Properties of Matter and NDT-notes

CHAPTER 1 : PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
 Definition of Deforming force : The force applied on body which is responsible to deform
(change size and shape of the body) is called as deforming force.
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 Internal restoring force : Under deformed condition, every shifted molecule tries to achieve
its original position (because of elastic property). When a body is deformed because of
external force, internal molecular forces are set up within the body, which tend to oppose the
changes in size and shape of the body.
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 Definition of Internal restoring force : The force which is responsible to restore original
size and shape of the body is called as internal restoring force.
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 Definition of Elasticity : The property on account of which a body regains its original size
and shape on removal of external deforming force is called as elasticity.
The body which regains its original size and shape on removal of external deforming force is
called as elastic body. Eg. almost all metals – steel, brass, rubber, copper.
Some bodies which exactly regain their original dimensions on removal of external
deforming forces are called perfectly elastic bodies. Eg. quartz.
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 Definition of Plasticity : The property on account of which a body easily deforms and does
not regain its original size and shape on removal of external deforming force is called as
plasticity i.e. material undergo permanent deformation.
Some bodies do not oppose the change in size and shape and this deforms very easily. Such
bodies do not regain their original size and shape even after the deforming force is removed.
These are called plastic bodies. Eg. clay, putty, chalk.
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 Definition of Rigidity : The property on account of which a body does not change its size
and shape even when a large force is applied on it, is called as rigidity. Eg. stone.
A body in which it is not possible to produce any relative displacement of the different
particles inside it and hence size and shape of a body remains unchanged even after large
force is applied on it, is called as rigid body. No body is perfectly rigid but stone is taken as a
rigid body.
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 Definition of Stress : Stress is defined as internal elastic restoring force per unit cross-
sectional area of a body.
Internal elastic restoring force
i.e. Stress =
Cross−sectional area
1.
APPL SCIENCE [Study Without Desire Spoils the Memory and it retains nothing that it takes in]KNIT INDIA
But, Restoring force = Applied force
Thus stress can also be defined as applied force per unit cross-sectional area of a body.
F
Stress =
A
MKS or SI unit of stress is N/m2 of (Pa) Pascal.
CGS unit of stress is dyne/cm2.
The dimensions of stress are [L–1 M1 T–2].
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 Types of Stresses :
Types of stresses
Tensile stress Compressive stress Shearing stress

or or or
Longitudinal stress Volume stress Shear stress
or
Volumetric stress
1. Tensile stress or Longitudinal stress :

Definition : The stress that tends to change the length of a body is called longitudinal stress
or tensile stress.
Applied force
Tensile stress =
Cross−sectional area
F Mg
¿ =
A π r2
where r is radius of the wire
MKS unit of tensile stress is N/m2
CGS unit of tensile stress is dyne/cm2
The dimensions of tensile stress are [L–1 M1 T–2]
Examples : Rope climbing, bicycle chain,

cables of lift elevator.
2. Compressive stress or Volumetric stress :

Definition : The stress which compresses the given body is called as compressive stress.
2.
Volume stress (Volumetric stress) Definition : The stress which changes volume of a body
is called as volume stress.
Applied force
Volume stress = = Change in pressure = dp
Area
MKS unit of volume stress is N/m2
CGS unit of volume stress is dyne/cm2
The dimensions of volume stress are [L–1 M1 T–2]
Examples : Piston, shock absorbers, etc. Concrete is very strong in compression but it is
weak while pulling.
3. Shear stress :
Definition : The stress corresponding to change in shape of a body is called shear stress.
Tangential force Tangential force F

Shear stress = =
Area of surface Area of surface AEDH
MKS unit of shear stress is N/m2
CGS unit of shear stress is dyne/cm2
The dimensions of shear stress are [L–1 M1 T–2]
Examples : Torsional pendulum, metal sheet cutter, shaft connecting fly wheel, bone fracture
because of bending.
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 Types of Strains :
Types of strains
3.
Tensile strain Volume strain Shear strain
or or or
Longitudinal strain Volumetric strain Shearing strain
or or
Linear strain Compressive strain
1. Tensile strain or Longitudinal strain or Linear strain :
Definition : Tensile strain (longitudinal strain) is defined as change in length per unit
original length.
Change (increase )∈length
Tensile strain =
Original length
New length−Original length

¿
Original length
l
¿
L
It has no unit.
2. Volume strain :
Definition : Volume strain is defined as the change in volume per unit original volume of a
body.
Change∈volume dv
Volume stress = =
Original volume V
It has no unit.
3. Shearing strain :
Definition : Shearing strain is defined as the ratio of lateral displacement of any layer to its
distance from the fixed layer.
Laterial displacement of any layer
Shearing strain = the¿ layer ¿
Its distance ¿
Laterial displacement of upper layer
= the¿ layer ¿
Its distance ¿
4.
'
AA
=
AD
¿ tanθ
 Shearing strain = Shear = θ (in radian)
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 Elastic Limit and Hooke’s Law :
Definition of Elastic limit: Maximum stress which can be applied on a body without
permanent deformation of a body.
Hooke’s law (Statement) : It states that, “within elastic limit, strain is directly proportional
to the stress.”
 Strain  Stress
 Strain = Constant x Stress
Stress
OR = Constant
Strain
The constant of proportionality is called as modulus of elasticity.
Stress
 Modulus of elasticity = Strain
SI unit of modulus of elasticity is N/m2

CGS unit is dyne/cm2
Dimensions of modulus of elasticity are [L–1 M1 T–2]
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 Types of Moduli of Elasticity :
1. Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (Y ) :
Definition : Within elastic limit, the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain is called
Young’s modulus of elasticity Y . Young’s modulus of elasticity measures the
opposition (resistance) offered by material for its change in length.
We have,
Stress
= Constant = Modulus of elasticity
Strain
Tensile stress
= Young’s modulus of elasticity = Y
Tensile strain
Tensile stress F / A
 Y= =
Tensile strain l/ L
2
Mg/ π r
¿
l/ L
5.
MgL
 Y= 2
πr l
where, M =¿ load attached
r = Radius of wire
L = Original length of wire
l = Extension produced
Its SI or MKS unit is N/m2
Dimensions are [L–1 M1 T–2].

Dimensions of Y are same as stress.
[Note : Dimensions of stress and all moduli of elasticities (i.e. Y , K , η ) are same].
2. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity ( K ) :

Definition : Within elastic limit, the ratio of volume stress to volume strain is called
bulk modulus of elasticity K .
Bulk modulus of elasticity,

Volume stress Bulk stress
K= or
Volume strain Bulk strain
F/A
 K=
d v /V
dp dp ×V
 K=
d v /V
=
dv
where, V = original volume, F = applied force, dv = decrease in volume,
dp = increase in pressure and
A = area of cross section on which force is applied
Dimensions are [L–1 M1 T–2].

Dimensions of K are same as stress, Y etc.
6.
Definition of Compressibility : The reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity is called
compressibility.
1 1 1 dv
= = =
Compressibility = Bulk modulus K dp dp× V
×V
dv
Bulk modulus measures the opposition made by the material to change its volume and
compressibility measures the permission given by the material for its compression.
Compressibility represents strain per unit stress.
Volume strain
Compressibility =
Volume stress
The SI unit of compressibility is m2/N
The CGS unit of compressibility is cm2/dyne
Dimensions of compressibility are [L1 M–1 T2].
Dimensions of compressibility are exactly inverse of K.

3. Modulus of Rigidity (η ) :
Definition : Within elastic limit, the ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain is called
modulus of rigidity η .
Modulus of elasticity measures the opposition (resistance) offered by a material for its
change is shape.
Modulus of rigidity,
Shearing stress
η=
Shearing strain
F/ A
η=

[ Lateral displacement of layer
Its distance ¿
¿ layer ¿ ]
F/ A
 η= '
A A / AD
7.
F/A '
 η= ∵ A A =tan θ
tan θ AD
F
 η=
A tan θ
If θ is small, put tanθ=θ
F
 η=
Aθ
Dimensions are [L–1 M1 T–2] i.e. Dimensions of η are same as stress, Y, K, etc.
Relation between Y, K and η :

For a given material, there is certain relation between Y, K and η which is given by,
9 ηK 1 1 1
Y= or = +
3 K +η Y 3η 9 K
where, Y = Young’s modulus of elasticity of material
K=¿ Bulk modulus and η=¿ Modulus of rigidity
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 Behaviour of a Metal Wire Under Continuously Increasing Load :
A wire is subjected to increasing load step by step. A graph of stress against strain is as
shown. It can be explained as follows :
 OE portion is a straight line which indicates that stress is proportional to strain i.e. wire
obeys Hooke’s law upto point E.
The stress corresponding to point E is maximum stress to which wire can be loaded
without any permanent elongation. This is called elastic limit of wire.
 EE portion is curved towards strain axis which shows that increase in strain is more than
what is warranted (expected) by corresponding increase in stress i.e. strain is not
proportional to stress i.e. Hooke’s law is not obeyed.
 At any point between E and E if all the load is removed, then some permanent elongation
occurs in the wire, this is called set.
8.
 When wire is again subjected to a load, a new straight line SE (shown by dotted line) is
obtained indicating Hooke’s law.
 Some portion after point Y is almost parallel to strain axis i.e. strain increases without
increase in stress just like wire flows, this is called yielding. This is called plastic flow.
The point at which this flow begins is called yield point Y. The value of stress
corresponding to yield point is called yield stress.
 With the plastic flow, wire becomes thin and thin. Some weak points called neck are
formed in the wire. The wire becomes thin and thin in the region of neck where the strain
increases speedily and stress decreases and ultimately at weakest point wire breaks the
corresponding point ‘B’ in the graph is the breaking point.
 Brittle materials like high carbon steel etc. break immediately after elastic limit is
crossed. Ductile materials like copper, wrought iron undergo plastic deformation and its
length goes on increasing then wire breaks.
Definition of Breaking stress : It is the maximum stress at which the wire brakes.
Definition of Ultimate stress : Ultimate stress is defined as the ratio of maximum load that
the specimen (system) is capable of withstanding to its original cross-sectional area.
Definition of Working stress : Working stress is defined as the ratio of actual load to the
original cross-sectional area.
Definition of Factor of safety : Factory of safety is defined as the ratio of ultimate stress to
working stress.
Example : Message on life may be only for 5 persons but actual capacity may be of 20
persons.
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 Poisson’s Ratio :
Definition of Longitudinal strain : It is the ratio of increase in length to the original length
of the wire.
Let, L  Original length of the wire
l  Increase in length of the wire (extension)
Increase ∈length l
Longitudinal strain = =
Original length L
Definition of Lateral strain : It is the ratio of decrease in diameter to the original diameter
of the wire.
Let, D  Original diameter of the wire
d  Decrease in diameter
Decrease∈diameter d
Lateral strain = =
Original diameter D
Poisson’s ratio : As length of the wire goes on increasing, the wire becomes thinner and
thinner.
9.
i.e. Lateral strain  Longitudinal strain
Thus for a given material within elastic limit, the lateral strain is directly proportional to the
longitudinal strain.
Lateral strain  Longitudinal strain
 Lateral strain = Constant x Longitudinal strain
Lateral strain = σ x Longitudinal strain
Lateral strain
 Longitudinal strain
=σ = Constant = Poisson’s ratio
Definition of Poisson’s ration ( σ ) : Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to
the longitudinal strain. For a given material, within elastic limit this ratio is constant.
Lateral strain
Poisson’s ratio =
Longitudinal strain
−d / D
σ=
l/ L
Poisson’s ratio has no unit and no dimension. σ can be positive as well as negative.
The maximum positive value of σ is 0.5 and minimum negative value of σ is – 1.
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 Factors Affecting Elasticity :
1. Effect of temperature : In majority cases, as the temperature of material increases, the
elasticity of material decreases and vice a versa. As the temperature of the material
increases, the distance between the molecules increases and hence intramolecular force
decreases which result in decrease in internal restoring force and hence elasticity
decreases.
If lead is cooled in liquid air, it becomes elastic.
A carbon filament is elastic at ordinary temperature but it becomes plastic when heated by
passing current through it.
But invar steel is exception for this. In case of invar steel, nickel 36% iron 64%, alloy low
coefficient of thermal expansion, the elasticity remains unaffected by change of
temperature.
2. Effect of annealing : In the process of annealing, the metal is heated and then cooled
gradually. Because of annealing, the elasticity of the material decreases.
Due to annealing the smaller crystals present inside the material get oriented in one
particular direction and formation of large crystal grains takes place. Thus softening of
the materials takes place, which increases the plasticity and decreases the elasticity.
3. Effect of hammering and rolling the material : The metals with smaller grains are
stronger than those with larger grains. Due to operations like hammering and rolling, the
crystal grains break up into smaller unit which increases elastic properties of the material.
Thus hammering and rolling increase the elasticity and decrease the plasticity.
4. Effect of impurities : The impurity affects the elastic properties of the material to which
they are added. Sometimes suitable impurities are deliberately added to metals to increase
bindings between the crystal grains without disturbing their orientation. The elastic
properties are strengthened by adding impurities to the metal.
10.
Eg. To strengthen elastic properties, few amount of potassium in gold are added and few
amount of carbon in molten steel are added. In some cases by addition of impurity in the
material, the elasticity decreases.
5. Effect of recurring stress : If repeated stress is applied on the same body then softening
of material takes place and increases the plasticity and hence decreases the elasticity.
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 Which is more elastic, steel or rubber? Why?
Ans. Steel is more elastic than rubber : If a body resists deformation and recovers (regains) its
original size and shape immediately on removal of external deforming force, then it is called
perfectly elastic body.
F/A
We have, Y=
l/L
F
 Y∝
l
where, Y =¿ Young’s modulus of elasticity, F=¿ Restoring force and
l=¿ Extension produced in the wire.
In case of elastic bodies, a force of opposition starts building while deforming the body. If
steel and rubber are taken under consideration, steel offers more opposition to produce
change in shape and size. Hence steel is more elastic.
In case of steel, restoring force is more and extension produced is less (approximately 2% of
original length) i.e. elasticity is more.
Y for steel = 2 x 1011 N/m2
On the other hand, in case of rubber, rubber offers less opposition to produce change in size
and shape. In case of rubber, restoring force is less and extension is more (may length get
doubled) i.e. elasticity is less. Y for rubber = 1.25 x 107 N/m2.
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 Properties of Liquids :
Solids : The intermolecular distance is small and fixed. Therefore intermolecular force is
stronger in case of solids, hence it is not easy to change the size and shape of a body. Large
force is required to change size and shape of a solid body.
Liquids : In case of liquids, intermolecular distance is more and not fixed. Therefore, liquid
has no fixed shape. It takes the shape of the container. The intermolecular forces are
comparatively weaker than solids. Hence shape of liquid can be easily changed. But size
(volume) of the liquid is not so easy to change. Liquids need appreciable force (pressure) to
change its volume.
Gases : The intermolecular distance is large and not fixed. It has no fixed size and shape.
The intermolecular forces are very weak. Hence it is very easy to change shape and volume
of gases.
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 Thrust (Force) Definition : The total force exerted by a liquid on a surface in contact is
called thrust of a liquid.
SI unit of thrust is newton i.e. N.
11.
CGS unit of thrust is dyne.

The dimensions of thrust are [L1 M1 T–2].
Pressure (P) Definition : The force per unit area is called pressure.
OR
Liquid pressure definition : The thrust exerted by a liquid (at rest) per unit area of the
surface in contact with the liquid is called pressure.
F
P=
A
where, P=¿ Pressure, F=¿ Force (thrust) and A=¿ Surface area
When liquid is in equilibrium, the pressure (force) of a liquid always act normal
(perpendicular) to the surface.
The SI unit of pressure is N/m2 i.e. Pascal (Pa)
The CGS unit of pressure is dyne/cm2
1 N/m2 = 1 Pa = 10 dyne/cm2
The dimensions of pressure are [L–1 M1 T–2].
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 Pressure-Depth Relation :
When fluid (liquid) is taken in a vessel, it exerts pressure on the walls and base of the vessel.
A liquid pressure is due to its own weight. This liquid pressure at any point depends on the
depth of liquid.
Consider a vessel containing liquid of density ρ . The liquid exerts pressure on all sides and
base of the vessel.
Consider any point ‘x’ inside the liquid. Consider the unit area around the point ‘x’. Draw
imaginary cylinder above the point ‘x’ upto the free surface of the liquid.
Let,
A = 1 = Unit area around the point ‘x’
H = Height of the cylinder = Depth of the point ‘x’ from free surface = Pressure (static) head
ρ = Density of liquid
P = Pressure at point ‘x’
Now, Downward force on unit
area around the point ‘x’ = Weight of the liquid inside the cylinder
i.e. Pressure at point ‘x’ = [Mass of the liquid in the cylinder] x g
[
= ( Volume of liquid ∈¿ the cylinder ) × (
Density of
liquid )] x g
12.
= [(A x h) x ( ρ )] x g but A = 1
=1xhxρxg
Thus, Pressure at point ‘x’ = h ρg
Thus, h, ρ and g are the factors on which pressure at a point in a liquid depends.
Thus,
 Pressure at a point inside the liquid depends on depth. Pressure increases with depth.
 Pressure at any point inside the liquid is same in all directions.
 There is equal pressure at all points which are in the same level.
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 Pascal’s law : Statement : Pascal’s law states that when the pressure is enclosed liquid at
any point is changed by some amount, an equal amount of change in pressure is transmitted
throughout the liquid. This change in pressure acts normal to the surface everywhere.
Examples (Applications) :
Pascal’s law is used in variety of applications :
1. Hydraulic lift (jack) : In this force is magnified to lift heavy objects. Eg. Vehicles in
workshop, cars, jeeps.
2. Hydraulic press : To compress metal sheets.
3. Hydraulic brakes : Used in cars, buses.
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 Archimede’s Principle : Statement : It states that when a solid insoluble body is immersed
completely or partly in a liquid, it loses its weight and loss of weight of the body is equal to
the weight of displaced liquid.
Loss of weight = Magnitude of buoyant force
Win air – Win liquid = (Volume of displaced liquid x Density of liquid) x g
Win air – Win liquid = (Vdisp. x ρ L) x g
If the body is floating then, Weight of body = Weight of displaced liquid.
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 Definition of Viscosity : Viscosity is the property of liquid on account of which liquid tries
to oppose the relative motion between its different layers.
Velocity gradient : Consider any two layers P and Q with velocities (v + dv) and v
respectively. Here ‘dv’ is the change in velocity of layers and ‘dx’ is the change in vertical
distance between the layers.
dv
Then, is called velocity gradient.
dx
13.
Definition of Velocity gradient : Velocity gradient is defined as the change in velocity per
unit change in (vertical) distance of liquid layers.
dv
Velocity gradient =
dx
Unit of velocity gradient is per second i.e. 1/sec.
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 Newton’s Law of Viscosity :
The law states that the viscous force F developed between two liquid layers is
(i) directly proportional to the surface area A of the liquid layer
(ii) directly proportional to the velocity gradient
Thus, F∝ A
dv
and F∝
dx
dv
 Combining, F ∝ A × dx
dv
F=ηA
dx
where η is called coefficient of viscosity. η is constant for a given liquid. It changes from
liquid to liquid.
F newton
η=
 A×
dv i.e. m2 ×
m/s = Ns/m2 is the SI unit of η
dx m
or dyne-s/cm2 is the CGS unit of η .
1
or 1 poise = 1 dyne-s/cm2 = Ns/m2
10
Definition of Coefficient of viscosity η : Coefficient of viscosity η of a liquid is defined as

the viscous force developed between two liquid layers of unit surface area for unit velocity
gradient.
F
η=
To define η , we have dv
A×
dx
dv
In order to define η , if A = 1, =1, then η=F .
dx
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 Definition of Terminal velocity : The constant velocity with which a body falls through
liquid column is called terminal velocity.
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14.
 Definition of Stoke’s law : Stoke’s law states that the force of viscosity experienced by a
small metal sphere falling freely through a viscous medium, with terminal velocity is directly
proportional to
1. Radius of metal sphere r
2. Terminal velocity v
3. Coefficient of viscosity of liquid η
i.e. F ∝ ηr v
F=6 πηr v …… Stoke’s law formula
Derivation of Coefficient of Viscosity η by Stoke’s Method :

2
2 r g ( d− ρ )
η=
9 v
2
2 r g ( d −ρ )
or v=
9 η
where, η = coefficient of viscosity of liquid
r = radius of metal sphere
d = density of metal (heavier)
ρ = density of liquid (lighter)
v = terminal velocity
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 Effect of Temperature and Adulteration on Viscosity of Liquid :
1. Effect of temperature on viscosity : Viscosity of a given liquid is affect by its
temperature. Viscosity of liquid decreases with increase in temperature.
1
Viscosity of liquid  Temperature
This is due to the reason that, the shear stress (opposition to change of shape i.e.
viscosity) in liquid is due to intermolecular cohesion force. This cohesion force depends
on the distance between two molecules. As the temperature of liquid increases,
intermolecular distance increases which decreases the cohesion force and hence decreases
viscosity.
In other words, as temperature of liquid increases, kinetic energy of molecules increases
i.e. mobility of liquid increases i.e. viscosity of liquid decreases.
Eg. In summer season, speed of door closer increases.
2. Effect of adulteration of viscosity of liquid : Liquid adulteration means mixing of some

other material. Practically, it is observed that when adulteration of soluble substance is
added to liquid, its viscosity goes on increasing.
Viscosity  Adulteration
Because of adulteration, mobility of liquid decreases i.e. viscosity increases.
Eg. If sugar is dissolved in pure water then viscosity of net solution increases.
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 Introduction of Testing :
Testing of material for its performance is the necessary part of quality control. The testing of
15.
material is essential for :

1. detection of material defects like crack, flaw, porosity etc.
2. determination of breaking stress, ultimate stress, strength impact resistance ductility yield
of material for its safe and successful performance
3. determination of microstructure, texture, morphology, chemical constituents, physical and
chemical properties
4. to check suitability of component with respect to mechanical, chemical, electrical,
thermal and physical properties.
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 Testing Methods :
There are two main methods of testing : destructive and non-destructive.
1. Destructive testing :
 This test involves testing of material with actual destruction of material. After testing
this material, it cannot be used for its intended purpose. One can test the material as
sample (“lot sampling”) examination, all materials cannot be tested as it is destructive
testing.
 Generally, universal testing machine (UTM) is used for this purpose. For example
using Universal Testing Machine (UTM), breaking stress of rod is determined.
Compression testing machine, Izod and impact tester, torsion testing machine are
some examples of destructive testing technique.
2. Non-Destructive testing :
 Non-destructive testing is the method of examining the materials for internal as well
as surface discontinuities without the destruction of material.
 Material can be used for intended purpose after testing. Thus, 100% testing is
possible. (i.e. volume testing is possible).
 In other words, when the test is completed, the part can still be used.
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 Different (Various) NDT Methods Used in Industries :
Following are the well established NDT methods used in industries :
1. Radiographic Testing (RT) 2. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
3. Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) 4. Eddy Current Testing (ET)
5. Leak Testing (LT) 6. Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)
7. Visual Testing (VT) 8. Vibration Analysis (VA)
9. Thermal Infraradiography (TR) 10. Neutron Radiography (NR)
11. Acoustic Emission Testing (AE) 12. Holographic Testing (HT)
13. Microscopy etc.
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 Brief Idea About Some NDT Methods :

16.
1. Radiography Testing (RT) : When high frequency (high penetrating power) radiations
(X-rays) are passed through the material, the image of the material alongwith defects is
recorded on the photographic plate. Using this inside flaws can be detected.
2. Ultrasonic Testing (UT) : When ultrasonic (high frequency sound) radiations are
incident on the material, they get reflected, transmitted a scattered from the surface or
defect. This can be converted into visual signal and the defect is detected. Using this,
inside flaws can be detected.
3. Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT) or (MT) : Ferromagnetic materials (job) are

magnetized to create magnetic flux. The magnetic flux leakage takes place at
discontinuity because of pole formation. Iron powder is sprinkled on it. Then it goes into
cracks. Using this, surface flaws can be detected.
4. Liquid Penetrant Testing (LPT) or (PT) : A coloured penetrant is applied on the

surface of specimen, due to capillary action the penetrant goes into surface cracks. Using
this, surface flaws can be detected.
5. Thermal Infra-radiography (TR) or (TIR) : All materials emit electromagnetic

radiations when they have temperature greater than 0K. Thermography is the process of
producing thermal images of object using IR camera.
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 Criteria for Selection of NDT Method :
Following parameters are considered while selecting NDT methods :
1. Codes or standard requirements.
2. Specifications of the material to be tested, for example, nature of material, its size and
shape.
3. Type of disorders to be detected, also depend on nature of disorders.
4. Testing also depends on the manufacturing process of material to be tested.
5. It is also depending on the equipments available for testing.
6. Total cost required to test the material.
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 Merits (Advantages) of NDT :
1. Material can be used for its intended purpose after testing.
2. Used as quality control tool, because material can be tested for all possible parameters.
3. Used as quality assurance tool because after testing the material one can check for its
suitability at a particular place.
4. The testing of material is possible before its manufacturing i.e. raw material can be tested
as such as time, money and machining can be saved.
5. The testing is possible while manufacturing so called on-line testing or real time testing is
possible.
6. The testing is possible after manufacturing.
7. The testing of material is possible during servicing of component (in-service application).
17.
8. Hundred percent examination of material is possible unlike destructive testing in which
only sample testing is possible.
9. Now-a-days modern non-destructive tests are preferred in manufacturing and fabrication
to ensure product reliability to control manufacturing process, lower production cost and
uniform quality level.
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 Demerits (Limitations) of NDT :
1. Minimum two methods for complete examination of the material are required. With only
one method, testing for all parameters of materials is not possible. Because using one
technique either surface flaws are detected or inside flaws are detected.
2. Trained and certified persons are authorised to conduct the test (level I, II and III) as per
American Society for Non-destructive Testing (ASNT).
3. High degree of skills is required to be set-up and interpret.
4. Cost of equipments is high and thus testing charges are more as compared to destructive
testing.
5. Qualitative testing is possible, however quantitative testing is difficult.
6. NDT interpretations are relative. One should know the standard results first.
7. All types of materials cannot be tested using all the tests. For example :
a) Only ferromagnetic material can be tested using magnetic particle testing (MPT)
method.
b) Only electrically conductive material can be tested using eddy current testing (ET)
method.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Comparison between Destructive Testing and Non-destructive Testing :
No. Destructive Testing Non-Destructive Testing
1. Testing of material for all possible Testing of material for all possible
parameters with its destruction. All parameters without its destruction. All
parameters can be tested. parameters cannot be tested eg. strength,
breaking stress, etc. cannot be determined.
2. No expertise is required for testing. Expertise is required for testing.
3. Defect can be directly seen and determined. It requires comparison between standard
specimen and specimen being tested.
4. 100% testing is not possible. 100% testing can be done.
5. Only destructive testing is sufficient to test Minimum two NDT methods are required
the specimen. for sufficient testing.
6. Specimen cannot be used after testing as it is Specimen can be used after testing, as it is
completely or partially destructed. no where destructed.
7. Testing charges are less. Comparatively testing charges are more.
8. Quantitative and qualitative testing is Only qualitative testing is possible.
possible.
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18.

Properties of Matter and NDT-notes

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Properties of Matter and NDT-notes

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CHAPTER 1 : PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Tensile stress Compressive stress Shearing stress

1. Tensile stress or Longitudinal stress :

where r is radius of the wire

MKS unit of tensile stress is N/m2

CGS unit of tensile stress is dyne/cm2

The dimensions of tensile stress are [L–1 M1 T–2]

Examples : Rope climbing, bicycle chain,

2. Compressive stress or Volumetric stress :

CGS unit of volume stress is dyne/cm2

The dimensions of volume stress are [L–1 M1 T–2]

Tangential force Tangential force F

CGS unit of shear stress is dyne/cm2

The dimensions of shear stress are [L–1 M1 T–2]

New length−Original length

SI unit of modulus of elasticity is N/m2

Its SI or MKS unit is N/m2

CGS unit is dyne/cm2

Dimensions are [L–1 M1 T–2].

2. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity ( K ) :

Bulk modulus of elasticity,

CGS unit is dyne/cm2

Dimensions are [L–1 M1 T–2].

The SI unit of compressibility is m2/N

The CGS unit of compressibility is cm2/dyne

Dimensions of compressibility are [L1 M–1 T2].

Dimensions of compressibility are exactly inverse of K.

Relation between Y, K and η :

CGS unit of thrust is dyne.

Definition of Coefficient of viscosity η : Coefficient of viscosity η of a liquid is defined as

Derivation of Coefficient of Viscosity η by Stoke’s Method :

2. Effect of adulteration of viscosity of liquid : Liquid adulteration means mixing of some

material is essential for :

 Brief Idea About Some NDT Methods :

3. Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT) or (MT) : Ferromagnetic materials (job) are

4. Liquid Penetrant Testing (LPT) or (PT) : A coloured penetrant is applied on the

5. Thermal Infra-radiography (TR) or (TIR) : All materials emit electromagnetic

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