi & Algae)
Mycorrhiza (Fungi & Roots of Higher Plants)
Plant & Animal
Fig & Wasp.
96. Plants need the help of animals for pollinating their flowers & dispersing
their seeds & plants offer rewards or fee in the form of pollen & nectar for
pollinators & Juicy & nutritions fruits for seed dispersers.
97. The Mediterian Orchid ophrys embloys “sexual deceit” to get pollination
done by a species of bee.
98. One petal of its flower bears an uncanny resemblance to the female of
the bee in size, colour & markings.
99. If the Female bee’s colour patterns charge even slightly for any reason
during evolution, pollination success will be reduced unless the orchid
flower co-evolves to maintain the resemblance of its petal to the female
bee.
****************×****************×****************
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

243, 251 = 2 Pages
37.9 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

ECOSYSTEM
1. Term Ecosystem given by A.G. Tansley. [NEET 2016][NCERT-242]
2. Ecosystem – Functional unit of nature , where living organism intract
among themselves & also with the surrounding physical enviroment.
3. Ecosystem – Two categories
1. Terrestrial – Forest, Grassland, Desert
2. Aquatic – Ponds, lake, wetland, River & Esturay
4. Man –made ecosystem – Cropfield & Aquarium
5. Two component of Ecosystem
• Biotic • Abiotic
6. Stratification – Vertical distribution of different species occupying
different levels. [NEET 2015][NCERT-242]
7. Component of Ecosystem – [NEET 2012] [NCERT-242]
1. Productivity 2. Decomposition
3. Energy flow 4. Nutrient cycling
8. Pond – Self-substainable unit, shallow water body.
9. Autotrophic component of ponds – Phytoplankton, some Algae,
Floating , Submerged & marginal plant found at edges.
10. Consumers – Zooplankton, free swimming & bottom dwelling form.
11. Decomposers – Bacteria, fungi & flagellates
12. There is unidirectional movement of energy towards the higher trophic
levels & its dissipation & loss as heat to the environment.
13. Productivity – [NEET 2020][NCERT-242]
1. Primary production – Amount of biomass or organic matter
produced per unit area over a time period by plants during
photosynthesis.
2. It is expressed in terms of weight (gm–2) or Energy (Kcal m–2 )
3. Productivity – Rate of Biomass production & expressed in terms of
gm–2yr–1 OR (kcal m–2)yr–1
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
4. Gross primary productivity – Rate of production of organic matter

during photosynthesis. [NEET 2015] [NCERT-243]
5. Net Primary productivity – Available biomass for the consumption
to heterotrophs (Herbiviores & Decomposers).
6. Secondary Productivity – Rate of formation of new organic matter
by consumers. [NEET 2012] [NCERT-243]
[NPP = GPP – R] [NEET 2021][NCERT-243]
R Respiratory release OR Respiration losses.

14. Primary productivity depends on –
1. Plant species inhabiting a particular area
2. Availablity of nutrients
3. Photosynthetic capacity of plants
4. Variety of environmental factors
5. The annual net primary productivity of the whole biosphere is appx.170
billion of organic matter.
6. Productivity of the occan are only 55 billion tons.
15. Decomposition – Breakdown of complex organic matter into inorganic
substances
16. Detritus – Dead remains of plant & Animals.
Raw material for decomposition
17. Steps – Fragmentation, Leaching, catabolism, Humification,
Mineralisation [NEET 2013] [NCERT-243]
18. Fragmentation – Breakdown of detritus into simple particles.
[NEET-2022] [NCERT-243]
19. Leaching – Water soluble inorganic nutrities go down soil horizon &
get precipitated as unavailable salts.
20. Catabolism – Bacterial & Fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simple
inorganic substances.
21. Humification – Acumulation of dark coloured amorphous substance
called humus that is highly resistant to microbial action.
22. Mineralisation – Humans further degraded & release of inorganic nutriets.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
23. Humus – Dark coloured amorphous substance

• Highly resistance to microbial action
• Decomposes at slow rate
• Colloidal in nature
• Nutrients reservoir
24. Decomposition is largely an oxygen requiring process.
25. Rate of decomposition is controlled by chemical composition of detritus
& climatic factors.
26. Decomposition rate is slower if detritus is rich in Lignin ,Chitin &
Quiker if detritus is rich in Nitrogen,water soluble substance like
sugar. [NEET2022] [NCERT-243]
27. Most important climatic factors that regulate decomposition
Temperature, Soil moisture.
Warm
28. Decomposition favoured by Moist
29. Low temperature & Anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition & build up organic
materials
30. Energy flow – Unidirectional
Incident Selar Radiation Photosynthetically Captured
Active Radiation by plants
(PAR)
31. Producers – All Autotrophs (Green plants)
• Also called converters/Transducers.
(They converts solar energy Chemical energy)
• In Aquatic ecosystem, phytoplanktons are the major autotrophs.
32. Decomposers –
• Decompose the dead bodies of producers & consumers.
• Mainly bacteria & fungi
• Bacteria Decompose into Absorb (Osmotrophs)

Enzymes
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

33. Aquatic ecosystem – GFC is the major conduit for energy flow.
34. Terrestrial ecosystem – Energy flow mainly through DFC
35. Trophic level in an Ecosystem
36. Characteristic of food chain
• Unidirectional flow of energy
• 10% energy transfer to each trophic level[NEET 2014] [NCERT-247]
• Decomposers not included in food chain
37. Food web – Many food chain is interlinked
Ecological pyramid [NEET 2021,2020] [NCERT-248]
• Trophic level represents functional level not species level.
• A given species may occupy more than one trophic level, in the
same ecosystem at the same time.
• In most ecosystem, all pyramids of number, Energy & Biomass
are upright
38. Some exception – Pyramid of biomass in sea in generally Inverted
Number of tree in forest – Inverted
[NEET 2019,2017,2012] [NCERT-249]
• Energy always upright, never be inverted.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
39. Limitation of ecological pyramid

• Same species belonging to more than one trophic levels.
• It not included food web.
• Saprophytes have no space in this pyramid
40. Standing crop [NEET 2015,2012][NCERT-247]
• Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a
particular time.
• Measured as mass of living organism (Biomass) in Fresh or Dry
weight
• Measurement of Biomass interms of Dry weight is more accurate.
41. Ecological succesion
• Gradual & fairly predictable change in the species composition of a
given area.
• During sucession some species colonise an area & their population
become more numberous whereas population of other species decline
& even disappear. [NEET 2015][NCERT-250]
• Climax community – Community that is in near equilibrium with
enviroment
42. Sere(s) : The entire sequence of communities that successively change
in a given area.
43. The individual transitional communities are termed seral stages or
seral communities.
44. Actually sucession & evolution would have been parallel processes
that time. [NCERT-251]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

45. Secondary succesion is faster than primary succession because some

soil or sediment is already present there.
46. Hydrarch succession – Takes place in wet areas & progress from hydric
to the mesic conditions.
47. Xerarch sucession – takes place in dry area & progress from xeric to
the mesic cond
• Both hydrach & xerarch succession lead to medium water
conditions (mesic) neither too dry (xeric) nor wet (hydric).
• Bare Area Pioneer species Climax community
48. Primary succession on Rocks –
• Lichens – Able to secrete acids to dissolve rock, helping in
weathering & soil formation [NEET 2016][NCERT-251]
• Bryophytes – Able to take hold in the small amount of soil.
then – Higher plants Stable climax forest
49. Primary succession in water –
Small Phytoplankton Rooted submerged Rooted-floating
angiosperms Free-floating plants Reed swamp Marsh meadow
scrub Tress Forest Land
50. Nutrient cycling or Bioeochemical cycles[NEET 2021][NCERT-253]
• Standing state – Amount of nutrients present in the soil at any
given time.
• Varies in different kinds of ecosystem & also on a seasonal basis.
• Two types
Gaseous Sedimentary
• Reservoir is atmoshpere • Reservoir is earth crust
• Example Nitrogen & • Example Sulpher & phosphorus
carbon cycle cycle
[NEET 2015,2012] [NEET 2015,2012] [NCERT-253]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

51. Carbon cycle
1. Constitutes 49% of dry weight of organisms next to water.
2. Of the total global carbon, 71% of carbon is dissolved in ocean
3. Atmoshere have only 1% of total gobal carbon.
4. Carbon cycling occurs through atmosphere, ocean & through living

& dead organisms
5. 4×1013 kg of carbon is fixed annually in the biosphere through
photosynthesis.
6. Human activities have significantly inluenced the carbon cycle.
7. Rapid deforestation & massive burning of fossile fuel for energy &
transport increased the rate of release of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
52. Phosphorous cycle
1. The natural reservoir of phosphorous is rock, contain phosphrorous

in the form of phosphates. [NEET 2022, 2013][NCERT-254]
2. Weathering of rock accelerate phosphorous cycle.
3. Herbivores & other animals obtain this element from plants.
4. The waste products & the dead organisms are decomposed by

phosphate solubilising bacteria releasing phosphorus.
5. There is no respiratory release of phosphorous into atmoshpere.
6. Atmosheric inputs of phosphorous through rainfall are much smaller

than carbon inputs.
7. Exchanges of phosphorus between organism & environment are

negligible.
• A simplified model of phosphorus cycling in a terrestrial ecosystem
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

53. Esosystem services
1. Robert constanza – Put price tags on nature’s self-support services.
2. Researchers have put an average price tag of US$33 trillion a year

on these fundamental ecosystems services.
3. Global gross national producet (GNP) US$ 18 trillion
4. Out of total cost
Soil formation = About 50%
Recreation & Nutrient cycling = Less than 10%
Climate & Regulation Habitate for wild life = About 6%
****************×****************×****************
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

266, 267 = 2 Pages
56.6 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

1. Biodiversity is the term popularised by the Sociobiologist Edward
Wilsen.
2. He describe the combined diversity at all the levels of Biological
Organisation
• Genetic diversity
• Species diversity
• Ecological diversity
3. Rouwolfia Vomitoria (Medicinal Plant) growing in different Himalayan
ranges
• Active chemical – Reserpine
4. India has more than 50,000 genetically different strains of Rice &
1000 varieties of Mango.
5. Western Ghats have a greater Amphibian species diversity than the
Eastern Ghgats.
6. At Ecosystem level, India with it desert, Rainforest, Mangroves, coral
reefs, wetland Esturies, Alpine meadows has a greater ecosystem diversity
than a scandinavian country like Norway.
7. More than 20,000 species of Ants, 3,00,000 species of Beetes & 28,000
species of fishes & Nearly 20,000 species of orchids.
8. Biodiversity & its conservation are now vital environmental issue of
international concern as more & more people around the world begin to
realise the critical importance of Biodiversity.
9. Total species:
– ICUN = 1.5 million
– Robert may = 7 million (NEET-2020)[NCERT-259]
– Some extreme estimates range from 20 to 50 million
10. IUCN : International Union for Conservation of Nature & Natural Resources
11. For many taxonomic groups, species inventories are more complete in
temperate than in tropical countries.
12. Total species 

70%
 Animals 
70%
 In sec ts
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

13. Plants including Algae, Fungi, Bryophyles, Gymnosperms & Angiosperms
comprise no more than 22% of the totals
Representing global biodiversity: proportionate number of species of major
taxa of plants, invertebrates and vertebrates. (NEET-2014)[NCERT-260]
14. The number of Fungi species in the world is more than the
combined total of species of Fishes, Amphibions, Reptiles &
Mammals. (NEET-2012, 2013)[NCERT-260]
15. These estimates do not give any figures for prokaryotes.
16. Conventional taxonomic methods are not suitable for identifying microbial
species & many species are simply not culturable under laboratory
conditions.
17. By Biochemical or Molecular criteria we identify millions species.
18. India has only 2.4 percent of the world’s land Area & Global species
diversity is 8.1 per cent.
19. India is one of the 12 mega diversity countries of the world.
20. In India nearly 45,000 species of plants & twice as many animals have
been recorded.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
21. Latitudinal Gradients: Diversity at Equator > at Pole

& at tropical > Temperature
22. • Colombia (Near equator) has nearly 1,400 species of Birds.
• New York (at 41o N) has 105 species of Birds.
• Greenland (at 71o N) has only 86 species of Birds.
• India has more than 1,200 species of Birds.
23. A forest in the tropical region like equator has up to 10 times as many
species of vascular plants as a forest of equal area as a temperate region
like Midwest of the USA.
24. Amazonian Rain Forest (South America): Greatest Biodiversity on
Earth (NEET-2020)[NCERT-261]
• Plant – > 40,000
• Fishes – 3,000
• Birds – 1,300
• Mammals & Amphibians – 427
• Reptiles – 378
• Invertebrates – 1,25,000
25. Scientist estimate that in these rain forests at least two million insect
species waiting to be discovered & named.
26. Species world-wide are facing the threat of extinction – more than 15,000,
Presently, 12% of all Birds,
23% of all Mammals
32% of all Amphibians (more vulnerable to extinction)
31% of all Gymnosperm
27. Ecologist warn that if the present trends continue, nearly half of all the
species on earth might be wiped out within the next 100 years.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
28. Loss of Biodiversity may lead to :

1. Decline in the Plant Production
2. Lowered resistance to environmental perturabations
3. Increase variability in certain ecosystem processes (Like plant
productivity, water use & pest & disease cycles).
29. Cause of Biodiversity losses: (The Evil Quartet)
1. Habitat loss & Fragmentation (most important) (NEET-2019,2016)
2. Over exploitation [NEET-2022][NCERT-264]
3. Alien species invasions
4. Co-extinctions.
30. Tropical rain forest once covering 14% of the earth’s land area, now cover
no more than 6 per cent.
31. Amazon rain forest (lungs of the plant), produce 20% of the total oxygen
on the earth through photosynthesis.
32. Millions of the species is being cut & cleared for cultivating soya beans
or for conversion to grawsslands for raising beef cattles.
33. Mammals & Birds requiring large territories & certain animals with
migratory habits are badly affected, leading to population declines.
34. Many species extinct in last 500 years due to over-exploitation by
humans like steller’s sea cow, Passengers Pigeon.
35. The Nile Perch introduced into lake victoria (in east Africa) led to the
extinction of more than 200 species of cichlid fish in the lake.
36. Invasion weed species like:
• Carrot grass (Parthenium)
• Lantana
• Water hyacinth (Eicchornia)
37. African catfish (Clarias garie Pinus (NEET-2019)[NCERT-265]
– Recent ilegal introduction
– For aquaculture purpose
– Threat to indigenous catfishes in our rivers.
38. The colonisation of tropical pacific Inlands by Humans led to the exitinction
of more than 2,000 species of native Birds.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
39. The IUCN Red list (2004) documents the extinction of 784 species
(NEET-2016, 2014, 2012)[NCERT-259]
– 338 vertebrates
– 359 Invertebrates in last 500 years
– 87 Plants
40. Some example of Recent extinction, 27 species in last 20 years.
• Dodo – Mauritius
• Quagga – Africa
• Thylacine – Australia
• Steller’s sea cow – Russia
Three subspecies of tigers – Bali, Javan and Caspian
Species-Area Relationship
41. Alexander von Humboldt (German naturalist & geographer)
(NEET-2017) [NCERT-262]
• (South Americal Jungles)
• Observed that within a regions species richness increased with
increasing explored area but only up to a limit.
42. Relation between species richness & area for a wide variety of taxa
(Angiosperm Plants, Birds, Bats, Fresh water fishes) turn out to be
Rectangular Hyperbola.
43. On a logarithmic scale,  straight line
log S = log C + Z log A
S  species richness
A  Area
Z  slope of line (Regression coefficient)
C  y-intercept
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
Value of “Z”
• For taxonomic group = 0.1 to 0.2
• For Entire continents = 0.6 to 1.2
• Frugivorous Birds & Mammals= 1.15
44. Importance of species diversity, More species = diversity = More stability.
45. David-Tilman: Long term ecosystem experiments using out door
Plots.
Area with more species  Less year to year variation  More Productivity
46. Rivet Popper Hypothesis: Stanford ecologist Paul Ehrlich
• Air Plane equivalent to Ecosystem
• Rivets equivalent to Species
• Rivets of wings to Key stone species
47. Biodiversity conservation
Three categories: Narrow, Broad and Ethical
48. Narrow utilisation: For human benefits from nature food & products of
medicinal importance.
• More than 25% of drugs currently sold in the market world wide derived
from plants & 25000 species of plants contribute to the traditional
medicine used by native people world wide.
• Bioprospecting: Exploring molecular, genetic & species-level diversity
for products of economic importance.
Broodly utilitarian: Ecosystem services provided by nature
Ethical: For care of Human well-being
In-situ (On site): When animals or plants is endangered or threatened (facing
a very high risk of extinction). [NEET-2022][NCERT-266]
49. Endemism: Biodiversity hotspot regions with very high levels of species
richness & species confined to that region, not found any where.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

50. Three of theses Hot spot in India :

Western Ghat & Shree Lanka, Indo-Burma & Himalaya.
51. Hotspots put togather cover less than 2 percent of earth’s land area &
reduce the ongoing mass extinctions by almost 30 percent.
Ex-Site Or Off-Site
– Zoological parks
– Botanical garden (NEET-2019)[NCERT-267]
– Wild life safari park (NEET-2018)[NCERT-267]
– Seed Banks (NEET-2022, 2017, 2015, 2014, 2013)[NCERT-267]
– Cryopreservation technique (eg: Gametes)
52. Ex-Site conservation are required for urgent measures to save it from
extinction.
“Earth Summit” : Held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992
• All nations to take appropriate measures for conservation of Biodiversity
& sustainable utilisation of its benefits.
World Summit: Held in Johannseburg, South Africa (2002)
• 190 countries pledged their commitments to achieve by 2010
• For sustainable developments.
• A significant reduction in the current rate of biodiversity loss at global,
regional & local levels.
******×******×******
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

276, 282, 283 = 3 Pages
65.3 % QUESTIONS
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
1. Any undesirable change in physical, chemical or Biological
characteristics of Air, land, water or soil.
2. Government of India has passed the Enivronment (Protection) Act, in
1986 to protect & improve the quality of our environment (Air, water, soil)
3. Electrostatic precipitator [NEET-2022][NCERT-277]

1. Most widely used
2. Remove over 99% particulate matter
3. Use in thermal power plants.
4. A scrubber can remove gases like sulphur dioxide
[NEET 2014] [NCERT-271]
5. In a scrubber, the exhaust is passed through a spray of water or lime.
6. According to CPCB (Central Pollution Contral Board)
• Particulate size 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter, causing
greatest harm to human health [NEET 2013] [NCERT-271]
• Inhaled deep into the lungs & can cause breathing & respiratory
symptom.
• Irritation, Inflammation & damage to the lungs & premature death.
7. Automobiles are major cause of Atmospheric pollution at least in the
metro cities.
8. Lead free petrol or Diesel can reduce the pollutants they emit.
9. Catalytic converters, having expensive metals : Platinum-Palladium &
Rhodium as the catalysts, fitted into the automobiles for reducing
emission of poisonous gases.
10. In India, Aair (Prevention & control of pollution) Act came in to force in
1981 but was amended into 1987 to include noise as an Air
pollution (NEET-2013, 2010)[NCERT-272]
11. Exposure to extremely high sound level, 150dB or more generated by
take off of a get plane or Rocked may damage ear drums thus permanently
impairing hearing ability.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

12. Noise cause : Sleeplessness, Increase Heart Beat, Attered Breathing

pattern.
13. In 1990s, Delhi ranked fourth among the 41 most polluted cities in
the world.
14. By the end of 2002, all the buses of Delhi were converted from Diesel to
CNG (compressed Natural gas)
15. CNG is better than Diesel because:
• Burns more efficiently & very little of its left unburnt
• Cheaper than Petrol or Diesel

• Can not be siphoned off by thieves & Adulterned like petrol or Diesel
16. Main problem with switching over to CNG is the difficulty of laying down
pipelines to deliver CNG through distribution points.
17. Parallel step taken in Delhi for reducing vehicular pollution including
phasing out of old vehicles, use of unleaded petrol, use of low-sulphur
petrol & diesal, use of catlytic converters in vehicles, application of stringent
pollution-level norms for vehicles.
18. New auto fuel policy by Government of India for Reducing sulphure &
Aromatic hydrocarbon in Petrol & Diesel fules.
19. According to Roadmap, Reduce sulphure to 50 ppm in Petrol & Diesel

& bring down the level to 35 percent.
20. Table Showing the Mass Emission Standards in India
21. According to an estimate, a substantial fall in CO2 & SO2 level has been
found in Delhi between 1997 & 2005.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

22. Water (Prevention & control of pollution)Act, 1974, by Government

of India to safe guard our water sources.
23. 0.1 percent impurities make domestic sewage unfit for human use.
24. Water Pollution cause by :

Sewage water, Industrial Waste, Nuclear Waste, Thermal Power Plant
waste, Domestic waste
25 Easy to remove : Solids
26. Difficult to remove: Dissolve salts (Nitrate, Phosphate, Nutrients, toxic
metal organic compound)
27. Biodegradable organic matter : Domestic sewage
28. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): Measurement of the amount of
biodegradable organic matter in sewage water. (NEET-2016)[NCERT-275]
29. Micro-organisms involved in Biodegradation of organic matter in the

receiving water bodies consume a lot of oxygen & as a result there
is a sharp decline in dissolved oxygen down strem from the
point of sewage discharge & causes mortality of fish & other aquatic
creatures. (NEET- 2016,2015,2012) [NCERT-275]
30. Algal Bloom: Presence of large amount of nutrients in water also causes
excessive growth of planktonic (free-floating) algae.
31. Algal Bloom causes deterioration of the water quality & fish mortality.
32. Water hyacinth (Eichornia crassips)
• World’s most problematic weed (aquatic)
• Introduce in India for their lovely flowers
• Excessive growth causing blocks of waterways
• Called “Terror of Bengal”
• Grow in Eutrophic water bodies
Biomagnification (NEET-2015) [NCERT-275]
33. Increase in the concentration of toxicant at successive trophic levels.
34. Toxic substance accumulated by an organism cannot be metabolised or
excreted, it pass on the next higher trophic level.
e.g. DDT & Mercury
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
35. Biomagnification of DDT in aquatic food chain are shown as :
Water 0.003 ppp  Zooplankton 0.04 ppm  Small fish 0.5

ppm  Large fish 2 ppm  Fish eating Birds 25 ppm
36. High concentration of DDT disturb calcium metabolism in Birds which
cause – Thinning of egg shell, their pre-mature breaking eventually causing
decline in bird populations (NEET-2012) [NCERT-276]
37. Eutrophication: Natural aging of a lake by nutrient enrichment of its
water.
Nutrient enrichment N,P  Excessive growth of Algae (Algal

Bloom)  Decrease in oxygen (Dealth of aquatic animals)  Lake Grows
shallow & warmer [NEET 2015,2018] [NCERT-276]
Cultural OR Accelerated Eutrophication:It human activities (Industrial &
House hold) accelerate the aging.
38. Waste Water Treatment
•
•
Treated in integrated manner
Utilising a mix of Artificial & Natural Processes.
• Clearing occurs in two stages 
i. Sedimentation, Filteration, chlorine treatment.
ii. Series of six connected morshes over 60 hectares of marshland
Plants, Algae, Fungi, Bacteria were seeded in to this area which
neutrallise, absorb & assimilate the pollutants.
• A citizen group called Friends of Arcata Marsh (FOAM) are
responsible for the upkeep & safegurding of this wonderful project
39. Ecological sanitation is a sustainable system for handling human
excreta using dry composting toilets.
40. This is practical, hygienic, efficient & cost effective solution to human
waste disposal.
41. Huma excreta can be recycled into a resources (as natural fertiliser)
which reduces the need for chemical fertilisers.
42. Huma excreta can be recycled into a resources
43. EcoSan toilets developed in many areas of Kerala & Sri Lanka
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

44. Hospital (generate hazardous wastes) to e-waste Incinerators are used.
45. Recycling is the only solution for the treatment of e-waste (electronic
waste)
46.
47. Organic Farming:
• Cyclic, zero-waste procedure
• Ramesh Chandra Dagar, (Sonipat, Haryana)

• Haryana Kishan Welfare Club (5000 farmers)
• Waste products use as fertilizers (Dung – Crop)
48. Radioactive waste:
49. Greenhouse effect & Global Warming:

• Greenhouse effect in a naturally occuring phenomenon that is
responsible for heating of Earth’s surface & atmosphere.
• Greenhouse gases absorb long wave  Infrared
• Average temperature on earth of 15oC but without green house it
have been a chilly – 18oC.
• Green house gases: CO2 (60%), Methane (20%), CFCs (14%),
N2O (6%) [NEET 2019][NCERT-281]
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
• During the past century, the temperature of Earth has increased by

0.6o C in last three decades.
• El Nino effect : Old climatic changes
Leading to – Increase melting of polar ice caps
50. How can be control Global Warming [NEET 2013][NCERT-282]
• Cutting down use of fossil fuel
• Improving efficiency of energy usage
• Reducing defores fation
• Planting free
• Slowing down growth of human population
• Reduce the emission of green house gases (International Initiation)
51. Ozone : Protect from UV–rays [NEET 2019][NCERT-282]
• Ozone day : 16 September
• Good Ozone : Present in Stratosphere [NEET 2014][NCERT-282]
• Bad ozone: Present in Trophosphere
• Measured the thickness of ozone in Dobson unit (DU)
• Ozone hole over Antarctica develops each year between late August
& easly October.
• Degrated by CFCs & release “Cl” atom (acts as catalysts)
• Ozone hole is not a hole it is thinning of ozone layer.
• UV-B damage DNA & mutation may occurs.
• UV-B causes: Aging of skin, damage of skin cells & various type of
skin cancer.
• High dose of UV-B causes inflammation of cornea called snow
blindness, cataract & may permanent damage the cornea.
[NEET 2016,2015,2018,2020][NCERT-283]
52. Montreal Protocol : Control the emission of ozone depleting substances.
53. Signed at canada (montreal) in 1987 (effective in 1989) [NEET 2019,2020]
54. Improper Resource Utilisation [NCERT-283]
• Top fertile soil can be easily removed by human activities like over
cultivation, unrestricted grazing, deforestation, poor irrigation
practices.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE
55. Irrigation without proper drainage
Water logging condition in the soil
Draws salt to the surface of soil
Affect the growth of crop & land

56. Deforestation
• Conversion of forested areas to non forested Areas.
• Almost 40% forest have been lost in the tropics compared to only 1
percent in the temperate region.
• At the begining of the twentieth century, forests covers about 30
percent of the land of India but by the end of centuary it shrunk to
21.54%
• National forest policy (1988) of India recommended 33% forest
covers the plains & 67% for the hills.
57. Jhum cultivation / Slash & Burn Agriculture [NEET 2018] [NCERT-284]
(North-Eastern States of India)
Steps : Famers cut down the tress of forest & burn the plant remains
The Ash is used as fertilizers & the land is used for forming OR
Grazing
After cultivation, the area is left for recovery
Famers moves to another forests & repeat this process
In earlier days, enough time was given so that land can recover after
cultivation
Due to increasing population the recovery time is reduce
Forest loss
58. One of the major effects in enhanced CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
because tress that could held a lot of carbon in their biomass.
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

59. Deforestation causes : Loss of biodiversity, disturbs hydrologic cycle,

causes soil erosion.
60. Reforestation : Restoring a forest that once existed but was removed at
some point of time in the post.
• Occurs naturally in deforested area.
61. Chipko-movement
• Garhwal himalyas (1974)
• Local woman protected tress by hugging them
62. Joint forest management (JFM)
• Introduced by government of India (1980s)[NEET 2016][NCERT-285]
• Participation of local communities.
******×******×******
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

:: IMPORTANT NOTES ::
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

TEST FRANCHISES
NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

Biology Booklet

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biology Booklet

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Keys 4 Success : Quick Revision NLI / 1

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

B – Balzan Prize (1983)

I – International Prize (1994)

C – Crafoord Prize (1999)

2. Growth, Reproduction, self organise, ability to sense environment,

4. Non-living organism also grows eg.– Mountains, Boulders and sand

5. Many organism do not reproduce like mules, sterile worker bees,

6. Metalobilism : Sum total of all the chemical reactions occuring in our

7. Metabolism is defining feature of all living organism without exception.

8. “Self conciousness” is the only character of “Human Beings” but

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

11. ICBN – International code for Botanical Nomenclature.

ICZN – International code of Zoological Nomenclature.

13. This system is called Bionomial Nomenclature. Given by Carolus

14. Name of the author appears after specific epithet.

• When handwritten, both words are separately underlined.

16. Classification is the process by which anything is grouped into

18. Taxonomy include - characterisation, Identification, classification &

19. Linnaeus used “Systema Naturae” as the title of his publication.

20. Category is a part of overall taxonomic arrangement, it is called

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

22. As we go higher from species to kingdom number of common

23. Ascending : Species  Genus  Family  Order  Class  Phylum/

• Division in case of plants and phylum in case of animals.

25. Mango  Family  Anacardiaceae

Mango  Order  Sapindales

26. Herbarium is a store house of collected plant specimens that are

• Herbarium general sheet size = 29 × 41.5 cm.

Note Plant height is not considered.

27. Botanical Garden are specialised for collection of living plants

• Famous Botanical Garden are at kew (England)

• Indian Botanical Gardn, Howrah (India)

• National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow (India)

29. Keys : Based on contrasting characters generally occurs in a pair

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

32. Monographs contain information on any one taxon.

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

• Which page has the maximum –

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

1. Biological classification of plants and animals was first proposed by

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

7. Bacteria as a group show the most extensive metabolic diversity.

Fungi show extensive habitat diversity.

8. Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria on the basis of different cell

9. Some cyanobacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialised cell

• Heterotrophic bacteria are most abundant in nature.

11. Mycoplasma : – Prokaryotes

– Completely lack cell wall

– Smallest living cells

– Can survive without oxygen

• Mycoplasma can pass through 1 micron. [NEET-2022] [NCERT-20]

• Size of mycoplasma is 0.3 m.

NEW LIGHT INSTITUTE

– Pathogenic to plants and animals

connection to three kingdom – Plantae, Animalia and Fungi.

• All protista are single celled i.e., unicellular.

and walls are indestructible. [NEET-2015] [NCERT-20]

15. Diatoms are chief producers in the oceans.[NEET-2018] [NCERT-20]

16. Dinoflagellates (Fire algae)