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Department: Physics
Subject: Applied Physics for CSE Stream
Subject Code: BPHYS102/202
Applied Physics for CSE Stream
MODULE 1
Lasers and Optical Fibers
Introduction:
Gordon Gould:
Gordon Gould (July 17, 1920 – September 16, 2005)
was an American physicist who is sometimes credited
with the invention of the laser and the optical
amplifier. (Credit for the invention of the laser is
disputed, since Charles Townes and Arthur Schawlow
were the first to publish the theory and Theodore
Maiman was the first to build a working laser). Gould
is best known for his thirty-year fight with the United
States Patent and Trademark Office to obtain patents
for the laser and related technologies. He also fought
with laser manufacturers in court battles to enforce
the patents he subsequently did obtain.
Course syllabus:
LASER: Characteristic properties of a LASER beam, Interaction of Radiation with Matter,
Einstein’s A and B Coefficients and Expression for Energy Density (Derivation), Laser
Action, Population Inversion, Metastable State, Requisites of a laser system,
Semiconductor Diode Laser, Applications: Bar code scanner, Laser Printer, Laser
Cooling(Qualitative), Numerical Problems.
Optical Fiber: Principle and Structure, Propagation of Light, Acceptance angle and
Numerical Aperture (NA), Derivation of Expression for NA, Modes of Propagation, RI
Profile, Classification of Optical Fibers, Attenuation and Fiber Losses, Applications: Fiber
Optic networking, Fiber Optic Communication. Numerical Problems
LASERS
1.1. INTRODUCTION:
The word Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It
is a device which amplifies light. It has properties like coherence, uni-directionality,
mono-chromaticity, focusability etc.
Let E1 and E2 be the two energy levels of an atom, in which E2 > E1. When a photon of
energy h = (E2 – E1) is incident on an atom at level E1, the atom goes to a higher energy
level by absorbing the energy of the incident photon. The transition from the lower
energy level to the higher energy level, i.e. the excited state is called induced absorption
and it is represented as
Atom + Photon → Atom*
The emission of a photon by the transition of an atom from a higher energy state to a
lower energy state without the aid of an external energy is called spontaneous emission.
The process is represented as
Atom* → Atom + Photon
The photons emitted in spontaneous emission may not have same direction and phase
similarities. It is incoherent.
Ex: Glowing electric bulbs, Candle flame etc.
In this case the atom in E1 level absorb radiations of frequency γ = (E2-E1)/h and get
excited to E2 level.
The rate of absorption depends on number density of lower energy state and the energy
density Uγ
Rate of absorption ∝ N1Uγ
Rate of absorption = B12N1Uγ
Where ‘B12’ is the proportionality constant called Einstein Coefficient of induced
absorption.
Case of Spontaneous Emission:
In this case, the atom undergoes downward transition from E2 to E1 spontaneously, i.e., by
itself without the help of external agency. It is independent of energy density.
Spontaneous emission depends on N2 which is the number of atoms present in the higher
level.
Rate of spontaneous emission ∝ N2
Rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2
Where, ‘A21’ is the proportionality constant and is called Einstein coefficient of
spontaneous emission
Case of Stimulated Emission:
At thermal equilibrium,
Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission
B12N1Uγ= A21N2 + B21N2Uγ
𝐴21 𝑁2
𝑈𝛾 =
(𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 )
1 A21 N2
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑈𝛾 = [ ]
B21 N2 (B12 N1 ) − 1
B21 N2
A21 1
= [ ] → (1)
B21 (B12 N1 ) − 1
B21 N2
By Boltzmann’s law,
N2=N1 e-hγ/kT
A21 1
𝑈𝛾 = [ ] → (2)
B21 B12 [ ⁄𝑘𝑇]
ℎ𝛾
(B 𝑒 ) −1
21
By Planck’s law,
8𝜋ℎ𝛾 3 1
𝑈𝛾 = 3
[ ℎ𝛾 ] → (3)
𝑐 [ ⁄ ]
(𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ) − 1
10-3 sec
This state plays an important role in lasing action. In metastable state, atoms stay of
the order of 10-3 to 10-2 second. This property helps in achieving the population inversion
in the following way.
Consider 3 energy levels E1, E2, & E3 of a quantum system, such that E3>E2>E1, Let E1 be
the ground state, E2 be the Meta stable state & E3 be the excited state respectively. Let the
atoms are excited (pumped) from E1 to E3 state. The atoms from E3 state undergo non-
radiative transitions to E2 states rapidly.
Since E2 is a metastable state, those atoms which get into that state stay there over a very
long duration ie., 10-3 sec. Because of which the population of E2 state increases steadily.
Under these conditions a stage will be reached where in the population of E 2 state
overtakes that of E1, which is known as population inversion.
Once the population of E2 exceeds E1, the stimulated emissions outnumber the
spontaneous emissions, & soon stimulated photons, all identical in respect of phase,
wavelength & direction, grow to a very large number which build up the laser light. The
process which leads to emission of stimulated photons after establishing the population
inversion is often referred to as Lasing. Hence the condition for laser action is achieved by
means of population inversion with the help of a metastable state.
1.5.1 Pumping:
It is the process of exciting atoms from lower energy level to higher energy level. It can be
achieved by different methods.
EX: Optical pumping, Electric Discharge, forward bias current, etc
1.6.1. Construction:
A schematic diagram of semiconductor laser is as shown in the figure. The diode is very
small size with sides of the order of 1mm. The junction lies in a horizontal plane. The n-
section is formed by doping with tellurium whereas the p-section, is obtained by doping
with zinc. The doping concentration is of the order of 1017 to 1019 dopant atoms/cm3. The
top and bottom surfaces are metalized and ohmic contacts are provided for external
connection. The front and rear faces are polished. The polished faces constitute the laser
cavity. The other two faces are roughened to prevent lasing action in that direction. The
active region consists of a layer of about 1m thickness.
1.6.2. Working:
The energy band diagram of heavily doped pn-junction is as shown unbiased condition.
At thermal equilibrium, the Fermi level is uniform across the junction. Because of very
high doping on n-side, Fermi level is pushed into the conduction band and electrons
occupy the portion of the conduction band lying below the Fermi level. On P-side, the
Fermi level lies within the valence band and holes occupy the portion of the valence band
that lies above the Fermi level. When the junction is forward biased electrons and holes
are injected into the junction region in high concentrations. At low forward current, the
electron-holes recombination results in spontaneous emission of photons and the
junction acts as a LED. As the forward current is increased gradually and when it reaches
a threshold value the carrier concentration in the junction region there will be large
concentrations of electrons within the band. As a result, condition of population
inversion is attained in the narrow region. This narrow zone in which population
inversion occurs is called as an active region, at that stage a photon emitted
spontaneously triggers stimulated emission. This stimulated electron-hole
recombination produces coherent radiation.
1. A laser beam projects an image of the page to be printed onto an electrically charged
rotating photo sensitive drum coated with selenium.
2. Photo conductivity allows charge to leak away from the areas which are exposed to
light and the area gets positively charged.
3. Toner particles are then electrostatically picked up by the drum’s charged areas, gets
positively charged.
4. The drum then prints the image onto paper by direct contact and heat, which fuses the
ink to the paper.
Laser cooling is the use of dissipative light forces for reducing the random motion
and thus the temperature of small particles, typically atoms or ions. Depending on
the mechanism used, the temperature achieved can be in the milli kelvin, micro
kelvin, or even nano kelvin regime.
If an atom is traveling toward a laser beam and absorbs a photon from the laser, it will be
E h
slowed by the fact that the photon has momentum p = = λ . It would take a large
c
number of such absorptions to cool the sodium atoms to near 0K. The following are the
types of laser cooling
Doppler Cooling.
Sisyphus Cooling.
Optical Fibers
1.8. Total Internal Reflection:
When a ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium it bends away from the normal.
As the angle of incidence increases in the denser medium, the angle of refraction also
increases. For a particular angle of incidence called the “critical angle”, the refracted ray
grazes the surface separating the media or the angle of refraction is equal to 90°. If the
angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the light ray is reflected back to the
same medium. This is called “Total Internal Reflection”.
In total internal reflection, there is no loss of energy. The entire incident ray is reflected
back.
XX1 is the surface separating medium of refractive index n1 and medium of refractive
index n2, n1 > n2.
AO and OA1 are incident and refracted rays. θ1 and θ2 are angle of incidence and angle of
refraction, θ2 > θ1. For the ray BO, θc is the critical angle. OB1 is the refracted ray which
grazes the interface. The ray CO incident with an angle greater than θc is totally reflected
back along OC1.
n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2
θc= sin--1(n2/n1)
The entire energy is returned along the reflected light. Thus is called Total internal
reflection.
Optical fiber is made from transparent materials. It is cylindrical in shape. The inner
cylindrical part is called as core of refractive index n1. The outer part is called as cladding
of refractive index n2, n1>n2. There is continuity between core and cladding. Cladding is
enclosed inside a polyurethane jacket. Number of such fibers is grouped to form a cable.
The light entering through one end of core strikes the interface of the core and cladding
with angle greater than the critical angle and undergoes total internal reflection. After
series of such total internal reflection, it emerges out of the core. Thus the optical fiber
works as a waveguide. Care must be taken to avoid very sharp bends in the fiber because
at sharp bends, the light ray fails to undergo total internal reflection.
greater than critical angle, it undergoes total internal reflection. Thus θ0 is called the
waveguide acceptance angle and sinθ0 is called the numerical aperture.
Let n0, n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of the medium, core and cladding respectively.
n1sin(90o-θ1) = n2 sin90o
n1cosθ1 = n2
cosθ1 = n2 / n1 → (2)
n1
Sin0 sin 1
n0
n1
= √1 − cos2 θ1 → (3)
no
n1 n22
Sin0 1 2
n0 n1
√n21 −n22
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = ⇢ (4)
no
Therefore, for any angle of incidence equal to θi equal to or less than θ0, the incident ray is
able to propagate.
θi<θ0
Sin i Sin0
n1 n2 n1
We have
Considering n1≈n2
= √(n1 + n2 )Δn1
N. A = √2n12 Δ
N. A = n1 √2Δ
It enhances the light gathering capacity of the fiber. Δ value cannot be increased very
much because it leads to intermodal dispersion intern signal distortion.
10 p
log10 out
L pin dB/km
1.13.1. Absorption: - Absorption of photons by impurities like metal ions such as iron,
chromium, cobalt and copper in the silica glass of which the fiber is made of.
During signal processing photons interact with electrons of impurity atoms.
The atoms are excited and de-excite by emitting photons of different
characteristics. Hence it is a loss of energy. The other impurity such as
hydroxyl ions (OH) causes significant absorption loss. The absorption of
photons by fiber material itself is called intrinsic absorption.
1.13.2. Scattering: When the wavelength of the photon is comparable to the size of
the particle then the scattering takes place. Because of the non-uniformity in
manufacturing, the refractive index changes with length leads to a scattering.
This type of scattering is called as Rayleigh scattering. It is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of wavelength. Scattering of photons also
takes place due to trapped gas bubbles which are not dissolved at the time of
manufacturing.
1.13.3. Radiation losses: Radiation losses occur due to macroscopic bends and
microscopic bends.
(a) Macroscopic bending: All optical fibers are having critical radius of
curvature provided by the manufacturer. If the fiber is bent below that
specification of radius of curvature, the light ray incident on the core
cladding interface will not satisfy the condition of TIR. This causes loss
of optical power.
(b) Microscopic bending: Optical power loss in optical fibers is due to non-
uniformity of the optical fibers when they are laid. Non uniformity is due
to manufacturing defects and also lateral pressure built up on the fiber.
The defect due to non-uniformity (microbendings) can be overcome by
introducing optical fiber inside a good strengthen polyurethane jacket.
• Optical splitter- to send a signal down different fiber paths (not shown in block
diagram)
• Optical amplifier- to enhance the signal strength
𝑁2 ℎ𝑐
= 𝑒 −(𝐸2−𝐸1)/𝑘𝑇 = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝑁1
h = 6.63×10-34 J.s
c = 3×108 m/s
λ = 694.3 nm = 694.3 ×10-9 m
k = 1.38×10-23 J/K
T = 27ºC = 300 K
6.63×10−34 ×3×108
𝑁2
=𝑒
−(
694.3×10−9 ×1.38×10−23 ×300
)
𝑁1
𝑁2
= 8.874 × 10−31
𝑁1
2. A laser beam with power per pulse is 1.0 mW lasts 10 ns. If the number of photons
emmitted per pulse is 3.941×107, calculate the wavelength of laser.
Nhc
E =P×t= λ
𝜆 = 𝑃𝑡
𝑁ℎ𝑐
N = 3.941×107
h = 6.63×10-34 J-s
c = 3×108 m/s
P = 1.0 mW= 1×10-3 W
t = 10 ns =10×10-9 s
𝜆=
3.941×107 ×6.63×10−34 ×3×108
1×10−3 ×10×10−9
= 7.839×10-7 m
λ = 7839 Å
3. The average output power of laser source emmiting a laser beam of wavelength 633 nm is
5 mW. Find the number of photons emmitted per second by the laser source.
Nhc
E =P×t= λ
Ptλ
N=
hc
P = 5 mW = 5×10-3 W
t =1s
λ = 633 nm = 633×10-9 m
h = 6.63×10-34 J-s
c = 3×108 m/s
5×10−3 ×1×633×10−9
𝑁 = 6.625×10−34×3×108
N = 1.592×1016
4. The angle of acceptance of an optical fibre is 30º when kept in air. Find the angle of
acceptance when it is in medium of refractive index 1.33.
In air,
𝑁. 𝐴 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑎 )𝑎𝑖𝑟
√𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = sin 30
√𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = 0.5
In medium of refractive index n0
𝑛0 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑎 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
1.33 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑎 = 0.5
∅𝑎 = 22.08º
The refractive indices of core and cladding are 1.50 and 1.48 respectively in an optical fiber. Find
the numerical aperture and angle of acceptance.
𝑁. 𝐴 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1.48
N.A = √1.502 − 1.482
N.A = 0.244
Angle of acceptance θ0= sin-1(N.A) = sin-10.244
θ0 = 14.123º
5. The attenuation of light in an optical fibre is estimated as 2.2 dB/km. what fractional
initial intensity remains after 2 km and 6km?
The attenuation in dB is
10 p
log10 out
L pin
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝛼𝐿
= 10[ 10 ]
𝑃𝑖𝑛
For a length of 2 km,
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
= (10)
−4.4⁄
10
𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 0.363
𝑃𝑖𝑛
Pout = 0.363 Pin
For 6 km,
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 −13.2⁄
𝑃𝑖𝑛
= (10) 10 = 0.048
Pout = 0.048 Pin
6. A fibre 500 m long has an input power of 8.6 mW and output power 7.5 mW. What is the
loss specification in cable?
10 p
log10 out
L pin
Pin = 8.6 mW
Pout = 7.5 mW
8.6
α = −10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (7.5)
10 p
log10 out
L pin
α = -- 0.5944 dB
Length of cable L = 500 m = 0.5 km
𝑃 0.5944
Loss specification is 𝛼 = 𝐿𝐿 = 0.5
α = 1.1888 dB/km
7. An optical fibre of 600 mts long has input power of 120 mW which emerges out with
power of 90 mW. Find attenuation in the fibre.
The attenuation is given by,
𝑃
α = −10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑃 𝑖𝑛 ) in dB
𝑜𝑢𝑡
Pin = 120 mW, Pout = 90mW
120
α = −10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 90 )
α = --1.25 dB
OPTICAL FIBERS
1. Define Acceptance angle and Numerical Aperture and hence derive an expression for NA
in terms of RIs core, cladding and surrounding.
2. Derive an expression for numerical aperture in an optical fiber.
3. Explain types of optical fibers.
4. Discuss the types of optical fibers based on Modes of Propagation and RI profile.
5. Describe attenuation and explain the various fiber losses.
6. Discuss Point to Point communication using optical fibers.