CHAPTER IV

JAINA ARCHITECTURE IN
ODISHA
 CHAPTER-IV

JAINA ARCHITECTURE IN ODISHA

The first principle of all art or architecture is the transformation of ideas into a
visible object or symbolic expression. Architecture further serves as a kind of history.
It is a standing and living historical record, providing a more vivid and lasting picture
of a cultural tradition than conventional written history does. Jain pieces of art aim at
elevating our spirit; they inspire religious values; and they present, in concrete form,
the philosophical concepts and rules of conduct laid down in Jainism. Much has been
written and discussed about Indian art and architecture, but the Jain art and
architecture have been either generally been overlooked or neglected.

Jainism is one of the oldest religions of India and emerged out of a common
background of Indian life and thought unlike Brahmanism and Buddhism in India and
it has always influenced and has been influenced by contemporary life even to this
day. Monuments of Jainism viz., caves and temples are found all over the Indian
peninsula and they belong to various periods’ right from the dawn of Eastern Art to
the present day. Jaina monuments are thus integrated expressions of Indian art and
architecture has contributed simultaneously towards the evolution of Indian art forms,
structural means and decorative patterns. The technique developed in the making of
the earliest Indian caves was used by all the early religions for rock-cut architecture
for residential houses, temples and other religious places. Thus the art of Jaina caves
is a part of the main stream of Indian architecture, though there are certain features
which are peculiar to Jaina architecture of the different parts of India

The earliest Indian building architecture were executed in perishable materials

like wood, bamboo and straw that reflect in many details of earlier buildings in
monuments hewn out of solid rock as copied down1. By the 5th century BCE, in its
primal homeland of modern Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, Jainism was widespread among
the middle class, its lay followers, the sravakas and sravikas, were mostly engaged in
commerce and academics. Thus, in order to allow permanency to their religious
sanctuaries and objects of worship, they invariably used stone and metal.

The Barabar caves in Bihar represent the earliest remains of Indian religious
architecture and belong to a sect allied to Jainism. Emperor Asoka gave orders to

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carve out these caves for the use of the “Ajivakas”, a sect whose founder Gosala was
once closely connected with Mahavira but later parted company with him. The caves
belong to the circa 3rd century BCE2 and chronologically, the Udayagiri and
Khandagiri caves in Odisha are the most important Jaina monuments which should be
considered next. The cave called Hathi-Gumpha is of the highest interest here, since it
contains the famous inscription of the great Jaina king Kharavela who ruled Odisha in
the 2nd century BCE. This inscription is one of the most remarkable documents of
Indian history, as it gives in chronological sequence a detailed account of Kharavela's
career for 13 years after his coronation3.

As for the antiquity of Jain architecture4, the excavations of Kankali Tilla, near
Mathura establish beyond doubt that the erection of Jain stupas took place several
centuries before the Christian era. The intricacy and richness of their carvings are
truly unsurpassed in the world. The caves of Sittanvasal near Pudukottai are assigned
to the Pallava king Mahendravarman-I of the 7th century CE ; the caves and temples at
Badami in about 650 CE ; the cave-temples at Ellora are among the richest expression
of Indian architecture and sculpture. The Jaina caves of Ellora are situated at the north
end of the hill representing the final phase of the Indian rock-cut architecture which
began about the 800 CE and continued for about two centuries.

After this period, the mediaeval Jaina temples of Gujarat, Rajasthan and
Madhya Pradesh boost the Indian architecture a new height. The temple-cities on Mt.
Abu, Mt. Girnar and Mt. Satrunjaya are not only seats of great monuments, but great
centers of pilgrimage to this day. The temple on Abu, known as Vimalavasati, built by
Vimalasaha, minister of king Bhimadeva-I of Gujarat, in the 1032 CE and the temple
called Lunavasati, built by ministers Vastupala and Tejapala of Gujarat in the 1231
CE, are two immortal productions of Indian temple architecture5. Khajuraho, the old
capital of the Candela dynasty, in Madhya Pradesh has many beautiful temples-
Vaisnava, Saiva and Jaina-built in the 10th and 11th centuries CE6. The Jaina temples
at Osia near Jodhpur and on the Taranga Hills in north Gujarat deserve mention, but
the “Caturmukha” or “Four-faced” temple dedicated to Adinatha, built at Ranakpur in
Rajasthan in 1440 CE, is remarkable from several points of view.

In modern times the traditional art of temple-building has been principally

patronized by the Jainas, mainly in Gujarat and Rajasthan. The famous Jaina temple at

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Ahmedabad, known as Hathising temple was built by Sheth Hathising Kesarising in
1844 CE. The sculpture and architecture of this temple has received high praise from
art-historians and art-critics like Burgess, Fergusson and Anand Coomarswamy. The
last renovation of the famous temple of Pancasara Parsvanatha at Patan in North
Gujarat7 has been completed recently in 1955 CE.

Jaina Architecture of Odisha

Architecture of Jaina monuments of Odisha is represented through the rock-cut

caves and structural edifices. The earliest material specimens in form of cave
architecture of the Jainas in Odisha are noticed at Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills only
where the structural edifices are very scanty in numbers. The ground plan of the apsidal
structure on the crest of Udayagiri hill, a relief sculptures on the opening frieze of the
facade of the lower storey of Rani-Gumpha of the same hill and Jaina temple at Subei
are the available evidences for description of structural shrines in different localities of
Odisha attributed to various periods of history8. Apart from these, some Jaina temples
of late period with collection of large number of early and late medieval Jaina
sculptures, chaumukhas, yantras, etc. are found. These temples include Jaina temple at
the hill top of Khandagiri and Digambara Jaina temple at Choudhury Bazar, Cuttack
etc. Besides, at present, the Marwari and Gujarati people living in Odisha erected a
number of Jaina shrines very recently viz., Digambara Jaina temple at Jaunliapati and
Svetambara Jaina temple at Alamachand Bazar of Cuttack etc.

Caves

Caves of the twin hills of Udayagiri and Khandagiri (Lat. 200 16' N; Long. 850
47' E) are one of the earliest groups of Jaina rock-cut architecture, command a unique
position in Eastern India in the field of history of rock-cut, architecture, art and
religion9. These caves were first brought to notice by A. Stirling in the 1825 CE.
These hills rising abruptly amidst a wide expanse of arid lateritic soil are separated
from each other by a narrow defile through which passes the modern road from
Bhubaneswar to Chandaka. The ancient names of the twin hills of Udayagiri and
Khandagiri (broken hill) were Kumari and Kumara parvatas respectively. The
scheduled situation of the hills not far from the ancient capital of Kalinga (more likely
Sisupalgarh shows to the south-east of Khandagiri) was chosen as ideal rock-cut
monastic retreat of Jainas. All the caves have distinctive local names prefixed to

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gumpha (local word for cave). This place has had the distinction of containing
inscriptional evidence well known as Hati-Gumpha inscription of Kharavela
recording the achievement of the King. It is obvious that most of the caves were
excavated during the regime of Mahameghavahana (1st BCE and CE). Some might
have had an earlier origin. Not a single cave of this period was meant to be a shrine,
all of them having been designed as the dwelling retreats (viharas) of the Jaina
recluses. It is also evident that Jaina occupation of the hills was continuous with
occasional breaks from even before the time of Kharavela down to the present day.

The exact number of rock-cut caves could not be ascertained at present as a

number of caves had been completely or partially destroyed which are identified by
their left behind traces. It has been reported that the site was honey–combed and
found to have altogether 66 caves; 44 in Udayagiri, 19 in Khandagiri and 3 in Nilagiri
(adjacent to the twin hills.). At present, there are only 18 caves in the Udayagiri, while
the Khandagiri has preserved only 15 caves in various state of preservation. A
considerable number of these are datable to the post-Kharavela period as well as early
medieval period. These caves are protected by the Archaeological Survey of India,
Bhubaneswar Circle. Each of the caves was numbered by Archaeological Survey of
India in numerical numbers but their local names have been retained. The local names
along with the numbers are given by the Survey10.

4.1 ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTURE

The monastic edifices at Udayagiri and Khandagiri were excavated at

different heights with taking consideration into various technical aspects of the stone
such as quality, its compactness and size etc11. The stone at Udayagiri and Khandagiri
is of coarse grained sand stone of soft, porous and incoherent in nature. But there is no
systematic layout or proper planning at the twin hill and the excavator saved both
labour and expense by following the configuration of the rock and by connecting
different caves, wherever necessary, by rock-cut steps. Predilection is given near the
top ledge or boulder probably to lessen the load over the caves. Meant for the
residence of Jaina ascetics, who were noted for their self-mortification, the caves
provided little amenities. The inner height of the cells does not allow a man to stand
erect. They are generally plain inside except a few embellished with carvings and
sculptures in the medieval period. Some of the caves are too narrow for a person even

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to stretch. The door openings are invariably small and one has almost to crawl to enter
the cells through them. The cells were not provided with niches. The only place where
scriptures and articles of necessity could be kept is the rock-cut shelves across the side
walls of verandahs. A fully developed monastery presents one or more cells preceded
by a common verandah, the latter having a leveled ground for the courtyard in some
cases like Cave Nos.1, 9 and 10 of Udayagiri and Cave No.3 of Khandagiri. The cells
have been ranged on one, two or three sides of the verandah. The ceiling of the cells
are often arched and convex replicate that of a hut, the roofs of the verandah
supported on nonfunctional architectures resting on pillars exactly as in a hut with
bamboo or wooden posts to break the flow of rain water. The doorjambs incline
inwards making the opening slightly wider at the base than at the top. The cells are
adequately lighted by the profusion of doors and in few cases by windows as well.

Classification of Caves

The caves may be categories12 under the following heads-

On the basis of verandah component (i) one plain without a verandah, (ii) and
the other with a regular pillared verandah irrespective of the number of back cells,
side cells, side wings, double storey etc. The second categories of caves are all
characterized by a benched verandah. Their pillars are of a uniform pattern, square
below and above and octagonal in the middle, the corners of the square chamber with
the resultant formation of half medallion at the points of transitions.

On the basis of storied (i) Single storied :- Chhota-Hati-Gumpha, Ganesa-

Gumpha, Jagannatha-Gumpha, Tentuli-Gumpha, Mahavira-Gumpha, Navamuni-
Gumpha, Ananta-Gumpha etc., (ii) Double storied :- Rani-Gumpha, Jaya-Vijaya-
Gumpha, Svargapuri-Manchapuri-Gumpha, Lalatendukesari-Gumpha, Udyotakesari-
Gumpha etc.

Components of Caves

The key component of a cave is manly includes cell, floor, door and door-
jambs, windows, ceiling/roof, pillars and pilasters, brackets and verandah, etc13.

Cell: The caves are premeditated with one or more cells either on the main wing or
along their sides. These are mainly oblong in plan and are prepared in such a way that
few are provided lying accommodation while some are only sitting accommodation to

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the wondering mendicants. The inner walls of caves are generally plain as in most
cases a thin coat of lime has been applied. Small holes or niches have been fashioned
on the wall to keep lamps and other articles of daily use as noticed in few instances.

Floor: Floors of all cells are generally highly polished and raised at the back. The
sloping served as pillow for the residential monks. The inclination of floor extends
from one end to the other which indicates more than one Jaina ascetic can be slept
here. The floor made plain by chiseling out the uneven surface through chisels and
hammers of lesser gradation and their surface was made smooth by rubbing or
polishing the inner parts with stones of much harder variety. This process was
probably carried out in hand with occasional addition of water.

Door and door-jambs: Door forms an important feature in the cave architecture. The
door openings are invariably small and vary from 1 to 4 depending upon the size of
the caves in both the hills. They are in most cases in the front wall and access through
the front verandah.

The door-jambs in some cases slope inwards and causing the opening slightly
wider at the base than at the top which is a common feature in many caves of the
earlier date including the one at Barabara. The doors have grooves, cut all around
their outer frames, probably to receive movable wooden or bamboo shutters. Single
doors are also traced by the evidence of additional holes for pivots at the doorsill and
a lintel in a few cases.

Windows: For access of light and air windows are rarely met within the cave
architecture. In the twin hills windows are noticed in Khandagiri-Gumpha, Ganesa-
Gumpha and Rani-Gumpha (upper storey- left wing).

Ceilings: Ceilings of cells are both designed in curved and flat shape, but in respect of
verandahs they are entirely flat. The arched roofs are normally elevated in the middle.
The cells which have curved roof normally provide more standing space than the ones
designed in flat or standing roofs. The ceilings are provided very low in height. For
instance the Rani-Gumpha, Bagha-Gumpha, Sarpa-Gumpha etc. do not allow a man
to stand erect while the remaining caves are only slightly more than man high.

Verandahs: Verandahs are all opened in front and normally devoid of any
architectural or sculptural details except at the lower main wing of Rani-Gumpha,

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wall of Ganesa-Gumpha and side walls of Barabhuji-Gumpha. But the back walls of
verandah which is also the front wall of the cell are relieved with number of narrative
panels. Array of sculptures in friezes within semi-circular arch-bands, tympanum,
pilasters, railings, birds, animal and human figurines are noticed at Ganesa-Gumpha,
Rani-Gumpha, Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha, Manchapuri-Gumpha, Ananta-Gumpha and
Tatowa-Gumpha No.2.

In some caves long shelves have been fashioned on the side walls of the
verandah to provide accommodation for scriptures or articles of daily use of the Jaina
ascetics.

Pillars and pilasters: Pillars arranged in rows are generally provided at the verandahs
to support the roof. On the other hand pilasters noticed at the side walls are only
ornamental and non-functional in nature. They are the one and same pattern in a
particular cave and their number increases with respect to the size of cave. In smaller
caves like Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha and Tatowa-Gumpha No.1 only one pillar in the
center and two side pilasters serve the purpose. There are three distinctive varieties of
pillars available at the site and stepped pedestal is common to all the pillars.

(i) Pillars are divided into three sections, the central part of which is octagonal
and lower and upper is square. As this group has no capital, the shaft
directly touches the verandah ceiling and appears to be more profusely
used. The brackets usually projects in-ward and out-ward from these pillars
in order to provide added support to the roof.

(ii) The second variety of pillars are divided into five sections of which the
basal, central and terminal ones are square and the intermediate ones are
rendered octagonal by chamfering the corners of the squares. The pillars
and pilasters alike of this group are having capitals representing different
animal figures resting on corbelled abacus above inverted lotus flower.
These varieties of pillars are noticed in the lower right wing of Rani-
Gumpha and Jagannatha-Gumpha.

(iii) The third variety is noticed at Jagannatha-Gumpha, the largest cell of

Udayagiri. The central pillar possesses through four, eight, sixteen, eight
and four sides chamfered to achieve half medallion.

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 The upper part of most of the pillars and pilasters are relieved with enigmatic
and winged animal and bird figures seated back to back and a few decorative motifs.
The door ways of the facade are each flanked by side pilasters on ghata bases above
stepped pedestals as a common feature. The ghata bases are either plain or decorated.
The shafts of these pilasters are plain or flat, fluted or decorated. Abacus is both in
stepped or square in shape. But the crowning elements in each case are addorsed
animals over plain or bell- shaped lotuses.

Brackets: Brackets are provided on the inner and outer sides of the verandah pillars
to support the super structure. They are carved with decorative motifs of animal,
human and enigmatic figures in various poses. Yaksha images and ganas as bracket
figures are notice at Ganesa-Gumpha. In Rani-Gumpha, Jagannatha-Gumpha and
Manchapuri-Gumpha human as well as animals are carved as bracket figures.

Arches: The horse-shoe shaped arches at the entrance resting on pilasters are
commonly visible in the caves. The outer edge of the arch is surmounted by svastikas,
vadhamangalas or by a triangular pointed crest or finial enclosing a floral ornament
or a figure.

Tympanum: The semicircular space created by the arched band over the door ways
are known as tympanum. Except Ananta-Gumpha and Tatowa-Gumpha No.2, they
are well decorated by floral devices and religious activities.

Railings: The railings are provided with sculptured friezes as they appear
prominently running in continuation with the parapet on the verandah and around the
tree in the third tympanum of Ananta-Gumpha, Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha and below the
sculptural freezes of Rani-Gumpha, Ganesa-Gumpha and Manchapuri-Gumpha.
Except the Rani-Gumpha where railings are in three barrel pattern whereas in other
places they represent significantly two long bars. In case of Ananta-Gumpha
(merlons) pyramidal battlements intervene the railings.

Guard rooms: Two small rooms which often regarded as guard rooms are noticed in
the lower storey of Rani-Gumpha, adjacent to left and right wing. Provisions of
guards in front of the terminal piers of some leading caves of both the hills yet form
another early feature of cave architecture of Odisha. The glaring examples are found
at Rani-Gumpha, Ganesa-Gumpha and Tatowa-Gumpha. These guards are equipped
with long spear of sword either standing steadily or seated on animals.

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Rock-cut Step-Wells

“Step-well” as its name denotes is a well approached through a series of

receding or descending steps. Locally, the step wells are called by the various names
as Samuka, Bauli or Bamphi14. On the basis of constructional technique and building
material step wells may divided into three types: (i) Rock-cut (ii) Structural (iii) Both
Rock-cut and Structural. As there is no river flowing by the side of the caves a few
step wells are cut into the rock to hold rain water. Such rare wells exist on both the
hills namely Hathi-Nisuni and Lalita Kunda in Udayagiri and Akasa Ganga/Radha
Kunda and Shyama Kunda in Khandagiri etc.

Lalita Kunda and Hathi-Nisuni: The two wells Lalita Kunda and Hathi-Nisuni
located respectively to the north-east and east of Ganesa-Gumpha in Udayagiri15. The
name Hathi-Nisuni comes as local people believe that the royal elephant of
Lalatendukesari was usually stayed here. The well is roughly square and having series
of rock-cut steps from the south to approach the water in an inclined manner. Lalita
Kunda appears to be shallow one and the top edges of its four sides are cut unevenly.
Irregular steps have been provided on the north and eastern sides to approach near the
water.

Radha Kunda: In Khandagiri, close to the Lalatendu cave (Cave No.12), a beautiful
step well is noticed to the west of the said cave. That is locally called Akash Ganga16.
It is oblong in plan and fed by natural spring at the bottom. It has two rows of steps
leading towards the water. Very interestingly, there are some post holes, in an
alignment in between the two staircases and another alignment is on the outer wall of
the well are found. Probably, there were some wooden structures over the well to
protect the water in those days or some temporary arrangements were made at the
time for rituals.

Shyama Kunda: Another step well also noticed near the Radha Kunda named as
Shyama Kunda17, which is cut deep into the rock looking like a chamber or cave. It is
also provided with some steps to reach there and located to the south-western comer
of the hill.

4.2 STRUCTURAL ARCHITECTURE

The structural architectures of Jainas in Khandagiri and Udayagiri include the

apsidal structure at the Udayagiri hill top as well as the ancient ramp found in front of

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Hati-Gumpha18. Besides, the Jaina temples at Subei, Cuttack, Khandagiri hill etc. and
the miniature chaumukhas are noticed throughout the length and breadth of the
Odisha are also comes under the realm of Jaina architecture.

Apsidal Structure: An apsidal structure was unearthed in the 1958 CE at the top of
the Udayagiri hill just above the Hathi-Gumpha by the Archaeological Survey of
India19.This is one of the early specimens of apsidal structure built up of large laterite
blocks discovered in east India but also in the country. The entire super structure of
the apsidal monument was missing.

The ruins consist of an apsidal structure with an axial length of 23.8m and
basal length of 14m. Its outer wall constructed of large laterite blocks, the maximum
number of extant courses being eight. Within the structure towards its apse end was a
circular wall with only one surviving course of laterite slabs. Between the outer edge
and the inner edge of the former was a minimum gap of 1.8m. The space within the
apsidal structure save that enclosed by the circular wall was passed with laterite, but
towards the northern end where the sand stone bed-rock was the highest, the rock
itself was used as the floor after a rough dressing. Post-holes, circular or irregular
occurred in the rock and in the pavement indicate the existence of a covered roof
resting on posts. A few pottery tiles were also found in the northern corner of the
building. Drain fashioned by cutting a channel into the rock and covered by laterite
slabs flush was noticed in the northern corner probably designed to take off water
from the circular structure.

At a later stage the circular wall was converted into an apsidal structure by the
addition of an oblong wall towards its north-east, running roughly parallel to and
within the framework of the original apsidal wall. The circular wall was however kept
undisturbed. The oblong part of the new structure and a wide opening in each of its
northwestern, south-western and north-eastern walls is noticed. An enigmatic feature,
related with the complex, but somewhat later in construction, was a semicircular wall
its ends meeting the inner faces of the outer apsidal structure near its base. It was built
of three rows of laterite blocks placed on edge and supporting one another, the inner
most blocks beings lay obliquely on the old floor. An earlier oblong structure
evidently unconnected with the complex and partly overlaid by the circular walls
seems to have been the first structure on the site. Its wall had been reduced to or a
course of laterite when the circular wall was raised.

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Fig. 23 Aft
fter, IAR, 19
958-59, Dellhi, p.39

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0
 There is a square platform with recessed corners shabbily built of laterite and
sand stone blocks on the debris over the south-eastern face to serve as a step
belonging to the last phase of the occupation on the site. Inside, a smaller square was
also built of sand stone and laterite blocks the intervening space between it and outer
wall being filled with earth.

The pottery found in the filling of the floor was red and ill-baked and rubbed
off easily. A neolithic celt of dolerite with an oblong section was also found amidst
the laterite soil forming the filling of the floor.

On the basis circumstantial evidences the apsidal structure attributed to

Kharavela who brought back from Magadha the Jina of Kalinga that had been taken
away by the Nandas and built some structures of stone on the Kumari hill (Udayagiri)
where he also excavated a number of cave-dwellings for the Jaina heretics.

Ramp: An ancient ramp built of laterite blocks measuring three meters wide, rises
from the foot of the hill of Udayagiri and reaches the terrace in front of the Hati-
Gumpha and is supported on either side by retaining walls. It is wedge-shaped in plan
showing greater width near the head than at the tail20.

Jaina Temples at Subei, Koraput: The village Subei21 is located at a distance of

15km from Similiguda and is about 35km from Koraput on the main road leading to
Nandapur. A group of ten Jaina temples made of stone masonry are standing in the
midst of a shrub forest within an oval enclosure with a low wall around it near the
village at the foot of Pangiri/Panagiri hill. But, at present there are only remains of 6
temples (4 east facing, 2 west facing) are found and among them only two shrines are
in good state of preservation. The traces of the compound walls are only visible on the
ground and the area is overgrown with shrubs. The monuments at Subei are under the
protection of State Archaeology Department.

These shrines are small in dimensions (about 6 to 9m) and simple in ground
plan as well as in decorations. Each structure built of sandstone is tri-ratha on plan
with a single low pyramidal tower crowned by an amalaka. There is no trace of
mandapa in front of the shine. The pabhaga is low in height and have only three plain
moldings devoid of any carvings. Decorative motifs like square and circular rosettes
enclosed within dotted squares in low relief are traceable near door-jambs in two
shrines (northern shrine). There is no provision of niche in central projection (raha)

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for parsvadevatas. Exterior walls of temples are devoid of sculptural and floral
decorations. All the shrines contain slabs carved with Jaina Tirthankaras and
Sasandevis of about 0.75m to 1.06m height. But all the sculptures are highly weather
beaten and outlines are blurred. From the entire hoard, twelve` sculptures can be
identified as three Sasanadevi figures of sixteen armed Chakresvari, twelve armed
Rohini and two armed Ambika, one image of Mahavira and nine images of
Risabhanatha.

Of the two intact temples, the southern one has an image of Risabhanatha, while
the northern one has two images i.e. Risabhanatha and Mahavira.

Lower portions of four temples are survived only, which were repaired by
State Archaeology and makes difficult to distinguish between the original and the
recent additions. Among the four shrines, two east facing shrines contain one Jaina
Sasanadevi image in each while the west facing shrines contains Risabhanatha image
and the other one has three images of Risabhanatha.

Ruins of another temple in the shape of a mound can also be noticed about
150mt south-west of the group of temple. An image of Risabhanatha is noticed on the
top of the mound.

Kachela, Koraput: At Kachela22, remains of a Jaina temple with seven to eight feet
high along with two Jaina relics within the sanctum have been reported at the foot hill
of Deo Donger. It has only a single plain vimana and no trace of the porch found in
front it. In and around the temple large number of dressed stones and parts of the
amalakasila are lying scattered. The sanctum of the dilapidated temple is locally
known as asthana mandapa.

Ancient Temples at Koisali, Mayurbhanj: A dilapidated Jaina temple23 is reported

at Koisali village near Badasai in Mayurbhanja district along with an image of
Parsvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara in April 1907. The site has revealed the existence of
an entire foundation and a portion of the ground floor of an ancient Jaina temple. The
temple facing north appears to have a sanctum (garbhagriha) and a jagamohana. The
ruins of the temple scattered in a place which measures 27m in length on western side,
31m on the eastern side, 17m on the northern side and 26m on the southern side
respectively. A large amalaka, specimens of pottery and iron objects are the other
materials discovered amidst the ruins.

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The Digambara Jaina Temple at Choudhury Bazar, Cuttack: The Jaina temple at
Choudhury Bazar has a rekha vimana and pidha jagamohana of Kalingan School of
architecture. A small chamber between the temple and jagamohana serves the
purpose of antarala and has a pidha superstructure. Each shrines from jagamohana to
the sanctum sanctorum act as a jinalaya viz., Padmaprabhu jinalaya, Parsvanatha
jinalaya and Chandraprabhu jinalaya. It is situated within a spacious compound and
having dvajastamba at the entrance. The temple faces east but the major entrance is
from the north door of the jagamohana.24

The main temple is in rekha order and stands over a raised plinth. The temple
is in pancharatha on plan and panchanga bada in elevation. The temple has a thick
coat of lime plaster and stucco figures are found in few places. Miniature angasikhars
of stucco have been designed in the pabhaga, tala jangha and upara jangha. The two
fold bandhana is decorated with rahu mukhas just above the miniature angasikharas
and flower design at the varandha portion. Peacock with foliated feather design has
been noticed just above the two fold bandhana portion. The narrow recesses between
rahapaga-anuratha paga and anuratha-kanika pagas are relieved with stucco figures
of birds, animals, musicians, erotic figures, acrobatic figures, shoulders, female
figures and nude figures in kayotsarga mudras. Each rathas at the gandi portion is
decorated with angasikharas surmounted by projecting lions (3 nos. in each pagas),
where the projected lions at the rahapaga is much larger than the side one at the end
of the curvilinear sikhara particularly at the visama portion shows depiction of five
narrow mouldings and above the visama are placed at the each corner crowning
elements of a temple consisting of the beki, ghanta, amlaka, khapuri and kalasa. The
mastaka portion of the main temple is represented by beki, ghanta, amlaka, kalasa
and ayudha as the banner/dvaja. There is no parsvadevata niches in the main temple
but large size of screened windows have been provided at the northern and southern
sides of the main temple.

The jagamohana built on the same platform has a square ground plan and a
pyramidal superstructure. The tiers on the superstructure are seven in number and
each tier from its outer edge displays projecting lions. The bada has five vertical
divisions and mastaka above beki represents the same elements like that of the main
shrine. The jagamohana had originally four openings but the one to the south is
closed converted to a jinalaya i.e. Padmpravu jinalaya for preservation for a few Jaina

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relics. The western openings lead to the sanctum. The other two on the east and north
are used for entry and exists for the devotees. The lintel of the door-jambs displays the
figure of a seated Parsvanatha flanked by two attendants instead of the conventional
navagrahas and Gaja-Lakshmi figure found in Hindu religious shrine.

Besides, a number of ancient Jaina sculptures and chaumukhas, the temple

preserves a large number of marble, brass and silver sculptures of recent made
donated by Jaina devotees and a number of Yantra mandala viz., Rishi Mandala
yantra, Sarva Siddhi yantra and Jinavani yantra, etc.

Svetambara Jaina Temple, Alamachand Bazar, Cuttack: The Jaina temple at

Alamachand Bazar was constructed the year 1974 CE following the general feature of
the Jaina temples of Rajasthan25. The temple is situated within a narrow courtyard and
has a very high plinth almost sharing with the front apartment. The lower parts of the
main shrine are vertically divided into five projections, the central ones of which
contain seated Jaina Tirthankara figures within niches. The superstructure above the
bada is formed of miniature towers and the crowning part above the beki is supported
by heads of squattish human figures placed on the visama on each direction. The top
most parts of the temple consist of the amalaka, khapuri and kalasa. The
dhvajastambha is fixed near by the post meant for the lightening conductor.

The porch in front is having a square bada and dome shaped roof. It has door
openings on all directions and except the one leading to the sanctum others are
flanked by windows. The doors in their front have sun-breakers designed in pyramidal
roof on well-polished marble pillars. The entire courtyard is paved with glazed tiles
and mosaic. The inner chamber on a high pedestal preserves the images of
Neminatha, Mahavira and Munisuvrata all in yogasana pose. No trace of navagraha
slab is available on the lintel and in its place a seated figure of a Tirthankara is
depicted.

Jaina Temple, Khandagiri Hill, Khordha: The Khandagiri hill is crowned by a

Jaina temple with a porch in front. The temple is constructed in pidha style, 7.6m in
height by Manju Choudhry and his nephew Bhabani Dadu of Cuttack, Jaina
merchants of Digambara sect26. The sanctum of the temple contains many loose
sculptures viz., sixteen number of small chlorite Jaina sculptures, one sandstone image

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of Risabhanatha, a damaged chaumukha and have been collected from the hills and its
neighborhoods.

This temple comprises two components i.e. vimana and the jagamohana over
a low height three-fold pista, both built in the pidha style of Kalingan a school of
architecture and plastered with thick coat of lime. The temple was most probably built
over an earlier shrine as presumed by Kittoes and Sterling which substantiated by
vestiges of earlier structures at the site, hundreds of monolithic miniature shrines,
most of them having at one of their faces the figure of a Jaina Tirthankara.

The vimana is built on a three-fold high plinth is pancharatha on plan and

panchanga bada in elevation and has a pidha superstructure having seven receding
tiers towards the top. Rampart lions are depicted at the third and fifth tiers of the
rahapaga on each side at the gandi portion. The parsvadevatas niches on the
rahapagas are formed balustrade windows. The lower jangha of bada has depiction
of khakhara-mundis whereas pidha-mundis are noticed at the upper jangha portion.
The padukanula with a makara head is noticed on the base of the northern wall. The
mastaka of the temple which envisaged above the pyramidal tiers consist of the beki,
ghanta, beki, amalaka, khapuri and kalasa. The temple facing east is opened through
the eastern wall to the jagamohana. The door-jambs and lintel at the entrance of the
temple are plain and devoid of graha panel and attendant figures. The simhasana in
the garbhagriha preserves the recently installed marble figure of Risabhanatha along
with a number of Jaina images of earlier period.

The jagamohana is triratha on plan and panchangabada in elevation. The

lower and upper jangha of the bada is carved with the usual khakara-mundis and
pidha-mundis respectively. The gandi portion has five receding tiers and lions are
projected at the rahapaga particularly on the third tier of each side. Two lions are also
flanked the crowning elements at the top facing to the northern and southern
directions. The crowning elements as usual consist of the beki, ghanta, beki, amalaka,
khapuri and kalasa. The main entrance to the temple complex through the
jagamohana is on the east, however entrances are also noticed on the northern and
southern wall. The inner walls of both the jagamohana and the vimana are devoid of
any decorations whereas, the simhasana and floors of both the shrines are all covered
with white marble slabs. There is a fine terrace in front of the temple about fifty feet

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square with a raised masonry seat all round. On either sides of the temple are also
miniature shrines also in pyramidal design.

The newly built Shri 1008 Parsvanatha temple was commissioned in the year
1950 and the presiding deity is a colossal image of Parsvanatha in black marble. The
basement, corner pillars and crowning sikharas at top are all fashioned in marble. The
crowning element above the roof of the shrine is formed of a series of angasikharas.
Another recently built temple having the same name is found north of it. It is a flat
roofed cement concrete building and has a conical superstructure at the center of the
flat roof. The presiding deities of the temple are two number of Parsvanatha images
made of black marble and two numbers Mahavira images and one Chandraprabha
image of white marble. Small flat roofed RCC structure with conical super structure is
also noticed at the south of the Risabhanatha temple and preserves many Jaina images
of early periods.

A number of recently built Jaina temples are also found in Odisha viz., Jaina
temple at Jaunliapapati of Cuttack, a small pidha temple at Podasingidi in Keonjhar
district presently known as Chandi temple, single pidha structure at Choudwar by the
mother of Padmashree L.N. Sahu as well as a small temple at Bhanapur near
Pratapnagari. Besides, with financial help of Digambara Jaina foundations, Odisha
State Archaeology has built several sculpture sheds to preserve some important Jaina
images at the places like (i) Bhagalpur, district Khordha (ii) Pratapanagari, district
Cuttack (iii) Jamunda, district Koraput, (iv) Hatadiha, district Jajpur and Podasingidi
of Keonjhar district.

4.3 MONOLITHS

Odisha, served as a nucleus of the ethical and historical background of Jaina

art and architecture, has provided a good number of monuments in form of caves,
temples, chaumukhas and sculptures. The chaumukhas are carved out of single stone
in Odisha hence considered as a monolith one. Particularly, the
chaumukha/chaturmukha or quadruple image block has been a very popular
iconographic theme with the Jainas from very early times and has been described as
pratima sarvatobhadrika in inscriptions on the early centuries of Christian era27. The
term pratima sarvatobhadrika signifies that, the image is pleasing or auspicious from
all directions. The carving of Jaina chaumukha, showing four Jaina figures, all either

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 seated or standing on four sides, started as early as the 1st century CE and its earliest
examples are procured from the Kankali Tilla, Mathura28. The conception of pratima
sarvatobhadrika is an essential part of the samavasaranas, it may be inferred that
installation of such chaumukhas in ancient times were possibly regarded as symbolic
representation of samavasaranas29.It is safer to assume that the practice of installing
sculptures of this type was an old practice common to the cult of chaitya and yaksha
worship and separate images were installed and worshipped on four sides of a chaitya
or a pillar. Among the vastusatras only the vraksarnava, an important mid-15th
century CE work refers to the various kinds of chaumukha temple30. The Jaina
agamas composed in the 1st and 4th century CE gives the details about the chaumukha
shrines. Broadly the chaumukhas are divided into two groups31 -

A) Chaumukhas representing the same Tirthankara figure on all the four faces. The
figures are comparatively meager in number and generally do not show the
cognizance of the Jainas. These types of chaumukhas are started engraving from
7th/8th centuries CE.
B) Chaumukhas representing four different Tirthankara figures on all four cardinal
directions. Their antiquity goes back to the 1st century CE as found from Mathura. In
this category cognizance of Tirthankaras are depicted below their feet or pedestal.

The pratima sarvatobhadrikas are reported from Cuttack, Jagatsinghpur, Puri,

Khordha, Balasore, Bhadrak, Keonjhar, Koraput and Jajpur districts of Odisha.

Jaina chaumukhas found at Badasai in Mayurbhanj district and Jaina temple at

Cuttack are envisaged the same styles, having a square base. The bada of this
miniature shrine are also shaped in square from. Its superstructure is designed in
several tiers as in the pidha temples or khakhara-mundis of Odishan temple style. The
crowning elements above beki consist of the usual amalaka, khapuri and the kalasa.

The chaumukhas preserved in Odisha State Museum brought from a place

known as Manikchak near Jaleswara of Balasore district is designed in the shape of a
pidha temple. It has five tiers and the base has two mouldings. Dopichha simhas seen
and supported the crowning elements being placed on the vimana of the super-
structure at each corner. The individual niches meant for the Tirthankaras are in oval
shapes with pinnacles at their tops. The mastaka consists of the amalaka, khapuri and
the pinnacle in the pattern of a lotus bud. The chaumukha collected from

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Badacharpoi, Jajpur to the Odisha State Museum is a departure from the conventional
pidha order. The superstructure of this chaumukha is triratha structure with a low
tower topped by an amalaka.

Jajpur being the one of prominent Jaina centers of Odisha represent the largest
number of chaumukhas in Odisha. The sarvatobhadrika images found in this area are
quite interesting where more than hundred in numbers are reported in the district. The
chaumukhas noticed in this district are found in form of miniature rekha or pidha
temple of Kalingan School of architecture. A circular votive stupa representing a
Tirthankara Parsvanatha image is also noticed at Jatesvara temple, Jajpur town of this
district. A Jaina chaumukha is placed in front of the Budhi Jagulei shrine at Kartara of
Nandipur Grama Panchayat and is about 12km from Jajpur town. The chaumukha is
fashioned in form of a miniature triratha rekha style temple out of a single khandolite
stone block. The votive temple is buried up to its half of bada portion. Risabhanatha,
the first Tirthankara is engraved in low relief on a rectangular niche at the rahapaga
of the shrine, particularly at the bada portion. His lanchana bull is depicted in the
pedestal below his feet. The most interesting part of the Jaina chaumukhas of Jajpur is
those laterite blocks have been used as construction material, which is not noticed any
other parts of Odisha and secondly chaumukhas having single niches are found in
large number.

References:

1. B.J. Sandesara, Jaina Monuments of India, Bhandarkar Oriental Research

Institute, Pune, 1968, p.289.
2. Ibid.
3. N.K. Sahu, Kharavela, Bhubaneswar, 1984, pp.01-18.
4. B.J. Sandesara, op.cit.
5. E. Tomory, A History of Fine Arts in India and the West, Chennai, 1982,
pp.106-107.
6. Ibid., pp.100-106.
7. B.J. Sandesara, op.cit., pp.291-292.
8. G.C. Chauley, Monumental Heritage of Orissa, Delhi, 2004, pp.31-45.
9. R.P. Mohapatra, Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, Delhi, 1981, pp.01-15.
10. D. Mitra, Udayagiri and Khandagiri, New Delhi, 1992, pp.20-70.

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11. T. Satyamurty and J.K. Patnaik, “Architectural peculiarities of Jaina caves of
Udayagiri and Khandagiri,” in H.C. Das and et al.(eds.), Cultural Heritage of
Khurda, Bhubaneswar, 2003, pp. 180-189.
12. Ibid., p.183.
13. R.P. Mohapatra, op.cit., pp.70-83.
14. G.N. Jena, “Step well in Orissa, A case study”, OHRJ, Vol.-XVIII, 2005, P.28.
15. R.P. Mohapatra, Jaina Monuments in Orissa, Delhi, 1984, pp.149-150.
16. Ibid.
17. G.N. Jena, op.cit., p.42.
18. R.P. Mohapatra, op.cit., pp.150-152.
19. A. Ghosh (ed.), Indian Archaeology-A Review (1958-59), Delhi, 1959,
pp.38-39.
20. R.P. Mohapatra, op.cit., p.152.
21. S. Panda, “A Note on the Jaina Temple at Subei”, in G. Mohanty and et al.
(eds.), Cultural Heritage of Odisha: Koraput District, Bhubaneswar, 2008,
pp.161-163.
22. JAHRS, Vol. VI, pp.08-14.
23. N.N. Vasu, The Archaeological Survey of Mayurbhanja, Vol.I, Delhi, 1981,
pp.45-46.
24. R.P. Mohapatra, op.cit., pp.159-160.
25. Ibid.
26. R.L. Mitra, The Antiquities of Orissa, Vol.II, Calcutta, 1880, p.64.
27. V. Sakunthala, “Chaumukha Sculptures in Andradesa”, in H. Rangarajan and
et al. (eds.), Jainism: Art, Architecture, Literature & Philosophy, Delhi, 2001,
p.265.
28. S.K. Saraswati, “East India”, in A. Ghosh(ed.), Encyclopediea of Jaina Art
and Architecture, Vol-II, New Delhi, 1974,p.267
29. U.P. Saha, Studies in Jaina Art, Banaras, 1955, p.95.
30. M.A. Dhaky, “Some Early Jaina Temples in Western India”, in U.P. Saha and
M.A. Dhakey(eds.) Mahavira Jina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume,
Bombay, 1968, pp.290-347.
31. S.K. Saraswati, op.cit., pp.265-273.

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