GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

Black-Body Radiation
G S Ranganath

T o w a r d s th e e n d o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , it
b e c a m e c le a r th a t w ith in th e fra m e w o rk o f c la s-
sic a l p h y s ic s, it w a s n o t p o ss ib le to u n d e r sta n d
th e p h e n o m e n o n o f B la c k -B o d y R a d ia tio n . In
1 9 0 0 M a x P la n c k c a m e u p w ith a th e o r y th a t a t
o n e str o k e a c c o u n te d su c c e ssfu lly fo r a ll its o b -
se r v e d fe a tu r e s. T h is th e o r y h a s b e e n p r e se n te d G S Ranganath was
a g a in st a b a c k d r o p o f th e m a jo r d isc o v e r ie s th a t formerly at the Raman
Research Institute,
le d to it.
Bangalore. He is fan of
In tr o d u c tio n Alexandre Dumas, Conan
Doyle and Bernard Shaw.
O n 2 7 th A p ril 1 9 0 0 L o rd K elv in g av e a lectu re a t th e He is interested in classical
Karnatak Music.
R oy a l In stitu tio n o f G rea t B rita in o n `N in eteen th-C en t-
u ry C lou ds over the D yn am icalT heory of H eat an d L ight'.
T h e tw o clo u d s th a t h e referred to w ere th e B la ck -B o d y
S p ectru m a n d th e resu lt o f th e M ich elso n { M o rley ex p er-
im en t. H e sa id th a t th e `b ea u ty a n d clea rn ess o f th eo ry '
w a s ov ersh a d ow ed b y th ese `tw o clo u d s'. It is n ow a
p a rt o f h isto ry h ow th e stu d y o f th e ¯ rst led to th e b irth
o f Q u a n tu m M ech a n ics a n d th a t o f th e seco n d resu lted
in th e d ev elo p m en t o f th e T h eo ry o f R ela tiv ity. T h u s
B la ck -B o d y R a d ia tio n o ccu p ies a cen tra l p o sitio n in th e
h isto ry o f m o d ern p h y sics. W e sh a ll lo o k a t th e ea rly
a ttem p ts to u n d ersta n d it a n d a lso M a x P la n ck 's n o n -
cla ssica l th eo ry o f th e b la ck -b o d y ra d ia tio n . A n a ttem p t
h a s b een m a d e to p resen t th e su b ject in its h isto rica l Keywords
p ersp ectiv e. Black-body radiation, thermal
radiation, heat, electromagnetic
E a r ly S tu d ie s o n R a d ia tio n radiation, Stefan’s Law, Stefan–
Boltzmann Law, Wien’s Law,
N a tu re o f T h e r m a l R a d ia tio n Rayleigh–Jeans Law, black-
body spectrum, ultraviolet ca-
W e k n ow th a t h ea t tra n sfer ta k es p la ce th ro u g h th e tastrophe, zero point energy,
p ro cesses o f co n d u ctio n , co n v ectio n a n d ra d ia tio n . T h e photon.

RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008 115

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

The famous British

¯ rst tw o p ro cesses ca n ta k e p la ce o n ly in a m ed iu m .
astronomer William
T h e p ro cess o f ra d ia tio n d o es n o t n eed a m ed iu m . It
Herschel, the
is th ro u g h th is p ro cess th a t h ea t fro m th e S u n rea ch es
th e E a rth . T h e fa m o u s B ritish a stro n o m er W illia m H er-
discoverer of the
sch el, th e d iscov erer o f th e p la n et U ra n u s, w a s p ro b a b ly
planet Uranus, was
th e ¯ rst to d em o n stra te th a t h ea t is a fo rm o f lig h t b e-
probably the first to
y o n d th e red en d o f th e v isib le sp ectru m . In a n ex p er-
demonstrate that heat
im en t ca rried o u t in 1 8 0 0 , h e sta ck ed u p a n a rray o f
is a form of light
th erm o m eters b eh in d a p rism w h en th e su n lig h t w a s in -
beyond the red end of
cid en t o n th e o th er sid e o f it. T h ere w ere th erm o m eters
the visible spectrum. cov erin g n o t o n ly th e v isib le p a rt o f th e sp ectru m b u t
a lso b ey o n d . A fter a few h o u rs o f ex p o su re ea ch th er-
m o m eter a ro u n d a n d b ey o n d th e red reg io n in d ica ted
a rise in tem p era tu re. T o h is su rp rise h e fo u n d th a t
a s h e m ov ed aw ay fro m th e red en d in to th e in v isib le
(in fra red ) reg io n , th e tem p era tu re g ra d u a lly in crea sed .
H e p u b lish ed th ree p a p ers o n th is su b ject in th e P hilo-
sophical T ran saction s of the R oyal S ociety o f L o n d o n .
In h is seco n d p a p er h e co n clu d ed th a t h ea t a n d lig h t
w ere a p a rt o f th e sa m e sp ectru m . It b eca m e clea r fro m
la ter stu d ies th a t h ea t is a n electro m a g n etic ra d ia tio n
w ith a w av elen g th ra n g in g fro m 1 to 1 0 0 m icro m eters
o r m icro n s i.e., la rg er th a n 0 .7 m icro n s co rresp o n d in g
to th e red en d o f th e v isib le sp ectru m . L a ter in v estig a -
tio n s esta b lish ed th a t th e S u n em its ra d ia tio n n o t o n ly
in th e v isib le a n d th e in fra red reg io n s b u t a lso in th e
Heat is an
u ltrav io let reg io n .
electromagnetic B la c k -B o d y R a d ia tio n
radiation with a
wavelength ranging T o q u a n tify su ch a sp ectru m , w e h av e to m ea su re th e
from 1 to 100 micro a m o u n t o f ra d ia tio n en erg y a p p ea rin g a t d i® eren t w av e-
meters or microns i.e.
len g th s. F o r th is w e n eed a d etectin g m a teria l th a t a b -
larger than 0.7
so rb s th e ra d ia tio n a t a ll w av elen g th s co m p letely. G u s-
tav R o b ert K irch h o ® , a G erm a n p h y sicist a n d m a th e-
microns
m a ticia n , in terested h im self in th is p ro b lem . H is stu d -
corresponding to the
ies in 1 8 6 0 led h im to lo o k a t th e p ro p erties o f su ch
red end of the visible
a m a teria l w h ich h e term ed a s a p erfect a b so rb er. H e
spectrum.
p o in ted o u t th a t w h en su ch a m a teria l is h ea ted , it w ill

116 RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

em it ra d ia tio n s o f a ll w av elen g th s i.e. it w ill b e a p erfect How to get a true

em itter. S u ch a b o d y is referred to a s a b la ck b o d y. A black body? The
m a teria l th a t a p p ea rs b la ck b eh av es v ery n ea rly lik e a answer to this
b la ck b o d y. B u t h ow to g et a tru e b la ck b o d y ? T h e
question was
a n sw er to th is q u estio n w a s p rov id ed b y W ilh elm W ien
provided by Wilhelm
a n d O tto L u m m er in 1 8 9 5 . T h ey sh ow ed th a t a h o llow
Wien and Otto
b o d y w h o se w a lls a re a t th e sa m e tem p era tu re b eh av es
Lummer in 1895.
lik e a b la ck b o d y. T h ey p o in ted o u t th a t it w ill b e a
p erfect em itter em ittin g th ro u g h a tin y h o le in its su r-
fa ce, ra d ia tio n s o f a ll w a v elen gth s. F u rth er, a n y ra d ia -
tio n en terin g su ch a cav ity w ill u n d erg o in ¯ n itely m a n y
re° ectio n s in sid e a n d w ill lo se en erg y a t ev ery re° ectio n .
T h u s n o in cid en t ra d ia tio n w ill em erg e o u t o f th e tin y
h o le. In o th er w o rd s, it is a lso a p erfect a b so rb er. T h u s
su ch a cav ity, w h ich ca n b e ea sily co n stru cted , is a lm o st
a p erfect b la ck b o d y. T h e a m o u n t o f ra d ia tio n em itted
b y a b la ck b o d y ca n b e m ea su red u sin g a b o lo m eter, a
th erm o p ile o r a ra d io m eter.
S te fa n 's L a w
S cien tists h a d stu d ied ra d ia tion ev en b efo re th e co n cep t
o f a b la ck b o d y h a d em erg ed . F o r ex a m p le, th e F ren ch
p h y sicist P ierre L o u is D u lo n g a n d th e F ren ch m a th e-
m a ticia n A l¶e x is T h ¶e rμe se P etit h a d p u b lish ed w ay b a ck
in 1 8 1 7 resu lts fro m w h a t th ey co n sid ered to b e p u rely
ra d ia tio n h ea t tra n sfer b etw een a sp h erica l b u lb a n d a
sp h erica l ch a m b er. V a rio u s g a ses ¯ lled th e g a p b etw een
th e tw o a n d th ey h a d m ea su red th e ra te o f ch a n g e o f
tem p era tu re o f th e b u lb ov er a ra n g e o f p ressu res. T h ey
ex tra p o la ted th eir resu lts to zero p ressu re h o p in g th a t
o n ly th e ra d ia tiv e p ro cess rem a in ed . T h ey co n clu d ed
fro m th eir stu d ies th a t th e to ta l en erg y E em itted p er Scientists had
u n it a rea p er seco n d is rela ted to a b so lu te tem p era tu re studied radiation
T o f th e b o d y. T h ey ev en g o t a n em p irica l rela tio n sh ip even before the
b etw een E a n d T . concept of a black
body had
In 1 8 7 9 , th e A u stria n p h y sicist J o sef S tefa n rea ssessed
th is w o rk o f D u lo n g a n d P etit. S tefa n fro m h is ex p eri- emerged.

RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008 117

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

Using his own law m en ts o n g a ses h a d sh ow n th a t th e th erm a l co n d u ctiv -

Josef Stefan arrived ity o f g a ses w a s n o t p ressu re d ep en d en t. H en ce, D u lo n g
at the important result
a n d P etit, b y th eir ex tra p o latio n to zero p ressu re h a d
that Sun is at a
elim in a ted co n v ectio n b u t n ot co n d u ctio n . T h erefo re,
S tefa n co rrected fo r th is a n d ca lcu la ted th e p u re ra d ia -
temperature of about
tio n co m p o n en t o f h ea t tra n sfer b etw een th e b u lb a n d
6,000 K.
th e ch a m b er. H e d iscov ered th a t a rela tio n o f th e ty p e
4
E = ¾T

m a tch ed b etter th e ex p erim en ta l resu lts o f D u lo n g a n d

P etit. T h u s w a s b o rn h is fa m o u s law . T h e co n sta n t o f
p ro p o rtio n a lity ¾ is ca lled th e S tefa n C o n sta n t. T h is
law w a s in d eed a v ery im p o rta n t d iscov ery. U n fo rtu -
n a tely it d id n o t a ttra ct th e a tten tio n o f m a n y p h y sicists
till L u m m er to o k n o tice o f it. In 1 8 8 9 , L u m m er, a lo n g
w ith E rn st P rin g sh eim a n d F erd in a n d K u rlb a u m ex p er-
im en ta lly m ea su red th e a m o u n t o f ra d ia tio n em itted b y
a cav ity a n d su cceed ed in su b sta n tia tin g S tefa n 's law .
T h ey g o t th e fo llow in g va lu e fo r S tefa n 's co n sta n t:

¾ = 5 :7 0 £ 1 0 ¡ 5 erg cm ¡2
sec ¡1 d eg ¡4 (1 0 ¡8 W m ¡2
K ¡4
):

S tefa n h im self in d ica ted th e im p o rta n ce o f h is law . B y

th a t tim e, th e a m o u n t o f so la r ra d ia tio n th a t rea ch es th e
E a rth , h a d b een m ea su red a n d w a s fo u n d to b e 1 3 6 0
W / sq m . F ro m a stro n o m ica l o b serva tio n s, th e E a rth {
S u n d ista n ce a n d th e S u n 's d ia m eter w ere k n ow n . W ith
a ll th is d a ta ava ila b le to h im , a n d a ssu m in g th e S u n
to b e a b la ck b o d y, S tefa n co u ld ea sily ca lcu la te its E .
T h en u sin g h is ow n law h e a rriv ed a t th e im p o rta n t re-
su lt th a t S u n is a t a tem p era tu re o f a b o u t 6 ,0 0 0 K . T h is
w a s in d eed a sig n i¯ ca n t resu lt sin ce u n til th en n o o n e
w a s su re o f th e S u n 's tem p era tu re. T em p era tu res a n y -
We can also apply w h ere b etw een 2 ,0 0 0 K a n d 1 0 ,0 0 0 K w ere b ein g q u o ted
Stefan’s law to work b y p h y sicists. W e ca n a lso a p p ly S tefa n 's law to w o rk
out the temperature
o u t th e tem p era tu re o f th e E a rth . W e k n ow th e a m o u n t
of the Earth.
o f so la r ra d ia tio n rea ch in g th e E a rth . A b o u t 3 0 % o f th is
in co m in g ra d ia tio n is re° ected b a ck in to sp a ce b y th e

118 RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008

 GENERAL  ARTICLE

E a rth a n d th e rest h ea ts u p th e E a rth . S o o n th e E a rth We can also apply

sta rts em ittin g ra d ia tio n a s a b la ck b o d y. It rea ch es a Stefan’s law to
stea d y sta te w h en it sta rts em ittin g a s m u ch a s it re-
work out the
ceiv es. It is ea sy to w o rk o u t th is p ro b lem a n d a rriv e
temperature of the
a t th e E a rth 's tem p era tu re. It tu rn s o u t to b e a b o u t
Earth.
2 5 5 K o r ¡ 1 8 ±C . In fa ct th is is clo se to th e tem p era -
tu re th a t sa tellites h av e m ea su red o u tsid e th e E a rth 's
a tm o sp h ere.
B la c k -B o d y S p ec tru m
W e h av e so fa r d iscu ssed th e to ta l ra d ia tio n em itted b y
th e b la ck b o d y. It is im p o rta n t to k n ow h ow th e ra d ia n t
en erg y is d istrib u ted a m o n g st th e d i® eren t w av elen g th s
in its sp ectru m . L u m m er a n d P rin g sh eim a d d ressed th is
p ro b lem . A s a resu lt o f th eir la b o rio u s a n d p a in sta k in g
w o rk , th e g en era l n a tu re o f th e b la ck -b o d y sp ectru m b e-
ca m e clea r. F igu re 1 sh ow s so m e ty p ica l cu rv es th a t rep -
resen t th e sp ectru m a t d i® eren t tem p era tu res T o f th e
b la ck b o d y. E a ch cu rv e g iv es u = u (¸ ), th e en erg y p er
u n it v o lu m e (en erg y d en sity ), a t d i® eren t w av elen g th s ¸ ,
in u n it w av elen g th in terva l (d ¸ = u n ity ). N o tice th ree
im p o rta n t fea tu res:

Figure 1. Black-body spec-

trum.

RESONANCE  February 2008 119

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

Boltzmann took a 1 . T h e sp ectru m is co n tin u o u s. It h a s a ll th e w av e-

bold step in len g th s ¸ , fro m 0 to 1 .
applying 2 . It h a s a p ea k a t a p a rticu la r w av elen g th .
thermodynamics to
radiation. 3 . T h e p ea k h eig h t in crea ses a n d sh ifts to sh o rter w av e-
len g th s a s th e tem p era tu re o f th e b la ck b o d y in crea ses.
N o te: T h e v isib le p a rt o f th e sp ectru m ex ten d s fro m 4 0 0
n m to 7 0 0 n m .
T h e r m o d y n a m ic D e sc r ip tio n o f R a d ia tio n
S te fa n { B o ltz m a n n L a w
It is g rea t to k n ow th a t th e b la ck -b o d y ra d ia tio n o b ey s
S tefa n 's law . B u t to g et th is law fro m th e scien ce o f
h ea t o r th erm a l p h y sics is g rea ter still. T h is b eca m e th e
n ex t b ig ch a llen g e fo r p h y sicists. In th is g a m e, L u d w ig
B o ltzm a n n , a stu d en t o f S tefa n , b ro k e n ew g ro u n d in
1 8 8 4 . T ill th en p h y sicists h a d a p p lied th erm o d y n a m ics
o n ly to m a teria l o b jects. B o ltzm a n n to o k a b o ld step
in a p p ly in g th erm o d y n a m ics to ra d ia tio n . T h e p ressu re
P o f th e electro m a g n etic ra d ia tio n in term s o f its to ta l
en erg y d en sity U ca n b e ca lcu la ted . It tu rn s o u t th a t
μ ¶
1
P = U:
3
S o , B o ltzm a n n co n ceiv ed a C a rn o t `E th er E n g in e' w ith
ra d ia tio n a s th e w o rk in g su b sta n ce a n d d riv en p u rely
b y p ressu re o f ra d ia tio n . T h is en g in e w a s a ssu m ed to
h av e p erfectly re° ectin g w a lls. T h e so u rce a n d receiv er
w ere ta k en to b e b la ck b o d ies. D u rin g th e iso th erm a l
Boltzmann conceived ex p a n sio n , th e h ea t (en erg y ) a b so rb ed is d Q = (U d V +
a Carnot ‘Ether P d V ). W o rk d o n e in th e C a rn o t cy cle is d W = d P d V .
Engine’ with radiation T h u s th e e± cien cy o f th is en g in e is
as the working dW dU
substance and driven ´ = = :
dQ 4U
purely by pressure of
radiation. F o r a C a rn o t en g in e th is sh o u ld b e eq u a l to d T = T . It
is a n ea sy m a tter th en to sh ow th a t th e to ta l en erg y

120 RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

d en sity U o f th e th erm a l ra d ia tio n d ep en d s o n a b so lu te

Wien was the first
tem p era tu re T a cco rd in g to th e rela tio n :
one to account for
U = bT 4 ; some of the features
of the black body
w h ere b is a co n sta n t. F ro m th is, B o ltzm a n n ea sily a r- spectrum. He, like
riv ed a t th e S tefa n 's law o f ra d ia tio n w ith ¾ = (bc= 4 );c Boltzmann, applied
b ein g th e v elo city o f lig h t. T h a t is h ow in la ter liter- thermodynamics to
a tu re, S tefa n 's law ca m e to b e k n ow n a s th e S tefa n { radiation.
B o ltzm a n n L aw .
W ie n 's L a w
T h e fea tu res o f th e b la ck -b o d y sp ectru m rem a in ed a
m y stery till W ien a p p ea red o n th e scen e. H e w a s th e
¯ rst o n e to a cco u n t fo r so m e o f th e fea tu res o f th e b la ck -
b o d y sp ectru m . In 1 8 9 3 , h e, lik e B o ltzm a n n , a p p lied
th erm o d y n a m ics to ra d ia tio n . H e co n sid ered th e p ro b -
lem o f ra d ia tio n co n ¯ n ed in sid e a ch a m b er o f v o lu m e
V , w h o se w a lls a re u n d er a d ia b a tic ex p a n sio n . B eca u se
th e w a lls o f th e cav ity a re m ov in g , rela tiv ely, th e w av e-
len g th s o f th e w av es rea ch in g th e su rfa ce g et D o p p ler
sh ifted in w av elen g th . C a lcu la tio n s led W ien to th e su r-
p risin g resu lt th a t in th is p ro cess (V = ¸ 3 ) rem a in s a co n -
sta n t. F ro m th is, h e ea sily ca lcu la ted th e en erg y u (¸ ;T )
em itted p er u n it v o lu m e p er sec in u n it w av elen g th in -
terva l. H e fo u n d th a t:
f (¸ T )
u (¸ ;T ) = ;
¸5
w h ere th e n a tu re o f th e fu n ctio n `f ' rem a in ed u n d eter-
m in ed [1 ]. In cid en ta lly in teg ra tio n o f u ov er ¸ g iv es U ,
th e to ta l en erg y d en sity o f a b la ck b o d y. In th e lit-
era tu re th is rela tio n is o ften referred to a s W ien 's law .
W ien sh ow ed fro m th is rela tio n th a t th e p ea k va lu e u p o f
u a n d th e w av elen g th ¸ p a t w h ich th is p ea k o ccu rs, a re
rela ted to th e tem p era tu re T o f th e b la ck b o d y th ro u g h
th e rela tio n s:
T ¸p = A ;

RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008 121

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

It is not generally u p = B T 5;
appreciated that water
w h ere A a n d B a re co n sta n ts. T h ese ex tra o rd in a ry rela -
vapour is a
tio n s b rin g o u t tw o im p o rta n t a sp ects o f th e b la ck -b o d y
greenhouse gas.
sp ectru m , o n e p erta in in g to th e p o sitio n o f its p ea k a n d
Water molecules a n o th er to th e h eig h t o f its p ea k . T h o u g h W ien d id th is
absorb ¯ n e p iece o f w o rk in 1 8 9 3 , h e p u b lish ed it o n ly in 1 8 9 6 .
electromagnetic In 1 9 0 0 L u m m er a n d P rin g sh eim fro m th eir ex p erim en ts
radiations of o n cav ity ra d ia tio n sh ow ed th a t b o th th ese rela tio n s o f
wavelength more than W ien a g reed w ell w ith th eir resu lts. T h ey fo u n d th e
10 microns. co n sta n t A to b e 2 :8 9 8 £ 1 0 ¡3 m K . T h e ¯ rst rela tio n is
k n ow n in th e litera tu re a s W ien 's D isp la cem en t L aw . It
m ay b e m en tio n ed h ere th a t W ien g o t th e 1 9 1 1 N o b el
P rize in P h y sics fo r th e d iscov ery o f th is law .
T w o im p lica tio n s o f W ien 's d isp la cem en t law a re w o rth
m en tio n in g h ere. O u r ¯ rst ex a m p le refers to a tu n g -
sten ¯ la m en t la m p . It em its ra d ia tio n a t a b o u t 2 0 0 0 K .
T h u s it em its m o stly a t a w av elen g th o f 1 .5 m icro n s i.e.
h ea t a n d n o t lig h t. It is a v ery in e± cien t la m p . O u r
seco n d ex a m p le h a s to d o w ith th e tem p era tu re o f th e
E a rth . A s a lrea d y m en tio n ed a b ov e, th e tem p era tu re
o f th e E a rth d u e to so la r h ea tin g a lo n e is a b o u t 2 5 5 K
o r ¡ 1 8 ±C . S u ch a b la ck b o d y em its p ea k ra d ia tio n a t
a w av elen g th o f a b o u t 1 2 m icro n s. W e k n ow th a t th e
E a rth is su rro u n d ed b y a b la n k et o f w a ter va p o u r. It is
n o t g en era lly a p p recia ted th a t w a ter va p o u r is a g reen -
h o u se g a s. W a ter m o lecu les a b so rb electro m a g n etic ra -
d ia tio n s o f w av elen g th m o re th a n 1 0 m icro n s. W a ter
m o lecu les in th e a tm o sp h ere, a fter a b so rb in g th ese lo n g
w av elen g th ra d ia tio n s, ra d ia te th em b a ck to th e E a rth
th u s ra isin g its tem p era tu re. A n ew ra d ia tio n eq u ilib -
riu m is rea ch ed a n d th e E a rth 's tem p era tu re rises to
a b o u t 3 0 0 K i.e 2 7 ±C .
M ic ro sc o p ic D e sc r ip tio n o f R a d ia tio n
W ie n 's F o r m u la
W ien w a s a lso th e ¯ rst to su g g est a m icro sco p ic v iew o f

122 RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

th e b la ck -b o d y ra d ia tio n . In sp ired b y th e k in etic th eo ry Lord Rayleigh and

o f g a ses, h e co o k ed u p th ro u g h `lo o se' a rg u m en ts a n ex -
James Jeans looked
p o n en tia l fo rm fo r th e fu n ctio n `f ' a n d p ro p o sed in th e
at the black-body
sa m e p a p er o f 1 8 9 6 :
radiation from the
μ ¶
¡ D point of view of
f (¸ T ) = C ex p ;
¸T statistical mechanics.
th u s g ettin g fo r u th e fo llo w in g fo rm :
h³ ´i
¡D
C ex p ¸T
u (¸ ;T ) = ;
¸5
w h ere C a n d D a re co n sta n ts. T h is is o ften referred to a s
`W ien 's fo rm u la '. L u m m er a n d P rin g sh eim sh ow ed th a t
it a g rees v ery w ell w ith ex p erim en ta l resu lts n ea r th e
low w av elen g th en d o f th e b la ck -b o d y sp ectru m . B u t
th ey fo u n d th a t it d ev ia tes, g iv in g lesser va lu es, a t th e
h ig h er w av elen g th s w ith la rg e d ev ia tio n s n ea r th e lo n g
w av elen g th ta il o f th e sp ectru m .
R a y le ig h { J ea n s L a w
L o rd R ay leig h a n d J a m es J ea n s lo o k ed a t th e b la ck -
b o d y ra d ia tio n fro m th e p o in t o f v iew o f sta tistica l m e-
ch a n ics. T h ey w ere p ro b a b ly th e ¯ rst to d ev elo p a self-
co n sisten t cla ssica l m icro sco p ic p ictu re o f b la ck -b o d y ra -
d ia tio n . T h ey co n sid ered th e b la ck -b o d y ra d ia tio n co n -
¯ n ed in a cav ity. S in ce ra d ia tio n s a re n o th in g b u t elec-
tro m a g n etic w av es, th ese w av es w ill h av e to `¯ t' in to th e
cav ity sp a ce. H en ce, a n y su ch w av e w ill h av e, lik e a v i-
b ra tin g strin g , a n in teg ra l n u m b er o f h a lf w av elen g th s
ov er th e len g th it cov ers in sid e th e cav ity. E a ch su ch
p erm itted w av e is ca lled a `m o d e'. R ay leig h a n d J ea n s
w o rk ed o u t th e n u m b er Z o f th e p o ssib le electro m a g -
n etic m o d es p er u n it v o lu m e th a t ca n ex ist in sid e th e
cav ity, a t a w av elen g th ¸ fo r u n it w av elen g th in terva l.
T h ey g o t a fter ta k in g in to co n sid era tio n th e p o la riza tio n
o f th e electro m a g n etic w av es:
8¼
Z (¸ ) = :
¸4

RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008 123

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

N ex t th ey in v o k ed th e eq u ip a rtitio n th eo rem o f M a x -
The famous
w ell's cla ssica l sta tistics. A cco rd in g to th is, th e th erm a l
Rayleigh–Jeans
en erg y o f a sy stem is eq u a lly d istrib u ted a m o n g st th e
Law completely
d i® eren t d eg rees o f freed o m o f th e sy stem . E a ch d eg ree
fails near the low
o f freed o m a cco m m o d a tes a n en erg y o f (k T = 2 ), k b ein g
wavelength end.
th e B o ltzm a n n co n sta n t eq u a l to 1 :3 8 £ 1 0 ¡ 1 6 erg d eg ¡1
(£ 1 0 ¡ 2 3 J / K ). R ay leig h a n d J ea n s a p p lied th is th eo rem
to ra d ia tio n in sid e th e cav ity. T h ey reco g n ized th a t th e
en erg y o f ra d ia tio n is d istrib u ted a m o n g st its d i® eren t
m o d es in sid e th e cav ity. N ow ea ch m o d e is lik e a h a r-
m o n ic o scilla to r a n d h en ce h a s tw o d eg rees o f freed o m .
A s a co n seq u en ce ea ch m o d e in sid e th e cav ity h a s a n en -
erg y o f " = k T . A n d th ere a re Z m o d es p er u n it v o lu m e
in sid e th e cav ity. T h erefo re th e to ta l ra d ia tio n en erg y
p er u n it v o lu m e a t ¸ in u n it w av elen g th in terva l is:
(8 ¼ k )T
u (¸ ;T ) = " Z = :
¸4
T h is is th e fa m o u s R ay leig h { J ea n s L aw . R ay leig h g o t
th is resu lt in 1 9 0 0 w ith a n u n d eterm in ed co n sta n t in
p la ce o f th e n u m erica l co e± cien t (8 ¼ ). L a ter in 1 9 0 5
J ea n s w o rk ed o u t th is co n sta n t. F o r a ll its b ea u ty, th is
fo rm u la d o es n o t a g ree w ell w ith th e ex p erim en ta l b la ck -
b o d y sp ectru m ex cep tin g a t h ig h w av elen g th s n ea r th e
ta il o f th e sp ectru m . F u rth er it co m p letely fa ils n ea r
th e low w a v elen g th en d w h ere it d iv erg es to a n in ¯ n ite
va lu e fo r u (¸ ;T ). T h is is o ften referred to a s th e U ltra -
v io let C a ta stro p h e. It is in terestin g to n o te th a t w e ca n
g et R ay leig h { J ea n s law fro m W ien 's law if w e ta k e th e
fu n ctio n f (¸ T ) = 8 ¼ k T ¸ .
P la n c k 's F o r m u la
S o , w e h a v e tw o fo rm s fo r u (¸ ;T ): th e o n e d u e to W ien
th a t w o rk s w ell a t th e low w av elen g th en d a n d th e o th er
o n e d u e to R ay leig h a n d J ea n s th a t w o rk s w ell a t th e
h ig h w av elen g th ta il o f th e b la ck -b o d y sp ectru m . B o th
th e fo rm u la e fa il in th e in term ed ia te reg io n o f th e sp ec-
tru m . H av in g g o t fo rm u la e a t th e tw o w av elen g th lim its,

124 RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

it seem s a rea so n a b le step to g et a fu ll fo rm u la b y in - Planck presented

terp o la tin g b etw een th ese tw o . T h is im p o rta n t step w a s
the discovery of
ta k en b y M a x P la n ck a ro u n d 19 0 0 . P la n ck su g g ested a n
Planck’s formula
in terp o la tio n fo rm u la b y ta k in g fo r W ien 's fu n ctio n `f '
at the German
th e fo rm
(8¼ k ¯ ) Physical Society
f (¸ T ) = n ³ ¯ ´ o;
meeting that took
ex p ¸ T ¡ 1
place on October
w ith k a s th e B o ltzm a n n co n sta n t a n d ¯ a s a n a d ju sta b le 9, 1900.
p a ra m eter. H en ce fo r th e b la ck -b o d y sp ectru m h e g o t
(8¼ k ¯ )
u (¸ ;T ) = hn ³ ´ o i:
ex p ¸¯T ¡ 1 ¸ 5

T h is is th e fa m o u s P la n ck fo rm u la . W e ca n q u ick ly v er-
ify th a t th is g o es ov er to th e R ay leig h { J ea n s law a t h ig h
w av elen g th s a n d to th e W ien 's fo rm u la a t low w av e-
len g th s w ith th e co n sta n ts C = 8 ¼ k¯ a n d D = ¯ . In
v iew o f w h a t h a s b een sa id o f th e W ien a n d R ay leig h {
J ea n s fo rm u la e, w e co n clu d e th a t th e P la n ck fo rm u la
a g rees w ith ex p erim en ta l resu lts a t b o th th e sh o rt a n d
Figure 2. Experimental
lo n g w av elen g th lim its. H ow is it in th e rest o f th e sp ec-
black body spectrum and
tru m ? It is o f h isto rica l in terest in th is co n tex t to k n ow Planck’s formula.
th a t o n S u n d ay ev en in g o f O cto b er 7 , 1 9 0 0 , P la n ck sen t
h is fo rm u la o n a p o stca rd , to h is frien d H ein rich R u b en s
w h ich h e receiv ed th e fo llow in g m o rn in g . A co u p le o f
d ay s la ter, R u b en s in fo rm ed P la n ck th a t th e fo rm u la
w o rk ed p erfectly. A ty p ica l d ata sh ow n in th e F igu re 2
illu stra tes th is fa ct.
P la n ck p resen ted th e d iscov ery o f th is fo rm u la a t th e
G erm a n P h y sica l S o ciety m eetin g th a t to o k p la ce o n
O cto b er 9 , 1 9 0 0 . L a ter h e com m u n ica ted th e sa m e to
th e B erlin A ca d em y o f S cien ces.
P la n c k 's T h e o r y
T h e ex tra o rd in a ry su ccess o f h is fo rm u la w o u ld b y itself
h av e g iv en P la n ck a p erm a n en t p la ce in th e a n n a ls o f
p h y sics. T h e g rea tn ess o f P la n ck lies in try in g to m a k e

RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008 125

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

Planck quantized
sen se o u t o f h is fo rm u la . Its v ery su ccess m u st h av e set
the permitted
h im th in k in g d eep ly a b o u t th e u n d erly in g p h y sics. T ill
energies of an
th en o n ly th e R ay leig h { J ea n s fo rm u la h a d b een d eriv ed
o n `so u n d ' p h y sics. S in ce th e cla ssica l d escrip tio n d id
oscillator.
n o t lea d to th e rig h t `fo rm u la ' P la n ck h a d to th in k o f a
n o n -cla ssica l a p p ro a ch .
H e k n ew th a t th e ra d ia tio n th a t w a s in sid e th e cav ity
w a s b ein g co n tin u o u sly em itted a n d a b so rb ed b y th e
`m a teria l' o f th e cav ity. A t th a t tim e, th e p h y sicists
th o u g h t th a t th e a to m s o f a m a teria l w h ich a b so rb ed
o r em itted ra d ia tio n a s h a rm o n ic o scilla to rs. H en ce,
o scilla to rs w ere in eq u ilib riu m w ith ra d ia tio n ex ch a n g -
in g en erg y w ith it. H e k n ew th a t ra d ia tio n s a re elec-
tro m a g n etic w av es. H en ce th e cav ity w a s ¯ lled w ith
th ese w av es. T h ese w av es w ere a b so rb ed a n d em itted b y
th e o scilla to rs th a t b eh av ed lik e cla ssica l `p en d u lu m s'.
E n o rm o u s ex p erim en ta l ev id en ce h a d b a ck ed th e w av e
n a tu re o f electro m a g n etic w av es. P la n ck co u ld n o t ig -
n o re th ese a n d th u s reta in ed th e w av e n a tu re o f ra d ia -
tio n a s su ch . B u t th e o scilla to r m ech a n ism o f a b so rp tio n
a n d em issio n o f electro m a g n etic w av es w a s m o re a th eo -
retica l m o d el. H e th erefo re, v en tu red to a m en d th e law s
g ov ern in g its b eh av io u r. H e m u st h av e tried m a n y a lter-
n a tiv es a n d fa iled , to a rriv e a t h is ow n fo rm u la fo r th e
b la ck -b o d y sp ectru m . T h en ¯ n a lly, in d esp era tio n a s h e
h a s co n fessed , h e su g g ested th a t a h a rm o n ic o scilla to r
ca n n o t h av e a n y en erg y b u t o n ly in in teg ra l m u ltip les
o f a q u a n tu m o f en erg y " 0 = h º , w h ere º is th e n a tu ra l
freq u en cy o f th e o scilla to r a n d h a co n sta n t to b e d eter-
m in ed . In o th er w o rd s, P la n ck q u a n tized th e p erm itted
en erg ies o f a n o scilla to r. T h u s, th ey w ere strictly n o n -
cla ssica l in n a tu re w ith en erg ies " = n h º , n b ein g a n
in teg er. T h ese o scilla to rs a re in th erm a l eq u ilib riu m a t
a n y tem p era tu re. T h erefo re, P la n ck in v o k ed th e B o ltz-
m a n n d istrib u tio n to d escrib e th em . A cco rd in g ly, th e
n u m b er N o f o scilla to rs o f en erg y " is g iv en b y :

126 RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

μ ¶ Ã !
¡" ¡ nhº
N = N 0 ex p = N 0 ex p
kT kT
w ith N 0 a s th e to ta l n u m b er o f o scilla to rs o f zero en erg y.
T h en th e av era g e o scilla to r en erg y " o f th e sy stem o f
o scilla to rs b eco m es
T o ta l en erg y
" =
T o ta l n u m b er o f o scilla to rs
P
( N ²)
= P
N
P n ³
¡n h º
´o
ex p kT
fn h º g
= P n ³
¡n h º
´o
ex p kT

(su m m a tio n is ov er n )
(h º )
= n ³ ´ o:
hº
ex p kT
¡ 1
N ow ea ch p erm itted m o d e th a t is in sid e th e cav ity is a b -
so rb ed o r em itted b y a n o scilla to r th a t is in th e m a teria l
o f th e cav ity. T h erefo re P la n ck id en ti¯ ed ea ch o scilla to r
o f n a tu ra l freq u en cy º w ith a cav ity m o d e o f th e sa m e
freq u en cy. H en ce in term s o f th e w av elen g th ¸ (= c= º )
o f th e m o d e, w e g et th e av era g e en erg y o f a m o d e to b e
g iv en b y ³ ´
hc
"= n ³¸ ´ o:
hc
ex p ¸ kT
¡ 1
P la n ck rep ea ted th e p ro ced u re o f R ay leig h a n d J ea n s.
T h ere a re Z m o d es p er u n it v o lu m e p er u n it w av elen g th
in terva l. F u rth er, ea ch m o d e h a s a n av era g e en erg y ".
H en ce, th e to ta l en erg y o f ra d ia tio n p er u n it v o lu m e a t
¸ p er u n it w av elen g th in terva l is
u ( ¸ ;T ) = "Z (¸ );
(8 ¼ h c)
u (¸ ;T ) = hn ³ ´ o i:
ex p k h¸ cT ¡ 1 ¸ 5

RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008 127

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

T h is is n o th in g b u t th e P la n ck fo rm u la w ith ¯ = (hc/k ).
T h u s, h is q u a n tized o scilla to r m o d el led P la n ck to th e
fo rm u la th a t h e h a d ea rlier d iscov ered . u (¸ ,T ) h a s a
p ea k a t a w av elen g th ¸ p g iv en b y :

hc
T ¸p = ;
4 :9 6 5 1 k
a n d th e to ta l en erg y d en sity U is o b ta in ed b y in teg ra tin g
u (¸ ;T ) ov er ¸ fro m 0 to 1 ,
à !
8¼ 5k 4
U = T 4:
1 5 c3 h 3

H en ce, Ã !
8¼ 5 k 4
b= :
1 5 c3 h 3
P la n ck u sed th e va lu e o f T ¸ p = 0 :2 9 4 cm d eg a s o b ta in ed
b y L u m m er a n d P rin g sh eim in 1 9 0 0 . F u rth er h e u sed
th e d a ta o n th e to ta l ra d ia tio n em itted b y a b la ck b o d y
a s m ea su red b y K u rlb a u m in 1 8 9 8 . T h is g av e h im b =
7 :0 6 1 £ 1 0 ¡ 1 5 erg cm ¡3 d eg ¡4 . F ro m th ese va lu es
P la n ck g o t

k = 1 :3 4 6 £ 1 0 ¡1 6 erg d eg (= 1 :3 4 6 £ 1 0 ¡ 2 3 J = K );

h = 6 :5 5 £ 1 0 ¡2 7 erg sec (= 6 :5 5 £ 1 0 ¡ 3 4 J sec):

T h e clo se a g reem en t b etw een th e co m p u ted a n d k n ow n
va lu es o f th e B o ltzm a n n co n sta n t k is a testim o n y to
th e su ccess o f h is fo rm u la . T h is p ro b a b ly em b o ld en ed
h im to rep o rt h is ¯ n d in g s in th e G erm a n P h y sica l S o -
Planck had to wait ciety m eetin g th a t to o k p la ce o n D ecem b er 1 4 , 1 9 0 0 .
for more than a H ere th e q u a n tiza tio n o f o scilla to r en erg y w a s p resen ted
decade for the fo r th e ¯ rst tim e. T h a t is w h y m a n y lo o k u p o n th is a s
scientific community th e d a te o f b irth o f Q u a n tu m T h eo ry. P la n ck co m m u n i-
to accept his ca ted h is ¯ n d in g s to th e B erlin A ca d em y o f S cien ces in
revolutionary ideas 1 9 0 0 a n d la ter p u b lish ed h is w o rk in A n n alen der P hysik
on quantization.
in 1 9 0 1 . P la n ck h a d to w a it fo r m o re th a n a d eca d e
fo r th e scien ti¯ c co m m u n ity to a ccep t h is rev o lu tio n a ry

128 RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

id ea s o n q u a n tiza tio n a n d h en ce h is th eo ry o f ra d ia tio n . Admirers were

In fa ct E in stein w a s a critic o f P la n ck 's w o rk . H e u sed indeed happy
W ien 's fo rm u la in h is stu d y o f b la ck -b o d y ra d ia tio n th a t
when Planck got
led h im to p ro p o u n d th e q u a n tu m n a tu re o f lig h t in h is
the 1918 Nobel
fa m o u s 1 9 0 5 p a p er. G ra d u a lly p h y sicists sta rted a p -
Prize in Physics
p recia tin g P la n ck 's th eo ry. T h ese a d m irers w ere in d eed
for this great work.
h a p p y w h en P la n ck g o t th e 1 9 1 8 N o b el P rize in P h y sics
fo r th is g rea t w o rk .
P la n c k a n d th e Z e r o P o in t E n e r g y
It h a s a lrea d y b een sta ted th a t P la n ck 's fo rm u la g o es
ov er to th e R ay leig h { J ea n s fo rm u la in th e lo n g w av e-
len g th o r eq u iva len tly h ig h tem p era tu re lim it. T h ere-
fo re, it w a s n a tu ra l fo r P la n ck to ex p ect th e av era g e o s-
cilla to r en erg y o f h is q u a n tized o scilla to r to g o ov er, a t
h ig h tem p era tu res, to th e cla ssica l va lu e o f (k T ). It h a s
b een sh ow n a b ov e th a t th e av era g e en erg y o f a P la n ck -
ia n o scilla to r is
³ ´
hc
¸
"= n ³ ´ .
ex p ¸ hk cT ¡ 1 g

It is v ery ea sy to sh ow b y ex p a n d in g th e ex p o n en tia l
term a n d reta in in g o n ly th e ¯ rst p o w er (h c= ¸ k T ), th a t
th is ex p ressio n fo r " red u ces to k T in th e h ig h tem p er-
a tu re lim it. T h is is w h a t P la n ck d id in h is 1 9 0 1 p a p er
o n th e q u a n tu m th eo ry o f b la ck -b o d y ra d ia tio n . L a ter
in 1 9 1 2 , fo r rea so n s th a t a re n o t clea r, h e rea ssessed h is
ea rlier w o rk . H e fo u n d th a t w h en h e w en t to th e n ex t
h ig h er p o w er in (h c= ¸ k T ) a n d ca lcu la ted ", h e w a s in
fo r a su rp rise. H e g o t
³ ´
hc
¸ (h º )
" = kT ¡ = kT ¡ :
2 2
It d id n o t g o ov er to th e cla ssica l va lu e o f k T . T o fo rce
th e cla ssica l lim it o n h is m o d el, h e p ro p o sed in h is 1 9 1 2
p a p er th a t h is q u a n tized o scilla to r h a s its en erg y lev els

RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008 129

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

The first experimental sh ifted u p w a rd b y ( 12 h º ). T h a t is, th e o scilla to r en erg ies

evidence for the a re μ ¶
1
existence of the Zero "= n + h º;
2
Point Energy came in
in stea d o f " = n h º . In o th er w o rd s, ev en in th e g ro u n d
1924 from a work of
sta te (n = 0 ), it h a s a ¯ n ite en erg y o f 12 h º . T h u s,
the famous American
P la n ck 's o scilla to r w a s n o n -cla ssica l in tw o d i® eren t w ay s.
chemist Robert
It h a d n o t o n ly d iscrete en erg ies b u t w o u ld n o t b e a t rest
Mulliken. ev en in th e low est en erg y sta te. In o th er w o rd s, it w o u ld
h av e a ¯ n ite en erg y ev en a t a b so lu te zero o f tem p era -
tu re. In la ter litera tu re th is w a s referred to a s th e Z ero
P o in t E n erg y o f a q u a n tu m o scilla to r. A s a co n seq u en ce
o f th is, th e b la ck -b o d y ra d ia tio n sp ectru m is d escrib ed
by
h n ³ ´ o i
hc 1
(8 ¼ h c) 1 = ex p k¸T
¡ 1 + 2
u (¸ ;T ) = :
¸5
P la n ck h im self ca lled th is th e S eco n d L aw o f R a d ia tio n .
It is n o t o u t o f co n tex t to p o in t o u t h ere th a t p ro b a -
b ly th e ¯ rst ex p erim en ta l ev id en ce fo r th e ex isten ce o f
th e Z ero P o in t E n erg y ca m e in 1 9 2 4 fro m a w o rk o f
th e fa m o u s A m erica n ch em ist R o b ert M u llik en . H e w a s
stu d y in g th e sp ectra o f B o ro n M o n ox id es (B O ), w ith
tw o d i® eren t B o ro n iso to p es, in o n e ca se w ith m a ss 1 0 ,
in a n o th er m a ss 1 1 . (A s a co n seq u en ce, th ese m o lecu les
w ill h av e slig h tly d i® eren t red u ced m a sses). B y co m p a r-
in g th e v ib ra tio n a l a n d th e ro ta tio n a l sp ectra o f th ese
m o lecu les, h e d iscov ered th a t th e o b serv ed sp ectra h a d
a b etter ¯ t w ith th e th eo ry, if th e en erg y lev els w ere
a ssu m ed to sta rt a t (h º )= 2 ra th er th a n 0 .
Q u a n tiz e d O sc illa to r
Q u a n tiza tio n o f th e en erg y o f a n o scilla to r is cen tra l to
P la n ck 's th eo ry o f b la ck -b o d y ra d ia tio n . T h ere is a n im -
p ressio n th a t th e ju sti¯ ca tio n fo r th is co m es o n ly fro m
fo rm a l q u a n tu m m ech a n ics w h ere th e S ch rÄo d in g er W av e
E q u a tio n is so lv ed fo r a n o scilla to r. T h e m eth o d em -

130 RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

p loy ed to so lv e th e S ch rÄo d in g er eq u a tio n is m a th em a ti-

ca lly q u ite co m p lex . It is n o t g en era lly a p p recia ted th a t
th e essen tia l resu lt i.e., " = n h º ca n b e a rriv ed a t in a
m u ch sim p ler w ay b y ex p lo itin g th e M a tter W av e C o n -
cep t a s en u n cia ted b y d e B ro g lie. In th is d escrip tio n a
p a rticle o f m a ss m m ov in g w ith a v elo city v b eh av es lik e
a w a v e o f w av elen g th
h
¤ = :
(m v )
A s th e p a rticle tra v els a d ista n ce `d s' in its p a th , th e
n u m b er o f w av elen g th s it cov ers is (d s/ ¤ ). In a p erio d ic
m o tio n a s in a m o tio n o n a circle o r in a h a rm o n ic o s-
cilla to r, th e p a rticle co m es b a ck to th e sa m e sta te o n ce
in a cy cle. In th e w av e d escrip tio n th is m ea n s th a t in
th a t cy cle it m u st h av e trav ersed a n in teg ra l n u m b er o f
w av elen g th s. In o th er w o rd s, ov er a cy cle
ZÃ ! Zμ ¶
ds m v
= d s = n (a n in teg er):
¤ h

W h en th e p a rticle is m ov in g o n a circle w ith a u n ifo rm

v elo city v , th e in teg ra tio n is ea sy a n d lea d s to th e resu lt
m v r = n h = 2 ¼ ; th e w ell-k n ow n B o h r q u a n tu m co n d itio n
w h ich is a t th e h ea rt o f h is th eo ry o f a to m s. W e d e-
scrib e a h a rm o n ic o scilla to r in term s o f its d isp la cem en t
X g iv en b y
X = X 0 sin (2 ¼ º t):
T h e a m p litu d e o f its o scilla tio n s is X 0 a n d its n a tu ra l
freq u en cy is º = (® = m )1 = 2 w ith ® a s th e sp rin g co n sta n t.
N ow th e en erg y o f a h a rm o n ic o scilla to r is
m v2 ®X 2
"= + :
2 2
A s a lrea d y sa id ov er o n e p erio d w e m u st h av e a n in teg ra l
n u m b er o f w av elen g th s. i.e.
Zμ ¶
m v
dX = n :
h

RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008 131

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

Suggested Reading In teg ra tin g ov er a cy cle, w e g et th e req u ired resu lt,

[1] J K Roberts and A R " = n h º:
Miller, Heat and Thermo-
dynamics, Blackie and
E p ilo g u e
Sons Ltd., 1966.
[2] J Stefan, Sitzungsberichte
P la n ck 's u n o rth o d ox so lu tio n to th e p ro b lem o f th e b la ck -
der Kaiserlichen Akade-
mie der Wissenschaften,
b o d y sp ectru m h era ld ed th e era o f M o d ern P h y sics. T h e
Mathematische Natur- stu d y o f b la ck -b o d y ra d ia tio n b y la ter in v estig a to rs b e-
wissenschaftliche Classe ca m e ex trem ely fru itfu l a n d im p o rta n t. W e list so m e o f
Abteilung, Vol.279, p.391, th em h ere:
1879.
[3] L Boltzmann, Annalen 1 . E in stein a n a ly sed th e low w av elen g th en d o f th e
der Physik und Chemi.,
b la ck -b o d y sp ectru m in th e W ien a p p rox im a tio n a n d
Vol.22, p.31, 291, 1884.
[4] W Wien, Ann. Physik.,
su g g ested th a t `L ig h t' b eh av ed lik e p a rticles w ith ea ch
Vol.58, p.622, 1896. p a rticle, la ter ch risten ed a s P h o to n s, h av in g a n en erg y
[5] J W S Rayleigh, Phil. o f h º . T h is led to h is N o b el P rize w in n in g w o rk o n th e
Mag., Vol.49, p.539, 1900. p h o to electric e® ect.
[6] J H Jeans, Phil. Mag.,
Vol.10, p.91, 1905. 2 . E in stein stu d ied ca refu lly th e th erm a l eq u ilib riu m
[7] M Planck, Berlin Acad- b etw een ra d ia tio n a n d a to m s in a cav ity a n d co n clu d ed
emy of Sciences, Vol.X,
p.19, 1900.
th a t ra d ia tio n n o t o n ly b eh av ed lik e p a rticles o f en erg y
[8] M Planck, Berlin Acad- h º b u t ea ch p a rticle a lso h a d a m o m en tu m o f h º = c. F u r-
emy of Sciences, Vol.XII, th er, h e sh ow ed th a t th e a to m s a b so rb ed o r em itted ra -
p.14, 1900. d ia tio n o f en erg y h º = j(E 2 ¡ E 1 )j in a tra n sitio n o f a n
[9] M Planck, Annalen der a to m fro m sta te o f en erg y E 1 to a n o th er o f en erg y E 2
Physik., Vol.l4, p.553,
1901.
th u s ju stify in g B o h r's a ssu m p tio n co n cern in g em issio n
[10] M Planck, Annalen der a n d a b so rp tio n o f ra d ia tio n . H is la ter stu d y o f th e sa m e
Physik., Vol.37, p.642, sy stem sh ow ed th a t th ere ca n b e b o th sp o n ta n eo u s a s
1912. w ell a s ra d ia tio n -in d u ced tra n sitio n o f a n a to m fro m a
h ig h er en erg y sta te to a low er en erg y sta te. T h is is a t
th e h ea rt o f L a ser a ctio n .
3 . In d ia n p h y sicist B o se sh ow ed th a t E in stein 's p h o to n
p ictu re o f ra d ia tio n w o u ld lea d to P la n ck 's ra d ia tio n fo r-
m u la if th e p h o to n s a re a ssu m ed to b e n o t o n ly in d istin -
g u ish a b le b u t a lso to o b ey a sta tistica l d istrib u tio n to -
ta lly d i® eren t fro m th e w ell-k n ow n M a x w ell{ B o ltzm a n n
d istrib u tio n . T h is led to th e d ev elo p m en t o f Q u a n tu m
S ta tistics.

132 RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008

 GENERAL ⎜ ARTICLE

4 . T h e co sm ic m icro w av e b a ck g ro u n d ra d ia tio n d iscov -

Address for Correspondence
ered b y W ilso n a n d P en zia s h a s a b la ck -b o d y sp ectru m
G S Ranganath
w ith a p ea k ra d ia tio n a ro u n d a w av elen g th o f a b o u t 1 422, 10th Cross, 8th Main
m m a n d co rresp o n d s to a tem p era tu re o f a b o u t 3 K . Padmanabhanagar
T h is stro n g ly su p p o rted th e B ig B a n g T h eo ry a cco rd - Bangalaore 560 070, India.
in g to w h ich th is ra d ia tio n is a rem n a n t o f th e B ig B a n g . Email:
gs.ranganath@gmail.com
T h ey g o t th e 1 9 7 8 N o b el P rize in P h y sics, fo r th is w o rk .

Max Planck in Memoriam

A man to whom it has been given to bless the world with a great creative idea has no need for the praise of
posterity. His very achievement has already conferred a higher boon upon him.

Yet it is good – indeed, it is indispensable – that representatives of all who strive for truth and knowledge should
be gathered here today from the four corners of the globe. They are here to bear witness that even in these times
of ours, when political passion and brute force hang like swords over the anguished and fearful heads of men,
the standard of our ideal search for truth is being held aloft undimmed. This ideal, a bond forever uniting
scientists of all times and in all places, was embodied with rare completeness in Max Planck.

Even the Greeks had already conceived the atomistic nature of matter and the concept was raised to a high degree
of probability by the scientists of the nineteenth century. But it was Planck’s law of radiation that yielded the
first exact determination – independent of other assumptions – of the absolute magnitudes of atoms. More than
that, he showed convincingly that in addition to the atomistic structure of matter there is a kind of atomistic
structure to energy, governed by the universal constant h, which was introduced by Planck.

This discovery became the basis of all twentieth-century research in physics and has almost entirely conditioned
its development ever since. Without this discovery it would not have been possible to establish a workable
theory of molecules and atoms and the energy processes that govern their transformations. Moreover, it has
shattered the whole framework of classical mechanics and electrodynamics and set science a fresh task: that of
finding a new conceptual basis for all physics. Despite remarkable partial gains, the problem is still far from a
satisfactory solution.

In paying homage to this man the American National Academy of Sciences expresses its hope that free research,
for the sake of pure knowledge, may remain unhampered and unimpaired.

– Albert Einstein

Statement read at the Memorial Services for Max Planck, April, 1948.

RESONANCE ⎜ February 2008 133