D28MA

Civil Engineering Materials

Lecture 6 – Concrete
Course delivery team

Dr. ‘Nwendu Ogwuda Dr. Chu, May Yen Dr. Ceren Ince
e: o.i.ogwuda@hw.ac.uk e: c.may_yen@hw.ac.uk e: c.ince@hw.ac.uk

D28MA Civil Engineering Materials

D28MA Civil Engineering Materials
Concrete

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Concrete as a Construction Material
6.3 Performance Required of Concrete
6.4 Concrete Making Materials
6.5 Chemical and Mineral Admixtures
6.6 Operations in Making Concrete
6.7 Properties of Fresh Concrete
6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete
6.9 Durability of Concrete
6.1 Introduction

Concrete is a composite material that consists of a cement paste within which various sizes
of fine and coarse aggregates are embedded. It contains some amount of entrapped air and
may contain purposely-entrained air by the use of air-entraining admixtures.

Various types of chemical admixtures and/or finely divided mineral admixtures are
frequently used in the production of concrete to improve or alter its properties or to obtain
a more economical concrete.
6.1 Introduction

When the cement and water are first mixed, cement paste is a plastic (shapeable) material.
As the cement paste in concrete gains rigidity and hardness (due to chemical reactions) with
time, the plastic concrete mixture gains rigidity and hardness.

The plastic state of concrete that begins when concrete making materials are first mixed
until the concrete gains rigidity is called ‘fresh concrete’. The state of the concrete starting
from the time that it gains rigidty is called ‘hardened concrete’.

Concrete is the most widely used construction material all around the world.
6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Concrete as a Construction Material

The popularity and wide use of concrete as a construction material derives from its
advantages over other construction materials.
Advantages:

1. Ability to be cast to any desired size and shape: Concrete can be placed into mold of
any desired size and shape while it is in plastic state and it hardens over time.
2. Mix constituents and proportions can be varied to produce different properties of
concrete
6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Concrete as a Construction Material

3. On-site fabrication is possible: Production of concrete at the place of work (on-site)

enable the use of local materials to a large extent and thereby keep the cost down.

4. Durable: Concrete does not lose its quality as does steel which corrodes, and as does
timer which decays with time. (Functional in extreme conditions; wetting & rying, freezing
& thawing
5. Economical: Three fourth of the volume of concrete is aggregate and its price is much
lower than cement.
6. Energy efficiency: Concrete is energy efficient material. The energy spent in producing
concrete is much less than that required for the production of metals. (Low production
energy).
7. Fire resistance: Concrete has fairly high fire resistance as compared to that of metals and
timber.
6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Concrete as a Construction Material

Disadvantages:

1. Low tensile strength: The tensile strength of concrete is about 10% of its
compressive strength. Concrete sections subjected to tensile or flexural stresses cannot
show sufficient resistance to such stresses and cracking is inevitable. Therefore,
concrete sections to be subjected to tension usually need to be reinforced with steel
bars (forming reinforced concrete) or with steel tendons (forming prestressed concrete).
6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Concrete as a Construction Material

2. Low ductility: Concrete is a brittle material. Compared to metals, concrete has much
lower toughness; thus it has lower resistance to impact loads.

3. Volume stability: Concrete undergoes considerable irreversible shrinkage due to

moisture loss in cement paste at ambient temperatures, and also significantly creeps with
time under an applied constant load even under conditions of normal service.

4. Low strength-to-weight ratio: The strength-to-weight ratio of concrete is much lower

than that of many metals.
6.3 Performance Required of Concrete

6.3.1 Performance Required of Fresh Concrete

In order to obtain hardened concrete of an acceptable quality, fresh concrete must satisfy
the following requirements:
• It must be easy to mix,
• It must be easy to transport,

• It must be sufficiently flowable to be placed and completely fill the forms

• It must have the ability to be compacted fully without an excess of energy
6.3 Performance Required of Concrete

6.3.1 Performance Required of Fresh Concrete

• It must not show segragation (separation of the coarse aggregates off the cement paste)
during mixing, transporting, placing, and compacting operation
• Its surface must be easily finishable to the required degree of smoothness

The first six requirements listed above can be expressed as ‘workability’ of the fresh
concrete. Thus the performance required of fresh concrete can be summarised as:
6.3 Performance Required of Concrete

6.3.1 Performance Required of Fresh Concrete

• It must have very little or no bleeding. (tendency of water to rise to the surface)
• It must have the required value of unit weight
• It must have a setting time (lenght of time starting from the mixing materials until the
concrete gains rigidity) that is not longer or shorter than required.
6.3 Performance Required of Concrete

6.3.1 Performance Required of Fresh Concrete

1. Desired workability
2. Minimum (if possible no) bleeding
3. Desired unit weight
4. Uniformity
5. Desired setting time

These are further discessed in detail in Section 6.7.

6.3 Performance Required of Concrete

6.3.2 Performance Required of Hardened Concrete

• Its strength must not be lower than the aimed minimum strength (expected at a certain
age such as 7, 28 or 90 days).
• It must be durable. It must be sufficiently resistant to the destructive effects due to one
or more of the following events: wetting and drying, repeated freezing and thawing,
abrasion, chemical reactions caused by alkali and reactive aggregates, chemical
reactions caused by sulphates or acids and corrosion of reinforcement in it. Therefore,
hardened concrete must not have high porosity, high permeability, or a high amount of
absorption.
• It must have sufficient volume stability. It must not show excessive amounts of
shrinkage or creep.
• In addition to the above listed properties, it must be produced most economically.
6.4 Concrete Making Materials

Cements, aggregates and mixing water are the main materials used in concrete-making. In
addition to these, some chemical and/or finely divided mineral admixtures are generally
used materials to modify one or more properties of concrete. Brief information on
concrete-making materials is presented below.

Cement: Portland cements or portland-pozzolan cements are the materials that possess
hydraulic binding property. Hydraulic binding property of cement is its ability to set and
harden under water. They constitute the binding paste of cement when mixed with water.
The quantity and the quality of cement type affect the properties of fresh and hardened
concrete.
6.4 Concrete Making Materials

Aggregates: Aggregates constitute approximately three-fourths of the volume of concrete.

They are cheaper than cements. The use of aggregates in concrete prevents the shrinkage of
the cement paste and provide some technical benefits. The quantity, quality and the
gradation of the aggregates affect the quality of concrete to be produced. Aggregates must
be free from silt or organic maters.

Water: The mixing water used for concrete-making has two main functions:
1. To form the mixture of cement paste and to commence the hydration reaction
2. To wet the surface of aggregate particles and to provide workability
6.4 Concrete Making Materials

A precise amount of water or the water/cement ratio has to be used to provide desired
workability and strength of concrete.

If the water/cement ratio is too low, concrete will not be workable. These problems will
lead to low strength and low durability of concrete.

If the water/cement ratio is too high, concrete will be porous and this will also lead to low
strength and durability of concrete.
6.4 Concrete Making Materials

The quality of mixing water is another important factor affecting the quality of concrete.
The water used for making concrete should not contain excessive amounts of impurities.
Table 6.1 gives an idea on the tolerable levels of various impurities that may be present in
mixing water.

These impurities can be determined by chemical analysis and compared with those limit
values cited in the standards.

A practical method of investigating whether the water to be used in making concrete is of

acceptable quality or not is to conduct compressive strength test on concrete made with
the suspected water and with good quality water.

The compressive strength of concrete made with suspected water should be at least 90%
of the concrete made with good quality water.
6.4 Concrete Making Materials

Table 6.1: Tolerable concentrations of impurities in mixing water

Chemical admixtures: There are various types of chemical admixtures included in a

concrete mix during its production for modifying one or more of its properties.

The content of the chemical admixture to be included in a concrete mix is usually less than
5% of the weight of cement. Admixtures are included in the mixing water.
6.5 Chemical and mineral admixtures

Chemical admixtures: There are various types of chemical admixtures included in a

concrete mix during its production for modifying one or more of its properties.

The content of the chemical admixture to be included in a concrete mix is usually less than
5% of the weight of cement. Admixtures are included in the mixing water.

Water-reducing admixtures, set-retarding admixtures, set-accelerating admixtures and air-

entraining admixtures are the most common types of chemical admixture used in making
concrete.
6.5 Chemical and mineral admixtures

The function of the chemical admixtures can be summerised as follows:

1. To obtain reduction in the amount of mixing water while maintaining the desired
workability. Water-reducing admixture is used for this purpose. Since water:cement
ratio is decreased, higher strength is obtained. If the amount of water is not reduced
during the addition of water-reducing admixtures, then the workability of the mix
would increase considerably.

• Sometimes called plasticizers or super-plasticisers

• Complex organic acids (lignosulphonates) with typical additions being 0.2% by weight
of cement
• Disperse cement grains evenly in water – i.e. reduce solid-to-solid contact
• Improve workability (flow) without additional water
• Durability and strength increased
6.5 Chemical and mineral admixtures

2. To provide set-retardation. Set-retarding admixtures make fresh concrete gain its

rigidity in a longer time period. Increased setting time and increased dormant period!

Applications:
hot weather concreting (off-set
• Dormant period increased
accelerating effect of higher temperatures)
• Heat output reduced
prevention of cold joints
• <0.1% by weight of cement
mass concreting
Examples:
sugars (sucrose), citric acid, etc.
Rate of heat output

OPC
Lignosulphonate
OPC + retarder
carboxylic acids
Usage:
Typical additions, <0.1% by weight of
cement
Time
6.5 Chemical and mineral admixtures

3. To provide set acceleration. Set-accelerating admixtures make the fresh concrete gain its
rigidity in a short time period than the usual. decrease time to setting i.e. reduce dormant
period and increase early strength development.

• Dormant period reduced Applications:

• Heat output increased cold weather concrete (off-set retarding

• 1-1.5% by weight of cement
OPC + accelerator
Rate of heat output
effect of low temperatures)
factory fabricated concrete
Examples:
calcium chloride (NOT for reinforced

concrete)
calcium formate, calcium nitrite, calcium
nitrate,
OPC
triethanolamine
Usage:
Typical additions, 1-1.5% by weight of
Time cement
6.5 Chemical and mineral admixtures

4. To provide air-entrainment: Air-entraining admixtures provides intentional inclusion of

millions of tiny spherical and uniformly distributed air voids (0.01-0.5mm) in the cement
paste. Concrete made with air-entraining admixtures is called ‘air-entrained concrete’. Air-
entrained concrete provides more resistant to the destructive effect of numerous repeated
freezing and thawing cycles. Also air-entrained concrete increases the workability and
decreases the bleeding of fresh concrete.

• Soap substances or foaming agents e.g.

synthetic detergents; salts of - petroleum
acids, wood resins, fatty resinous acids

• Typical entraining, 4-8% by volume of

concrete

• Bubbles allow water to expand when 1

frozen, preventing cracking. m
m
• Strength is reduced by 10-20%, BUT,
increased workability means water
content can be reduced.
6.5 Chemical and mineral admixtures

Finely Divided Mineral Admixtures: Generally pozzolanic type of materials are used as
finely divided mineral admixtures. They are generally used as partial replacement
materials. Thus, a portland-pozzolan type of concrete is produced. The amount of finely
divided pozzolans used in concrete often varies from 15 to 50%. These materials are
cheaper than cement and hence provide economy.

Pozzolanic admixtures are used in concrete for the following purposes:

1. To improve one or more of the qualities of concrete listed below;

• Decrease bleeding
• Reduce temperature rise due to hydration
• Reduce expansion due to alkali-silica reaction
• Reduce permeability
• Improve ultimate strength
• Increase durability of hardened concrete by reducing the amount of water
seeping into concrete from sulfate bearing soils or reducing the alkali-
aggregate reaction.
2. To improve workability of fresh concrete
6.6 Operations in making concrete

The following operations are conducted to obtain the desired quality of concrete:
• Mixing and production of fresh concrete
• Transporting
• Placing
• Compacting
• Surface finishing
• Curing

6.6.1 Mixing and production of fresh concrete

Through mixing is essential for the complete blending of the materials in order to produce a
homogeneous, uniform concrete.
Too short mixing time = inadequate mix = low strength and durability
Excessive mixing time = undesirable grinding of aggregates = reduce workability

Mixing and production of fresh concrete can be employed either at the place of use by
conventional methods or at the central station so that the fresh concrete can be delivered to
the site where it will be used as ‘ready-mixed concrete’.
6.6 Operations in making concrete

Convensional methods of mixing and producing fresh concrete at the place of use include
either hand mixing or machine mixing using concrete mixers.

Hand mixing is slow, tedius, labour intensive and usually inefficient. Therefore, this type of
mixing is only used when small quantities of concrete are required.

Maching mixing is the usual method of mixing concrete materials which is performed using
mixers.
6.6 Operations in making concrete

Ready-mixed concrete is defined as ‘the concrete that is manufacured for delivery to a

purchaer in a plastic and unhardened state’. There are two main methods for producing
ready-mixed concrete: ‘central-mixed concrete’ and ‘transit-mixed concrete’. Central-
mixed concrete is the concrete whose materials are completely mixed at the plant in a
stationary mixer and it is transported to the construction site with a truck mixer. Transit-
mixed concrete is the concrete which the mixing is wholly accomplished in a truck mixer.
Correct proportions of materials are placed in the drum of the truck mixer.

Advantages of ready-mixed concrete:

• Better quality control
• The need for the space to store materials at the construction site is eliminated
6.6 Operations in making concrete

6.6.2 Transportation of fresh concrete

There are many different methods of transporting and handling fresh concrete:
Ready-mixed concrete is generally transported by truck mixers.
On site, the concrete is transported by buckets, wheel barrows, belt conveyors or pumping.
The choice larglely depends on the amount of concrete involved, the size and type of
construction, the topography of the job site, the location of the batch plant and the cost of
transportation.

Irrespective of the method used for transportation, the concrete should not be allowed to
stiffen to the extent that it becomes unworkable and no segregation must occur during
transportation operation.

6.6.3 Placement of fresh concrete

When placing concrete, necessary precautions must be taken to ensure that the concrete
does not lose its uniformity by segregation, and the formwork and the reinforcement are
not damaged or dislodged by placing operation.

Sound planning and preparation is necessary prior to the placement of concrete. These are
listed below:
6.6 Operations in making concrete

1. Most appropriate placing equipment should be chosen (type and size of the
construction and the formwork)
2. Formworks and the placement of the reinforcement should be checked that they are
placed as described in the design project.
• Wooden forms should not contain cracks or holes
• Reinforcement should not contain rust. If the reinforcement is loosely rusti the
the wire brush should be used to remove the rust.
6.6 Operations in making concrete

3. The inner surface of the forms should be covered with an

appropriate oil, so that the forms can be removed without
damaging the surface of the concrete.

4. If the concrete is to be placed over a soil surface, some

preparatiosn are necessary
• There should be no small plants on the surface
of soil
• If the soil surface is loose, the loose material
should be removed; if necessary, some soil and
aggregates should be placed and compacted.
• If the surface of the soil is very dry, it should
be slightly moistured

5.When the placing operation has to take place at night,

necessary lighting systmes should be installed
6. Poured concrete has to completely fill the forms and
hence the calculations must be checked in advance.
6.6 Operations in making concrete

In order to avoid segregation of the

concrete and damaging the formwork
or positioning of the reinforcement, a
good placing practice has to be
applied. These are summarised as
follows:
• Concrete should be placed
vertically. If spreading is
necessary, it should be done with
shovels.
• Concrete should not be dropped
into the forms from an excessive
height. (It can cause damage or
segregation).
• The placing of concrete should
start from the corners of the
formwork and from the lowest
level if the surface is sloping
6.6 Operations in making concrete

• Concrete should be deposited in horizontal layers and each layer should be compacted
before the next is placed. (This should be done before the previous layer has hardened
• Concrete should not be placed in a heavy rain without overhead shelter, otherwise the
rain may wash cement from the surface
6.6 Operations in making concrete

6.6.4 Compaction of freshly placed concrete

The process of removing entrapped air from freshly placed concrete is called
compaction or consolidation. The objective of compacting concrete is to remove
all the entrapped air if possible and thus ensure maximum density and complete
compact between the concrete and the surface of reinforcing steel and formwork.
6.6 Operations in making concrete

Thorough compaction is important as it leads to:

(a) Maximum strength
(b) Watertight and durable concrete
(c) Sharp details at corners
(d) A sound protective cover to steel reinforcement for a good bond

While small compaction work can be done with manual methods such as rodding or
tamping, vibratory methods are the usually applied methods to compact all kinds of
concrete work.

6.6.5 Surface finishing

Finishing is the operation applied for levelling and smoothening the surface of freshly
placed and compacted concrete for producing the desired appearance and service.

Unfinished concrete might contain some rough points that can be abraded, or contains
some holes. Thus, the durability of concrete might be reduced.
6.6 Operations in making concrete

6.6.6 Curing
Chemical reactions between the cement and water is
called hydration. The higher the rate of hydration,
higher the rate of obtaining less porous and higher
strength concrete. Rate of hydration is higher in the
earlier days. For the satisfactory occurrence and
progress of hydration, there should be sufficient amount
of moisture in the concrete and the temperature should
not be too low. Bleeding and evaporation in the
concrete can result in a decrease of moisture and hence
decrease in the hydration rate. In such a case, the
required rate of strength gain cannot be achieved.

Maintenance of a satisfactory moisture content and temperature in concrete during the

early stages for the development of the desired properties is called ‘curing’.
Water loss can be prevent by the following method:
• Maintaining formwork in place
• Covering surface with polythene & damp, absorbent material such as hessian
• Continuous spraying
• Use of a curing membrane
6.6 Operations in making concrete

6.6.6 Curing
Curing operation should start immediately after the concrete is
placed, compacted, and surface finished. It should continue for at
least seven days. There are several methods used for the curing of
concrete:
Water curing: Additional moisture is applied to the surface of
concrete and prevent the moisture loss from the concrete.
Sealed curing: Prevents the moisture loss from the concrete by
covering its surface tightly.
6.6 Operations in making concrete

6.6.6 Curing
6.7 Properties of Fresh Concrete

6.7.1 Workability and Consistency

Workability, segregatation, bleeding, setting time, unit weight, and uniformity are the
properties that are investigated in a freshly mixed concrete.

Workability: Workability is the property of freshly mixed concrete which determines the
ease with which it can be mixed, placed, consolidated, and finished without harmful
segregation.
In practice, the properties involved in workability include ability to flow, mobility in the
conveying and handling and segregation.
6.7 Properties of Fresh Concrete

6.7.1 Workability and Consistency

Some of the factors that affect the workability of freshly mixed concrete can be listed as
follows:
• Quantity of the mixing water,
• Quantity and characteristics of the cement,
• Gradation of the aggregates and the maximum aggregate size,
• Shape of the aggregate particles,
• Quantity of the finely divided mineral admixtures,
• Quantity and characteristics of the chemical admixtures,
• Quantity of the entrained air,
• Temperature of the concrete.
6.7 Properties of Fresh Concrete

Workability is determined to a large extent by

measuring the ‘consistency’ of the freshly mixed
concrete.

Consistency: Consistency is the degree of wetness, or

the ability of a freshly mixed concrete to flow. It
indicates the ease with which the concrete flows during
placement.

The higher the consistency, the more mobile is the

mixture. Thus it is related with the workability of the
concrete. The above listed factors that affect the
workability of freshly mixed concrete affect the
consistency as well.

Two most popular methods to measure the consistency

are the ‘slump test’ and ‘vebe test’ methods.
6.7 Properties of Fresh Concrete

The slump test method is the easiest and the most widely used one both in the field and in
the laboratory. However, this test method is not very convenient for determining the
consistency of fresh concrete that is very dry or stiff.

On the other hand, the vebe test is generally a laboratory test and not usually conducted in
the field. However, it gives more realistic results for dry or stiff concrete mixes.
6.7 Properties of Fresh Concrete

Slump Test: The procedure for finding the slump of a freshly mixed concrete is given in
detail in the standards (BS EN 12350-1 and -2 also in ASTM C 143). This method can be
summerised as follows:

A truncated metal cone, open at both ends, is used to conduct the slump test. The top and
bottom diameters of the slump cone are 10cm and 20cm, respectively; the height of the
slump is 30cm.

4 classes of workability:
S1 10-40mm
S2 50-90mm
S3 100-150mm
S4 160-210mm
6.7 Properties of Fresh Concrete

Slump Test:
In conducting the slump test, the slump cone is placed on a flat, non-absorbent surface and
is filled with freshly mixed concrete in three layers, each of which is one third of the
volume of the mold. Each layer is rodded with 25 strokes of a tamping rod. After the top
layer has been rodded, the surface of the concrete is smoothed with a trowel so that the top
surface of the concrete is at the same level as the top of the slump cone. The mold is then
immediately but gently removed by carefully raising it vertically.

The slump of the concrete is measured in cm or mm by determining the vertical difference

between the top of the mold and the displaced original center or the top surface of the
concrete specimen.
6.7 Properties of Fresh Concrete

Figure 6.1: Measurement of slump

According to the American Concrete Institute Specification (ACI 211), the slump values
corresponding to concrete having different consistencies are defined as:
6.7 Properties of Fresh Concrete

Vebe Test: The procedure for finding the consistency of freshly mixed concrete using
Vebe test is described in detail in the Turkish and British standards (TS EN 12350-3
and BS 1881).

The Vebe consistometer shown in Figure 6.2 is used for conducting the Vebe test.

Figure 6.2: Vebe apparatus

6.7 Properties of Fresh Concrete

After placing an empthy slump cone in the metal pan, the fresh concrete is filled in it in
three layers and each layer is tamped just like as in the slump test. When the rodding of the
top layer and the smoothening the surface of the concrete are done as in the slump test, the
slump cone is immediately removed by raising the slump cone carefully in a vertical
direction. Then the transparent disc is brought into position on top of the concrete, and the
vibrating table is set in motion. The number of seconds required to remold the truncated
cone of concrete to the shape of the cylinder is measured as this time duration is expressed
as Vebe seconds.

Table below gives an idea about the Vebe seconds for freshly mixed concrete of various
consistencies.
6.7 Properties of Fresh Concrete

6.7.2 Segregation
Segregation refers to the separation of the coarse aggregates from the mortar in the fresh
concrete mixture. This separation may take place either by the setting of heavy particles to
the bottom of the fresh concrete or by the separation of the coarse aggregate from the body
of the concrete because of improper placing or prolonged vibration of the concrete.

The concrete used in constructions should be uniform. It should not show segregation.
Otherwise the quality of concrete will vary from point to another.
Concrete

6.7.2 Segregation

The factors that generally lead to segratation of fresh concrete can be listed as follows:

• Large maximum particle size and proportions of the large particles

• Decrease amount of sand or cement
• Changes in the particle shape away from smooth well-rounded particles to odd-shaped
rough particles
• Mixture that are either too wet or too dry
• Improper mixing, improper placing, and improper consolidation (prolonged vibration)
of the concrete.
6.7 Properties of Fresh Concrete

6.7.3 Bleeding
Bleeding is the tendency of the water in the freshly placed concrete to rise to the surface. It
is caused by the inability of the solid particles in the fresh concrete mix to hold all of the
mixing water around them. As the solid particles tend to settle downward with the effect of
gravitational force, some water in the fresh concrete tends to rise to the surface. Bleeding
creates harmfull effects on concrete.

Plastic Shrinkage

Rapid loss of bleed water from the surface

of the fresh (i.e. liquid state) concrete

Rate of evaporation > rate of arrival of water

at the surface

Results in plastic shrinkage cracking

6.7 Properties of Fresh Concrete

6.7.3 Bleeding

Some of these may be listed as follows:

• Due to the movement of water towards the surface, the top portion of the concrete
becomes weak and porous. Water from outside can more easily get into the pores of
such a concrete when it is in a hardened state. Thus the resistance of the concrete to
freezing and thawing or to sulfates is decreased.

• A scum of fine particles may be carried to the top portion of the fresh concrete with the
water rising to the top. This causes a weak and non-durable surface to be formed when
the concrete hardens. Thus the hardened concrete becomes less resistant to abrasion.

• The water rising to the top may be trapped under the large aggregate particles or under
the reinforcing bars. These water pockets may lead to weak zones in the concrete. They
reduce the bond between the cement paste and the coarse aggregate, or the bond
between the cement paste and the reinforcement.
6.7 Properties of Fresh Concrete

Bleeding can be reduced in a number of ways such as:

• By increasing the cement fineness or by using finely divided mineral admixtures
• By using a cement which has relatively high amouts of C3S
• By entraining air into the concrete mix
• By reducing the water content of the concrete mixture, if this can be done while
maintaining an acceptable workability
• By placing the concrete in relatively shallow layers
6.7 Properties of Fresh Concrete

6.7.4 Setting Time

Setting time of fresh concrete is the length of
time from the moment that the concrete making
materials are mixed until the moment that the
concrete gains rigidity.

The setting time for a concrete mix is important

because the concrete is still plastic and shapeable
during that time. Therefore, depending on the
type of work, too short or too long setting times
are undesirable. The setting time for ordinary
concrete is usually 3 to 5 hours this is after it has
been mixed.

The setting time of concrete is affected by the

type and amount of cement and admixtures and
by the temperature.
6.7 Properties of Fresh Concrete

6.7.5 Unit Weight

Unit weight of fresh concrete is the weight of the concrete per unit volume. In other words,
the unit weight of concrete is found by dividing its weight by its volume. (The volume of
concrete consists of the volume of the solid particles and the spaces between them). Unit
weight is expressed in kg/m3.

The unit weight of fresh concrete made with normal weight aggregates is around 2400
kg/m3. A concrete that has a relatively higher unit weight is a more compact concrete that
leads to higher strength and durability.

6.7.6 Uniformity
Successful manufacturing operation for all kinds of materials requires that the product be
uniform and similar in appearance and quality.
Concrete is a manufactured material. Any change in the quality and proportions of the
concrete-making materials may easily lead to non-uniformity in the properties of the fresh
and hardened concrete.
These variations might be within the same batch or between batches.
The uniformity of concrete can be determined by slump test, air content test, unit weight
test, and compressive strength test.
6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete

6.8.1 Strength
Concrete is a brittle material - strong in compression but weak in tension.
Strength development is a result of the hydration process
Water-binder (w/b) ratio should be selected as low as possible, but with due consideration
to workability (low w/b ratio also implies good durability)

Routine testing carried out during batching to assess quality. Specimen preparation
procedures specified in BS EN 12390-2. 100 or 150mm cube molds are filled with
concrete; after 24 hours the samples are removed from the molds. The cubes are then cured
in a water bath (at 20ºC):

Following curing, the tests are undertaken at 28 days (rate of hydration is considerably
reduced after this time). Strength tests can also be taken at 2, 7 (14) days.
Testing procedures detailed in BS EN 12390-3.
6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete

6.8.1 Strength

Concrete is a brittle material - strong in compression but weak in tension.

classic
'pyramid'
failure

Compressive strength = (failure load) /(area of cube face) N/mm2

6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete

6.8.1 Strength BS EN 197-1 Strength Classes

Compressive strength N/mm2
Class Early strength Standard strength
2 days 7 days 28 days

32.5N -  16.0  32.5  52.5

32.5R  10.0 -

42.5N  10.0 -  42.5  62.5

42.5R  20.0

52.5N  20.0 -  52.5 -

52.5R  30.0

Tests on standard mortar (see BS EN 196-1:2016):

One part cement, three parts of CEN Standard sand (1:3); w/c = 0.5
6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete

6.8.1 Strength
BS EN 206-1:2000
6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete

6.8.1 Strength
Strength and durability are the two main properties in hardened concrete. The strength of
hardened concrete is its ability to resist strain or rupture induced by external forces. It is
expressed in terms of kgf/cm2 or MPa.

The resistance of concrete to compressive, tensile, and bending stresses is known as

compressive strength, tensile strength, and bending (or flexural) strength, respectively. The
resistance of concrete to repeated stresses is called fatigue strength.

In general, the factors that affect the strength of concrete can be listed as follows:
• Water/cement ratio of the concrete mix
• Quality of the mixing water
• Properties of the cement
• Properties of the aggregates
• Mixing, transportation, placing, and compaction operations
• Curing conditions and age of the concrete
• Temperature
6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete
Effect of water/cement ratio on strength: The water/cement ratio affects the content of the
total capillary porosity in the cement paste. The higher the water/cement ratio, higher the
total capillary porosity of the paste and lower is the concrete strength.

80

60
28 day cube strength
(N/mm2)

40

20

0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Free water - cement

6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete

Effects of the quality of mixing water on strength: Presence of excessive amounts of

impurities in the mixing water causes not only harmful effects on the properties of fresh
concrete but also reduces the strength and durability of the hardened concrete.

Effects of the properties of cement on strength: Compound composition and fineness of

cement affect the rate and amount of the calcium-silicate-hydrate gel production upon
hydration. As the gel production increases, the capillary porosity in the cement paste
decreases and hence strength and durability also increase.

Effects of aggregate properties on strength: Gradation, maximum aggregate size, shape of

aggregate particles, texture of aggregate particles, and the amounts of deleterious materials
in aggregates are the properties that affect the quantity of water to be used in making
concrete of an acceptable workability. An increase in water content leads to a decrease in
the strength of hardened concrete.
6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete

Effects of mixing, transportation, placing and compaction on strength: In order to have a good
quality concrete, mixing, transportation, placing and compaction operations should be
properly applied to the fresh concrete. Inadequate mixing of concrete results in a non-uniform
mixture and poor quality.

Improper transportation and improper placing may lead to segregation. Fresh concrete placed
in molds or forms needs to be properly consolidated (usually by vibrators) in order to remove
the air entrapped in it.

Effects of curing conditions and age of concrete on strength: If the curing operation has not
been applied properly and for a sufficiently long time, the desired strength development and
durability can never be achieved.
6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete

Effects of temperature
6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete

Compressive Strength of Concrete

The compressive strength of concrete is usually determined by the standard test method.
Other than the standard test method, there are some methods where concrete core specimens
are cut from the hardened concrete and tested and non-destructive test methods where the
compressive strength is determined by measuring the surface hardness of the concrete or by
measuring the velocity of an ultrasonic wave travelling through the concrete.

In the standard test method, the concrete specimen is tested in a suitable testing machine
equipped with two steel bearing blocks, one of which is a spherically seated block that will
bear on the upper surface of the specimen and the other, a solid block on which the
specimen will rest. When the machine is on, the movable top block moves vertically
downword and applies an axial load to the specimen.
6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete

The amount of load applied appears on a dial. The load is applied at a constant rate (1.4-
3.5 kgf/cm2) until the specimen breaks.

The compressive strength of the specimen is calculated as follows:

 c = Pmax / A
Where,
σc= Compressive strength
Pmax= Magnitude of the load that causes breaking
A= Cross-sectional area of the specimen

The compressive strength of concrete is usually determined at an age of 28 days of the

specimen. The 28-day compressive strength is the strength value used in concrete designs.

Sometimes, the compressive strength at 7 days is also determined. The 7-day compressive
strength is approximately 65-70% of its 28-day strength.
6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete

Compressive Strength of Concrete

1. Non-destructive test methods is often used when:

• Strength development, where this is critical for the construction sequence

• Compliance with specifications, particularly where the concrete has underperformed or been
deemed ‘unfit for purpose’
• The residual strength after damage, e.g. by fire or overload
• The cause of degradation or deterioration associated with the durability issues (long term)
• Strength when a change of use is proposed

Two of the tests that will be described; the rebound hammer and ultrasonic pulse velocity,
are commonly used for both these purposes; the third, the resonant frequency test, can only
be used on prepared specimens in the laboratory.

An estimation of the strength of concrete is often required, and therefore the degree of
correlation of the non-destructive test measurement(s) with strength is important. It will be
apparent that a single non-destructive test rarely gives a single definitive answer, and
engineering judgement is required in interpreting the results. Nevertheless, the usefulness of
such tests will become apparent.
6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete

Compressive Strength of Concrete Rebound (Schmidt) hammer operation

Non-destructive test methods: The compressive strength is determined by measuring the
surface hardness of the concrete.

The Schmidt hammer operates based on the principle of rebound. When the hammer's
plunger impacts the surface of the concrete, it compresses a spring-loaded mass inside the
hammer.
The rebound distance of the mass from the surface is then measured. This rebound
distance is directly related to the surface hardness or strength of the concrete
6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete

Compressive Strength of Concrete Ultrasonic testing

Non-destructive test methods: The compressive strength is determined by measuring the
velocity of an ultrasonic wave travelling through the concrete.

Ultrasonic testing relies on the

principle of sending ultrasonic
waves (typically in the frequency
range of 20 kHz to 1 MHz) into a
material and analysing the waves'
propagation characteristics.
6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete

Tensile Strength of Concrete

The tensile strength of a concrete is its capacity to resist rupture under tensile stresses.

Generally, concrete elements in a structure are not subjected to direct tensile loading.
However, tensile stresses are created in those elements in an indirect manner through the
effects of compression, shear, bending and shrinkage.

Tensile strength of concrete is much lower than its compressive strength, mainly because
of the ease with which cracks can propagate under tensile stress. The tensile strength of
concrete is approximately 10% of its compressive strength.
6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete

Tensile Strength of Concrete

Although the tensile strength of concrete is usually not considered directly in design (being
assumed to be equal to zero), it is very important since cracking in concrete tends to be the
cause of tensile failure.

The tensile strength (fct) of concrete is approximately equal to 10% of its compressive
strength (fc)

fct = 0.3 fc2/3

6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete

Flexural Strength of Concrete

Determination of the flexural (bending) strength of concrete is another way of estimating its
tensile strength.

Beam specimen placed on supports in a testing machine loaded until failure. Two loading
arrangements:
(a) Single point loading
(b) Two point loading (pure bending over central portion)

F Generally, d = b F
b
d

L/2 d d d
Span: L = 3d Span: L = 3d
Flexural strength, f, is given by: Flexural strength, f, is given by:
f = 1.5FL/bd2 N/mm2 f = FL/bd2 N/mm2
6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete

Characteristic Strength BS EN 206-1:2000

Value of strength below which 5 % of the population of all possible strength
determinations of the volume of concrete under consideration, are expected to fall.
mean

1.64s
Characteristic
strength:
5% defectives

34.1 34.1

2.2 13.6 2.2

s s
2s 2s

3s 3s
6.8 Properties of Hardened Concrete
mean
Characteristic Strength

1.64s
Characteristic
strength:
5% defectives

34.1 34.1

2.2 13.6 2.2

13.6
s s

2s 2s

3s 3s
Example:
Characteristic cylinder strength = 35 MPa
Assume 5% defectives
Standard deviation = 8 MPa
Target mean strength = 1.64 * s.d. = 35 MPa + 1.64 * 8 = 48 MPa
6.9 Durability of Concrete

Durability of concrete is it’s ability to remain serviceable for at least the lifetime of the

structure of which it forms a part.

A durable concrete element is one that is designed and constructed to protect the

embedded steel from corrosion and to perform satisfactorily in its working environment.

The durability of concrete is related to impermeability as well as strength, which is

ensured by adequate compaction and full hydration, producing a dense structure with a

disconnected capillary pore network.

6.9 Durability of Concrete

Durability of concrete is its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion,
and other conditions throughout its service life in a structure. The concrete in a structure
must not only have the required strength level to resist various types of loads but it must
also retain its original form and quality throughout the years it serves.

There are various types of chemical or physical attacks that tend to deteriorate concrete
and these are listed below.

• Leaching and efflorescence

• Sulfate attack
• Acid attack
• Carbonation
• Alkali-aggregate reaction
• Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete
• Freezing and thawing
• Abrasion
6.9 Durability of Concrete

Surface Micro Climate Concrete Cover

Wetting / Drying Moisture gradient
Air Temperature Temperature gradient
[CO2] Carbonation
[Cl- ] Chloride Ingress
[SO4--] Sulphate attack
Freezing/Thawing

Transport Mechanisms:
absorption, diffusion, permeability
6.9 Durability of Concrete

Permeability
Transport/Permeation mechanisms:
The flow of water through saturated
Permeability
concrete under a pressure
differential. Typical values: 10-11 – Diffusion
10-13 m/s Absorption
Diffusion
The flow of matter (ions, molecules Flow processes depend on:
etc.) into saturated concrete under
Pore size and pore size distribution
the influence of a concentration
gradient. Typical value for chloride Pore continuity / connectivity
ion: 10-12 m2/s Pore tortuosity
Absorption / Sorptivity Micro-cracks
the movement of a liquid into Cement/aggregate interface transition zone
partially saturated concrete by
capillarity
6.9 Durability of Concrete

Abrasion and erosion

7% 10% Alkali-aggregate reaction

5%
9% Chemical attack
10%
Corrosion (Carbonation)
4%
Corrosion (External
5% chlorides)
Corrosion (In-built
chlorides)
17%
Freezing/Thawing

Shrinkage and settlement

33%
Other (Infrequent)
6.9 Durability of Concrete

6.9.1 Leaching and Efflorescence

‘Leaching’ is the dissolving out of the calcium hydroxide (and various salts) which takes
place in hardened concrete under the effect of percolating water.
• When water penetrates into concrete, it dissolves the non-hydraulic CH (and various
salts, sulfates and carbonates of Na, K, Ca)
• Remember C-S-H and CH are produced upon hydration of C3S and C2S
• When leaching occurs, the water that contains the dissolved calcium hydroxide and
other salts moves upward by capillary action. When this water evaporates, a salt residue,
usually white, is formed on the surface of the concrete.

The salt deposit formed on the surface of the

concrete is called ‘efflorescence’.

Efflorescence causes an aesthetic problem and

not usually affect the durability of concrete.

However, extensive leaching can cause an

increase in porosity of concrete (due to
dissolving of CH) and thus a decrease in
strength.
6.9 Durability of Concrete

6.9.2 Sulfate Attack

• Sulfates, often present in groundwaters, in sea water, in rain water and sewage waters
may affect concrete.
• Sulfates react with CH to produce gypsum. Reactions between water and ‘C3A +
gypsum’ of the cement results in the formation of calcium-alumino-monosulfohydrate
and ettringite which is not a stable production.
• Formation of ettringite is hardened cement paste or concrete leads to volume expansion
thus cracking.
• Magnesium sulfate can be more aggresive than sodium sulfate, and leads to the
decomposition of the C-S-H gel.
6.9 Durability of Concrete

Seawater contains some amount of Na and Mg Sulfates. However, these sulfates do not
cause severe deleterious expansion/cracking because both gypsum and ettringite are soluble
in solutions containing the Cl ion. However, problem with seawater is the frequent
wetting/drying and corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete.

To reduce the sulfate attack:

• Use low w/c ratio→ reduced permeability & porosity
• Use proper cement → reduced C3A and C3S
• Use pozzolans → they use up some of the CH to produce C-S-H
6.9 Durability of Concrete

6.9.3 Acid Attack

Concrete is pretty resistant to acids. But in high concentrations:
• Causes leaching of the CH
• Causes disintegration of the C-S-H gel.
6.9 Durability of Concrete

6.9.4 Carbonation
Caused by the diffusion of atmospheric carbon dioxide into the
concrete with the resulting overall reaction:
• Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
• Accompanied by shrinkage → carbonation shrinkage
• Makes the steel vulnerable to corrosion (CH is reduced and
hence alkalinity of concrete is then reduced).

pH<9

pH12

Phenolphthalein test for carbonation Steel

6.9 Durability of Concrete

6.9.5 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction

The alkali-silica reaction is the reaction that takes place in hardened concrete between the
alkali of the cement and the reactive silica minerals of the aggregate.

The alkali-aggregate reaction starts with the attack on the siliceous minerals in the
aggregate by the alkaline hydroxides derived from the alkalies (Na2O and K2O) in the
cement. The alkali gel that forms as a result of this reaction attracts water by absorption.
This gel is of the unlimited swelling type. It imbibes water, with a consequent tendency to
increase in volume.

• This reaction is relatively slow.

• As a result of this reaction, great amout of
internal pressure is created and hence,
cracking and disruption of concrete takes
place.
• To avoid alkali-aggregate reaction, either
aggregates should not contain reactive silica,
or the cement should not contain excessive
amounts of alkalies.
6.9 Durability of Concrete

6.9.6 Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete

• Electrochemical reactions in the steel rebars of a R/C structure results in corrosion
products which have larger volumes than original steel.

• Thus this volume expansion causes cracks in R/C. In fact, steel is protected by a thin
film provided by concrete against corrosion. However, that shield is broken by CO2 of
air or the Cl- ions.
6.9 Durability of Concrete

6.9.6 Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete

H2O O2 Cl-
Ingress from the environment

electrolytic conduction
2H2O + O2 + 4e- → 4OH- Fe → Fe2+ + 2e-
Icorr
cathode e- anode
electronic conduction

Icorr = corrosion current

6.9 Durability of Concrete

6.9.6 Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete

NCE, June 1990

Spalling of concrete due to chloride

induced corrosion from de-icing salt.

Road salt dissolves in water and

trickles down through the joints and
onto the crossheads etc. resulting in
this ….
* Gravelly Hill Interchange, M6, B’ham
6.9 Durability of Concrete

6.9.6 Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete

Canada 2006 (Laval, Quebec): 5 people

were killed in a bridge collapse caused by
road-salt induced corrosion (failure due to
corrosion of steel in halving joint)
6.9 Durability of Concrete

6.9.7 Freezing and Thawing

• Water freezes in the capillary pores of the concrete and causes an expansion in
volume. This will cause internal hydraulic pressure and cracks the concrete.
• Occurrence of many cycles of freezing and thawing leads to cracking and
deterioration of concrete.
• To prevent the concrete from this distress air-entraining admixtures are used to
produce air-entrained concrete.
6.9 Durability of Concrete

6.9.7 Freezing and Thawing

Pore water

Ice

Water in a saturated concrete freezes in the capillary pores

and expands (9%).

If the pressure developed exceeds the tensile strength of

concrete cracking of the concrete occurs.
6.9 Durability of Concrete

6.9.8 Abrasion
The abrasion resistance of concrete is defined as the ability of a concrete surface to resist
being worn away by rubbing and friction.
• Concrete floors and pavements can be abraded by foot or vehicular traffic.
• The aggregates used in the concrete (subjected to abrasive forces) should be hard and
resistant to wear.
• Increase in the water/cement content, high amount of bleeding and improper finishing
cause the concrete to be less resistant to abrasion.
• High strength of concrete (generally not less than 30 MPa) is more resistant to
abrasion.
6.9 Durability of Concrete

Exposure classes defined in BS

EN 206 and
BS 8500-1:2006