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MECHANICS OF PNEUMATIC TIRES

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab
Vehicle Dynamics
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MECHANICS OF PNEUMATIC TIRES

➢ Aside from aerodynamic and gravitational forces, all other major forces and moments
affecting the motion of a ground vehicle are applied through the running gear-ground
contact.
➢ An understanding of the basic characteristics of the interaction between the running gear
and the ground is, therefore, essential to the study of performance characteristics, ride
quality, and handling behavior of ground vehicles.

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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MECHANICS OF PNEUMATIC TIRES

➢ The running gear of a ground vehicle is generally required to fulfill the following functions:
• to support the weight of the vehicle
• to cushion the vehicle over surface irregularities
• to provide sufficient traction for driving and braking
• to provide adequate steering control and direction stability
➢ Pneumatic tires can perform these functions effectively and efficiently; thus, they are
universally used in road vehicles, and are also widely used in off-road vehicles.

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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MECHANICS OF PNEUMATIC TIRES

➢ Two basic types of problem in the mechanics of tires are of special interest to vehicle
engineers.
• One is the mechanics of tires on hard surfaces, which is essential to the study of the
characteristics of road vehicles.
• The other is the mechanics of tires on deformable surfaces (unprepared terrain), which
is of prime importance to the study of off-road vehicle performance.

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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MECHANICS OF PNEUMATIC TIRES

➢ A pneumatic tire is a flexible structure of the shape of a toroid filled with compressed air.
➢ The ingredients of the rubber compounds are selected to provide the tire with specific
properties.

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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MECHANICS OF PNEUMATIC TIRES

➢ The rubber compounds for the tread vary with the type of tire. For instance, for heavy truck
tires, the high load intensities necessitate the use of tread compounds with high resistance
to abrasion, tearing, and crack growth, and with low hysteresis to reduce internal heat
generation and rolling resistance.
➢ Consequently, natural rubber compounds are widely used for truck tires, although they
intrinsically provide lower values of coefficient of road adhesion, particularly on wet
surfaces, than various synthetic rubber compounds universally used for passenger car and
racing car tires.
Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab
Vehicle Dynamics
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MECHANICS OF PNEUMATIC TIRES

➢ For tubeless tires, which have become dominant, a thin layer of rubber with high
impermeability to air (such as butyl rubber compounds) is attached to the inner surface of
the carcass.
➢ For an inflated pneumatic tire, the inflation pressure causes tension to be developed in the
cords comprising the carcass.
➢ The load applied through the rim of the wheel hangs primarily on the cords in the sidewalls
through the beads.

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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MECHANICS OF PNEUMATIC TIRES

➢ Among the various design parameters, the geometric dispositions of layers of rubber-
coated cords (plies), particularly their directions, play a significant role in the behavior of
the tire. The direction of the cords is usually defined by the crown angle, which is the angle
between the cord and the circumferential center line of the tire.
➢ When the cords have a low crown angle, the tire will have good cornering characteristics,
but a harsh ride.
➢ On the other hand, if the cords are at right angle to the centerline of the tread, the tire will
be capable of providing a comfortable ride, but poor handling performance.
Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab
Vehicle Dynamics
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MECHANICS OF PNEUMATIC TIRES

➢ For a radial-ply tire, there is a relatively uniform ground pressure over the entire contact
area. In contrast, the ground pressure for a bias-ply tire varies greatly from point to point as
tread elements passing through the contact area undergo complex localized wiping
motion.
➢ In bias-belted tire, the cords in the belt are of materials with a higher modulus of elasticity
than those in the bias plies. The belt provides high rigidity to the tread against distortion,
and reduces tread wear and rolling resistance in comparison with the conventional bias-
ply tire.
Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab
Vehicle Dynamics
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MECHANICS OF PNEUMATIC TIRES

➢ Generally, the bias-belted tire has characteristics midway between those of the bias-ply
and the radial-ply tire.

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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TIRE FORCES AND MOMENTS

 With this axis system, many performance parameters of the tire can be
conveniently defined.

 For instance, the longitudinal shift of the center of normal pressure is

determined by the ratio of the rolling resistance moment to the normal load.

 The lateral shift of the center of normal pressure is defined by the ratio of the
overturning moment to the normal load.

 The integration of longitudinal shear stresses over the entire contact patch
represents the tractive or braking force.

 A driving torque about the axis of rotation of the tire produces a force for
accelerating the vehicle, and a braking torque produces a force for
decelerating the vehicle.

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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TIRE FORCES AND MOMENTS

 There are two important angles associated with a rolling tire:

the slip angle and the camber angle.

 Slip angle 𝜶 is the angle formed between the direction of

wheel travel and the line of intersection of the wheel plane
with the road surface.

 Camber angle 𝜸 is the angle formed between the XZ plane

and the wheel plane.

 The lateral force at the tire-ground contact patch is a function

of both the slip angle and the camber angle.
Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab
Vehicle Dynamics
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ROLLING RESISTANCE OF TIRES

➢ The rolling resistance of tires on hard surfaces is caused by:

• Mainly, the hysteresis in tire materials due to the deflection of the carcass while
rolling.
• Friction between the tire and the road caused by sliding.
• Resistance due to air circulating inside the tire.
• Fan effect of the rotating tire on the surrounding air.
but they are of secondary importance

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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ROLLING RESISTANCE OF TIRES

➢ Available experimental results give a breakdown of tire losses in the speed range 128-
152 km/h as 90-95% due to internal hysteresis losses in the tire, 2-10% due to friction
between the tire and the ground, and 1.5-3.5% due to air resistance
➢ Of the total energy losses within the tire structure, it is found that for a radial truck tire,
hysteresis in the tread region, including the belt, contributes 73%, the sidewall 13%, the
region between the tread and the sidewall, commonly known as the shoulder region,
12%, and the beads 2%.

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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ROLLING RESISTANCE OF TIRES

➢ When a tire is rolling, the carcass is deflected in the area of ground contact.
➢ As a result of tire distortion, the normal pressure in the leading half of the contact patch
is higher than that in the trailing half.
➢ The center of normal pressure is shifted in the direction of rolling.
➢ This shift produces a moment about the axis of rotation of the tire, which is the rolling
resistance moment.

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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ROLLING RESISTANCE OF TIRES

➢ In a free-rolling tire, the applied wheel torque is zero; therefore, a horizontal force at the
tire-ground contact patch must exist to maintain equilibrium.
➢ This resultant horizontal force is generally known as the rolling resistance. The ratio of the
rolling resistance to the normal load on the tire is defined as the coefficient of rolling
resistance.
➢ Several factors affect the rolling resistance of a pneumatic tire. They include the
structure of the tire (construction and materials) and its operating conditions (surface
conditions, inflation pressure, speed, temperature, etc.).
Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab
Vehicle Dynamics
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ROLLING
RESISTANCE
OF TIRES

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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ROLLING
RESISTANCE
OF TIRES

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
 19

ROLLING
RESISTANCE
OF TIRES

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
 20

ROLLING
RESISTANCE
OF TIRES

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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ROLLING RESISTANCE OF TIRES

➢ Inflation pressure affects the flexibility of the tire. Depending on the deformability of the
ground, the inflation pressure affects the rolling resistance of the tire in different manners.
➢ On hard surfaces, the rolling resistance generally decreases with the increase in inflation
pressure. This is because, with higher inflation pressure, the deflection of the tire
decreases, with consequent lower hysteresis losses.
➢ On deformable surfaces, such as sand, high inflation pressure results in increased ground
penetration work, and therefore higher rolling resistance

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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ROLLING
RESISTANCE
OF TIRES

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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ROLLING
RESISTANCE
OF TIRES

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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ROLLING
RESISTANCE
OF TIRES

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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ROLLING RESISTANCE OF TIRES

 Rolling resistance is also affected by driving speed because of the

increase of work in deforming the tire and of vibrations in the tire
structure with the increase in speed.

 Standing waves are formed because, owing to high speed, the tire
tread does not recover immediately from distortion originating from
tire deflection after it leaves the contact surface, and the residual
deformation initiates a wave.

 The amplitude of the wave is the greatest immediately on leaving the

ground, and is damped out in an exponential manner around the
circumference of the tire.
Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab
Vehicle Dynamics
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ROLLING RESISTANCE OF TIRES

➢ The formation of the standing wave greatly increases energy losses, which in turn cause
considerable heat generation that could lead to tire failure. This places an upper limit
on the safe operating speed of tires.

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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ROLLING RESISTANCE OF TIRES

 Operating temperature, tire diameter, and tractive

force also have effects on the rolling resistance of a
tire.

 Tire temperature affects the rolling resistance in two

ways:

❑ by changing the temperature of the air in the tire

cavity, and thereby changing the operating
inflation pressure.

❑ by changing the stiffness and hysteresis of the

rubber compounds.
Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab
Vehicle Dynamics
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ROLLING RESISTANCE OF TIRES

 The rolling resistance at a shoulder temperature

of -10°C is approximately 2.3 times that at 60°C
for the tire examined.

 It is also found that the shoulder temperature of

the tire, and not the ambient temperature, is a
basic determining factor of the tire rolling
resistance coefficient.

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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ROLLING RESISTANCE OF TIRES

 The effect of tire diameter is negligible on

hard surfaces (concrete) but is considerable
on deformable or soft ground.

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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ROLLING RESISTANCE OF TIRES

 for radial-ply passenger car tires under rated loads and inflation pressures on a smooth road, the
relationship between rolling resistance coefficient f, and speed V (up to 150 km/h) may be expressed by:

 and for bias-ply passenger car tires, where V is in km/h.

 for the radial-ply truck tire, (up to 100 km/h) may be described by:

 and for the bias-ply truck tire,

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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ROLLING RESISTANCE OF TIRES

 In preliminary performance calculations, the effect of speed may be ignored, and the average
value of f, for a particular operating condition may be used.

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics
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Thanks

Dr. Mohamed Abdelwahab

Vehicle Dynamics